Georgia: A Culinary CrossroadsDarra GoldsteinWilliams CollegeWilliamstown, Massachusetts (USA)

A Brief History

For centuries, the tiny nation ofGeorgia has stood at theconfluence of East and West.Geographically part of Asia, yet aChristian nation, Georgia hashistorically looked more often tothe West — so much so, that thecapital city of Tiflis (Tbilisi) wasonce known as the Paris of theCaucasus. Lying athwart the majortrade routes between East andWest, Tiflis maintained a grandcaravanserai where merchantscould stable their animals, storetheir wares, and themselves findshelter [Fig. 1, facing page].

Thanks to its agricultural richesand long tradition of hospitality,Georgia was an object of desirefor many outsiders, not all ofwhom were good guests.

The Georgians date thebeginnings of their culture to thesixth century BCE. The ancientGreeks established colonies alongthe Black Sea coast in a regionthey called Colchis. In 66 BCE,when the Roman general Pompeyinvaded and brought the areaunder Roman rule, Greek controlcame to an end, but the outpostsin Colchis remained importantlinks in the trade route to Persia.

From the Black Sea, ships couldsail up the Phasis River (today’sRioni). Goods were then portagedover the Likhi Range to the KuraRiver Valley and on to Persia. Bythe early Middle Ages Tiflis hadbecome a major stopover on themedieval trade routes, a midpointbetween Moslem East andChristian West [Fig. 2].

Tbilisi itself was founded in thefifth century when, according tolegend, King Vakhtang Gorgaslani,on a hunt near the Kura River,kil led a pheasant, which heretrieved fully cooked from the hotsprings where it had fallen.Toasting his good fortune,Gorgaslani vowed to create a cityon this auspicious site. He calledit “Tbilis-kalaki” or “Warm City”(hence the name “Tbilisi”; outside

Fig. 2. Map of Georgia. Copyright © byPaul J. Pugliese. Used by permission.

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of Georgia, the city was known asTiflis into the twentieth century).Following a mid-seventh-centuryinvasion, Tiflis fell under Arabcontrol, and even though Georgiahad accepted Christianity in thefourth century, it remained aMoslem city-state. Only in theninth century, when the Bagrationidynasty came into power, didGeorgia begin to exert itself as astrong Christian nation. Even so,between the eighth and eleventhcenturies Tiflis was controlledsuccessively by Arabs, Khazars,and Seljuks.

The early tenth century saw therise of an independent feudalmonarchy, and during the reign ofDavid the Builder (1089-1125)Tiflis was finally freed from foreigncontrol. Under the rule of the greatqueen Tamara (1184-1212),Georgia experienced a renais-sance, a good two hundred yearsbefore Italy. During this time, theGelati Academy in the westernprovince of Imereti housed animportant school of philosophyand offered advanced teachings inastronomy, medicine, and music.In eastern Georgia, near Telavi,the arts and sciences wereassiduously pursued in the famousacademy at Ikalto, which includedthe world’s first school devoted tothe serious study of wine.

As an important stopover on thetrade routes, Tiflis both benefitedand suffered from repeated wavesof migration and invasion. Thecountry’s brilliant renaissancecame to an end when the Mongolsinvaded in the second quarter ofthe thirteenth century. The Mongoloccupation lasted until the earlyfourteenth century, after whichGeorgia was ruled by Iranians andthen Turks, who gainedascendance after the fall ofConstantinople in 1453. TheGeorgians found themselvestrapped amidst the shifting politicsand allegiances of its neighbors;only Armenia to the south, asecond island of Christianity in theIslamic world, presented nothreat. By the late sixteenth

century, the country waseffectively split in two, withwestern Georgia falling under theTurkish sphere of influence, andeastern Georgia politically part ofnorthwest Iran. Repeated attacksfrom the Persians, the Turks, andMoslem tribesmen in Dagestan tothe north finally caused theGeorgians to turn to Russia forhelp. In 1783, King Irakli II, thebeleaguered successor to theancient Bagrationi dynasty, signedthe Treaty of Georgievsk, whichacknowledged Russia’s sove-reignty, and in 1801 Russiaincorporated Georgia into itsempire. The Russian presence inGeorgia lasted until 1918 when,following the October Revolution,Georgia declared its inde-pendence. Although the twocountries had signed a non-interference treaty, in 1921Bolshevik troops invaded, andonce again Georgia was in-corporated into its more powerfulneighbor to the north, this timethe Soviet Union.

Until the dissolution of the SovietUnion in 1991, Georgia existed asa constituent republic of that

country, with its economydependent upon the Sovietsystem. Georgia’s citrus fruits,fresh vegetables, herbs, tea, andwines found a ready market inRussia and the other Sovietrepublics, and the Georgianeconomy flourished. When theSoviet system fell apart, thecountry suddenly experiencedsevere economic distress,exacerbated by political conflictsin the breakaway regions ofAbkhazia and South Ossetia, bothof which the Russians supported.These conflicts led to civil unrestin the early 1990s. By 1998, thingshad quieted down, but in 2005,just as the Georgian economy wasbeginning to recover, Russiaembargoed all Georgian agri-cultural products, including theBorzhomi mineral water thatprovided an important source ofexport revenue. In 2006 Russiaextended the embargo toGeorgian wines, claiming that theyhad been adulterated. This movewas, in fact, political, in retaliationfor Georgia’s desire to ally itselfwith the West by seekingmembership in NATO and theEuropean Union. The Russians

Fig. 3. Niko Pirosmani, Jackasses’ Bridge, a painting which depicts theGeorgian love of dining al fresco, whether under a pergola or on a boat.

