GERONTAGOGY BEYOND WORDS: A REALITY

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GERONTAGOGY BEYONDWORDS: A REALITYAndré Lemieux, Mariano Sanchez Martineza Department of Education, University ofQuebec at Montreal, Montreal, Canadab Faculty of Sociology, University ofGranada, Granada, SpainPublished online: 11 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: André Lemieux, Mariano Sanchez Martinez (2000)GERONTAGOGY BEYOND WORDS: A REALITY, Educational Gerontology, 26:5,475-498, DOI: 10.1080/03601270050111887

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Educational Gerontology, 26 : 475–498, 2000

Copyright 2000 Taylor & FrancisÓ0360-1277 /00 $12.00 1 .00

GERONTAGOGY BEYOND WORDS: A REALITY

Andreð Lemieux

Department of Education, University of Quebec at Montreal, Montreal,

Canada

Mariano Sanchez MartinezFaculty of Sociology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

This article deals with the following issue: Should senior adult education and

teacher training for the elderly be a matter for GERONTOLOGY or a matter for a

component of education, namely GERONTAGOGY? Katz claims that gerontology

is a multidisciplinary science having no disciplinary object of its own. Peterson

and Glendenning have proposed the term Educational Gerontology to refer to the

educational intervention for the elderly. However, this concept links education to

aging rather than to the elderly in a teach/learn situation.

To get out of this dead end, Lemieux et Sanchez propose the concept of Geronta-

gogy located within a competential model of education positioned after pedagogy

and andragogy. The authors ünish the article with a description of the diþerent

types of programs which exist in Gerontagogy. Finally, in order to know the essen-

tial parameters to elaborate a university curriculum in gerontagogy and to develop

research in gerontagogy, the reader should refer to two articles already published

in Educational Gerontology, namely : The University of the Third Age: Role of

Senior Citizens, Educational Gerontology : 21, 337–344, 1996; Essential learning

contents in the Curriculum for a Certiücate degree in personalized Education for

older adults, Educational Gerontology: 23, 143–150, 1997.

In general, it is possible to conürm that, by deünition, the develop-

ment of any discipline is in relation with an issue that we can sum-

marize as follows :

Address correspondence to Andreð Lemieux, Department of Education, Universiteðdu Queð bec a Montreð al, Case postale 8888, succursale Centre-Ville, Montreð al, (Queð bec)

H3C 3P8 CANADA.

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476 A. Lemieux and M. S. Martinez

1. how to deüne the object of discipline?

2. how to proceed in the study of the object of discipline?

3. what is the relationship between this discipline and other existing

disciplines?

This is not a matter of technical or instrumental work, but rather an

aþair of politics, of control. In a way, control over everything that

appears as one, control over the most appropriate methods of investi-

gation, control in order to avoid all possible interference with the

new discipline. Of course, it is obvious, it is an intrinsically complexissue. Precisely, we will be undertaking a very complex case, in the

study of the problem concerning the education of the elderly.

This complexity, for the moment, is well hidden due to the enor-

mous pressure exerted by gerontology.

Which science should education of the elderly fall within? : geron-tology or the new gerontagogy?

The gerontologists themselves were the ürst one to recognize the

difficulties created by the fact of wanting to conüne the study of

aging in one single discipline. The following summarizes the diffi-

culties encountered in the development of gerontology as a uniquediscipline :

1. Aging is a dynamic process, if one wishes to study it, it is neces-

sary to pinpoint this object of interest to be able to examine it at a

given moment.This point of view forces us to see gerontology as an approximate

science that deals with a changing and dynamic issue. It is diffi-

cult to know the exact scientiüc language of this gerontological

discipline.

2. Senior adults, objects of gerontology, remain unspeciüed and arenot easily classiüed into one taxonomical group having one

common characteristic. The irony is that what they have in

common is precisely what diþerentiates them, namely heteroge-

neousness ! Whenever gerontology deals with aging people, they

are either represented in a reductionnist manner or in a mannersuggesting a lack of interest.

Those concerned refuse to see themselves being conüned in the

same problem. Thus, if gerontology wishes to justify its existence

and continue its work, it will have to deal with this problem,

eventhough difficult to apprehend.3. Gerontologists present gerontology as a discipline. However, with

time, they have opted inexorably in favor of a multidisciplinary

analysis of aging.

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Gerontagogy Beyond Words: A Reality 477

If the object of gerontology requires a multidisciplinary investiga-

tion, how can we concurrently claim that gerontology depends on

a single discipline?

If the answer to this question establishes the fact that gerontology

examines but a part of the scientiüc study of aging, then what arethe parameters to justify the legitimacy of a disciplinary existence

of gerontology?

But, on the contrary, if we claim that aging and senior adults fall

exclusively within gerontology, will dividing the study of the

elderly in many specialities cause the fragmentation of the disci-pline, subjected to tension, as far as to threaten its own existence?

In fact, the defence of a multidisciplinary approach in the study of

aging can seriously jeopardize the existence of gerontology itself.

These difficulties have led certain authors, among whom DavisPeterson, Ira Hirschüeld, Victor Marshall, . . . to maintain the non-

disciplinary characteristic of gerontology, that they accuse of being

incapable of appropriating nor dissociating the object from its study.

However, we must realize that this opinion is shared by only a minor-

ity. Gerontologists, aware of the obstacles inherent in their work andthe instability of their discipline, have tried to save their discipline

by resorting to some auxiliary tactics.

Stephen Katz (1996) demonstrated some of these strategies con-

cerning the gerontological training. In his work, Katz re-examines

the history of gerontology, its diþerence from geriatry and its eþortsin establishing itself as an autonomous discipline. Using M. Foucault

and P. BourdieuÄs theories concerning the production and control of

knowledge, he was able to present a critical view of the interdisci-

plinary aspect of gerontology, in a scientiüc manner, that is in an

orthodox way based on causality and positivism. In this perspective,Katz reaches the pessimistic conclusion that the gerontologistsÄstruggle to legitimize their üeld of study seems doomed to failure.

