GGR107 - Textbook Notes

8/10/2019 GGR107 - Textbook Notes

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Chapter 1

Critical Thinking

-A process by which we use our knowledge and intelligence to arrive at the most

reasonable and justifiable positions on issues, and which endeavors to identify andovercome the numerous hindrances to rational thinking.

Steps involve in the process of critical thinking

Step 1: Adopt the attitude of a critical thinker

>Open-mindedness

To investigate in viewpoints different from our own

>Healthy skepticism

Doubt claims and examine the issues

>Intellectual humility

Adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions>Free thinking

Independent mind

Restrain ones desire to believe because of social pressures to conform

>High motivation

Do necessary studying to reach a sufficient level of understanding before making

judgments.

Step 2: Recognize & avoid critical thinking hindrances


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Step 3: Identify and characterize arguments

Argument = Reason + Conclusions

>Argument

-Deductive argument: if one thing follows necessarily from another

-Inductive argument: proof to a degree of probability or certainty

>Reason and conclusions are usually:

-Premises

-Evidence

-Data

-Propositions -

Proofs-Verifications

Step 4: Evaluate information sources

When doing critical appraisal, evaluate the credibility, accuracy and look for potential

biases.

Consider the questions below for the evaluation

1. Does the information source have the necessary qualifications or level of

understanding to make the claim (conclusion)?

2. Does the source have a reputation for accuracy?

3.

Does the source have a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased?

4. Are there any reasons for questioning the honesty or integrity of the source?

-Statistical information may not necessarily a good source to support argument

(Were the samples taken representative of the entire target population?)

Step 5: Evaluate arguments

Assess whether:

1. Assumptions are warranted

(Warranted assumption is one that is either known to be true or it is reasonable to

accept without requiring another argument to support it.)

According to: (i) ones own knowledge and experience (ii) the information source for

the assumption (iii) the kind of claim being made

2. Reasoning is relevant

Assess:

(i) Relevance


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(ii)Sufficiency

3. Relevant information has been omitted

-Seek opposing arguments on the subject could help reveal omissions

Critical Appraisal Checklist

1.Identify the key arguments presented in the document

-List sub-argument and the main argument

2.

Evaluate the quality of the argument

Argument Evaluation

1.

Any ambiguity, vagueness or obscurity?2. The arguments embody any hindrances?

3. Any excessively emotional or manipulative language?

4. Credibility, relevancy, sufficiency of the reasons

3.Evaluate the quality of the evidence provided

4.Assess the potential for bias

5.Draw on course material to support your assessment and evaluation

6.Make an overall statement about the quality and strength of the document and

evaluate in general the credibility of the article

GGR107H1 - Environment, Food and People - Reading Note

Week 2 - September 21st 2012 - Chapter 1: A Practical Guide to

Critical Thinking

Defined as: a process by which we use our knowledge and intelligence to effectively

arrive at the most reasonable and justifiable positions on issues, and which tries to

identify and overcome the numerous hindrances to rational thinking

-

critical thinking is about how we use our intelligence and knowledge to reach objective

and rational viewpoints

-- critical thinkers may be better equipped to make decisions and solve problems

-critical thinking = to think rationally/objectively

to think critically...

1.adopt attitude of a Critical Thinker


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2.Recognize and Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

3.Identify and Characterize Arguments

4.Evaluate Information Sources

5.Evaluate Arguments

What Critical Thinking is Not:-not thinking negatively with a predisposition to find fault or flaws

-not intended to make people think alike

-not threatening one's individuality or personality

-does not discourage or replace feelings or emotional thinking

-does not blindly support everything based on science

-arguements based on critical thinking may not always been the most persuasive

(1) Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

- you want the attitude - you want to be open minded, have healthy skepticism,

intellectual humility, free thinking, and high motivation-- must be willing to investigate viewpoints different from his or her own, but at the same

time, recognize when to doubt claims that do not merit such investigation

-- intellectual humility: means adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions; being

prepared to examine new evidence and agruments even if such examination leads one

to discoover flaws in one's own beliefs; think in terms of 'degrees of certainty' - must

have independent mind; must not fold to pressures from society to conform - must

have a natural curiousity; seek to further understanding and work sufficiently to

evaluate multiple sides of an issue

(2) Recognize and Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

-

everyday we become exposed to things that hinder our ability to think clearly,accurately and fairly

-a critical thinker must understand how to recognize and avoid deception of everyday

life a) Basic Human Limitations: applies to everyone, we can never be completely

objective - confirmation bias/selective thinking: one tends to notice and look for what

confirms one's beliefs

-false memories: unconciously fill in gaps

-ignorance: lack of essential background knowledge

-testimonial evidence: relying on the testimonies and vivde ancedotes of others to

substantiate one's own beliefs (ie. dramatic stories of Bigfoot sightings do not prove the

existence of Bigfoot)

b) Use of Language: relates to choice of words; can conceal the truth, mislead, confuse

or deceive

-

ambiguity: a word/expression that can be understood in more than one way

-assuring expressions: disarm you from questioning validity (ie. As everyone knows..)

-doublespeak jargon: technical language used to make the simple seem complex -

vagueness: less precise language than the context requires c) Faulty Logic or

Perception


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-Ad Hoc Hypothesis: a hypothesis which cannot be independently tested to refute

theory/claim

-Forer Effect: accepting vague personality descriptions that could fit anyone -

Apophenia and Superstition: errorneous perception of the connections between

unrelated events

d) Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls- Ad hominem Fallacy: criticizing the person making the argument, not the

argument itself

- communal reinforcement: a claim becomes a strong belief through repeated

assertion by members of a community

- evading the issue: someone whose been accused trying to divert attention to an

irrelevant issue

(3) Identify and Characterize Arguments

-recognize, construct, and evaluate arguments

-argument = presentation of a reason to support a conclusion (ie. dont trust john

(conclusion) because (indicator) hes a politician (reason))

-there must be one or more reason statements and one or more conclusion statements in

every argument

-- reason(s) may be synonymous with: premises, evidence, or data, proof, verification --

sometimes arguments have indicators, like because, thus, therefore, hence, which must

be picked up on

Arguments may be divided into two categories: inductive or deductive

-

deductive: if one thing follows necessarily from another (ie. All bachelors are

unmarried

--> John is a bachelor --> deductively reach the conclusion that John must be unmarried )-- deductive goes from looking at a theory, hypothesis, observations, then conclusion -

(most commonly encountered) inductive: can never prove its conclusion, but can only

support it with a degree of certainty; given the premise the conclusion is probable

-- inductive goes from looking at observations to formulating a theory

-- do not provide conclusion with necessity; they are based on reasonable grounds for

their conclusion

(4) Evaluate Information Sources

-most arguments reference facts to support conclusions (errorneous facts --> errorneous

conclusions reached)

-

must have a sound approach to evaluating the validity of facts

-sources typically cited in media or published

-- finding unbiased/objective information is often difficult

--> look for sources that are credible, unbiased, and accurate

--- depends on the source's qualifications, integrity and reputation *stats

are an easy way to fool people - ask yourself, were the samples taken

representative of the entire target population?


