April2010TheExpulsionsofEthnicGermansfromEastCentralEurope

attheEndofWorldWarIIGaryB.Cohen

DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofMinnesota WethinkofWorldWarIIasaperiodinworldhistoryofenormousdestructionandgreatlossofhumanlife,surelythemostdestructiveepisodeinthelastthreecenturies.Lossesofhumanlifeonthisscalecanonlybeestimated,andcurrentestimatesofthelossesoflives,whethermilitaryorcivilian,duetoviolentattacks,genocide,disease,orstarvationcauseddirectlybythewar,rantobetween62and78millionpeopleinalltheatersofthewar.Civiliandeathsrantoanumberbetween40and52million.TheSovietUnion,itisestimated,lostperhaps25or26millionpeople;thosenumbersarestilluncertain.TheexpandedGermanyoftheThirdReichhad84millioninhabitantsasof1939;itlostbetween6.7millionand8.5million. YetthehumansufferinginEuropedidnotstopwiththeformalendofhostilitiesinthewarin1945.Deathscontinuedforseveralyearsafterthewarbecauseofstarvationanddiseaseinbombedoutcitiesandamongthemillionsofrefugees,andaboveallbecauseoftheforcedmigrationofmassesofpeopleafterthefightingstopped.Thelargestnumberofthoseforcedmigrants,expellees,infact,wereethnicGermanswhowereforcedoutoftheirhomecommunitiesinmanypartsofEastCentralandEasternEuropeastheyfledfromtheadvancingSovietmilitaryforcesorweredeliberatelyexpelledbytheSovietauthoritiesandthenewcommunistledgovernmentsinEastCentralEurope.ThatmovementofethnicGermansincludedbetween12and14millionpeople,probablythelargestsingleforcedmigrationinmodernhistory.Countingdeathsduetostarvationanddiseaseaswellasmobattacksandmassacres,thecasualtiesamongtheGermanexpelleesrantobetween500,000and600,000people,asassertedinrecentdiscussionsalthoughsomepartisanobservershaveclaimedthatmorethantwomillionmayhavedied. ThismassiveexpulsionandsufferingofethnicGermanswhowereforcedtoleavetheirhomecommunitiesoflongstandinginEastCentralEuropeiswellknowninEuropeandcertainlyinGermany,wheremanyoftheexpelleescametosettleandwheretheir

2representativesbecameanimportantpartofthepoliticalsceneintheFederalRepublicofGermanyafter194647;butitisoftenoverlookedinNorthAmerica.IntheaftermathofthewarAmericandiscoursesimplyincludedtheethnicGermanexpelleesamongthemillionsofrefugeesordisplacedpersons. WherehadtheseethnicGermanslivedinEastCentralandEasternEurope,andhowhadtheygottenthere?Alookatamapshowsmanyoldsettlements,widelydispersedfromtheBalticcoastlineandwesternPolandtotheborderareasoftheCzechlandsandSlovakiatoSlovenia,Transylvania,southwesternRomania(Banat),northwesternUkraine(Volhynia),otherpartsofUkraine,andeventhelowerVolgabasin.Ihastentoaddthatuntiltheriseofmodernpoliticalnationalismattheendofthenineteenthcenturyandthenoftheradicalracistnationalismthatfollowed,thesepopulationswerebestunderstoodaslocalGermanspeakinginhabitantswithstronglocalandregionalidentitiesthatwereconnectedtowheretheylived.TheseGermanspeakingelementstypicallyengagedinmuchintermarriagewithmembersofotherlinguisticgroupsinthosesamelocalitiesovercenturiesandincludedmanywhosimplyadoptedGermanastheirprincipallanguageforoneoranotherreasonovertime.Inthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,manyofthoseGermanspeakersinEastCentralEurope,iftheywereatleastsemieducated,hadsomesenseofbelongingtoalargerGermanspeakingculturalgroupinEurope,buttheyhadnorealconsciousnessofbelongingtoadistinctGermannationassuch,definedinexclusivetermsasadistinctdescentgrouporbiologicalraceandbydirecttiestoatruehomelandinGermany.TheseGermanspeakersofEastCentralandEasternEuropeweremoreattachedtotheplaceswheretheyandtheirforbearshadlivedforcenturiesasBohemianGermans,BalticGermans,socalledSwabianGermansinHungaryandBanat,theTransylvanianSaxonGermans,ortheVolgaGermans,etc.Theywereverymuchpartofthelocalandregionaleconomic,social,legal,andpoliticallandscapesintheselands.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,mostoftheseGermansofEastCentralEuropecertainlydidnothaveloyaltiestoGermanyastheirhomelandatleastnotuntilnewkindsofmodernnationalismbegantoreachthemintheearlytwentiethcentury. AmongtheoldestofthosesettlementswerethoseinthecitiesandtownsofTransylvania,todaycentralandnorthernRomania.GermanspeakershadcomeassettlerstherefromvariouspartsofwhatisnowGermanyattheinvitationoftheruler,akingofHungary,beginninginthetwelfthcentury,tohelpsettleanddefendthethensoutheasternbordersoftheKingdomofHungary.Theydevelopedovercenturiesastradersandcraftsmeninthetownsorassturdyindependentfarmers,protectedinlawbyspecial