However, from the point of view of postmodernist theories, the dis-

ciplinary weakness, the tardy development and the lack of progress in

gerontology, far from leading to failure, can be considered as favor-able characteristics to disciplinary work, considered as a whole

which, in general and not only for gerontologists, can be conceived as

fragmented, contradictory and interdisciplinary.

Discursive theories used by gerontologists, according to Katz:ÃÃlegitimating power/knowledge relations, shaping a language, build-ing a disciplinary imperative, debating the positive and the negative

. . . / . . . (and) a deliberate intellectual agenda for multidisci-

plinarityÄÄ (Katz, 1996, 79–80), were unable to ünd the object that the

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most elementary epistemology requires of all disciplines because:ÃÃdisciplining old age is ultimately impossible, however productive

and expansive the attempts to do so have been over the last centuryÄÄ(Katz, 1996, 134). Recognizing this impossibility, the result is not

negative since itÄs precisely its failure that, paradoxically, allowedgerontology to reach a üeld of knowledge in constant evolution,

dynamic, expansive, because of the necessity to sustain a permanent

struggle against forces preventing the disciplinary development of

gerontology.

because the gerontological üeld has not yet jelled into a discipline, a

science, or a standard part of university curricula and because its sub-

jects are far too diverse to be studied in their entirety and live largely

unaþected by gerontological research, gerontology has created more

margin than cores, more questions than answers. In the terms with

which weÄve been discussing disciplinarity, gerontologyÄs failures are

also its potential successes (Katz, 1996, 110).

In this perspective, while assessing these opinions we cannot hide the

fact that Katz falls in the trap of his own speech: he talks about the

obstacles of gerontology which is trying to analyze an elusive object:aging, however, what can be said of his own problems as a researcher

who attempts to study gerontology? The reýexive method that he

insists gerontologists use, he has to accept it in his own reýection.

How can we consider his conclusions as more valid than those

brought by the inconstant gerontology, which by its own character-istics, refuses to make the object of research on itself.

Secondly, it seems that Katz insists too much on what, in fact, is

only a part of the story. Although we already know that the speciüc

position of gerontologists is disseminated within postmodernist theo-

ries according to Katz, it seems that the gerontologists have more tosay about gerontology while presenting it not as a discipline without

an object, but as a üeld of study in full expansion in the area of social

sciences. Moreover, they add that we must not doubt gerontologyÄsusefullness and that, eventhough it shows weaknesses, it can ünd a

way to correct them.In fact, what Katz does is to show the interdisciplinary aspect of

gerontology as an improvement of existing aspects in the three funda-

mental gerontologic specializations : biogerontology, psychogerontol-

ogy and social gerontology, designated inappropriately as sociology

of aging. Since the beginning of the century, it has been the medical,psychological , institutional and political preoccupations that have

fundamentally marked and shaped the way gerontology studies aging

and older adults. These characteristics are not foreign to the appear-

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ance of the negative-positive dualism which that is the sign of the

dichotomy that holds the structure of the gerontological speech.

Hence, we cannot conürm in a general way what gerontology says

or does before we ask ourselves what are the theoretical and method-

ological principles defended by each gerontologist. It is such that wehave the impression in certain instances that the unique point two

gerontologists from diþerent leanings share will be their marked pre-

occupation for aging eventhough this fundamental concept is under-

stood in a radically diþerent and contradictory way by the two

protagonists.While traditional gerontology defends a positivist scientiüc ortho-

doxy based on consideration of aging, the critical version of this dis-

cipline proposes a diþerent and active consideration of the elderly

whose action is part of a socio-political context that has to be taken

into account and in which older adults are able to develop a socialand individual potential. H. R. Moody (1988, 1993) identiües four

objectives regarding critical gerontology:

(1) to theorize subjective and interpretive dimensions of aging ; (2) to

focus not on technical advancement but on praxis, deüned as action of

involvement in practical change (such as public policy) ; (3) to link aca-

demics and practitioners through praxis ; (4) to produce Ãemancipatory

knowledgeÄ (Bengtson et al, 1997, 83).

Consequently, although very young, gerontology tries to pave its wayas a discipline, in spite of the fact that its object of study does not

allow itself to be comprehended. We cannot forget that, in its eþort,

gerontology does not have similar examples that could be used for

comparison. Except for geriatry, there is no other discipline that

claims to deal with the problems of an age group at a hundredpercent, as could be the case for children, teenagers or adults. This

particularity can be explained in part by the work performed preci-

sely by the founders in gerontology on the issue centered on aging

and the older population. It is obvious that all that is real cannot be

converted in an object of study from which a discipline can appear.We must construct this discipline.

The beginnings of gerontology ürst appeared in the medical üeld,

more speciücally in pathology and around illnesses related to or due

to aging. The ürst works of Jean-Marie Charcot or Elie Metchnikoþ

gave birth, at the beginning of this century, to geriatry and gerontol-ogy. The latter, contrary to the former, has been consolidated in a

multidisciplinary study (biological, psychological , social and

humanistic) of aging and of older adults, in order to have an eþect

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not only on the negative aspects, but also, although to a lesser

degree, on the positive aspects as well. For the purpose of this paper

on the education of older adults and on the debate regarding the

opportunity of educational gerontology, it is important to deepen our

understanding of the multidisciplinary aspect of gerontology :

the study of aging is a multidisciplinary enterprise. Each discipline

brings its own theoretical perspective and methods (Bond et al, 1990,

17).

MULTIDISCIPLINARITY OF GERONTOLOGY

S. Katz maintains that the defence for the multidisciplinarity of

gerontology has been the result of an intentional strategy:

this textual community created a deliberate intellectual agenda for

multidisciplinarity, an ideal reüned by gerontologists throughout the

twentieth century to distinguish their üeld (Katz, 1996, 80).