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(5) Evaluate Arguments (3) Step Process 1.

assess whether assumptions are warranted:

- assumption: reasons implied in an argument that are taken for granted to be true -

warranted assumption is: known to be true, or is reasonable to accept without requiring

another argument to support it^ unwarranted if it fails to meet these requirements

2. assess whether reasoning (evidence) is relevant and sufficient:

-relevance can be thought of as 'quality' of the reasoning, and sufficiency as the

'quantity' of the reasoning

^good arguments should have both

-- sufficiency can be thought of in terms of 'reasonable doubt'; understand how you

determine reasonable doubt --> maintain attitude of critical thinker, be aware of

hindrances to critical thining, ask yourself the purpose or consequences of the

argument, become aware of the contemporary standards of evidence for the subject,

and finally the evidence should be as strong as the conclusion being asserted 3. assess

whether relevant information has been omitted - omissions:

-a cogent argument is one which presents all relevant reasoning (evidence), not just

evidence that supports the argument

-arugments that omit relevant evidence can appear to be stronger than they really are

-so, determine if important evidence has been left out

-- can be unintentionally, or done purposely

Week 2 - September 21st 2012 - Chapter 2: Geography: It's

Developments, Research Themes, and Concepts

-

our world is becoming intimately more interconnected via internet, the media, greateraccess to improved transportation networks -- geography helps provide a deeper

understanding of how and why difference exist, how poeple and goods move from

place

to place, and how people relate to each other and with their environment

*ozone depletion, droughts, global warming etc

-humans place high demands on the environment, especially those in urban areas - core

of human geography: looks at how human needs are met and the networks required for

transportation of goods

-

the Canadian Council for Geographic Education defines geography in terms of what

geographers do, and what they study; geography is a discpline devoted to answer

questions related to the biophysical world and to human systems

-ask questions like: why is it there? where is something? how did it get there? how does

it interact with other things? what alternative location exist to situate this activity? what

might be expected in the future? how can benefits be best distributed?

-we are interested in how thigns are interrelated in different regionss over space and

time

--> provide evidence of spatial systems


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-geography is often referred to as the spatial science; description of earth, study of

spatial variation (how and why)

-geography matters on a personal scale (being able to get around campus,

neighbourhoods etc) and on a larger scale (corporations being able to make decisions

about where to locate manufacturing plants/warehouses in relation to transportation

routes/target market)-United Nation's Secretary-General, Kofi Annan: believes work of UN is similiar to

work of geographer -- many of the problems facing humanity (climate change,

population, consumption, poverty, and sustainable development) require attention be

paid to importance of peole, borders and science

(4) areas where geographers could make meaningful contributions:

1.the classroom - put students in contact with a world beyond their immediate

community

2.geographic technology - GIS could allow for the creation of warning systems for

natural disasters --> better planning

3.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - maps the health of the planet

4.Database by the Geographic Information Working Group

-geography is about space, and the content of space in the past, present and in the future

-geography is concerned about human aspects and biophysical (human/physical geo) -

content of an area has physical and cultural aspects, and geography is always concerned

with understanding both (ie. The Alps; thinking of this place brings to mind skiing and

mountains)

Evolution of the Discipline

-

first - early greek philosophers-geography's name was coined by Greek scientist Eratosthenes over 2200 years ago

-geo ' the earth' and graphein 'to write'

*from the start, writing focused on the physical structure of earth, and the nature and

activities of the people who inhabited the different lands of the known world -

Strabo (ca. 64bce to ace 20) on the tasks of geograpghy: to describe the several parts of

the world, to assess the countries of the world and to treat the differences between

countries

-- Greek, and later Roman geographers measured the earth, devised the global grid of

parallels and meridians and drew upon that grid maps of their known world

**looked at latitudinal variations in climate

*attention placed on what humans did in home and distant areas -- looked at language,

religion, custom, how they used, altered and destroyed the lands they were on etc. --

Strabo cautioned against the assumption that the nature and actions of humans were

determined by the physical environment they inhabited -- he believed we were active

elements in a human-environment partnership

In Europe...


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- modern geography as we know it came from Europe during the surge of scholary

inquiry in the 17th century

-- political and social trends influenced what geographers did, and how technological

developments influenced how geographers applied their knowledge

--> Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - philosophical foundation: a German scholar - felt

geography was an important discipline because it provided spatial and historicalperspectives

-

also felt it important to understand how events occured and changed over time

and space

--> Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) and Carl Ritter (1779-1859) - developed

geography as an indepedent branch of study: Humboldt wrote a paper describing the

physical geography of many regions of the world, with a focus on the interactions

between humans and nature, and made comparisons about people and places --

comparability and detailed observations gave scientific credibility to his work --> Carl

Ritter: keen observer of the landscape, looked at the interconnections and

interrelationships that defined regions* Ritter and Humboldt's writings furthered geographic studies by comparing different

parts of the world with each other in order to provide general statements or laws

--> Renaissance Period (1350-1750): european exploration prompted governments to

map new territories

-Gerardus Mercator developed a map that allowed explorers to maintain a compass

bearing along a straight line drawn on his projection

-major developments in surveying and mapping at this time --> allowed for more

accurate maps to be produced

*maps became important with trade among nations-map making (cartography) became dominant aspect of the discipline at this time

-19th century (1800s): introduction of census data and trade statistics to give a firmer

foundation to human geographic investigation

-at this time, saw active participation by influential individuals and government officials

in independent geographic societies, which promoted exploration and held meetings to

hear about far away places from guest speakers

*during this time, geography was largely concerned with mapping, and providing

descriptive inventories of newly explored and colonized places

-

growing importance of geography recognized in late 1800s

-- importance highlighted by the Prussian (now German) government's decision in 1874

to establish permanent chairs of geography at all its universities --> geography as an

academic discipline

-Britian has first department in 1900

-USA has first department in Chicago 1903


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*differences exist among nations about how geography should be practised

ie. British geographers were committed to regional geography & physical

geography vs. Americans who did not share this level of interest

** this difference may be attributed to 'excesses of environmental determinism' --

Environmental Determinism: a belief held in the mid 1800s to the mid 1900s which

held that the environmental largely determined human activities and landscapes

-1950s; a sense of disappointment emerged and grew among geographers in North

America that realized that much of their work was becoming irrelevant and provided

only superficial analysis

-- Fred Schaefer (1904-1953): challenged the discipline to adopt more scientific

approaches. His view: geographers should be developing laws that explained location

that might differentiate regions, rather than providing endless descriptions of the world

-1960s; systematic geography become more popular in response ^^ in Britian, USA, and

Canada

-

systematic geographers studied the processes of systems - human and physical

-- worked on regional level provide solutions to problems/understand problems better -

developed a way to get systematic data via reliable published sources; census or traffic

records

-statistical techniques improved with technology ; able to simulate models of systems to

predict future

-mainstream human geography was concerned with urban and economic geography:

focus on the measure of direction, distance, and connectivity = spatial interaction -

generalizations reached via combining geo information with economic theories

-

late 1960s to 1970s; quantitative approach to geography was criticized because many ofits theories provided for poor explanation and/or prediction of actual human use of and

patterns on the landscape

-- shortcomings reflect assumptions made like: people would always make money based

on economic gain

-a new development: geographic research should combine decision making theories

from psychology and sociology with geography's spatial concepts

-since 1970s - two important influences - social and technological - can be identified as

drivers behind developments since the late 1960s

-1960s: public concern for issues like poverty, civil rights, women's rights, Vietnam

War, sexual freedom etc were rising

-- Radical geography: promoted a greater understanding of why and how problems were

evident in space and radical geographers wanted to redress many of the inequities that

were present in socities, particularly those in many developing countries

*term radical applied to these ideas because in most instances, some form of socialism

was seen as the solution to problems emanating from capitalist economies


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-- socialism: a form of economic and social organization based on common ownership of

means to produce and distribute products

*we now realize that political and economic systems can influence human impact on the

environment

Technology

-new techonology has influenced the discipline, particularly those related to mapping

and analysis

-satellite use vs. labour intensive exercise by surveyor

-computer based analysis provides more detailed insights and for the manipulation of

large data sets; GIS and remote sensing are big in geography at the moment

Development of Geography in Canada...