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were further displeasedby the Baku-Tbil isi-Ceyhan oil project andthe Baku-Tbilisi-Erzerumnatural gas pipeline, bothof which bypass Russianterritory. Nevertheless,Russia’s attempts tocontrol Georgia must beseen in historicalperspective, as theRussians are only thelatest in a series ofoutsiders to covet thisrich land.

The Flavors of Georgia

Remarkably, through all theinvasions, sieges, and subju-gations, Georgia has maintaineda strong national identity, asocietal pride greater thanpatriotism, akin to a religiousbelief in the sacredness of theearth and its ability to sustain. Thisdevout relationship to theirsurroundings existed long beforethe Georgians accepted Christ-ianity. Two creation myths oftenretold at the feast table capturethe mix of reverence andirreverence that characterizes theGeorgian attitude toward life [Fig.3, facing page]. As one myth goes,the first Georgians were seatedunder a pergola at a table ladenwith wine and food. So engrossedwere they in feasting on grilledlamb with plum sauce and garlickyroasted eggplant that they missedGod’s deadline for choosing acountry, so the world was dividedup without them. His taskcomplete, God set off for home,only to find the Georgians stillmerrily toasting and singing. Godstopped to reproach them for theirnegligence, but the tamada, thetoastmaster, remained uncon-cerned. They had spent their timewell, he explained, thanking Godin lavish toasts for having createdsuch a magnificent world. Pleasedthat the Georgians had notforgotten Him, God rewardedthem with the very last spot onearth, the one He had been savingfor Himself. And so it was that theGeorgians came to l ive inparadise.

The second myth tells that whileGod was creating the world, Hewisely took a break for supper. ButHe happened to trip over the highpeaks of the Caucasus range [Fig.4], spilling a little of everythingfrom His plate onto the land below.And so it was that Georgia cameto be blessed with such riches,table scraps from Heaven. In fact,the agricultural bounty of thissmall country is exceptional, andeven today 50 percent of thepopulation is engaged in some sortof farming. It is not surprising thatthe early Greeks called theGeorgians georgos, “those whowork the land,” whence our Englishterm derives.

The presence of so many outsiderulers and visitors inevitablyintroduced foreign ways intoGeorgia, including certain in-fluences on the cuisine. Georgianfood is reminiscent of bothMediterranean and Middle Easterntastes, the result of a rich interplayof culinary ideas carried along thetrade routes by merchants andtravelers alike. Yet the Georgiansdid not adopt all the culinarypractices that came their way, andtoday Georgian cuisine remainsdistinct, particularly in itsextensive use of walnuts [Fig. 5].Some borrowed practices areeasily recognizable, of course. Thepilafs of southeastern Georgiaecho those of neighboring Iran,and the meats simmered with fruitare similar to variations of Persiankhoresh (stew), though to yield

the tart taste they prefer theGeorgians more often stewmeat with sour plums orpomegranates than withsweeter fruits like quince orprunes. The prized Georgiankhinkali—the overstuffedboiled dumplings of themountainous zones — revealthe culinary influence ofCentral Asian Turks. Alongthe Black Sea coast inwestern Georgia, the stuffedvegetable tolmas resembleTurkey’s various dolmas. Butthe Georgians neverdeveloped a taste for the

elaborate oriental sweets fromTurkish, Persian, or Armeniankitchens; instead, they limitdessert mainly to fresh fruits andnut preparations.

Not yet fully documented is thekinship of Georgian food with thatof northern India. The cor-respondences in culinary ter-minology between contemporaryGeorgian and Hindi are especiallynotable in a language likeGeorgian, which is not even Indo-European but South Caucasian, anentirely separate linguistic group.The Georgian word for bread, likethe Hindi, is puri; and the

Fig. 4. The Caucasus Range, bordering Georgiaon the north, seen from Mt. Elbrus.

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Georgians use a clay oven, thetoné, for baking bread androasting, much as Indians of thePunjab use the tandoor. TheGeorgian tapha, a special pan formaking the succulent ChickenTabaka that is so emblematic ofGeorgian cuisine, is related to thecast-iron skillet or tava of northernIndia. And curry blends find theircounterpart in khmeli-suneli,Georgia’s aromatic seasoningmixture, though a typical blend ofkhmeli-suneli is based more onherbs than on spices. It includesground coriander, basil, dill,summer savory, parsley, mint,fenugreek, bay leaf, and marigold,which turns foods a deep yellow,as does curry’s turmeric.

But differences often revealmore than similarities. What mostdistinguishes Georgian cuisinefrom that of its neighbors is theuse of walnuts, not merely asgarnish, but as an integralcomponent in a wide variety ofdishes. To offset what mightotherwise be a cloying richnessfrom the nuts, many recipes callfor a souring agent. Yogurt(matsoni), pungent cheese, andimmature wine (machari) oftenserve as counterpoints to groundwalnuts; vinegar or fruit juices andfruit leathers similarly lendbalance. The ground and driedpetals of marigold, known asImeretian saffron, lend an earthydepth to Georgian dishes and setthem apart from those of otherculinary cultures. For instance,cinnamon and vinegar regularlyflavor meat in the Georgian diet,just as they do in Middle Easterncuisines, but marigold rather thantrue saffron adds the distinctivetouch.