Maddox and Campbell go a little further :

If there is a dominant theme on social scientiüc studies of aging cur-

rently, it is renewed interest in multidisciplinarity and interdisciplin-

ary research (Maddox & Campbell, 1985, 8).

There is no doubt that, in order to understand all the diþerent pos-

sibilities of gerontology as a discipline, the study of its multidisci-

plinary character is essential. More so for us who, in a certain way,want to be preoccupied with the educational intervention during the

process of aging, intervention which is situated at ürst sight in the

sciences of education.

What constitutes multidisciplinarity in gerontology? According to

the conceptual theories of gerontology, multidisciplinarity consists ofa juxtaposition of the diþerent studies on aging and on older adults,

realized by diþerent disciplines, such as psychology, philosophy,

history, sociology, sciences of education, etc. :

La vision multidisciplinaire est ambigueÉ parce quÄelle favorise la divi-

sion de la reð aliteð en divers fragments (Dogan, 1994, 38) 1

1 The multidisciplinary perspective is ambiguous because it favors the division of

reality in various fragments.

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From this point of view, very simplistic according to us, gerontology

restricts its disciplinary potential as a result of becoming a meeting

place for a vast number of research done on aging by other disci-

plines. Having said this, how can we deüne educational gerontology?

It must be deüned as ÃÃpeð dagogie de la vieillesseÄÄ (pedagogy of aging)considered as a multidisciplinary study of teaching and learning of

older adults having as a characteristic that it is the sciences of educa-

tion not gerontology that supply the tools for investigation. Then, we

must wonder if it is gerontology or the sciences of education that is

most suitable for our scientiüc analysis. Both disciplines have acommon object, although hard to outline, but with a diþerent per-

spective.

Following these observations, it is easy to understand that our

position favors more an interdisciplinary approach to the problem,

because the multidisciplinary position, although interesting, appearsto be limited according to us. In fact, this impression is conürmed

when we observe the results obtained by those who defended an edu-

cational gerontology, that is, a multidisciplinary study starting from

the gerontology of education for older adults. We are not suggesting

neither the educational gerontology nor the pedagogy of aging ; butwe propose instead GERONTAGOGY as the best methodological

theory to the interdisciplinary approach.

What is the fundamental diþerence that this interdisciplinary

terms carries? Interdisciplinarity is more than a simple juxtaposition,

more than cooperation, more than the sum of discoveries. It implies aconfrontation, an exchange of methods and points of views.

La connaissance interdisciplinaire doit eü tre une logique de la deð cou-

verte, une ouverture reð ciproque, une communication entre les domaines

du savoir, une feð condation mutuelle, et non pas un formalisme qui neu-

tralise toutes les signiücations en fermant toutes les issues (Gusdorf,

1977, 643). 2

It is not a matter of proclaiming the superiority of some formulation

or other, but to put forward new propositions that suppose the

opening of new horizons and riches. In this perspective, it is not a

science that uses other sciences as auxiliaries, but a scientiüc disci-pline distinct from those that already exist. Because of inter-

disciplinarity, the dialogue between interested disciplines is based on

2 Interdisciplinary knowledge must be a logic of discovery, a reciprocal opening, a

communication between domains of knowledge, a mutual fertilization, and not a for-

malism which neutralizes all meanings by closing all outlets.

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a system of co-propriety ; disciplines share everything and therefore

go farther than any could go with its own means.

Now, what are the underlying realities to interdisciplinarity?

According to Mattei Dogan, it is not a matter of the combination of

complete disciplines, but rather specializations of the same nature.ÃÃLes innovations plus originales et fructueuse reð sultent de la com-

binaison de speð cialiteð s situeð es a la pointe de conýuence de diverses

disciplines, qui ne sont pas neð cessairement contigueÉs.ÄÄ (Dogan, 1994,

38). 3 In this perspective, the concept of interdisciplinarity is one of

trans-specialists, or even a hybrid of specializations : ÃÃle progresscientiüque sÄobtient surtout au moyen de lÄinteð gration des speð ciali-

teð s qui reð sultent de la fragmentation des disciplinesÄÄ (Dogan, 1994,

51). 4

In conclusion, we propose gerontagogy as a new hybrid science

resulting from the proliüc combination of educational gerontology—

multidisciplinary specialization in itself—and education of aging. We

maintain that the study of older adults in a situation of teaching/learning necessitates original and speciüc ideas. These ideas cannot

come solely and principally from gerontology. However, in the sci-

ences of education, we ünd a natural element from which we canpropose better theories and more appropriate practices for teaching/learning with, for and by older adults.

If, in gerontology, the interest is placed on the study of aging and

of the older adult, and in educational gerontology on the educational

aspects of aging, in gerontagogy, the interest is placed on the studyand of the educational practice not as part of the aging processes, but

ürstly, as part of teaching and of learning of people, distinct between

each other, in relation with a context and with a personal and social

life that they try to develop with the most quality and the most hap-

piness. To answer the question regarding which education, withwhich ünality, it is the ürst question that gerontagogy must ask. To

put forth the practice of the content of the answer is the second step.

THE ISSUE OF EDUCATION GERONTOLOGY ANDGERONTOLOGIC EDUCATION. D. PETERSON ANDF. GLENDENNING’S APPROACHES

Before considering the gerontological model of educational interven-

tion with the elderly, as we have proposed, we will brieýy review the

3 The most original and proütable innovations result from the combination of spe-

cialties at the point of conýuence of diverse disciplines, that are not necessarily contig-

uous.4 Scientiüc progress can be obtained mainly by integrating specialties which result

in the fragmentation of disciplines.

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theories of those who, from our point of view, are until now the most

valuable researchers in the defense of educational gerontology

viewed as a gerontological specialization.