-the Canadian Association of Gepgrahers was started in 1951 in MTL; 65 people

attended meeting

-the CAG directory 2003 identified 46 departments of geography across the country, 21

having Ph. D. programs

-- in early development, there was a strong relationship between CAG and the public

service, particularly the Geographical Branch and the Defence Research Board -- this

relationship primarily focused on military geography, the development of Canada's

north, and mapping and analyzing the spatial distribution of populations, cities, and

economic activities

--- Putman suggested that the 'duty of Canadian geographers should be to pursue Canadia

population, Canadian unity, and Canadian outlook on the world

*Canadian geography focuses on large size of country, and challenges posed for

transportation, communication, resource development, cultural diversity and populationn

distribution

-between the 1960s and 1990s, the focus of research shifted from economic

considerations to ones that were often informed by social theory and political economy -

- Wheeler (2002): the use of maps, which had been the traditonal centrepieced of

geographic analysis, has declined

-human-environmental relations have moved beyond environmental determinism,

possiblism and probablism to include --> political ecology, international development,

sustainable development, environmental management, and issues related to human

health

Primary Geographic Research Themes

-according to the Canadian Councial for Geographic Education, there are 6 themes

forming the core

1. World in Spatial Terms: refers to the use of maps and other geographic

representation, tools and techniques to acquire, process and report information

2. Places and Regions: study of a region, the physical and human characteristics of

it; interconnections between society and environment in a specific location


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3. Physical Systems: study of the plants/animals in the world 4. Human Systems:

examines spatial organization of society

5.Society and the Environment:

6.Uses of Geography

Human Geography: deals with the world as it is, and with the world as it might be madeto be

- emphasis is on people: where they are, what they are like, how they interact over

space, what kind of landscpaes of human use do they erect on the natural landscapes they

occupy

- human geography serves the objectives of a liberal education; helps us to

understand the world, appreciate circumstances affecting people/countries other than our

own, clarifies the contrasts in societies and cultures and in the human landscapes they

have created in different regions of the earth

* generates better informed citizens, better able to problem solve

Background Basics - Core Geographic Concepts

-

asking questions like: what is it, where is it? how did it come to be what and where it

is? where is it in relation to other things that affect it or are affected by it? how is it part

of a functioning whole? how does it's location affect people's lives and the content of

the area in which it is found

-space: implies areal extent and may be understood in both and absolute or relative

sense

-absolute - objectively and physically real with measurable extend and definable

boundaries

-relative - perceptual and variable, not permanent over time; space can be seen as

socially produced

-

place: companion concept to space, synonym for location or in terms of humangeography, relates to the attributes and values we individually associate with a location

(ie. hometown and neighbourhood, the university we attend, the highschool we

graduate from)

*my sense of place will not be the same as someone else's who cannot form the same

relationships to an area as I can

-placelessness: reduction in the uniqqueness of formerly separated locales and cultures -

spatial: used by geographers as a modifier in framing their questions and forming their

concepts - geography is a spatial science they say, cocerned with spatial relationships

between people and the earth, spatial behaviour of people, and spatial processes that

create/maintain spatial behaviours in people

* the geographers space: the earth space, the surface area occupied or available to beoccupied by humans

...basic observation about location and nature of a space can be important;

-places have location, direction and distance with respect to others

-a place has a size (so scale is important)

-a place has both a physical and cultural structure


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-attributes of a place change and develop with time

-elements of a place interrelate with other places

-content of places is structured and explainable

-places may be generalized into regions of sim. and diffs.

^ means by which geographers express fundamental observations about the earth spaces

they examine

Location, Direction and Distance

-everyday ways of assessing space around us and identifying our position in relation to

other items and places of interest

-also essential in understanding the processes of spatial interaction that figure so

importantly in the study of human geography

-- location of places/objects is starting point for all geographic study

-absolute location; identification of place by some precise and accepted system of

coordinates (global grid of parallels and meridians)

-unique to a described place, independent of any other characteristics or observations,

and has value in the legal description of places (say in measure distances between

separating places, or in finding directions between places on earth's surface)

-relative location; position of a place in relation to that of other places/acitivities; shows

interconnections/interdependence -- direction is the second universal spatial concept

-can also be expressed in absolute or relative terms; absolute direction is based on the

cardinal points of north, south, east, west while relative direction references are often

culturally based and locationally variable, despite reference to cardinal compass points

(ie. saying out West, down South, Far Eastern)

-- distance is the third universal spatial concept

-can also be expressed in absolute or relative terms; absolute distance refers to the

spatial separation between two points on the earth's surface measured by some acceptedstandard unit

* people often think of distance in time; 20 minutes by bus, 5 minutes walking

**psychological transformation of distance; sometimes a walk may seem longer than it is

for whatever reason

Size and Scale

- when we say that a place may be large or small, we speak both of the nature of

the place itself and of the generalizations that can be made about it

-- geographers use scale on different levels --> you may want to look at population or

agriculture on a local scale, regional scale or global scale

*scale may relate to the size of the units being studied

-- more technically, scale tells us the mathematical relationship between the size of an

area on a map, and the actual size of the mapped area of the surface of the Earth

*scale is an essential feature to every map

-- scale implies the degree of generalization represented (ie. at a national scale stats

Canada reports the median income of Canadians in 2000 was $55000, however, on a

provincial scale, the median income varied from province to province


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Physical and Cultural Attributes

- all places have physical and cultural attributes that distinguish them from other

places and give them character, potential and meanings

- geogrphers are concerned with identifying and analyzing the details of those

attributes, and recognizing the interrelationship between the physical and culturalcomponents of area: the human-environmental interface

-- physical characteristics = climate, soil, the presence or absense of water supplies and

mineral resources, terrain features etc

*such natural landscape attributes provide the setting within which human actions

occurs; they shape, but don't dictate how people live (ie. a resource base is physically

determined, though how the resources are preceived and utilized is culturally conditioned

- the natural environmental simultaneously presents advantages and drawbacks with

which humans must deal

-- however, in occupying a place, people modify it's environmental conditiosn

*Environment Canada


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-spatial diffusion: the process of dispersion of an idea or an item from a centre of origin

to more distant points with which it is directly or indirectly connected

*rate and extent influenced by distance separating origin and centre which later adopt

practices/technology

** rates also influenced by population density, means of communication

-geography's study of dynamic spatial relationship recognizes that spatial interaction is a

fundamental organizing principle of human life on earth (globalization)

-- globalization: implies the increasing interconnection of peoples and societies in all

parts of the world as the full range of social, cultural, political, economic, and

environmental processes become international in scale and effect

The Structured Content of Place

-how are objects distributed in an area - placement of schools or grocery stores in a town

^ questions such as these carry the conviction that the contents of an area are

comprehensibly arranged or structured

-- arrangement of items of earth's surface is known as spatial distribution, and may be

analyzed by the elements common to all spatial distributions: density, dispersion, pattern

--> density: a measure of the number or quantity or anything within a defined unit of area

*a count of items in relation to the area in which they are found

-arithmetic density: absolute relationship, population per square km

-- sometimes it is more meaningful to relate item numbers to a specific kind of area -->

Physiological density is a measure of the number of persons per unit area of arable land

* densities are normally employed comparatively, relative to one another

--> dispersion: a statement of the amount of spread of a phenomenon over an area-tells you how far things are spread out

-

close together = clustered = agglomerated

-spread out = dispersed = scattered

*something that might be clustered at one scale may be considered dispered at another

scale

--> pattern: geometric arrangement of objects in space

-a term refering to distribution, but emphasizes design over spacing

-centralized pattern: items concentrated around a single node

-

random pattern: unstructured irregular distribution

Place Similarity and Regions

1.no two places on the surface of Earth can be exactly the same

2.the physical and cultural content of an area and the dynamic interconnections of

people and places show patterns of spatial similarity


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-recognizing the existence of spatial regularities allows use to define regions -- regions

are earth areas that display significant elements of internal uniformity and external

difference from surrounding territories

-regions are devised; they are spatial summaries designed to bring order to diversity of

the earth's surface

Types of Regions

-may be formal, functional ad perceptual

-- formal region: one of essential uniformity in one or a limited combination of physical

or cultural features (ie. home province)

-- the formal region is the largest area over which a valid generalization of attribute

uniformity may be made

-- functional region: may be visualized as a spatial system; its part are interdependent,

and throughout its extent the functional region operates as a dynamic, organizational unit

-- perceptula regions: less rigorously structured, they reflect feelings and images rather

than objective data and because of that may be more meaningful in the lives and actions

of those who recognize them

GGR107 CHAPTER 2 - Geography: Its Developments,

Research Themes and Concepts

Geography literally means description of the earth

Definition:The study of spatial variation, of how - and why - physical and culturalitems differ from place to place.