Other differences are visible inthe staple foods. Where Persiancooks turn to rice and Armeniansuse bulgur, Georgians rely onwheat and corn. And instead of thelegumes typically found in theMiddle East and the Mediterranean— lentils, chickpeas, and favas —Georgians favor kidney beans, likecorn a New World crop. Walnuts

predominate over pine nuts andalmonds. So well loved arewalnuts that many standarddishes prepared without nuts,such as the spicy beef soupkharcho or the chicken stewchakhokhbili, often includewalnuts in their western Georgianrenditions. Freshly pressed walnutoil provides a necessary sup-plement of fat (including a healthydose of Omega-3s), as do the richsuluguni and imeruli cow’s milkcheeses used in place of butterwith cornbread.

Regional Variations

Stretching as it does from theBlack Sea nearly all the way to theCaspian, the Republic of Georgiais remarkably diverse, withnumerous climatic zones, from themountainous to the subtropical.The Likhi Range running north tosouth effectively divides thecountry in half. Western Georgia,bordering on the Black Sea,endures high precipitation andsteamy temperatures. Here teaand citrus fruits thrive. Eastwardthe climate grows progressivelydrier, until sere Central Asianwinds buffet the plateaus to theeast of the Likhi chain. This hot,dry atmosphere produces the lushstone fruits and grapes of theKartli and Kakheti provinces. Theboundary between East and Westis also visible in the relative degreeof spiciness to the food. EasternGeorgians prefer a cool, freshtaste, thanks in part to their hot,arid summers, while westernGeorgians add generous amountsof fresh and dried hot pepper totheir food. A second difference liesin the western Georgianpreference for corn over wheat.Here mchadi or corncakes areprepared instead of puri. As isevident from their reliance on suchingredients as corn, peppers, andbeans, western Georgian cooksput New World crops to good use.Another New World transplant, thetomato, is highly appreciated byeastern and western Georgiansalike.

Kartli, the eastern province inwhich the capital city of Tbilisi islocated, is known for its orchardfruits, especially apples andpeaches, the best of which comefrom the environs of Gori, whereStalin was born. The local marketsabound with seasonal golden ladyapples, pink gooseberries, red andblack currants, many varieties ofplums — sweet and sour; purple,yellow, green, and red — apricots,pears, berries, sweet cherries, andsour shindi or cornelian cherries,the juice of which Georgianwarriors once drank before battleto fortify their blood. Mounds ofdried fruits and locally grownwalnuts, almonds, and hazelnutsare available year round.

Georgian dishes evolvednaturally from the produceavailable, and traditional methodsof preparation have hardlychanged over the years; high techdoes not yet have a solid place inthe Georgian kitchen. To anextraordinary degree, Georgiansstill integrate the outdoors intotheir lives when they cook and eat.Whether gathered on a citybalcony for a formal meal or bythe roadside for an impromptupicnic, Georgians consider alfresco dining the best way to eat,a chance to appreciate naturewhile consuming its gifts. Althoughthe ancients considered grillingthe most primitive of cookingmethods, and boiling the mostrefined, gril l ing remains apreferred way to cook meats inGeorgia — a legacy, perhaps, ofthe Promethean legend(Prometheus is said to have givenfire to mankind when he waschained to a rock on Mount Elbrusin the Caucasus). A secondstandard method of preparingfood is by slow cooking, andGeorgian cuisine has an extensiverepertoire of soups and stews. Theheat remaining in the toné afterbread baking is used for dishes likepurnis mtsvadi, lamb braisedslowly in a clay pot.

Perhaps the single mostimportant implement in the

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Georgian kitchen is a mortar andpestle for grinding nuts andspices. Although many affluentfamilies now have foodprocessors, the best Georgiancooks swear by labor-intensivehand grinding, since it yields thefinest texture. In western Georgia,chkmeruli (fried chicken) andcorncakes are baked in special redclay dishes called ketsi, whichrange in diameter from six totwelve inches. The use of ketsi isanother way in which theGeorgians continue to practicetime-honored cooking methods.This technique can be traced backto the ancient Egyptians, whostacked earthenware pots filledwith food atop one another to sealin moisture — creating an oven,in effect — before baking the foodover an open fire.

The pull of tradition is visible notonly in the culinary arts but alsoin paintings by some of Georgia’smost celebrated artists. NikoPirosmanashvili (Pirosmani), a

r a i l r o a dworker whop a i n t e dsignboardsin exchangefor food anddrink, wasknown asthe “Geor-gian Rous-seau” for hisf a n c i f u lanimals andnaïve de-pictions ofe v e r y d a ymoments incity andcountry life.Pirosmani’s scenes of feasting andcarousals capture both theexuberance and solemnity ofthese occasions. Other artists ofthe early twentieth-centuryGeorgian avant-garde, such asLado Gudiashvili, display a lesssunny sensibility. His paintings ofmen awaiting a bowl of tripe soup(khashi) or eyeing some freshly

caught fish (tso-tskhali) offer aglimpse into a dark,mysterious world[Fig. 6]. During theSoviet era, artistslike Elena Akhvle-diani painted nos-talgic portraits of aleisurely way of lifethat was fast dis-appearing [Fig. 7].

