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Organizational Behavior:Organizational Behavior:
CommunicationCommunication
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Learning Objectives
• After studying this chapter, you should be able to:• Identify the main functions of communication.• Describe the communication process and distinguish between formal and
informal communication.• Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication with examples.• Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.• Compare and contrast formal communication networks and the grapevine.• Analyze the advantages and challenges of electronic communication.• Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication
channel.• Identify common barriers to effective communication.• Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural
communication.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Control Motivation
EmotionalExpression
Information
Functions of Communication
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
A Perceptual Model of Communication
NoiseSender
Receiverdecodes
Receivercreates
meaning
Transmittedon medium
MessageEncoding
EncodingMessageTransmittedon medium
Sourcedecodes
TransmitMessage
TransmitFeedback
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Paper Exercise
Same Message observed and absorbed differently
• “If What We were saying could be heard as it is, the world would have been a paradise” ( Kennedy )
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Face-to-face
TelephonePersonalwritten
Formal numeric
OversimplifiedZone
OverloadedZone
Routine/Clear
Nonroutine/Ambiguous
Rich
Lean
MediaRichness
Situation
Hierarchy of Media Richness
Formalwritten
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Episodes of information
overload
Employee’s information processing capacity
Time
Information Load
Information Overload
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Reduce Information Load
• Buffering
• Summarizing
• Omitting.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
DownwardDownwardUpwardUpward LateralLateral
Direction ofCommunication
Direction ofCommunication
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Sources of Distortion in Upward Communication
Situational AntecedentsPatterns of Distortion in Upward
Communication
1. Supervisor’s upward influence
Low High Increased distortion because employees send more favorable information and withhold useful information.
Low High2. Supervisor’s
powerIncreased distortion because employees screen out information detrimental to their welfare.
Low High3. Subordinate’s
aspiration for upward mobility
Less accuracy because employees tend to pass along information that helps their cause.
Low High4. Subordinate’s trust
in the supervisorConsiderable distortion because employees do not pass up all information they receive.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Chain Wheel All-Channel
Three Common Small-Group Networks
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Metacommunication
• Communication is more than just verbal…• Communicating about one’s communication
style/barriers to communication, etc.• Nonverbal communication
• Verbal (words)• Vocal (tone of voice)• Visual (body language)
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Nonverbal Communication
• Body Movement, Gestures and Posture
• Touch
• Facial expressions and Personal Appearance.
• Eye Contact.• Interpersonal Distance• Voice Quality
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Nonverbal Communication
• Transmits most information in face-to-face meetings
• Influences meaning of verbal and written symbols
• Less rule bound than verbal communication
• Important part of emotional labor
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Skills and Best Practices: Advice to Improve Nonverbal
Communication Skills
• Maintain eye contact.
• Nod your head to convey that you are listening or that you agree.
• Smile and show interest.
• Lean forward to show the speaker you are interested.
• Use a tone of voice that matches your message
Positive Nonverbal Actions Include:
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Skills and Best Practices: Advice to Improve Nonverbal
Communication Skills
• Avoiding eye contact and looking away from the speaker.
• Closing your eyes or tensing your facial muscles.
• Excessive yawning.
• Using body language that conveys indecisiveness or lack of confidence (e.g., slumped shoulders, head down, flat tones, inaudible voice)
• Speaking too fast or too slow.
Negative Nonverbal Actions Include:
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Organizational Grapevine
• Early Research Findings– Transmits information rapidly in all directions– Follows a cluster chain pattern– More active in homogeneous groups– Transmits some degree of truth
• Changes Due to Internet– E-mail etc. becoming main grapevine medium– Social networks are now global
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Grapevine: Positives and Negatives
• Benefits– Supplements information– Strengthens corporate culture– Relieves anxiety– Signals that problems exist
• Problem– Distortions might escalate anxiety
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Reducing Rumors
1. Announce timetables for making important decisions
2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive
3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans
4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they are almost never as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy
Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, “Managing Rumors,” in L. Hirschhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54–56. With permission.Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Cross-Cultural Communication
• Assume differences until similarity is proved
• Emphasize description over interpretation and
evaluation
• Cultivate the art of being empathetic
• Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Men Women
Gender Communication Differences
1. Rapport talk2. Gives advice indirectly
and reluctantly3. Language of connection
and intimacy4. Frequently asks for
information5. More sensitive to
nonverbal cues6. Want empathy, not
solutions7. Are more likely to
compliment8. Emphasize politeness9. More conciliatory
1. Report talk2. Gives advice quickly and
directly, Are more directive in conversation
3. Language of status, power; 4. Talk as a means to preserve
independence by displaying knowledge and skill
5. Avoids asking for information6. Less sensitive to nonverbal cues7. Are more intimidating8. Call attention to their
accomplishments9. Tend to dominate discussions
during meetings
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Interpersonal Communication Styles
Assertive Pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome; expressive and self-enhancing without intruding on others.
Good eye contact; Comfortable but firm posture; Strong, steady and audible voice; Facial expressions matched to message; Appropriately serious tone; Selective interruptions to ensure understanding.
Direct and unambiguous language; No attributions or evaluations of others’ behavior; Use of “I” statements and cooperative “we” statements.