Decisions made by corporations about the locations of manufacturing plants orwarehouses in relation to transportation routes and markets are spatially rooted

-on an even grander scale, judgements about the protection of national power, orthe claim and recognition of spheres of influence and interest among rival

countries are related to the implications of distance and area

Four areas where geographers can make significant contributions:

1.The geography classroom should put students in contact with the world beyondtheir immediate community in order that they learn about distant people andplaces

2.

Geographic technologies, i.e. Geographic information systems, could allow for thedevelopment of early warning systems about natural disasters andenvironmental threats, and better plan our cities, especially in the developingworld

3.Geographers could contribute to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, whichwill map the health of the planet

4.The development of a common UN Geographic Database by the Geographic


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Information Working Group is another specific geographically oriented initiative

Greek, and later Roman geographers measured the earth, devised the global grid ofparallels and meridians (marking latitudes and longitudes), and drew upon thatgrid surprisingly sophisticated maps of their known world. They explored the

apparent latitudinal variations in climate and described in numerous works thefamiliar Mediterranean basin and the more remote, partly rumoured lands ofNorthern Europe, Asia and equatorial Africa.

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) - German scholar

- Influenced the early development of geography by suggesting that disciplines thatprovided temporal (history) and spatial (geography) perspectives were just as or

more important than disciplines such as economics and sociology, which focusedon specific considerations

- He also implied that history and geography were not merely about memorizing

dates and place names respectively. It was important to understand how eventsoccurred and changed over time and space. Since everything occurs in time andspace, geography and history are defined by the perspective they provide and notby the subject matter (people, groups, culture, trade)

Environmental determinism - Between the mid 1800s and mid 1900s, manygeographers in Europe and North America, studied how humans interacted with

their environment, assumed that the environment largely determined humanactivities and landscapes

Possibilism - Did not deny that the environment placed some limits on humanactivities, it promoted that a more important factor to consider were the choicesmade by people in response to the opportunities and constraints provided by theenvironment

Probabilism - Lies between environmental determinism and possibilism - suggests

that based on the nature of the environment, humans will be more likely to makecertain decisions over other ones. For instance, if forests are in relatively scarcesupply, homes may be more frequently constructed from clay or stone rather thanwood.

Systematic geographers studied the processes of systems - human, (economic,transportation, political, cultural) and physical (water, geomorphic, climatic) - oftenoperating within functional and administrative regions in order that problemscould be understood and solutions provided

-A key focus was the measurement of direction, distance and connectivity - thegeometry of space or what is termed spatial interaction


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Development based on traditional measures such as the accumulation of wealth ora rise in a nations gross national product (GNP), was being questioned. Radicalgeographies, which include the philosophies of Marxism and structuralism,adopted a progressive social agenda and provided two contributions to geography.

1.As a body of knowledge, radical geographies promoted a greater understanding

of why and how social problems were evident in space. Ex. Examining whypeople moved to specific houses, behaviouralists and logical positivists wouldfocus attention on issues of choice, preference and/or cost. A radical geographerwould question the role of land developers and urban planners/managers indetermining which sites were built upon, the style of housing available andlocation relative to undesirable land uses.

2.As a social movement, they wanted to redress many of the inequities that werepresent in societies, particularly those in many developing countries. The termradical was applied to these ideas because in most instances, some form of

socialism was seen as the solution to problems emanating from market-driven

(capitalist) economies.3.Socialism is a form of economic and social organization based on commonownership of means to produce and distribute products. It contrasts capitalism,

based on private ownership of production, as the dominant form of economicand social organization in the world.

Primary geographic research themes:

1.World in Spatial Terms - the use of maps and other geographic representations,tools and technologies to acquire, process and report information. In this way,the spatial variation and interrelationships among people, places andenvironments are communicated

2.

Places and Regions - The physical and human systems, their spatial relationships,interactions between society and environment in specific locational settings

3.Physical systems - biophysical systems - physical processes shape Earths surface

ad interact with plant and animal life to create, sustain and modify the culturaland natural environment

4.Human systems - Spatial organization of society, which is a mosaic of populationmovements, settlement patterns, economic activity, transportation,communication, and political organizations

5.Society and the Environment

Core Geographic Concepts:1.Space- implies areal extent and may be understood in both and absolute and a

relative sense.Absolute space- objectively and physically real with measurableextent and definable boundaries. Space is fundamental to areal relationshipsbetween physical and cultural features on the earths surface and is basic to such

geographic interests as making maps, analyzing distributions, and conductingspatial analysis of locational patterns.


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2.Relative space- perceptual, not objective, and variable, not permanent, overtime. In this relative sense, space can be seen as socially produced, reflectingactivities and the interrelationships between activities. Since activities andrelationships are constantly changing, relative space adjusts in size and form inresponse to developing socioeconomic processes and the passage of time.

3.

Place- synonym for location - attributes and values we individually associatewith location. The attributes and culture of places shape the lives and outlooks ofthose who inhabit them in ways basic to the socioeconomic patterning of theworld. The sense of place is reinforced by recognized local and regionaldistinctiveness. It may be diminished or lost and replaced by a feeling ofplacelessness.

Places have location, direction, and distance with respect to other places

A place has size, it may me large or small. Scale is important.

A place has both physical structure and cultural content

The attributes of places develop and change over time

The elements of places interrelate with other places

The content of places is structured and explainable

Places may be generalized into regions of similarities and differences

Location:

-Absolute location - Identification of place by some precise and accepted systemof coordinates; it therefore is sometimes called mathematical location (global gridof parallels and meridian - with it absolute location can be accurately described byreference to its degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude and longitude) Relative

location - the position of a place in relation to that of other places or activities -spatial interconnection and interdependence and may carry social and economicimplications - on a larger scale, relative location tells us that people, things, andplaces exist not in a spatial vacuum but in a world of physical and culturalcharacteristics that differ from place to place

Chapter 2- Introduction Geography: Its

Developments. Research Themes, and Concepts

Geography is often referred to as the spatialscience, that is, the disciplineconcerned with the use of earth space. In fact,geographyliterally means


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"description of the earth ," but that task is really the responsibility of nearlyall the sciences.

Geography might be better defined as the study of spatial variation, of how and whyphysical and cultural items differ from place to place on thesurface of the earth. It is, further, the study of how observable spatial

patterns evolved through time.

There are simple examples of the observation that "space matter" in a verypersonal way. You cannot avoid the implications of geography in youreveryday affairs. Your understanding of your hometown, yourneighbourhood, or your campus is essentially a geographic understanding.

United Nations` Secretary of General Kofi Annan believed that the work of

the United Nations and the work of geographers shared a great deal incommon because of the many of the problems facing humanity climatechange, population, consumption, poverty, and supporting the achievementof sustainable development for all people of the world required attention

to be paid to the importance of people, borders, and science.

In 2001, Kofi Annan identified four areas where geographers throughout theworld could make a meaningful contribution`:

First the geography classroom should put students in contact with the

world beyond their immediate community in order that they learnabout distant people and places.