3privileges,includingaftertheReformationthepracticeoftheProtestantreligion.TheGermanspeakingpopulationofBanatandlittlepocketsincentralHungaryorpartsofeasternCroatia,thesocalledDanubeandBanatSwabians,camelaterintheeighteenthcentury,recruitedassettlersbytheHabsburgauthorities;andtheywereinthemajorityCatholic.In1910Transylvaniabyitselfhadsome234,000Germanspeakers;in1930allofRomaniahadsome745,000Germanspeakers.ThankstotheupheavalsandexpulsionsattheendofWorldWarII,thebeginningsofpostwarvoluntarymigrations,andtheassimilationofGermanspeakerstotheRomanianpopulation,therewereonly385,000GermanspeakersinRomaniaby1956.Fromthe1960sthroughthe1980sNicolaeCeausescusgovernmentwashappytohavethoseGermanspeakersemigrate,andmostdepartedtoWestGermany,leavingonlysome60,000by2002. TheGermanspeakingpopulationsofVolhynia(inwhatistodaynorthwesternUkraine)andtheGermanpopulationintheVolgabasindevelopedmuchlater.Beginninginthelateeighteenthcentury,theTsaristRussiangovernmentdeliberatelyrecruitedpeasantfarmersfromtheGermanstatestosettlewhatwasthenstillthinlypopulatedTsaristterritoryandtodevelopthelocalagriculture.TheGermanspeakingpopulationinVolhyniagrewthroughthelatenineteenthcentury,numberingaround200,000in1900.AseconomicandpoliticalconditionsdeclinedinRussiaafter1890,significantnumbersbegantoemigrate,sothattheVolhynianGermanswerealreadydecliningwellbeforeHitlerandStalinintervenedintheirhistory.By1900,theVolgaGermansalsonumberedinthehundredsofthousands. TheGermanspeakingpopulationsthatonefoundonthefringesoftheCzechlandsofBohemiaandMoravia,inwhatisnowSlovenia,inwhatisnowwesternPoland,andintheBalticlandsrepresentedtheproductofadifferentseriesofdevelopments,arisingoutofthenaturalmeetingandmixingofGermanspeaking,Czech,Slovene,orPolishspeaking,andBalticpopulationsfromthemiddleagesonward.Hereindividualsandgroupsmovedbackandforthovercenturies,intermarried,orsimplyadoptedneighborslanguages,asseemedconvenient.ThosewhoeventuallyembracedmodernnationalisminthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyortheearlytwentiethconsideredtheGermanspeakinginhabitantsassimplyGermans,andtheytypicallyassumedlineardescentofthesepeoplefromsomeputativeoriginalGermanstock,whetherthatwastrueornot.ForsomeoftheseGermannationalists,theconceptoflineardescentofethnicGermansmeantanotionofracialpurity.ThosewhoassumedlineardescentfromsomeoriginalGermanstock,ofcourse,hadtoignorecenturiesofintermarriage,myriadindividualchoicesaboutwhat