The Georgian TableThroughout most ofGeorgia’s history,meat was a luxury,and so the Geor-gians took greatadvantage of theindigenous fruits,vegetables, andherbs. The bulk ofthe Georgian culin-ary repertoire ismade up of pre-parations for vege-

tables both cultivated and wild.Over one hundred varieties of suchwild greens as sarsaparil la,nettles, mallow, ramp, andpurslane are still gathered inseason and prepared in asurprising number of ways —cooked, marinated, dried forseasoning, or steeped in water fora nutritious drink. But above all,the Georgians enjoy their greensfresh, and no Georgian table iscomplete without a large platterof leafy cilantro, dill, tarragon,parsley, basil, summer savory, andpeppery tsitsmati or falseflax(Camelina sativa, similar toarugula). Often there is alsodzhondzholi (Colchis bladdernut,Staphylea colchica), an edibleornamental plant with long stemsof tightly furled, beadlike tendrilsredolent of garlic. The greens,which are rich in nutrients, providea refreshing counterpoint to theheavier foods in the meal.

These foods are washed downwith wine and local mineral waterslike Borzhomi and Nabeghlavi,which have long been touted fortheir health benefits. To dinersused to the mild taste of Perrieror Pellegrino, these waters seemheavy and salty (so much so, thatBorzhomi is now bottling a“Borzhomi Light”), but Georgiansand Russians have traditionally putthem to therapeutic use inaddition to serving them at table.Certain foods are also considered

Fig. 6. Lado Gudiashvili,Tsotskhali (Fresh Fish),1924.

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Fig. 7. Elena Akhvlediani, Tbilisi Dukhan, 1970s.

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especially nutritious. Khashi, amuch-loved tripe soup (andfavored hangover remedy), isfrequently prescribed for digestiveproblems [Fig. 8]. Nadugi, thedelicious whey derived from cow’smilk and often served mixed withfresh herbs, is virtually fat-freeand is considered a sclerosispreventative.

Food is only one component ofthe Georgian feast, however. Aformal Georgian meal, or supra,is a ritual affair that calls for theskillful exercise of moderation inthe face of excess — no small feat,considering the meal’s courtesiesand extravagances. The sharedtable is meant, above all, topromote a feeling of kinship andnational unity. Centuries ofgathering around the table toaffirm longstanding traditionshave helped the Georgianspreserve their culture even underforeign subjugation. The suprarepresents the collective publicface the Georgians proudlypresent to the world even as itreflects the honor of an individualhousehold.

The rules forcommensal cele-bration are strict.Most important, atamada or toast-master is chosen toorchestrate all butthe most informalmeals. (This practicemay have evolvedfrom the ancientGreek custom ofchoosing a sympos-iarch to guide theprogression of thefeast.) The role ofthe tamada is takenvery seriously, andhe is accorded greatrespect, for it re-quires skill to keepall the guests en-tertained, ensurethat the meal is

proceeding apace, and see to itthat no one drinks or eats toexcess, as drunken guests bringshame on the host. The besttamadas are renowned for theirwit and eloquence, including anability to improvise. The tamadaguides the company through aseries of toasts, which can be briefor complex. Each calls for downing

a glass of wine. Georgians do notsip, and drinking out of order orat random is not allowed. Amerikipe is appointed to makesure that diners’ glasses are filledat all times [Fig. 9].

The rules of the Georgian tablecall for uplifting toasts, so thateach occasion, even a sad one,becomes an affirmation of life.Traditionally, toasting begins withglasses raised heavenward inacknowledgment of God’spresence. Then the host family istoasted, particularly the lady ofthe house responsible for themeal. The tamada’s ability to pacethe evening is crucial. Each timea toast is pronounced, whether bythe tamada or someone else, wineis drunk as a mark of honor. But ifinebriation seems likely, thetamada must slow down thesuccession of toasts. Thetraditional meal is punctuated bybreaks for entertainment, often acapella singing, a holdover frommedieval patterns of feastingwhen entremets were actualdiversions.

Given such ritualized drinking,the apparent chaos of the foodservice may seem surprising.Courses are not always presentedin the fixed order of the service àla russe that western Europeans,

Fig. 8. Lado Gudiashvili,Khashi, 1919.

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Fig. 9. Niko Pirosmani, Carousal. The loaves on the table are shoti,baked in the toné. A traditional wineskin is visible in the foreground.

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and later Americans, adopted inthe nineteenth century, and whichstill prevails in Europe and Americatoday. By contrast, the Georgianstyle of service is intended todazzle the eye and pique thepalate through contrasting colors,textures, and flavors. When dinerssit down to eat, the table is alreadylaid with a wide variety of dishes.As the meal progresses, thehostess does not remove servingplates that still contain food butrather continues to pile new disheson the table, balancing some onthe edges of others, so that by theend of the evening the table isladen with a pyramid of plates,ensuring plenty at every stage.