Second, that geographic technologies, such as geographic information

system, could allow for the development of early warning systemsabout natural disasters and environmental threats, and better planour cities, particularly in the developing world

Third, geographers could contribute to the Millenium Ecosystem

Assessment, which will map the health of the planet.

Fourth, the development of a common UN Geographic Database by

the Geographic Information Working Group is another specificgeographically oriented initiative.

Spotlight Box 2.1

Modern geography is both a physical and social sciences, and fosters a wealth

of technical skills

2.2 Evolution of the Discipline

Geography`s name was reputedly coined by the Greek scientistErathosthenes from the wordsgeo, "the earth" and graphein, "to write."

Greek (and , later, Roman) geographers measured the earth, devised theglobal grid of parallels and meridians (marking latitudes and longitudes),their grid was sophisticated of their known world. They employed modern

concepts, they described river systems, explored causes of erosion, patternof disposition, cited dangers for deforestation, described areal variations in


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the natural landscape, and noted the consequences of abuse on theenvironment.

2.3 The Evolution of Geography in Europe

Immanuel Kant, a German scholar, influences the early development ofgeography by suggesting that disciplines that provided temporal (history)and spatial (geography) perspectives were just as or more important thatdisciplines such as economics and sociology which focus on specificconsiderations. In his view it was important to understand how eventsoccurred and changed over time and space.

2.4 Primary Geographic Research themes

According to the Canadian Council for Geographic Education, 6 themes form

the core of the discipline:

The first element is the "World in Spatial Terms"- which refers to themap and the use of other geographic representations, tools and

technologies to acquire

The second element is the "Places and Regions"- the physical andhuman system, their spatial relationship, interactions betweensociety and environment in specific locational settings.

The third element is "Physical Systems" or "Biophysical System" thestudy of plants and animals that inhabit the world with us

2.6 Some Background Basics

2.6.1 Core Geographic Concepts

Absolute space

is objectively and physically real with measurable extent

and definable boundaries

Relative space is perceptual not objective, and variable, not permanent,over time.

Place is the companion concept to space. Place is a synonym for location.

2.7.1 Location

Absolute location-- is the identification of place by some precise andaccepted system of coordinates; it is sometimes called mathematical location


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Relative location the position of a place in relation to that of other places oractivities

Site an absolute location concept, refers to the physical and cultural

characteristics and attributes of the places itself. It is more than themathematical location, for it tells us something about the internal features ofthat place.

2.7.2 Direction

Direction is the second universal spatial concept. Like location it has morethan 1 meaning.

Absolute directionis based on the cardinal points of north, south , east and

west.

In Canada we commonly use Relational direction, we go "out West" or "down

South"

2.7.3 Distance

Absolute distancerefers to the spatial separation between two point onthe earth`s surface measured by some accepted standard unit such as milesor kilometres for widely separated locales, feet or metres for more closelyspaced points

Relative distancetransforms those linear measurements into other unitsmore meaningful for the space relationship in question.

2.11 Interrelation between places

Spatial Interactionplaces interact with other places in structured andcomprehensible ways.

ConnectivityA broader concept implying all the tangible and intangibleways in which places are connected: by telephone lines, street and roadsystems.

Spatial diffusionthe process of dispersion of an idea or an item from acentre of origin to more distant points with which it is directly or indirectlyconnected.

Globalizationimplies the increasing interconnectionof peoples andsocieties in all parts of the world as the full range of social cultural, political,

economic, and environmental processes becomes international in scale andeffect.

2.12 The Structured Content of Place

The arrangement of items on the earth's surface is called Spatial Distribution

and may be analyzed by the elements common to all spatial distributions:density, dispersion, and pattern


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2.12.1 Density

The measure of the number or quantity of anything within a defined unit ofarea is its density.

It is not the counts of items but of items in relation to the space in which they

are found.

Physiological density is a measure of the number of person per unit area ofarable land.

2.12.2 Dispersion

Dispersion (or its opposite, concentration) is a statement of the amount of

spread f a phenomenon over an area. It tells us not how many or how muchbut how far things are spread out.

If they are close together spatially, they are considered clusters oragglomerated. If they are spread out, they are dispersed or scattered.

2.12.3 Pattern The geometric arrangement of objects in space is called pattern.

A centralized pattern may involve items concentrated around a single node.

A random pattern may be the best description of an unstructured irregulardistribution

2.13 Place Similarity and Regions

The distinctive characteristics of the places in content and structure

immediately suggest two geographical important ideas. The first is that no

two places on the surface of the earth can be exactly the same. Not only dothey have different absolute locations, but as in the features of the human

face -- the precise mix of physical and cultural characteristics of a place isnever exactly duplicated.

-

Chapter 3: Agricultural Systems3.1 Introduction

Agriculture or farming is rearing animal and harvest crops

It involves the interaction between people and the environment

It has lasted over 10,000 years

Plants and animals spread from the near east into southern-eastern Europe

Methods of trading began with the Greek and then was adopted by theRomans

Agriculture is from the Latin word agar and Greek word agros meaning field


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3.2 The agri-ecosystem

Unlike many aspects of economic activity the contributions of the physical

environment can contribute to nature

Humans are now able to modify plants and crops

The purpose is to harvest the greater number of crops

Farmers use harmful technologies and chemical to produce these crops

3.3 Climate and agriculture

The greatest limitations can be soil type, nutrient availability, topographyand drainage

Even modern plant breeding has its limits

3.3.1 Temperature

Both plant and animal growth needs to be grown in at a certain temperature

There are also different growing seasons for crops

There is usually an optimum yield

Each crops has a critical temperature range (C3 and C4 crops)

The minimum amount is where there is insufficient heat

The optimum at rates of metabolic processes are at their maximum

The maximum beyond growth ceases

Some crop require different amounts of times; some grow during the daywhile others at night

4 different types of crops

Short day, long night: with a photoperiod of under ten hours e.g. soybean,

sweet potatoes, millet. These occur at low latitudes where spring andautumn are warm enough to allow their harvest cycle to be completed

Long day/ Short night with a photoperiod of over 14 hours e.g. small grains,timothy, sweet clover. High latitudes

Intermediate day, with a photoperiod of 12-14 hours and an inhibition ofreproduction either above or below these levels

Day-neutral unaffected by day length

This is important to farmers because they can use their time and space

correctly

There are different growing seasons based on geography

3.3.2 Water Water is important for agriculture

Water provides nutrients for plants

Water can also carry pesticides and chemical from plants causing healthconcerns

Irrigation impacts crop productivity

The salt and alkaline levels of the water can cause problems


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3.4 Agricultural Soils

Primary agricultural management practice is the cultivation of soil

Soil can vary due to structure, depth, nutrient content and acidity

Deeper the soil the better it is at storing minerals

Soils that are less deep are not able to store soils

Soil texture is also important for the draining of water

Acidity can also decide whether or not the plant will thrive

3.4.1 Soil Classification

V.V. Dokuchaev developed a method for classifying soils

Three basic types of soils are zonal, intra-zonal and azonal

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) produced aclassification known as the seventh Approximation

This recognized 12 different soil orders

The worlds soil map shows trends i.e. unproductive soil in in the northern

hemisphere

3.5 Energy

A range of physical factors that effect agricultural distribution

Energy can be created through photosynthesis

Fertilizers can be used to reduce the amount of energy humans put in

Energy is transferred through a cycle (Figure 3.3)

Energy yield differs fro different crops

The energy ratio: the edible amount of energy produced in net form

The gross energy productivity (GEP): total food energy produced per system

The surplus energy income: energy not consumed by people e.g. crops fed to

animals

The energy yield can come in net food output per hectare

Increase the amount of energy by replacing man power with machines

3.6 Climate change and agriculture

Climate change affects the distribution of crops

Out predictions for the future lead to reduction in crop yield

Long term effects of sea levels rising could destroy crops

Tropical regions that have fertile land can be affected causing unfertile soil

Crop yield analysis can be used to determine growth factors

Different strategies for different farmland systems

Highlighted the role of technological innovations to improve the workplace

It allows us to perform research on areas


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3.7 Classifying agricultural systems