4language(s)onemightprefertospeak,andthepresenceofmanyobviouslynonGermanlastnamesamongcontemporaryGermanspeakingpopulations. WhentheoldempiresofCentralandEasternEuropebrokeupattheendofWorldWarIandnewnationstatesorsmallerfederationslikeCzechoslovakiaandYugoslaviareplacedthem,borderscouldnotpossiblybedrawnneatlyandcleanlyonlinguisticornationaldividinglines.Inmanyregions,therewassimplynoclearborderbetweentheterritorieswheredifferentlanguageswerepredominant,butratherthefadingofonedialectintoanotherormuchbilingualismorcomplexpatternsofmultilingualism.Infact,legislatorsandcensustakersinthenewPolishRepublicsoonfounditconvenienttoacceptthedesignationoflocals(orpeoplefromhereabouts,tutejszi)fortheinhabitantsineasternregionswhospokelocaldialectsandhadnowelldefinedPolishorBelorussiannationalidentity.CountingthemaslocalsinthecensuswassurelypreferableforthePolishgovernmenttoputtingthemintheBelorussiancategory. WoodrowWilson,asWorldWarIapproacheditsend,promisednewgovernmentsandnewbordersinCentralandEasternEuropebasedonthefreenationalselfdeterminationofpeoples,buttheactualarrangementsafter1918seldommetthatstandard.Inmanycasesafter1918,theParisPeaceconferencesimplyapprovedbordersthatcorrespondedtooldhistoricdemarcations,suchasthoseforthewesternhalfofCzechoslovakia,orsimplyrewardedthoseinterestswhocameoutofthewaronthewinningsideattheexpenseoflosersinthewar,suchasGermanyandHungary.Plebisciteswereeventuallyheldafter1918forafewsmallterritoriesthatweresubjecttothemostheateddisputes,liketheSaarlandorUpperSilesia;butotherwisetheParispeaceconferencegenerallydecidedthenewbordersovertheheadsofthepeoples.TheSovietPolishborderwasnotsettleduntiltheTreatyofRigaof1921endedabloodywar.ThatsettlementprovedmostfavorabletoPolishinterestsandmadeforaPolishstatewithalargeUkrainianminority,inadditiontomillionsofGermanspeakersandJews.Asaresult,thenewPolandwasonlyabout70percentPolishspeakingCatholics.ThroughoutEastCentralEuropebetween1920and1938,oneinfivepeoplefoundthattheybelongedtoalinguisticgroupornationalitythatwasaminoritypopulationwithinthestatesinwhichtheynowlived. MostofthenewstatesofCentralandEastCentralEuropeafter1918wereavowedlynationstatesincontrasttothemultinationalstatesofthepre1918era.LinguisticornationalheterogeneityhadobviouslycreatedgrowingproblemsfortheoldempiresofcentralandeasternEuropeduringthelatenineteenthcentury,buttheHabsburg,Tsarist,