Georgian Wine

If food is the heart of the Georgianfeast, then its spirit resides inwine. For a Georgian, wine evokesboth culture and community.Based on evidence of grape pipsunearthed from archeologicalsites, viticulture is an ancient artin Georgia, practiced as early asthe fourth millennium BCE.Scientists believe that the speciesVitis vinifera, the original winegrape, is native to the Caucasusregion, and many linguistsconsider the Georgian word forwine, ghvino, the prototype forsuch Indo-European variations asvino, vin, wine, Wein. The grapevine symbolizes life and faith, abelief that Saint Nino ofCappadocia adapted to Christiandoctrine when she introduced it to

Georgia in the fourth century.Bearing a cross plaited of driedvines and tied with her own hair,Saint Nino seemed to representdivine approval for the wine-making that had been practicedfor centuries. Thevine and the crossbecame inextricablyentwined, each anobject of devotion.

The center of winegrowing in Georgia isKakheti, in theeastern half of thecountry. The regionis known for itstraditional method ofwinemaking, whichdiffers considerablyfrom standard Euro-pean practices (be-cause it is so laborintensive, it is dyingout as a commercial process).After the grapes are crushed, thejuice is fermented together withthe skins, stems, and seeds to

yield distinctive wines of a lovely,deep amber hue and a raisinytaste with a hint of Madeira.

Traditionally, wine was made inlarge, red clay amphorae knownas kvevri [Figs. 10, 11]. Nearlyevery Georgian country householdhas a marani, a place where thetemperature remains cool andsteady. Here the kvevris areburied up to their necks in theearth. If the house lacks anearthen cellar, the kvevri areburied directly in the groundoutdoors. To make wine by theKakhetian method, the freshlycrushed juice, along with theskins, stems, and seeds, is pouredinto the buried amphorae andstirred four or six times a day forthree to five months. The resulting

new wine is calledmachari. When thewine has achievedthe desired degree offermentation, it isdrawn off from thelees. If producedcommercially, thewine is transferred tooak barrels to age forat least a year, buthomemade wine isusually ladled bymeans of a speciallong-handled gourdfrom the first kvevriinto smaller ones foraging. These kvevrisare topped with a

wooden lid, then sealed with mud.Dirt is mounded all around the lidto keep air out, lest it spoil thewine. Whenever wine is taken offfrom a kvevri in any quantity, theremainder is transferred toprogressively smaller vessels.

Some Georgian families still usespecial vessels to bring wine totable, such as the chapi, a two-handled jug with a squat neck andbulbous body tapering to a narrowbase. From this transitional vesselthe wine is poured into a varietyof other containers intended eitherfor pouring or drinking [Fig. 12].Quite common are a single-handled pitcher and the more

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Fig. 10. A newly fired kvevri in the kiln.After Kuznetsov 1983

Fig. 11. Niko Pirosmani, TwoGeorgians with a kvevri.

Fig. 12. A wine vessel fromBombori. Bronze, 2nd c. BCE.

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elaborate “mother jug” (deda-khelada) composed of a centralpitcher with several smallerpitchers affixed to the sides, likea mother with numerous breasts.

The most widespread red winegrape of Georgia is Saperavi,which, depending on its treat-ment, can yield wines rangingfrom the dry to the semi-sweet.For white wines, the indigenousRkatsiteli grape makes nicelyacidic wines with a fresh, greentaste. Both varietals predominatein Kakheti’s Alazani River Valley,which lies between the high peaksof the Greater Caucasus to thenortheast and the foothills of theTsiv-Gombori Range to thesoutheast. They are made intowines bearing such controlledappellations as Mukuzani,Kindzmarauli, and Tsinandali.Today, artisanal producers likeMildiani make some extraordinarywines that blend ancient traditionswith modern technology.

Georgian Food Today

Throughout the Soviet era, thepopulation of Georgia remainedstable at around 5 million people.Even Georgians who traveledabroad for work or study generallychose to return to their homeland,so strong was the pull of tradition.All of this has changed over thepast fifteen years, as Georgiaexperienced civil unrest andeconomic pressure. As a result,the current population of Georgiais now closer to only 4 million. Oneoutcome of this unprecedenteddiaspora is that many émigréshave opened restaurants in citiesthroughout Europe, the UnitedStates, and the Middle East, andGeorgian cuisine is slowlybecoming more well known.Within Georgia itself, a newgeneration is working to overcomethe problems that still plague thecountry after so many years ofdependence on Russia. Followingdecades of Soviet-style industrialfarming, activists are working toestablish sustainable agriculturalpractices and are reviving thelegendary wines that had either

disappeared or been restyled forthe notoriously sweet Russianpalate.

That a small country with ashattered infrastructure shouldplace its hopes on fairly traditional,organic agriculture in the twenty-first century is noteworthy, and inthe wake of the Russianembargoes, the US governmenthas stepped in to help. Inparticular, the AgVANTAGEprogram, funded by USAID, ishelping producers find newmarkets in Europe and the UnitedStates to make up for the loss ofexports to Russia. The govern-ment consultants are focusingprimarily on Georgian wines, forwhich they believe significantdemand can be created abroad.Hazelnuts are also being promotedfor export, as the best Georgianvarieties are deeper in flavor thanthose grown in the ItalianPiedmont. The challenge will be forthe Georgians to find ways tocompete successfully in the globalmarketplace while still keepingtheir rich traditions intact.