The ürst of these theories was divulged by David A. Peterson in

the mid Ã70Äs in the following terms :

(Educational Gerontology) is the study and practice of instructional

endeavours for and about aged and aging individuals. It can be viewed

as having three distinct though related aspects: (1) educational endeav-

ours for persons who are middle-aged and over ; (2) educational endeav-

ours for a general or speciüc public about aging and older people ; and

(3) educational preparation of persons who are working or intend to be

employed in serving older people in professional to para-professional

capacities (Peterson, 1976, 62).

As we can see, Peterson deünes, using the same term, both education

of the third age and education for the public in general, for geri-

atrists, for gerontologists, for sociologists of aging or other pro-fessional intervenors for the elders. This way, he proposes as the

integrative principle of educational gerontology the education as it is

related to aging and not to the elderly in a teach/learn situation.

In 1980, Peterson was further clarifying his remarks :

(Educational Gerontology) is an attempt to expand and apply what is

known about aging and education in order to lengthen and improve the

life of older persons (Peterson, 1980, 68).

Here we already speak of the ends (purpose) of education that educa-

tional gerontology is defending even if we continue to insist on the

fact that these ends are met with an education intended not only forthe elderly but all members of society. However, Peterson insists on

the fact that educational gerontology sprang out of the junction

between social gerontology and adult education. How, we ask, can we

organize an educational action intended for the elderly, the pro-

fessionals who work with these people and the public in generalwhile using the knowledge oþered by adult education?

Would it be right to think that the realization of PetersonÄs propo-

sition would not require the inclusion of the sciences of education,

but only the part related to adults? Children, adolescents and the

young, do they not belong to society as well? On the other hand,could we not put on an equal footing the terms adult and elderly?

The aim of PetersonÄs project seems, although its good intention, pre-

judicial to its own realization. For example, if we would present the

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meaning of aging to a group of children, it would seem to be

pedagogy—understood as science and art of education intended for

children—which should deal with this theme in direct relation with

gerontology.

In the 1980Äs, Frank Glendenning (1985), the greatest europeanresearcher of educational gerontology, took up PetersonÄs ideas and

ampliüed the model mainly with the inclusion of the concept of self-

training as another way of organizing the educational intervention

for learning in old age, through a system of self-training or not.

However, he introduces a new term. Gerontological education in ref-erence to the teaching of any content of gerontology no matter to

which population it is intended for. Another characteristic we must

take into account is the separation he creates, acquired from Peter-

son, between the theory and the practice, and this as much for educa-

tional gerontology as for gerontological education.After reading GlendenningÄs outline, a question comes to mind:

Where do we situate the case of a group of elderly people who decide

to learn gerontology? Would it be under educational gerontology,

under gerontological education or a mixture of both? Once again the

compartmentalization, in the case of these concepts, creates ambi-guity. However, this point is not the most important one among the

conclusions drawn by this British researcher.

In 1990, in collaboration with D. Battersby, Glendenning proposed

the need to change oneÄs point of view as regards educational geron-

tology :

The paradigm need to be shifted so that we see educational gerontology

as a means of raising peopleÄs consciousness about the rights and eþec-

tive role of older people in society as well as being about quality of life

and self-fulülment (Glendenning & Battersby, 1990, 27).

In other words, these authors maintain the urgency of presenting an

educational gerontology that they will end un naming critical gero-

gogy. We will indicate in the following paragraphs the etymology andsemantic of the terms gerogogy, geragogy et geriagogy.

What can we learn from the theories Glendenning and Battersby

speak of ? Firstly, that the results obtained by educational gerontol-

ogy were slightly deviated because, according to the same authors,

we favored to discipline the elderly rather than their emancipatethem. Fundamentally, the problem is that educational gerontology

did not question the risks of the practice of education nor the appro-

priateness of the educational model to the goals set out, nor the

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novice consequences that could follow all educational interventions.

Is it possible to believe that it is exactly for these reasons that

Glendenning and Peterson decided to separate the theory from the

practice in education? Educational gerontology favoured theÃÃgerontologicalÄÄ—meaning that the learners be subjects of the thirdage—more so than the educational reýection. The educational reýec-

tion is a reýection on the practice and therefore requires an intrinsic

critical position, namely that all education is an interventionover

reality which, whether you like it or not, produces a change of this

same reality. If, the educational logic had not remained in theshadow, serving gerontological purposes, the question we now ask

would not have been left unanswered. Theory and practice, as geron-

tology claims, are inseparable as regards the educational task.

Which conclusion can be drawn from all this?

As was demonstrated above, an education dependant on geronto-logical theories lacking apprehension over their own object of study,

that does not call for indisciplinarity, as we have previously

explained, without methods, without a theoretico-practical model,

without an integrative principle, without order and without coher-

ence is but a dangerous practice.Moreover, educational intervention project without the critical

contribution of gerontology and of its speciücities concerning the

elderly in their personal and social situation would be an erroneous

practice.

Consequently, ýeeing all gerontologico-educationa l blendingimpossible to specify, we suggest a new way to tackle this problem,

what we propose to the new interdisciplinary science and hybrid is

namely gerontagogy. This one, contrary to educational gerontology,

arises not from gerontology but from the sciences of education,

however without remaining their own specialization.We will now analyze the characteristics of GERONTAGOGY as we

conceive them.

GERONTAGOGY AS A DISCIPLINARY SCIENCE INEDUCATION

A New Theoretical Model in Education

The Initial Training ModelThe ürst model rests on the paradigm of knowledge acquisition. It

is designed for ÃÃschool-aged studentsÄÄ. This basic education is

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intended to prepare young adults to eventually join the work force.

This initial training model orients distinct partners to collaborate

together so as to favor the insertion of the young person in the adult

society. It requires the cooperation of three partners who must join

their eþorts in order to reach this goal, namely : the Family, the Statein certain countries, the Church.

The order in which these intervenors have been named is not a

coincidence. The family has acquired the right to control the childÄseducation by a kind of secular prescription.