Variation in the type of farm management have been summarized: biologicaldiversity, intensity of human management, net energy balance, andmanagement responsibility

Differences in the agricultural systems allows for classification

3.7.1 Land Classification

Based on the physical properties of the land

E.g. the topography, soils and vegetation

UK has a land classification method

Depending on the area certain land is suitable for growing crops on

3.7.2 Land use classification

Focuses on what the land could be used for

It was popularized by J.C. Weaver when he realized that certain crops could

be grown in the same region, crop-combination regions

Classifications may omit crops that are important in financial terms

3.7.3 Type of farming regions

Type of farming depends on crops, livestock, intensity of land use,

processing and disposal of farm procedures, methods and degree of farmmechanisms and types of building and other structures associated with

agriculture Applying this method is important for statistical analysis

3.8 Conclusion

Physical factors can control agricultural activity, but socio-economic and

political factors are more influential in the decision

Other important factors also include tenure, landownership, farm size,

marketing, transport and labour supply and social and cultural variables

GGR107: Chapter 3 NotesGiovanni Sacco

Agriculture is the rearing of animals and the production of crops throughcultivating soil

Agriculture geography includes; spatial distribution of crops and livestock,

the systems of management employed, the nature of links to the broadereconomic, social, cultural, political and ecological systems, the spectrum offood production, processing, marketing and consumption.

6 key factors influence the distribution of farming types, they are:

1.Biological 2.Physical

3. Economic


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4. Political

5. Socio-cultural

6. Marketing (food trade)

Reciprocal relationship between environmental factors/agricultural activity(environment affects the nature of farming, and farming affects the

environment)

Agri-ecosystems are simpler, less diverse and not as complex as naturalecosystems

Constraints on agriculture:

1. Average temperatures

2. Amount of precipitation

3. Annual distribution

Each crop has an optimal temperature for growth, the critical temperaturesare:

1. The minimum, below this there is insufficient heat for biological

activity2. The optimum, metabolic processes at their maximum

3. The maximum, beyond which growth stops, higher temperaturecan be harmful or lethal

Some crops are photoperiodic, meaning they need different amounts ofdaylight for optimal growth, there are four main groups:

1. Short-day/long night (low altitude)

2. Long-day/short night (high altitude)

3. Intermediate day (photoperiod of 12-14hrs)

4.

Day-neutral (unaffected by different daylengths) Water is necessary for agriculture, mainly through

precipitation, but farmers can work around problems withnatural water supplies using irrigation methods

Cultivation is the primary method for agricultural management, soil is wherewater, minerals and nutrients are stored that enable plant growth

Soil texture is important, it influences moisture/particle size

Depth in soil also important, greater depth allows for more deposit of water

and minerals

Acidity is another important factor in soil, measures on the PH scale:

-------------------------|-----------------------0(most acidic) 7(neutral) 14(most alkaline)

A way of classifying soils and understanding the relations between soil

properties and environmental factors:

o Climate o

Parent

material o


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Biotic factors

oRelief

o Time thefactors have

operated

3 basic soil classes (table 3.2 on page 54)

1. zonal

2. intra-zonal

3. azonal

U.S soil taxonomy shows soil orders based on 12 orders, each with distinctcharacteristics (table 3.3 page 55)

Solar radiation provides the fundamental energy source to support plant and

animal growth, this energy drives the cycling of nutrients throughagriecosystems, aspects of this are the carbon and nitrogen cycles

Ways to keep nitrogen levels suitable in soil were invented in order to

enable optimal land use, for example the Norfolk crop rotation wasdeveloped for this purpose, the whole idea behind it was to allow for the soiltime to regenerate its nitrogen levels.

Key technologies mediating climate variations are mechanical innovations

(irrigations) and biological science (hybrids)

Effects of global warming would ultimately be hindered by both structuralresistance and hindered by both structural resistances and farmerdecisionmaking behavior

Farm management has been summarized with four main parameters:

1. Biological diversity

2.

Human management3. Net energy balance

4. Management responsibility

Land classification regions are based on physical properties and landcapability, physical properties include; topography, soils and vegetation

Soil characteristics are especially important

Land use classification is based on the way land is used, popularized by J.C

Weaver who had the idea of crop-combination regions which showed

regional productions usually includes combinations of crops as apposed toonly one

Type-of farming classifications, based on individual farms that have manyvariables including production and management, and information on yields,crops and livestock

Modern type of farming classifications are based on 5 criteria:

1. Crop/livestock association

2. Intensity of land use

3. Processing/disposal of farm produce


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4. Methods/degree of farm mechanization

5. Type association of buildings and structures associated

with agriculture 7 types of enterprise:

1. dairy cattle

2. beef cattle

3.

sheep

4. cash crops

5. fruit

6. vegetables

7. pigs/poultry

Although physical factors can exert controls on agricultural activity, it issocio-economic/political factors that determine detailed characteristics of afarm enterprise

According to farmers the nature of land at their disposal is influenced by ecologicalfactors such as population pressure, technological innovation, structures of social

organizations and societal val

Chapter 4 Exam Review

Soil and Agriculture Soil-is a complex plant supporting system consisting of disintegrated rock,

organic matter, water, gases, nutrients and microorganisms

Soil consists roughly of half mineral matter with organic matter and the other

half pore space taken up with air, water and soil gases The organic matter in soil consists of living and dead microorganisms as well as

decaying plant and animal matter

The composition of soil can have as great an effect on a regions ecosystem as

does climate or temperature

Formation of soil

Parent material- is the base geological material in a particular location. It can

include lava or volcanic ash; rock or sediment deposited by glaciers

Bedrock-the continuous mass of solid rock that makes up the earths crust

The process responsible for soil formation are weathering, erosion and the

deposition and decomposition of organic matter

Weathering-is the physical, chemical, biological processes that break down

rocks and minerals turning larger particles into smaller [articles.

Physical weathering-breaks down rock without changing the parent material

Chemical weathering-results when water or other substances chemically

interact with parent material (example acidic ground water)


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Biological weathering-occurs when living things break down parent material

through physical or chemical means (example trees root rubbing against rock

causing erosion

Weathering produces particles and in the first step in soil formation. The second

step is erosion

Erosion- the movement of movement of soil from one area to another.

Biological activity contributes to soil formation through the deposition,

decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter.

Particle decomposition of organic matter creates humus, soils with high humus

content hold moisture very well and are productive for plant life. Soils that are

dominated by partially decayed, compressed organic material are calledpeat

There are five factors that influence soil formation (figure 4.1 pg. 76)


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i. Climatesoil forms better in warm wet climates, heat speeds

up chemical reactions and promotes weathering

ii. Organismsearthworms and other burrowing animals mix

and aerate soil

iii. Topographical reliefhills and valleys affect exposure to sun,

wind and water, influencing how soil moves

iv. Parent materialchemical and physical attributes of the

parent influence the properties of the soil

v. Timesoil formation takes a very long time; the four factors

change over time.

Soil Profile

Each layer of soil is known as a horizon, from surface to bedrock is known as a

soil profile. There are five major horizons known as O, A, B, C and R.

O-horizon- is the upper layer consisting mostly of decomposing branches,

leaves, and animal waste. Also known as the litter layer

A horizon-consisting of inorganic mineral components with organic matter and

humus from above mixed in. also known as topsoil

B horizon- minerals and inorganic material that are leached from the topsoil

move down into this level. Also known as subsoil

C horizon-consists of parent material unaltered or slightly altered by the

process of soil formation.

R horizon-contains rock particles that are larger and less weathered than those

above it. The r stands for rock.