About the Author

Darra Goldstein is FrancisChristopher Oakley Third CenturyProfessor of Russian at WilliamsCollege and Founding Editor ofGastronomica: The Journal of Foodand Culture. A Ph.D. from StanfordUniversity, she has publishednumerous books and articles onRussian literature, culture, art,and cuisine, and has organizedseveral exhibitions, includingGraphic Design in the MechanicalAge and Feeding Desire: Designand the Tools of the Table, 1500-2005, at the Cooper-Hewitt,National Design Museum. She isalso the author of four cookbooks:A Taste of Russia (nominated fora Tastemaker Award), TheGeorgian Feast (winner of the1994 IACP Julia Child Award forCookbook of the Year), The WinterVegetarian, and Baking BootCamp at the CIA. She hasconsulted for the Council of Europeas part of an international group

exploring ways in which food canbe used to promote tolerance anddiversity, and under her editorshipthe volume Culinary Cultures ofEurope: Identity, Diversity andDialogue was published in 2005 tocommemorate the 50th anni-versary of the signing of theEuropean Cultural Convention.Goldstein has also consulted forthe Russian Tea Room and Firebirdrestaurants in New York and iscurrently Food Editor of RussianLife magazine. She serves on theBoard of Directors of theInternational Association ofCulinary Professionals and isGeneral Editor of California Studiesin Food and Culture (University ofCalifornia Press), a book seriesthat seeks to broaden theaudience for serious scholarship infood studies and to celebrate foodas a means of understanding theworld. She may be contacted at<Darra.Goldstein@williams.edu>.

A Glossary of Georgian Foods

Adzhapsandali: a vegetablemedley, like a spicy ratatouille.Adzhapsandali contains eggplant,potato, onion, tomoatoes, greenpepper, cloves, and copiousamounts of fresh herbs.

Adzhika: the favorite Georgiancondiment made from fresh hotchile peppers, ranging inconsistency from a thick paste toa liquid relish like salsa. It is aclassic accompaniment to grilledmeats.

Buglama: a Kahketian specialtymade from beef, veal, or fishlayered with tomatoes, onions,and fresh herbs, then steamedand served with rice.

Chacha: a very strong grappa-likeliquor made from grape pomace.

Chakapuli: a liquidy, slow-cookedstew usually made with lamb orkid. The meat is stewed with drywhite wine, tkemali sauce, andbunches of tarragon, parsley,mint, dill, and cilantro.

Chakhokhbili: chicken simmeredwith vegetables and herbs until

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tender, with no extra liquid added.Georgian girls were once deemedmarriageable according to theirability to cut up chicken for thisdish. The most traditional recipescall for seventeen precise pieces.

Chanakhi: an aromatic stew ofmeat and vegetables braisedslowly in a clay pot to deepen andmeld the flavors.

Churchkhela: a long string ofnuts that have been repeatedlydipped in concentrated freshgrape juice to form a confection.Churchkhela is made with walnutsor hazelnuts, either from wholenuts or halves.

Kartuli puri: An elongated ovalloaf of bread baked in the toné.Kartuli puri is thicker in the centerthan at the edges, so that loversof both crust and chewy interiorcan enjoy their favorite textures.

Khachapuri: a cheese breadfound throughout Georgia in manyguises — round, rectangular, andboat-shaped. The dough can beyeasty with a thick crust, many-layered and flaky, or tender andcakelike. The bread is usually filledwith a fresh, slightly sour cheeselike imeruli (Imeretian) orsuluguni, but salted cheeses likebryndza may also be used, as longas they are soaked first. Thecheese is grated and mixed witheggs to bind, with butter added ifit is not creamy enough. The fillingis then either completely enclosedin dough or baked in an open-faced pie. Khachapuri is some-times topped with a barely bakedegg. Aficionados seek out theboat-shaped adzharuli khachapurior Adzharian cheese bread fromBatumi on the Black Sea coast.

Kharcho: a thick soup made frombeef, lamb, chicken, or sometimesvegetable stock. All versionscontain a special mixture of thespice blend khmeli-suneli, a liberaldose of herbs, and a souring agentsuch as fruit leather, tkemalisauce, or vinegar.

Khashi: Georgia’s best-lovedsoup, made from tripe. It istraditionally eaten early in the

morning, preferably between sixand eight a.m. following a nightof heavy drinking.

Khinkali: Large dumplings madewith a variety of fillings. In themountainous regions the choice isusually ground lamb, but else-where the filling is more often amixture of beef and pork. Thedumplings may also be stuffedwith cheese or greens. Khinkaliare served hot, with no garnishother than coarsely ground blackpepper. The doughy topknot isnever consumed but used as ahandle for holding the hotdumplings.Khmeli-suneli: an herb and spicemixture typically containingground dried coriander seed,ground celery seed, dried basil, dillparsley, fenugreek summersavory, bay leaf, and mint. Grounddried marigold petals are oftenadded as well.Lobio: The Georgian word forbeans, either fresh or dried. Lobioalso refers to an aromatic salad,usually made from dried kidneybeans, that is prepared in dozensof ways: moistened with herbvinaigrette, seasoned simply withbutter and eggs, or mixed withlettuce and celery. The classicrecipe calls for mixing the beanswith tkemali, the tangy plumsauce.Masharabi: a sour pomegranatesyrup for flavoring stews. Freshpomegranate juice is cooked withcinnamon, cloves, and a littlesugar until thick.Matsoni: Yogurt. Georgian yogurtis some of the best in the world,whether made from cow’s milk orthe even richer water buffalo milk.Matsoni is never gelatinous and ispleasantly tart.Mchadi: Western Georgiancorncakes, traditionally baked ina ketsi or clay pot over an openfire. Because mchadi are blandand dry, they are perfect forsopping up sauce from flavorsomestews.