5andOttomanstateshadgenerallypresentedthemselvesasmultinationalentities,promisingtorespecttheculturalrightsofalltheirpeoples,evenifsomegroupsweremoreequalthanothers.Thenewavowedlynationalstatesoftheinterwarperioddeclaredthemselvesopenlyasthestatesofoneoranotherpeople.AspartoftheParispeacesettlement,theWesternPowersdemandedadherencetoguaranteesofminorityrightsinthesocalledminoritytreatiesbythesmallerCentralandEastCentralEuropeanstates,butmanyofthegovernmentsandnationalistpoliticiansthereresentedthisinterferenceintheirinternalaffairsandpursuednationalistagendasagainstsomeoftheirminoritiesduringthenexttwentyyears.Jewswerevictimsofthosepoliciesinseveralofthesestates;Hungarianminoritiesinthestatessurroundingthenew,muchsmallerHungary;andUkrainiansinsoutheasternPoland.GermanswhohadbeenthepeopleofstateinImperialGermanyandaprivilegedgroupinImperialAustriafoundthemselvestobepoliticallyvulnerablyminoritiesinthenewPolishRepublic,Czechoslovakia,Yugoslavia,andRomania.NexttononeofthesignificantminoritypopulationsinCentralandEastCentralEuropebetweenthewars,however,weresubjecttoforcedmassmigration. Therewerealreadyprecedents,however,forestablishedgovernmentsinEuropetousetheirsovereignauthoritytomovemasspopulationsfromtheirhomessummarilyandwithbarbaricforcefortheclaimedinterestsofstate.DuringWorldWarI,theTsaristRussianmilitaryauthoritiesforcedtensofthousandsofJewsinthecentralandsouthernPolishterritoriestomove,fearingthattheymightprovedisloyaltoRussianinterests.ImperialGermanydevelopedplansduringthelatterpartofthewartoremovePolesandJewsenmassefromaprojectedPolishborderstrip.IfoneincludesAnatolianTurkeyinthisdiscussion,theTurkishgovernmentputhundredsofthousandsofArmeniansonlethalforcedmarchesduringtheFirstWorldWarinearly1915.Inthemeantime,theTurkishgovernmentin1913hadalreadynegotiatedwiththeGreekgovernmentforasocalledvoluntaryexchangeofGreekandTurkishminoritiesfromtheirrespectiveterritories,buttheoutbreakofWorldWarIdelayedindefinitelyanyactiontocarrythisout. AfterthewarGreekforcesinvadedwesternAnatoliaaroundIzmir(Smyrna)in1919.Turkishforcesstruckbackin1921,andmorethan200,000GreekswereforcedtofleefromtheIzmirarea.TheTreatyofLausannesignedinJuly1923,whichendedtheGreekTurkishhostilities,providedforthemandatoryexchangeofGreekandTurkishminoritypopulationsbetweenthetwocountries.Turkeyexpelledbetween1.2millionand1.5millionethnicGreeksfromitsterritory,leavingonlyasmallremnant;andGreeceexpelledsome356,000Turks.Thousandsdiedintheprocess,althoughlaterattheendoftheWorld

6WarII,Allieddiplomaticexpertstoldleadingpolicymakersthatthiswasacaseofasmoothandsuccessfulinternationalsolutionoflongstandingminorityproblemsthatcouldbetakenasamodel. WorldWarIIwasastrugglenotonlyforempire,territory,andinternationaldominationbutalsobetweencompetingpoliticalandsocialsystems.Fromanearlystageinthewar,governmentsassertedtherighttoforcetheremovalofpopulationsasamatteroffundamentalpoliticalandmilitaryinterest,takingitasaxiomaticthatcertainminorityethnicornationalgroupsbytheirveryexistencethreatenedtheirstatesnationalsecurityandthatgreaterethnicornationalhomogeneitystrengthenedipsofactothenationalsecurity.ThiswastruenotonlyofNaziGermanyandFascistItalybutalsoofStalinsSovietUnion.NaziGermanytargetedJews,Roma,andPoles,butin193940italsoagreedwiththeSovietstomovetheGermanminorityofVolhyniaaswellasthoseoftheBalticandBessarabia(Moldova)intooccupiedwesternPoland.ThealliancebetweenNaziGermanyandFascistItalyalsoledtheNazigovernmentin1939toagreetogivetheGermanspeakingpopulationoftheSouthTirolasimplechoice,eithertoemigrateintoAustriaorGermanyproperortoremaininItalyasItaliansbothinlawandultimatelyinlanguageandculture.GermanysalliancewithItalyalsoresultedintheNaziauthoritiesforcingtherelocationbetweenDecember1941andJanuary1942of12,000GottscheeGermansfromtheirhomecommunitiesfromsoutherntoeasternSlovenia. TheSovietgovernmentalsotookactiontorelocatewholepopulationsfromearlyinWorldWarII.AfterGermanforcesinvadedtheSovietUnioninsummer1941,theSovietgovernmentforcedtheresettlementofaround400,000VolgaGermansandaround80,000ethnicGermansfromaroundLeningradtoSiberia,Kyrgyzstan,andKazakhstan.Laterin1944,theSovietgovernmentexactedcollectivepunishmentontheCrimeanTatarsforcollaborationwiththeNaziforcesbyexpellingallofthemtoUzbekistanandotherremoteareas;nearlyhalfoftheseveralhundredthousandinvolvedeventuallydied.TheKalmykshadalreadyexperiencedasimilarcollectivepunishmentin1943,whentheSovietgovernmentexpelledthemfromtheirhometerritorynorthwestoftheCaspianSeabetweentheDonandVolgaRivers. AfterNaziGermanyinvadedPolandandthendevelopeditsplanstoinvadetheSovietUnion,Nazipolicymakersenvisionedaradicalsocial,economic,andpoliticaltransformationinPoland,theBaltic,andthewesternpartsoftheSovietUnion.ThiswouldbenewlivingspaceforethnicGermans,andGeneralplanOstasitevolvedwouldinvolve