All school tradition must proclaim the ÃÃlÄeð cole nÄest que le pro-longement de la famille, lÄeð ducateur nÄest que le mandataire des

parentsÄÄ5 ÃÃLa famille . . . ne saurait donc sÄaccommoder dÄun reð gime

scolaire destineð tout simplement a reð pandre le plus dÄinstruction pos-

sible. II lui faut une eð cole qui donne a ses enfants a la fois

lÄinstruction et lÄeð ducation neð cessaires a leur vie integrale. La famillene peut toleð rer de niveler les esprits sous preð texte dÄeð galiteð ou de les

fondre dans un moule uniforme sous preð texte dÄuniteð nationale.

LÄeð cole associeð e a la famille, deð pendante dÄelle, deviendra donc lÄune

des grandes constantes du libeð ralisme historique qui seront a la base

de toute bonne inteð gration scolaireÄÄ (Lemieux, 1992, p. 19).6

In this philosophy of liberalism, the State in the initial training of

its youth must play only a subsidiary role. Governments must not

intervene in the school orientation. The administrations of the State

must be satisüed distributing the money for the maintenance and the

proper operation of the school system for the service of the Family. Itis certain that contrary to this liberal philosophy, a socialist philos-

ophy of education would advocate that the State get the upper hand

over the family as regards the goals of education in the country. In

this philosophical point of view, the State proposes the acquisition of

knowledge directed towards the development of a well trained citizencapable, through his work, to beneüt and improve the State. Here,

the family serves the State, while in the ürst perspective, the State

serves the family.

5 School is only the continuation of the family, the educator is only the parentsÄrepresentative.

6 Therefore the family . . . could not adapt to a school system destined simply to

propagate the most instruction possible. The family needs a school which grants both

instruction and education necessary for a full life. The family cannot tolerate to level

minds under the pretext of equality or to cast them in a uniform mold under the pretext

of national unity. School associated with the family, dependant upon it, will therefore

become one of the great constants of historical liberalism that will be at the foundation

of all proper school integration.

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These were the sociological characteristics of the theoretical

model of education of initial training qualiüed as pedagogy.

The Upgrading and Retraining Model in EducationThis model is based primarily on ÃÃtechnical and professional train-

ingÄÄ of a population already trained but who requires some speciüc

learning activities to meet the ever changing technical requirements

in the labour market. This model is found throughout an educationdescribed as being permanent, that is continuing throughout oneÄsprofessional life in hopes of being able to adapt continuously to the

new technologies present in the scientiüc world (Lemieux, 1992, p.

72).

While the ürst model was ÃÃsociologicalÄÄ, the second model isabove all a retraining model in education and is identiüed to andra-

gogy.

The Competential Model in EducationHowever, a third model is taking shape, namely continuing educa-

tion for the elderly. It is the approach said to be in education. The

individual enrolled in this model is already trained and retrained but

wishes to acquire a competence within certain courses in order toimprove his well-being physically, psychologically and socially. This

new approach is susceptible to expand with the senior adults of the

future, in view of the aging of the population.

This third model is centered on the concept of ÃÃself-actualizationÄÄby the reactualisation of knowledge in order to better manage hispersonal and social life. In this model, human life is considered as

possessing possibilities for psychological and educational develop-

ment, without age limitation. Moody (1978) goes as far as suggesting

their senior adults possess unique possibilities, where a research of

the meaning of life and of superior intuitions is being coordinated. Inthis metacognition, the elder would ünd himself like at the end of a

demonstration where we go round the question: he can draw many

conclusions on the meaning of real-life experiences and the under-

standing of real-life. In this metacognitive knowledge, education is

then conceived as what allows the attainment of the highest psycho-logical goal of the diþerent stages of life and as an invitation, not

only to be productive, but to be in all the richness of the term since

we have to be with the others.

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ETHICAL AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES INTHE COMPETENTIAL MODEL IN EDUCATION

LetÄs brieýy examine the ethical and epistemological principles in thecompetential model in education.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

The question asked in this model is to know why a person should

continue his studies and his educational development when his proüt-

ability in the society is nil or in the least, fairly diminished.

The two principles that must guide us in order to establish anethical value in our seniorÄs education, if we want to avoid the philo-

sophical utilitarism trap, is the principle of ünality and the principle

of openness.

Of course the human being, because of the principle of ünality, is

not eternal. He is bound to a ünality of existential time within whichlie a limited time for learning. However, man with his open-

mindedness towards meaning, transcends his ünality.

Thus, it is this principle of openness to meaning, limited to the

history of the individual, that constitutes a value in itself to base

ethically our seniorsÄ education.

EPISTEMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The ürst characteristic of the competential model in education

emphasizes the need for planned learning developed with the help of

a teacher. In this model, it is not a matter of individual learning nor a

matter of self-discovery, but it is about a learning process that oper-

ates within a student-teacher interaction.This educational approach includes four components :

1. A curriculum: a plan regarding what is to be learned.

2. A methodology : showing how learning will be done.

3. An objective : a pursued goal.4. A teacher : a person tying everything together using an action/

reaction approach with his students.

It is certain that this realization approach supposes an eþort to re-

equilibrate the acquired knowledge, throughout a lifetime, with thenewly learned realities. In this Piagetian model, this re-equilibration

will allow the student to adapt to the new realities in his life. In this

model, it is not a question of acquiring new knowledge but a question

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of reactualizing knowledge already acquired. In this perspective, the

competential model in education will not take on a ÃÃscientiücÄÄ color-

ation but will appear, instead, to take on a ÃÃsapientialÄÄ coloration. In

this sense, this model will be turned onto the acquisition of wisdom,

more so than onto the acquisition of science as mentioned previouslyin the two ürst models. This ÃÃcompetentialÄÄ model could be deüned

as a ÃÃreactualization of seniorsÄs knowledge in view of a better man-

agement of their personal and social lives.