Mkhali (or pkhali): a vegetablepuree to which herbs and ground

walnuts are added. Mkhali is madefrom any number of differentvegetables; spinach and beets arethe most popular.

Mtsvadi: skewers of plain, freshlyslaughtered lamb, beef, or pork,what we know as shish kebab. Ifthe meat is not tender, it can bemarinated overnight beforegrilling, in which case it is knownas basturma.

Pelamushi: a dessert made bymixing concentrated grape juicewith cornmeal. The thickenedcornmeal is cut into brilliant purplediamonds.

Satsivi: the renowned Georgiannut sauce, served with poultry,fish, or vegetables. Groundwalnuts are mixed with garlic,cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed,marigold, pepper, cayenne, andvinegar, and stock. After the saucehas cooked, the prepared poultry,fish, or meat is immersed in it,then allowed to cool to roomtemperature, which thickens thesauce and gives the dish its name(the root -tsiv means “cold”).

Suluguni: the most widely usedGeorgian cheese, made fromcow’s milk. Suluguni is usually soldin large rounds up to a foot indiameter, but for special occasionsit is prepared in flat, individualdisks that can be thinly rolled.

Tabaka: partially boned youngchicken that is flattened, then friedunder a heavy weight. The namecomes from the traditional heavyskillet or tapha that is used.Tabaka is usually served withtkemali sauce.

Tkemali (Prunus divaricata): asour plum that grows throughoutGeorgia. The word also refers tothe sauce made from this plum,which is used as a seasoning insoups, stews, and vegetabledishes and also as a condiment forgrilled meats. Tkemali sauce ispiquant yet slightly sweet. It isserved fresh or preserved forwinter keeping.

Tklapi: dried fruit leather, madeby boiling tkemali or sour plums,

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then pureeing them and spreadingthe puree into a sheet to dry.Tklapi is an excellent souringagent for soups and stews — lessastringent than vinegar, moreflavorful than tomatoes. Fruitleather is also made from sweeterfruits like apricots and peaches,in which case it is intended foreating out of hand rather thancooking.

ReferencesAllen 1971W.E.D. Allen. A History of theGeorgian People, 2nd ed. New York:Barnes and Noble, 1971.

Burney and Lang 1972Charles Burney and David MarshallLang. The Peoples of the Hills:Ancient Ararat and Caucasus. NewYork: Praeger, 1972.

Dzhikia 1978N. P. Dzhikia. Kul’tura pitaniiagruzinskikh gortsev (The foodculture of Georgian hill peoples).Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 1978.

Chardin 1689Chardin, Sir John. The Travels ofSir John Chardin into Persia andthe East-Indies, Through the BlackSea and the Country of Colchis.London, 1689.

Chelebi 1834Chelebi, Evliya. Narrative ofTravels in Europe, Asia, and Africain the Seventeenth Century. Trans.The Ritter Joseph von Hammer.London, 1834.

Chiaureli 1984V. Chiaureli. Gruzinskoe vino(Georgian wine). Tbilisi: Merani,1984.

Dumas 1859Dumas, Alexandre. Le Caucase;depuis Prométhée jusqu’àChamyll. Paris, 1859.

Gudiashvili 1984Lado Gudiashvili. Edited by MoiseiKagan. Leningrad: Aurora ArtPublishers, 1984.

Holisky 1989Dee Ann Holisky. “The Rules of theSupra or How to Drink in

Georgian.” Annual of the Societyfor the Study of Caucasia 1(1989):22-40.

Kakabadze 1984Alde Kakabadze. Sovremennaiagruzinskaia keramika (Contem-porary Georgian ceramics).Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik,1984.

Khromchenko 1987S. M. Khromchenko. E. Akhvle-diani: Izbrannye proizvedeniia.Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik,1987.

Kikvidze 1988Kikvidze, Ia.A. Zemledelie izemledel’cheskii kul’t v drevneiGruzii: po arkheologicheskimmaterialam (Agriculture and theagricultural cult in ancient Georgiaaccording to archaeologicalmaterials). Tbilisi: Metsniereba,1988.

Kuznetsov 1987Erast Kuznetsov. Niko Pirosmani.Leningrad: Aurora Art Publishers,1983.

Mars and Altman 1987Gerald Mars and YochananAltman, “Alternative mechanism ofdistribution in a Soviet economy.”In: Constructive Drinking:Perspectives on Drink fromAnthropology, ed. Mary Douglas.Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1987: 270-279.

Pokhlebkin 1978Pokhlebkin, V.V. Nationional’nyekukhni nashikh narodov (Nationalcuisines of our peoples). Moscow:Pishchevaia promyshlennost’,1978.

Sulakvelidze 1959Tamara Sulakvelidze. Gruzinskiebliuda (Georgian dishes). Tbilisi:Gruzinskoe ministerstvo torgovli,1959.

Suny 1988Ronald Grigor Suny. The Makingof Modern Georgia. Bloomington,IN: Indiana University Press,1988.

Volkova and Dzhhavakhishvili1982N. G. Volkova and G.N.Dzhhavakhishvil i. Bytovaiakul’tura Gruzii XIX-XX vekov:traditsii i innovatsii (The culture ofeveryday life of Georgia in the 19th

and 20th centuries: traditions andinnovations). Moscow: Nauka,1982.