Characteristics of soil (grouping of soils 10 characteristics pg. 78)

Soil colorthe color of soil can indicate its composition and its fertility. Black or

dark brown soils are rich in organic matter where paler soils usually are leached

Soil textureis determined by the size of the particles and is the basis on which

soils are categorized as clay, sand or silt. A mixture of all three is known as loam.

Silty soils with medium-sized pores or loamy soils are best for crop and plant

growth

Soil structureis a measure of the organization of clumpiness of soil Soil pHthe degree of acidity or alkalinity influences a soils ability to support

plant growth. Plants can die in soils that are to acidic or alkaline, plants need a

neutral pH.

The characteristics of soil affect its ability to provide plants with nutrients.

Cation exchange is a useful tool in measuring soil fertility


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Agriculture-the practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and

consumption

Cropland-land we use to raise plants

Rangeland-land we use for grazing livestock

Due to mismanaged agriculture we have turned grasslands into deserts and have

removed ecologically precious forests

Soil degradation-damage or loss of soil as a result of forest removal, over grazing

livestock, and industrial contamination

Domestication

Domestication began 10,000 years ago, in several places but largely in the Fertile

Crescent. Did not occur on purpose but was an accident. Hypothesis state that it

could have began with seed dispersal through fecal matter, and by dropping

seeds and having them grow near the settlement. Domestication brought on

selective breeding (a process in which natural selection is done through human

intervention)

Agriculture is an intensification of the productivity of a given unit of land

The development of agriculture gave birth to major changes in human history,

commerce, increases in technology, urbanization and social stratifications

Traditional farming (preindustrial farming)also known as subsistence

agriculture, families farmed to feed themselves, used animal and human labor

Intensive traditional farminguses significant quantities of irrigation water and

fertilizers, does not use fossil fuels. Provides for family but sells excess to

markets

Industrial farmingthe industrial revolution introduced large-scale mechanisms

and combustion of fossil fuels, advancements in irrigation, fertilizing, and cropyield, the demands that vast fields be planted with a single crop (monoculture).

This is widely spread due to the Green Revolution (refer to chapter 5)

Soil degradation

The most desirable soil for agriculture is a loamy mixture with a pH close to

neutral. Common problems affecting soils productivity include erosion,

desertification, waterlogging, nutrient depletion, and pollution.

Depositionis the arrival of eroded material at its new location. Erosion and

deposition are neutral processes that in the long run help create soil. However

erosion can be a problem because it takes place much more quickly than soil is

formed, it tends to move topsoil, which is the most valuable soil layer.

People have increased the vulnerability of fertile lands to erosion by

1. Over cultivating fields through poor planning or excessive

ploughing

2. Over grazing rangeland with more livestock than land can

support


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3. Clear cutting forests

There are several types of erosion, water erosion, rill erosion, wind erosion,

however humans are the number cause of erosion

Desertification

Desertification is the loss of more than 10% of productivity because of erosion, soilcompaction, forest removal, over grazing, drought, and climate change.

Arid and semi-arid lands are prone to desertification because their precipitation

is to meager to meet the demands of growing human populations

The Dust Bowl

Page 88 4.3.6

Protection against erosion

Crop rotation:the practice of alternating the kids of crops that are grown in a field from

season to season to return nutrients to the soil.

Contour farming:consists of ploughing furrows sideways across a hillside,

perpendicular to its slope, to help prevent formation of rills and gullies.Intercropping and agroforestry- intercropping helps slow erosion by providing more

complete ground coverage than does a single crop. When crops are interplanted with

trees its called agroforestry.

Terracing:on extremely steep terrain, terracing is the most effective method of erosion

prevention. Terracing transforms slopes into a series of steps to help famers cultivate

hilly land without losing huge amounts of soil to water erosion.

Shelterbelt: a widespread technique to reduce erosion from winds. These are rows of

trees that are planted along the edges of fields to slow wind.

Reduce tillage:a tractor pulls a drill that cuts long shallow furrows through the O

horizon of dead weeds and crop residue of the A horizon. The device drops seeds intothe furrows and closes the furrows over the seeds. There are direct and indirect

benefits of this method includingsustainability of high yield crops, shelter and winter

food for animals, reduction of silt deposition in reservoirs, lowers costs of drinking

water. Example to read- Brazil pg. 93

Irrigation

The artificial provision of water to support agriculture is known as irrigation.

Some crops require lots while other require very little irrigation.

Through irrigation people have managed to turn unsuitable dry land into fertile

farmland.

Over irrigation is an issue as soils can become waterlogged. Another problem is

salinization of the soil due to dry lands.

To fix salinization of land s very expensive and difficult. The best way to avoid

salinization is to avoid planting crops that require a lot of water, a second way is

to use water with very little salt content

Over applying fertilizers can also damage soils.


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There are two types of fertilizers, organic and inorganic

Organic fertilizers: consist of natural minerals and organic materials compost

Inorganic fertilizers: synthetically manufactured. Inorganic fertilizers are generally

more susceptible to leaching and are likely to cause off-site unintended impacts.

Over grazing:can also impact soils and alter their structure. Soil compaction makes it

harder for water to infiltrate, harder for soils to be aerated, harder for plants roots to

expand, harder for roots to conduct cellular respiration. Over grazings soil degradation

is equal to cropland agriculture but is a great cause of degradation.

Central Case: Mer Bleue: A Bog of International Significance

The Mer Bleue Conservation Area is 35 km2provincially protected wetland

situated just east of Ottawa, OntariooLocated in an ancient, now abandoned

channel of the Ottawa River

Hosts a number of unusual plat species that are specially adapted to moist,boggy, acidic conditions, including Sphagnummoss, bog rosemary,

blueberry, cottongrass, cattails, and tamarack

Provides a specific type of soil peat that has been accumulating in many

northern areas since the end of the last ice age

Northern peatlands are extremely important storage reservoirs for carbon,

and they are thought to hold about one-third of all carbon stored in soils

Through decomposition, peat produces soil gases, such as CO2and CH4,

which function as greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

The storage of carbon in peat depends on the balance between net primary

production and decomposition, with plant storing or sequestering carbon asa result of photosynthesis, then contributing the stored carbon to the peat

soil where it accumulates in the form of plant litter Temperature, light levels, and moisture are important to this balance

The Peatland Carbon Study (PCARS) was initiated by a group of Canadian

scientists in 1997 oWork continues today as part of the Fluxnet Canada

Canadian Carbon Project research networks, to measure and model theinfluence of climatic and seasonal changes on the carbon balance of apeatland

4.1 Soil as a system

Soil is often used as the equivalent to dirt, but this is not true

Soil is not merely loose material derived from rock; it is a complexplantsupporting system consisting of disintegrated rock, organic matter,water, gases, nutrients, and microorganisms

It is also fundamental to the support of life on this planet an the provision offood for the growing human population

It is renewable if managed carefully, but its currently at risk in many

locations around the world


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Soil consists very roughly of half mineral matter with varying proportions of

organic matter, with the rest of the pore space being taken up by air, water,and other soil gases

The organic matter in soil:

oLiving and dead microorganisms, decaying material derived from

plants and animals4.1.1 Soil formation is slow and complex

Formation of soil plats a key role in terrestrial primary succession

Parent material is the base geological material in a particular location

Bedrock the continuous mass of solid rock that makes up Earths crustWeathering describes the physical, chemical, and biological processes that

break down rocks and minerals, turning large particles into smaller particles

oPhysical weathering (or mechanical weathering) breaks rocks down

without triggering a chemical change in the parent material

oTwo main forces of physical weathering are rain and wind

Chemical weathering results when water or other substances chemically

interact with parent material oWarm, wet conditions accelerate chemical

weathering

Biological weathering occurs when living things break down parent material

by physical or chemical means

Weather produces fine particles and is the first step in soil formation

Erosion is another process often involved the movement of soil from one

area to another oSometimes helps form soil in one locality by depositing

material it has depleted from another

Erosion is generally perceived as a destructive process that reduces the

amount of life tat a given area of land can support Biological activity contributes to soil formation through the deposition,

decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter

Partial decomposition of organic matter creates humus a dark, spongy,

crumbly mass of material made up of complex organic compounds oSoils

with high levels of humus are productive for plant life

Soils that are dominated by partially decayed, compressed organic material

like the soil at Mer Bleue are called peat oCharacteristics of northern

climates because cool temperatures slow the decay process, allowing greatthickness of organic material to accumulate