EMERGENCE OF NEW CONCEPTS ANDTERMINOLOGY CONVEYED BY THE COMPETENTIALMODEL IN EDUCATION

It is important to explain the new concepts and terms stemming from

epistemological principles inherent to the competential model in edu-

cation. The best way is to deüne these new realities within the

general notion of education, and to situate them by analogy.

The General Educational Notion

Si lÄeð ducation a plus ou moins toujours existeð sous une forme ou une

autre, le vocable eð ducation nÄest apparu que tardivement dans lÄhistoire

de la civilisation. Albert DAUZAT (1938) signale que le mot eð ducation a

eð teð utiliseð pour la premiere fois vers 1327 dans le Miroir Historial de

Jean de VIGNAY. Son utilisation fut peu populaire puisque F.

BUISSON (1887) souligne que le littreð de son eð poque indique quÄ eð duca-

tion est un ÃÃmot nouveau, autrefois on disait nourritureÄÄ. BUISSON

poursuit: ÃÃ. . . les dictionnaires du XVIe

siecle traduisentfancÓ ais-latins

tous le mot latin educatio par nourriture, nourrissement, institution.

Mais des les premieres anneð es au XVIIe

siecle, on trouve dans les dic-

tionnaires (CANAL, NICOT, COTGRAVE) le mot eð ducation, soit seul,

soit surtout dans cette expression: eð ducative et nourriture. Cette

mention dans les dictionnaires publieð s tout au commencement du XVIIe

siecle prouve bien que le mot avait eð teð employeð a la ün du XVIe

siecle

par les eð crivains (. . .). La formation du mot eð tait du reste toute naturel-

le, puisque ce nÄest que la transcription du latin educatio.ÄÄ Ivan

ILLICH (1971) signale quÄ : ÃÃEn on parle pour la premiere foisfrancÓ ais,

de lÄeð ducation des enfants dans un manuscrit de 1498. En anglais, le

mot eð ducation appara�ü t pour la premiere fois en 1530. Il faut attendre

encore un siecle pour que lÄideð e dÄeð ducation se manifeste dan lÄempire

espagnol. Au XVIIe

siecle, Lope de VEGA parle de lÄeð ducation comme

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dÄune nouveauteð : LEGENDRE, R. (1993, 436).7

In its etymology, the word ÃÃeducationÄÄ comes from the Latin lan-

guage (ex. : outside of—ducere: conduct).

The Etymology suggests that to educate consists of making the child

come out of his primary state, or making what he virtually possesses

come out (to actualize). (Foulquieð , 1971).

This deünition suggests to Robert (1963) a descriptive deünition of

education as ÃÃun ensemble de moyens a lÄaide desquels on dirige le

deð veloppement, la formation dÄun eü tre humainÄÄ.8

This conception turns towards the presentation of education as

being the planning of directed means by a teacher in order to develop

a human being.

In this sense, Robert distances himself from the etymological deün-

ition of education in order to get closer to the deünition of peda-gogical learning described by Legendre (1988) as ÃÃun ensemble

dÄactiviteð s mis a la disposition du sujet par lÄagent, ou planiüeð par le

sujet lui-meü me, susceptible de deð clencher un processus interne chez le

sujet en vue de lÄatteinte dÄobjectifsÄÄ.9

From this viewpoint, the concept of education includes the conceptof learning and cannot be subjected to it. In fact, learning is an activ-

ity more speciücally linked to pedagogy, andragogy and gerontagogy.

7 If education has more or less always existed in one form or another, the term

education has not appeared until late in the history of civilization. Albert DAUZAT

(1938) indicates that the word education had ürst been used around 1327 in Jean de

VIGNAYÄs Miroir Historial. The use of the term education was not very popular since

F. BUISSON (1887) underlines that the scholar of his time indicates that education is aÃÃnew word, in the past one would say nourishmentÄÄ. BUISSON continues: ÃÃ. . . all

French-Latin dictionaries of the XVI century translate the latin word educatio by

nourishment, food, institution. But right from the beginning of the XVII century, we

ünd in the dictionaries (CANAL, NICOT, COTGRAVE) the word education, either

alone or mostly in this expression: educational and food. This mention in dictionnaries

published at the beginning of the XVII century proves that the word had been used by

writers at the end of the XVI century (. . .). The formation of the word was, moreover,

all natural, since this is but the transcription of the latin ÃÃeducatio.ÄÄ Ivan ILLICH

(1971) indicates that : ÃÃIn French, we spoke of children education for the ürst time in a

manuscript dated 1498. In English, the word education appears for the ürst time in

1530. We must wait for another century before the idea of education manifests itself

throughout the Spanish empire. In the XVII century, Lope de VEGA speaks of educa-

tion as of a novelty.8 A set of means with which we direct development of a human being.9 A set of activities put at the subjectÄs disposal by the agent, or planned by the

subject himself, susceptible to activate in the subject an internal process in view of the

attainment of objectives.

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According to Legendre (1993), learning is : ÃÃLa reð sultante dÄun che-

minement dÄeð volution chez un sujet et qui peut se traduire, entre

autres, par lÄacquistion de connaissances, le deð veloppement

dÄhabileteð s ou dÄun savoir-faire, lÄadoption de nouvelles attitudes, de

nouvelles valeurs, de nouvelles orientations cognitives, de nouveauxinteð reü ts, ou dÄun savoir-eü treÄÄ. 10

Cognitive learning consists of a curriculum, well-planned contents, a

methodology or steps to follow. Whereas, it becomes evident that the

essential condition for learning is the harmonization of the subject and

object components, agent and environment components of the peda-

gogical situation. (Legendre, 1993)

However, in order to be achieved, this harmonization depends on alot of factors such as : the subjectÄs environment, his motivation, his

prerequisites, his self-esteem, etc. One factor for successful learning

has however been forgotten, as not to say, ignored, that is : age.