7eventuallyrelocatingforciblymorethanfiftymillionofthenativeinhabitants,reducingmanyofthemtolittlebetterthanslavesandexpectinglargeportionseventuallytodie.TheNazisbarbarictreatmentnotonlyofJewsandRomabutofPolishCatholicsandRussiansdemonstratedvividlytobothfriendsandfoeswhattheNazishadinmindforthefutureinPoland,theBaltic,andwesternRussia. OneshouldnotbeatallsurprisedthenthatalreadyduringWorldWarII,leadershipelementsoftheEastCentralEuropeanpeoples,bothathomeandinexile,aswellassomepolicymakersamongtheAlliedpowers,begantothinkaboutresolvingtheproblemsofethnicGermanminoritiesintheirlandsafterthewarbyexpellingatleastthoseGermanpopulationswhohadcollaboratedwithandbenefittedfromtheNazis,ifnotallofthem.Partofthis,bothatthepoliticalandpopularlevels,representedaspiritofsimplerevengeagainstthoseGermanminoritiesbasedonnotionsofcollectiveguiltforNaziatrocities,butonehastoconsideraswellthenotionwhichonefoundincreasinglyamonggovernmentleadersbythispointinthebloodytwentiethcenturythattheultimatesolutiontolongrunningethnicandnationalconflictswasseparationofthegroupsor,wherenecessary,forciblerelocationofminoritypopulations. AttheTehranConferenceinlateNovember1943,Churchill,Roosevelt,andStalinagreedthatsometerritorieswhichlayinsidetheeasternborderofPolandin1939wouldremaininSoviethandsafterthewar,whilePolandwouldbecompensatedbydrawinganewborderwithGermanyalongtheOderandNeisserivers,about100mileswestoftheprewarPolishGermanborder.ThatagreementpresumedsomeshiftingofPolish,Ukrainian,andethnicGermanpopulationstoconformtothenewPolishborders.By1944forcedmovementofminoritypopulationsinEasternEuropebecameamoreorlessestablishedprincipleamongtheAlliedcountriesintheirthinkingaboutpostwararrangements.ThiswouldaffectmillionsofethnicGermans,Poles,Ukrainians,andperhapsHungariansaswell.In1944WinstonChurchillexplainedthistotheBritishHouseofCommonsinthefollowingterms: Expulsionisthemethodwhich,insofaraswehavebeenabletosee,willbethemostsatisfactoryandlasting.Therewillbenomixtureofpopulationstocauseendlesstrouble...Acleansweepwillbemade,Iamnotalarmedbytheprospectofdisentanglementofpopulations,notevenoftheselargetransferences,whicharemorepossibleinmodernconditionsthantheyhaveeverbeenbefore.