Recipes

Khachapuri2 cups unbleached white flour1/2 teaspoon salt12 tablespoons (1 1/2 sticks) cold

butter, cut in pieces2 eggs1/4 cup plain yogurt1 1/4 pounds mixed Muenster and

Havarti cheeses1 egg yolk, beatenPut the flour and salt in a mediumbowl and cut in the butter until themixture resembles coarsecornmeal. Beat 1 egg and stir inthe yogurt, then add to the flourmixture. Form into a ball and chillfor 1 hour.Grate the cheeses coarsely, beatthe other egg, and stir it into thecheese. Set aside.Preheat the oven to 350ºF. Greasea large baking sheet. On a flouredboard roll the dough to a rectangleabout 12 x 17 inches. Trim theedges. Spread the cheese mixtureon half the dough and then foldthe other half over to enclose it,sealing and crimping the edges.Transfer the bread to the bakingsheet and brush with beaten eggyolk. Bake for 50 minutes, or untilbrowned. The bread is best servedslightly warm, cut into smallsquares.Serves 12 to 15.

Beet Puree (Charkhlis mkhali)1 pound beets1/2 cup shelled walnuts3 garlic cloves, peeled1/2 teaspoon salt1/2 cup chopped cilantro1/2 cup chopped parsleyFreshly ground black pepper

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1/4 teaspoon dried summersavory

1/4 teaspoon ground corianderseed

1 or 2 teaspoons red wine vinegar(to taste)

Bake the unpeeled beets at 375ºF.for 1 to 1 1/2 hours, until tender.(If you are short of time, the beetsmay be boiled, but their flavor willnot be as good.) While the beetsare roasting, in a food processorgrind together the walnuts, garlic,and salt. Add the cilantro andparsley and continue grinding tomake a fine paste. Transfer to abowl.When the beets are soft, peelthem and finely grate them in thefood processor. In a medium bowlmix together the grated beets andthe ground walnut mixture, thenstir in the remaining ingredients.Keep tasting, as the amount ofvinegar needed will depend on thesweetness of the beets. Themkhali should be slightly tart.Chill in the refrigerator for at least2 hours, but bring to roomtemperature before serving,mounded on a plate and cross-hatched on top with a knife.Serves 6.

Basturma2 cups pomegranate juice1/4 cup olive oil1 teaspoon saltFreshly ground black pepper1 bay leaf, crushed2 garlic cloves, peeled and

crushed2 pounds boneless shoulder or leg

of lamb, cut into 2-inch cubesOne 1-pound eggplant, salted,

drained, and parboiled (op-tional)

Mix together the pomegranatejuice, olive oil, salt, pepper totaste, bay leaf, and garlic.Marinate the lamb overnight in thismixture. The following day, placethe meat on skewers, alternatingwith eggplant cubes, if desired.Grill over hot coals for about 10minutes. Serve with tkemali orcilantro sauce.Serves 4 to 6.

Tkemali1 1/2 pounds plums (not too sweet

or ripe)1/4 cup water3/4 teaspoon whole coriander

seed1 teaspoon fennel seed2 large garlic cloves, peeled and

roughly chopped1 teaspoon cayenne1/2 teaspoon salt1 tablespoon finely minced fresh

mint1/3 cup finely minced cilantroCut the plums in half and removethe pits. Place in a saucepan withthe water and bring to a boil.Simmer, covered, for 15 minutes,or until soft.In a mortar with a pestle, poundtogether the coriander seed,fennel seed, garlic, cayenne, andsalt to make a fine paste.When the plums are soft, put themthrough a food mill and return toa clean pan. Bring to a boil andcook over medium heat, stirring,for 3 minutes. Stir in the groundspices and continue cooking untilthe mixture thickens slightly,another 5 minutes or so. Stir inthe minced mint and cilantro andremove from the heat. Pour into ajar while still hot. Either cool toroom temperature and keep in therefrigerator, or seal the jar forlonger storage.Makes 1 pint.

Cilantro Sauce (Kindzissatsebela)2 ounces apricot fruit leather1/4 cup boiling water

1/2 cup shelled walnuts4 garlic cloves, peeled1 1/2 cups finely chopped cilantro1 1/2 cups finely chopped mixed

parsley, dill, basil, tarragon1/2 cup finely chopped scallions

(including green part)1/4 cup freshly squeezed lemon

juice1 1/2 teaspoons saltFreshly ground black pepperDash cayenne1 cup walnut oilSoak the apricot leather in theboiling water until soft; stir until apuree is formed.Grind the walnuts and the garlictogether in a food processor, beingcareful not to grind them to asticky paste. Next, add the apricotpuree, the herbs, scallions, lemonjuice, salt, pepper, and cayenne,and blend together. In a slow,steady stream, while the motor isrunning, add the walnut oil to forma thick sauce.Allow to rest at room temperaturefor a couple of hours beforeserving. This sauce will keep,tightly covered and refrigerated,for several days. Bring to roomtemperature before using.Makes 2 cups.

Article and recipes adapted fromDarra Goldstein, The GeorgianFeast: The Vibrant Culture andSavory Food of the Republic ofGeorgia (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1999). Used bypermission.

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Ananuri, on theGeorgian MilitaryHighway north ofTbilisi