Indeed, age is a determining factor for the success of learning in the

elderly.Moreover, Carreð (1985) was one of the ürst theorists to attract

other researchersÄ attention on seniorsÄ education by emphasizing

that this term as Legendre (1993) had maintained: ÃÃdeð signe a la fois

le systeme social, le produit, le concept, les ünaliteð s, les buts et les

objectifs, le processus de formation et dÄinformation ainsi quelÄensemble des savoirs speð ciüques a ce domaineÄÄ. 1 1 This reýection

was to become the ürst milestone to lead to the emergence of the

concept of gerontology as ÃÃun processus de formation et

dÄinformation ayant des ünaliteð s, des buts et des objectifs propresÄÄ,(Legendre, 1993). 1 2

GERAGOGY OR GERIAGOGY

The term ÃÃgeragogyÄÄ was used to describe the ÃÃeducation of and bythe elderlyÄÄ. This term conveyed in its deünition an education based

10 The outcome of the subjectÄs progress of evolution can be translated, among

other things, by the acquisition of knowledge, the development of abilities or of know-

how, the adoption of new attitudes, of new values, of new cognitive orientations, of

new interests, or of knowing how to be.1 1 Indicates both the social system, the product, the concept, ünalities, goals and

objectives, the learning and information process as well as the entirety of speciüc

knowledge in this domain.1 2 A training and information process having its own ünalities, goals and objec-

tives.

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on self-actualization, friendship, social relations, increase in well

being, talent development and, as a ünal analysis, continuous learn-

ing of the elderly (Hartford, 1978). Geragogy, if it had to exist, Hart-

ford wasnÄt certain, was the term we had to use in response to De

CrowÄs position (1974) who claimed that a new science of geragogywasnÄt necessary.

The term geragogy was going to impose itself and a chart of con-

ceptual propositions, which this term had to include, was to allow a

better deünition of HartfordÄs intuitions. (John Tyler M., 1983) Subse-

quently, even with meticulous precautions, the term geragogy con-ceptually evolves when we limit it to the instruction of the elderly.

(John Tyler M., 1988).

The terms geragogy and geriagogy have the same etymological

deünition, that is ÃÃgerosÄÄ elderly, ÃÃagogiaÄÄ behaviour, and have a

medical consonance, because they have the same root as the termÃÃgeriatricsÄÄ.

It is then legitimate to claim that geragogy deals with the learning

of the elderly presenting deücits which fall within geriatrics. From

this viewpoint, geriatrics appears as being the theoretical base of

geragogy.It is evident that we cannot use the term geragogy in order to desc-

ribe learning of the elderly who do not have deücits falling within

geriatrics (Legendre, 1988).

GERONTAGOGY

Therefore, in order to describe this reality, we must use another term

enclosing another concept besides geragogy, and the term is geronta-

gogy.This term was used by Lessa (1978) and by Bolton (1978) to deüne

applied science whose object is the educational intervention of the

elderly and which stands at the frontier between education and

gerontology (Bromley, 1970).

Gerontology, in order to exist, must rest on the speciücity of theuse of age as a criteria of diþerentiation in relation with situations of

adult education in general (Carreð , 1981).

Thus, as educational gerontology signiües that the elderly learns

in a diþerent way than do younger adults, we must then ünd methods

that correspond to the learning of the senior learner. The whole ofthese new methods, techniques, etc., regrouped in a new corpus of

knowledge, will give birth to the emergence of this science named

gerontagogy (Legendre, 1993).

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In the following pages, we establish the polysemous parameters for

the determination of essential contents in a programming structure

easily feasible within any university interested, however little, in

wanting to receive within its walls a new population susceptible in

having an impact on the development of adult education, in its thirdage.

TYPES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRAMS INGERONTAGOGY

Types of Gerontagogy Programs

Deans in the faculties of education must be convinced about it, therewill be an enormous development in the near future for the satisfac-

tion of educational needs concerning the elderly. Moreover, the privi-

leged speakers, that the governments have chosen to act in this üeld,

without a doubt, are, written in black and white, in all the recommen-

dations throughout the diþerent government levels, the Educationfaculties. They cannot elude this imperative according to the vice-

president of resources at the Universiteð du Queð bec in Hull who

claims : ÃÃ(. . .) que la mise en place dÄune telle coopeð ration est reð a-

liste. Tout ce quÄil faut, cÄest un peu dÄimagination et dÄouverture

dÄesprit.ÄÄ (Laforte, 1991, p. 206). 13

Programs to Be Developed in a Gerontagogical Model

Two types of programs must be developed according to the clientele

to whom they are intended in the Education faculties.

Programs Destined for the ElderlyThis multidisciplinary program derives essentially from the

science of education. In fact, even if we ünd elements of an education-

al, cultural and social nature in the programming, the integrationprinciple or the coordination of all the chosen courses, is the training

and the education of the elderly in the acquisition of Wisdom for a

better management of his personal and social life. From this view-

point, the educational aspect of the programming will highlight the

13 That the implementation of such a cooperation is realist. All that is needed is a

little imagination and an open mind.

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conscience that the elderly has of his mental functions, of his cre-

ativity, of his emotions and of his motivations (Lemieux, 1992). This

characteristic is deüned as the ÃÃmetacognitionÄÄ, which is the possi-

bility of a person to be able to reýect on the mechanism of his own

reýection. No one can contest that this epistemological element in aprogram destined for the elderly derives from the competence of pro-

fessors in the education faculties.

Program Destined for the Teachers of the ElderlyIn the perspective of the characteristics of the programs destined

for the elderly, the education faculties must develop programs des-

tined for beginners or for practicing professionals who wish to perfect

their knowledge in the üeld of aging. We then need to develop, not a

gerontological knowledge, but a gerontagogical knowledge of aging

(Lemieux, 1992). The gerontagogical knowledge will develop educa-tional models susceptible in developing a reýexive knowledge in the

elderly of the phenomena studied and not an accumulation of pure

and simple knowledge. It is along these lines that the educational

faculties will have to train their future teachers in order for them to

understand that only the intervention of a good teacher, followingthe example of Socrate, is capable of arising WISDOM in the elderly.