8 AstheSovietarmiespushedtheGermanforcesbackonthelongeasternfrontin1944andearly1945,ethnicGermanpopulations,significantnumbersofLithuaniansandotherBalts,andseveralmillionPolesfledbeforetheSovietforcesorweredrivenoutbytheSovietmilitaryandlocalcommunistpartisans.AllofthiswaswellunderwaybeforetheYaltaandPotsdamsummitmeetings.InSeptember1944,thecommunistledPolishCommitteeofNationalLiberationinLublinsignedaformalagreementwiththeSoviets(representedbyNikitaKhrushchev)recognizingthatpopulationexchangeswouldquicklytakeplaceofPolesandUkrainianswhofoundthemselvesonthewrongsideofthenewPolishSovietborder.Thissoonaffectedsome2.1millionPoleswhohadtobesettledinPolishterritory.ThePolishandSovietcommunistauthoritieswhotookcontrolinPolandastheNaziforcesretreatedbeganquicklytosettlethosePolishrefugeesinwhattheycalledrecoveredterritoriesinPomerania,Silesia,andWestPrussia,fromwhichethnicGermansfledorwereforciblyremoved.CommunistsledbyWladyslawGomulkainthenewPolishgovernmentwerehappytotakecreditforsettlingthoserecoveredterritories.Eventually,thePolishauthorities,assistedbytheSovietmilitary,expelledsome7millionGermansfromtheRecoveredTerritoriesalongPolandsnewwesternbordersandanother700,000fromvariouspartsofpre1939Poland.Totheseweshouldaddanother1.4millionGermanswhomtheSovietsexpelledfromEastPrussia,partofwhichtheUSSRannexedandwhichremainspartoftheRussianFederationtoday. BythetimethePotsdamsummitconferencetookplaceinlateJuly1945,theflightandexpulsionsofmillionsofGermans,aswellasPoles,Ukrainians,Balts,andothers,werewellunderway.ArticleXIIofthePotsdamAgreementgaveaformalratificationtotheforcibletransferofethnicGermansfromPoland,Czechoslovakia,andHungary: TheThreeGovernments,havingconsideredthequestioninallitsaspects,recognizethatthetransfertoGermanyofGermanpopulations,orelementsthereof,remaininginPoland,CzechoslovakiaandHungary,willhavetobeundertaken.Theyagreethatanytransfersthattakeplaceshouldbeeffectedinanorderlyandhumanemanner.Thislegalcoverwasimportantforsettlingthepostwarsituation,particularlyforthenewpostwargovernmentsinEastCentralEuropethatwantedtolegitimizewhattheyfoundpoliticallyexpedientandwerealreadycarryingoutinbrutalfashion.Instructive,however,isthecaseofCzechoslovakia,whosegovernmentinexile,ledbyEdvardBene,hadalreadydecidedduringthewarthatthelongrunningCzechGermanconflictinitssocietyshould

9besettledbyexpellingmostoreventuallytheentireGermanminorityattheendofthewar.VerysoonaftertheAlliedforcesliberatedthecountryandacoalitionCzechoslovakgovernmenttookcontrolinspring1945,localcivilauthorities,revolutionaryguards,andnewlyorganizedsecuritypolicebegantoinitiatebrutalindiscriminateexpulsionsofethnicGermans.Thecentralgovernmentputoutcontradictorystatementsandorders,alternatelyencouraginganddiscouragingtheexpulsions.Itquicklybecameclear,though,thatimportantsegmentsoftheCzechoslovakauthoritiesaswellastheCzechandSlovakpopulationswantedtoforceoutasmuchoftheGermanpopulationastheycouldbeforetheAlliedmilitaryauthoritiesanddiplomatscouldmakeuptheirmindsandenforceregulationsforanorderlyandhumanetransfer. ThesocalledwildexpulsionsfromCzechoslovakiabetweenMayandAugust1945impactedbetween700,000and800,000people.TheorganizedandregulatedexpulsionthatfollowedbetweenJanuaryandOctober1946,affectedmorethan2,000,000ethnicGermans.Eventuallynearly2millionofCzechoslovakiasGermanswenttotheAmericanzoneofoccupiedGermanyandsomeonemilliontotheSovietzoneofGermany.Itisnowestimatedthatbetween15,000and30,000ofthesocalledSudetenGermandiedintheprocess,whetherfromstarvation,disease,suicides,orkillingsbytheCzechoslovakpopulationorsecurityforces.Initially,somequartermillionGermanswhowereneededtoreviveindustryorwhohadevidenceofhavingresistedtheNaziswereallowedtoremain,butthatnumbereventuallydeclined.TherestoredCzechoslovakgovernmentalsowantedtoexpeltheHungarianminoritywhichlivedmostlyinthesouthernfringesofSlovakia,butitdidnotinitiatesuchactionimmediately,andtheAlliesultimatelyrefusedtoallowit. Between1945and1950,thenewcommunistledYugoslavgovernmentalsoforcedthegreatmajorityofitsapproximately500,000ethnicGermanstoemigrate.AbouthalfoftheserefugeesendedupinGermany,anearlyequalnumberinAustria.TheYugoslavauthoritiesseizedtheGermaninhabitantsproperty,sentsomeofftoimprisonmentintheSovietUnion,andherdedthousandsintorelocationcamps.ThemortalityratesinsomeofthoseYugoslavcampsreachedfiftypercent,andmorethan48,000died. Timedoesnotpermittodiscussherethenumericallysmaller,butstilloftencruel,expulsionsofethnicGermansfromRomania,theNetherlands,andDenmarkthatalsotookplaceattheendofWorldWarII.By1950,WestGermanyhadnearly8millionoftheGermanexpellees(16%ofthepopulation);EastGermanyanother4.4million(some24%ofthepopulation);andAustria,between300,000and400,000.TheGermanexpelleesfrom