4.1.2 A soil profile consists of layers known as horizons

Distinct layers of soil develop which is known as a horizon and the cross

section of as a whole, from surface to bedrock, is known as a soil profile o

Layers are divided by characteristics and the process that take placed

within them 5 layers:

o O Horizon (O for organic)


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Uppermost layer consisting mostly of organic matter oA

Horizon (topsoil)

Just below the organic horizon consisting of inorganicmineral components with organic matter and humus from above mixedin

Minerals are carried downwards as a result of leaching (like coffeegrounds in a drip filter), the process whereby solid particles suspended or

dissolved in liquid are transported to another location oB Horizon

(subsoil)

Where minerals and organic matter that are leached from the

topsoil move down

o C Horizon

Below the B horizon and consists of parent material

unaltered or only slightly altered by the processes of soil formation oR

Horizon (R stands for rock)

o

Sits directly below the C horizon, certain soils are characterized bythe presence of a distinct layer of water, called the W horizon permafrost (constantly frozen ice)

4.1.3 Soil can be characterized by its colour, texture, structure, and pH

Soil colour oThe colour of soil indicate its composition and sometimes

its fertility oColour variations occur among sol horizons in any given

location and also among solids from different geographic locations

Soil texture oDetermined by the size of particles and is the basis on

which soils are assigned to one of three general categories

o Clay consists of particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter oSilt

consists of particles 0.002-0.05 mm in diameter o

Sand consists ofparticles 0.05-2mm in diameter

o Soil with a relatively even mixture of the three particle sizes is knownas loam

o Texture influences the soils porosity (measure of the relative volume

of spaces within the material) as well as its permeability (measure ofthe interconnectedness of the spaces and the ease with which fluidscan move around in the material)

Soil Structure oMeasure of organization or clumpiness of soil oSoil

clumps that are too large can discourage plant roots from establishing if

soil particles are compacted too tightly together Soil pH oDegree of acidity or alkalinity influences a soils ability to

support plant growth

o Plants can die in soils that are too acidic (low pH) or alkaline (highpH)

4.1.4 Cation exchange is vital for plant growth

The characteristics of soil affect its ability to provide plants with nutrients


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Plants gain many nutrients through a process called cation exchange (plan

roots donate hydrogen ions to the soil particles then replenish by exchangewith soil water)

Cation exchange capacity expresses a soils ability to hold cations

(preventing them rom leaching and thus making them available to plants)

and is a useful measure of soil fertility

4.2 Soil: The foundation for feedings a growing population

Healthy soil is vital for agriculture, for forests, and for functioning of Earths

natural systems


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Productive soil is a renewable resource, but if we abuse it through carelessor uninformed practices, we can greatly reduce its productivity

Like other renewable resources, if soil is degraded or washed away at a rate

that is faster than the rate at which it can be renewed, it effectively becomesnonrenewable because the supply or stock of the resource is being depleted

Agriculture practice of raising crops and livestock for human use andconsumption is 38% of the Earths land surface

Cropland land used to raise plants for human use

Rangeland land used for grazing livestock

4.2.1 As population and consumption increase, soils are being degraded

If we are to feed the worlds rising human population, we will need to change

our diet patterns or increase agricultural production and do so sustainablywithout degrading the environment and reducing its ability to support

agriculture We cannot simply keep expanding agriculture into new areas the

spreading or extensification of resource extraction because land suitableand available for farming is running out

Today, many lands unsuitable for farming are being farmed, causingconsiderable environmental damage

Soil degradation damage to or loss of soil, around the globe has resultedfrom roughly equal parts of forest removal, cropland agriculture, and

overgrazing of livestock, with a much smaller contribution from industrialcontamination

This has direct impacts on agricultural production4.2.2 Agriculture began to appear around 10 000 years ago

Agriculture most likely began as hunter-gatherers brought back to their

encampments wild fruits, grains, and nuts

Agriculture is a form of intensification a way to increase the productivity ofa given unit of land

Intensification can increase the carrying capacity of a land area (up to acertain point)

For thousands of years, the work of cultivating, harvesting, storing, and

distribution crops was performed by human and animal muscle power,along with hand tools and simple machines

This biologically powered agriculture is known as traditional agriculture

In the older form of traditional agriculture, known as subsistenceagriculture, farming families produce only enough food for themselves anddo not make use of large-scale irrigation, fertilizer, or teams of laboringanimals


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4.2.3 Industrialized agriculture is newer still

The Industrial Revolution introduced large-scale mechanization and fossilfuel combustion to agriculture just as it did to industry, enabling farmers toreplace horses and oxen with faster and more powerful means of cultivating,harvesting, transporting, and processing crops

Industrialized agriculture demands that vast fields be planted with singletypes of crops

The uniform planting of a single crop, terms monoculture, is distinct from

thepolycultureapproach of much more traditional agricultural

Industrialized agriculture spread from developed nations to developing

nations with the advent of the Green Revolution

4.3 Soil degradation: Problems and solutions

Limits to productivity are being set by human impact that has degraded many

once-excellent soils

4.3.1 Regional difference in soil traits can affect agriculture The characteristics of soil and soil profiles can vary from place to place

The traditional form of agriculture in tropical forested areas is swiddenagriculture, in which the farmer cultivates a plot for one to a few years andthen moves on to clear another pot, leaving the first to grow back to forest

4.3.2 Erosion can degrade ecosystems and agriculture

Erosion is the removal of material from one place and its transport toward

another by the action of wind or water

Deposition is the arrival of eroded material at its new location

Erosion and deposition are natural processes that in the long run can help

create soil Erosion can be gradual and hard to detect

4.3.3 Soil erodes by several mechanisms

Several types of erosion can occur, including wind and water

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was developed as a tool for

estimating erosion losses by water from cultivated fields, and to show howdifferent soil and management factors influence soil erosion

Wind, like water, is a moving fluid

Wind often flows very quickly over the surface, but it typical does not have

the same ability to pick up and transport large particles that water had

4.3.4 Soil erosion is a global problem In todays world, humans are the primary cause of erosion, and we have

accelerated it to unnaturally high rates

Erosion of agricultural soil has been a significant concern in Canada for thepast 25 years or more, but improvements are occurring


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4.3.5 Desertification reduces productivity of arid lands

Much of the worlds population lives and farms in arid environments, where

desertification is a concern

This term describes a loss of more than 10% of productivity because of

erosion, soil compaction, forest removal, overgrazing, drought, salinization,

climate change, depletion of water sources, and other factorsDesertification is a type of land degradation that occurs in arid and semi-aridareas and can result from various factors, including climatic variations andhuman activities

Land degradation is defined as the reduction or loss of the biological oreconomic productivity of a land

4.3.6 The Dust Bowl was a monumental event in North America

Prior to a large-scale cultivation of the Prairies and the Great Plains, native

prairie grasses of this temperate grassland region held erosion-prone soils inplace

Starting in the early 1930s, a prolonged period of drought in the regionexacerbated the ongoing human impacts on the soil from overly intensiveagricultural practices

Strong winds began to carry away millions of tones of topsoil, and oftennewly planted seed

Dust

Documents

GGR107 - Textbook Notes