The educational faculties have developed two educational models:

pedagogy and andragogy (Lemieux, 1992). Pedagogy is based on the

paradigm of acquisition of knowledge and is intended for students in

Teacher’s College. Andragogy, on the other hand, is intended forpeople already in the job market who require improvement and edu-

cational recycling. Pedagogy is a sociological model that claims that

everyone must acquire basic knowledge in order to teach in schools,

we call this ÃÃinitial trainingÄÄ. The second model of andragogy would

be, ürst and foremost, economical. ItÄs goal is to allow the practisingteacher to continually adapt to the new didactic methods that he

faces throughout his professional career.

However, a third model established itself in the education faculties

of the United States. It is the competential approach, within which

lies gerontagogy (Legendre, 1993). In this model, it is not a matter ofinitial training or of refresher training, but rather of metacognition

(Lemieux, 1992). In this approach, the ürst two models derive from

Sciences, but the last model turns towards the acquisition of Wisdom.

Wisdom, a notion that the University had transformed to Sciences in

their Theology and Philosophy faculties, ünally ünds its true identityin action, in the Education faculties. Theory and practice rediscover

the unity they had lost during the development of exact sciences at

the beginning of the Renaissance period.

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CONCLUSION

The Wonder : Fruit of The Sapiential Knowledge

To conclude, we would hope that this article on Gerontagogy can

result in the elaboration of Gerontagogy programming in the uni-

versities in order to actualize the elderly allowing him to ünd a sapi-

ential sense in his life. In fact, to give a sense to something is of theutmost importance. In order to blossom, we must live in a meaningful

environment, an environment that conveys a meaning. We marvel at

our ability to discover from a very early age, this ability to wonder is

directly linked to our ability to be surprised, astonished in the face of

reality.On this note, I would like to tell you an anecdote that we lived,

while on a trip to Walt Disney World in Florida, with my spouse and

three year old daughter. It is easy for you to imagine that this trip we

were undertaking would not have been our ürst choice if our child

would not have been there. Harassed by a heavy workload, having anumber of hours of accumulated fatigue to recuperate from, we would

rather have escaped to a beach in Florida instead of going to an

amusement park ülled with crowds. But the reality of our paternity

and the strong desire to please our daughter made us opt for a place

we would have ordinarily avoided. Is this the phenomenon we calllove? Hard to say. All we know is that we would have had the worst

vacation if we would have left without the ingredient that became

extremely useful, that is : wonder. In fact, my daughter was always in

wonder, marveling at each of the discoveries before her eyes.

At the end of the day, when all was calm in the hotel room, wecould not help but note the similarity of this wonder of discovery in a

young child with the wonder of a scientiüc discovery. Indeed, these

two movements start from the same point, namely the alertness, the

receptiveness of mind. However, knowledge implies that a personis

under the obligation to question what is known, to accept to be onthe alert, to be progressive :

Conna�ü tre ! Tout est la ! La vie est faite pour savoir . . . Oui, la science

est cause de joie, lÄune des causes de la joie de lÄhomme. Et cÄest pour-

quoi il y aura toujours des savants, tant quÄil y aura des hommes cap-

ables de penser. Certes, les Acadeð mies ont raison dÄinstituer des prix, de

promettre des reð compenses, pour encourager les chercheurs. Mais quel

prix peut se comparer a la joie de la deð couverte? Et quelle reð compense

ne para�ü trait miseð rable a coü teð de celle que la Veð riteð elle-meü me deð cerne

au chercheur qui lÄa deð voileð e? CÄest moi qui serait ta reð compense, et

elle sera trop grande pour ton pauvre coeur, dit la Sagesse divine ! Ego

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ero merces tua magua nimis. La joie de cona�ü tre appara�ü t parfois tel-

lement accablante, que lÄon a peur dÄen mourir, comme la vision meü me

de Dieu. Des poetes, . . . ont dit la joie dÄaimer; brievement et simple-

ment, jÄai voulu dire la joie de conna�ü tre. (Termier, P., 1953, p. 431) 14

We hope that the university professors can give this joy of knowingto the elderly throughout a curriculum programming in gerontagogy

CENTERED on the knowledge of WISDOM.

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Bengtson, V. L. (1997). Theory, explanation, and a third generation of theoretical

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S88. p. 83.

Bolton, C. R. (1978). Alternative instructional strategies for older learners. Introduction

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Bond, J., Biggs, R., & Coleman, P. (1990). The study of Aging. In J. Bond & P. Coleman

(Eds.), Aging in Society: An introduction to social gerontology. London: Sage.

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club). M.G.E.N. Forma X, Nos. 11–12, 5–13.

Bromley, D. (1970). Age and adult education, studies. Adult Education, 2, 124–138.

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relatives la population vieillissante. (Report of the Committee of Professionala

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lÄeð ducation, janvier.

Carette, J. (1987). facteur de formation d’agents au service de laL’eð ducation collectiviteð .(Education: Factor for the Formation Agents in collectivity). Coll. Les cahiers de

lÄAgence, no 2, Montreð al : Agence dÄArc, avril.

Carreð , P. (1981). Retraite et Formation: Des duuniversiteð s troisieme aü ge a l’eð ducation

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education). Toulouse: Eð ditions Eres.

Carreð , P. (1985). des adultes et (Adult Education andEŠ ducation geð rontologie

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14 Knowing ! It is everything! Life exists for the quest of knowledge . . . Yes, science

is the cause of joy, one of the causes of manÄs joy. This is why there will always be

scholars as long as there will be men capable of thinking. Of course, Academies have

good reasons to institute awards, to promise rewards, to encourage researchers. But

which award can be compared to the joy of discovery? And which reward would not

seem miserable beside the one that Truth, itself, awards the researcher that unveiled

it? It is me who will be your reward, and it will be too big for your poor heart, says the

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GERONTAGOGY BEYOND WORDS: A REALITY