10EasternEuropebecamewellintegratedinthetwoGermanstatesandAustria.TheirlargeconcentrationinwesternGermany,particularlyinBavaria,andtheirgoodorganizationmadethemasignificantpoliticalforceduringtheColdWarera;andtheirrepresentativesbecameaparticularlyinfluentialelementintherightwingoftheChristianDemocraticParty.PostwarAustriagenerallywelcomedtheEastEuropeanGermanexpellees,buttheirnumbersweretoosmallthereforthemtobecomeanimportantpoliticalforce. ThewholeexperienceoftheexpulsionofethnicGermansfromEastCentralandEasternEuropeisoneofthemanytragediesofEuropeduringtheviolentandbloodytwentiethcentury.WhiletodaywemayrejectonsimplemoralgroundstheprincipleofcollectiveguiltforthebarbarousNaziactions,thedeterminationtoexactrevengeforwhattheNazishaddonewassurelyamajormotivatingfactorattheendofWorldWarII.Still,wemustalsoreflectontheconditionsthatmademassexpulsionsconceivable,acceptable,andevendesirableasadeliberateactofgovernmentpolicynotonlybytheNaziandSovietgovernmentsduringthewarbutalsobythevictoriousAlliedgreatpowersandthesmallercountriesofEastCentralEurope.Obviously,onefundamentalconditionwasarampantnationalismandthewidespreadacceptanceofnationalistprinciplesthatasserteditwasbestforpopularandgovernmentalinterestsforculturallyhomogeneousnationstohavetheirownstatesandforthosenationstatestohaveculturallyunitedpopulationswithnosignificantnationalminoritiesifthatwasaneffectivewaytoavoidtroublesomedomesticconflicts.Undertheseprinciples,theputativeinherentrightsofnationsandthenationalinterestsofthenationstateseasilyoverrodeanyconsiderationsofindividualhumanrightsorminorityrights.Anotherfundamentalconditionwhichmademassethnicexpulsionspossibleinthetwentiethcenturywastheassumptionbynationalstates,andnotmerelytheNaziorSovietstates,thattheyhadtherightandtheauthoritytocarryoutsuchexpulsionsinthenameofnationalinterestornationalsecurity,regardlessofanycostinlivesandfundamentalindividualandgrouphumanrights.Thecontinuingoccurrencesofethniccleansingandgenocideinourowntimedemonstratethatsuchinhuman,indeedmurderousnotionsarestillwidelyheldintheworld.

11SUGGESTEDREADINGS:AlfredM.deZayas,ATerribleRevenge:TheEthnicCleansingoftheEastEuropeanGermans,

19441950,rev.ed.NewYork:Palgrave/Macmillan,2006.DavidGerlach,WorkingwiththeEnemy:LaborPoliticsintheCzechBorderlands,194548.AustrianHistoryYearbook38(2007):179207.EagleGlassheim,"NationalMythologiesandEthnicCleansing:TheExpulsionof CzchoslovakGermansin1945."CentralEuropeanHistory33,no.4(2000):463486NormanM.Naimark,FiresofHatred:EthniccleansingintwentiethcenturyEurope.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2002.