Communication Nonverbal Behavior Verbal Behavior
Style Description Pattern Pattern
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Interpersonal Communication Styles (continued)
Communication Nonverbal Behavior Verbal Behavior
Style Description Pattern PatternAggressive Taking advantage of
others; Expressive and self-enhancing at others’ expense.
Glaring eye contact; Moving or leaning too close; Threatening gestures (pointing finger; clenched fist); Loud Voice; Frequent interruptions.
Swear words and abusive language; Attributions and evaluations of others’ behavior; Sexist or racists terms; Explicit threats or put-downs.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Interpersonal Communication Styles (continued)
Communication Nonverbal Behavior Verbal Behavior
Style Description Pattern PatternNonassertiv
e
Encouraging others to take advantage of us; Inhibited; Self-denying.
Little eye contact; Downward glances; Slumped postures; Constantly shifting weight; Wringing hands; Weak or whiny voice.
Qualifiers (“maybe,” “kind of” ); Fillers (“uh,” “you know,” “well”); Negaters (“it’s really not that important,” “I’m not sure”).
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Listening Styles
Results-style: Interested in the bottom line or result of a message.
Reasons-style: Interested in hearing the rationale behind a message.
Process-style: Likes to discuss issues in detail.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Managers Should Be Active Listeners
• Make eye contact
• Avoid distractions
• Ask questions
• Exhibit appropriate expressions
• Paraphrase
• Avoid interrupting
• Don’t talk too much
• Combine speaking and listening
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Active Listening Process and Strategies
ACTIVELISTENING
SENSING• Postpone evaluation• Avoid interruptions• Maintain interest
EVALUATING
• Empathize• Organize information
RESPONDING
• Show interest• Clarify the message
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
The Keys to Effective Listening
Keys to Effective Listening The Bad Listener The Good Listener
1. Capitalize on thought speed
Tends to daydream Stays with the speaker, mentally summarizes the speaker, weighs evidence, and listens between the lines
2. Listen for ideas Listens for facts Listens for central or overall ideas
3. Find an area of interest Tunes out dry speakers or subjects
Listens for any useful information
4. Judge content, not delivery
Tunes out dry monotone speakers
Assesses content by listening to entire message before making judgments
5. Hold your fire Gets too emotional or worked up by something said by the speaker and enters into an argument
Withholds judgment until comprehension is complete
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
The Keys to Effective Listening (cont)
Keys to Effective Listening The Bad Listener The Good Listener
6. Work at listening Does not expend energy on listening
Gives the speaker full attention
7. Resist Distractions Is easily distracted Fights distractions and concentrates on the speaker
8. Hear what is said Shuts our or denies unfavorable information
Listens to both favorable and unfavorable information
9. Challenge yourself Resists listening to presentations of difficult subject manner
Treats complex presentations as exercises for the mind
10. Use handouts, overheads, or other visual aids
Does not take notes or pay attention to visual aids
Takes notes as required and uses visual aids to enhance understanding of the presentation
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
E-Communication
• Internet/Intranet/Extranet
• Electronic Mail
• Videoconferencing
• Collaborative Computing
• Telecommuting
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Electronic Communications: E-mail
• E-mail– Advantages: Quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for
distribution– Disadvantages:
• Messages are easily and commonly misinterpreted• Not appropriate for sending negative messages• Overused and overloading readers• Removes inhibitions and can cause emotional responses and
flaming• Difficult to “get” emotional state understood – emoticons• Non-private: e-mail is often monitored and may be
forwarded to anyone
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail
Electronic mail needn’t be emotion free. Over the years, a set of symbols
(emoticons) has evolved that e-mail users have developed for expressing
emotions. For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT NEEDS
YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the e-mail equivalent of
shouting. The following highlights some emoticons:
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Electronic Comms: Instant/Text Messaging
Forms of “real time” communication of short messages that often use portable communication devices
– Explosive growth in business use– Fast and inexpensive means of communication– Can be intrusive and distracting– Easily “hacked” with weak security – Can be seen as too informal
•Instant Messaging– Immediate e-mail sent to receiver’s desktop or device
•Text Messages– Short messages typically sent to cell phones or other handheld devices
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Electronic Comms: Networking Software
• Linked systems organically spread throughout the nation and world that can be accessed by a PC
• Includes:– Social networks like MySpace® and Facebook®
– Professional networks like Zoominfo® and Ziggs®
– Corporate networks such as IBM’s BluePages®
• Key Points:– These are public spaces – anyone can see what you post– Can be used for job application screening– Avoid “over stimulating” your contacts
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Electronic Comms: Blogs and Videoconferencing
• Blogs: websites about a single person (or entity) that are typically updated daily– A popular but potentially dangerous activity:
• Employees may post harmful information • Such comments may be cause for dismissal• No First Amendment rights protection• Can be against company policy to post in the blog during
company time and on company equipment/connections
• Videoconferencing: uses live audio and video Internet streaming to create virtual meetings– Now uses inexpensive webcams and laptops in place of formal
videoconferencing rooms
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Communication Barriers and Cultural Context
High-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues to communication.
Low-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.
Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.