Global Environment OutlookGEO4 environment for developmentUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeFirst published by the United Nations Environment Programme in 2007Copyright 2007, United Nations Environment ProgrammeISBN: 978-92-807-2836-1 (UNEP paperback)DEW/0962/NA978-92-807-2872-9 (UNEP hardback)DEW/1001/NAThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, DCPI, UNEP, P.O. 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GEO-4in collaboration withArab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Drylands (ACSAD), SyriaAfrican Futures Institute, South AfricaArab Forest and Range Institute (AFRI), SyriaArabian Gulf University (AGU), BahrainAsian Institute of Technology (AIT), ThailandArab Planning Institute (API), KuwaitAmerican University of Beirut (AUB), LebanonBangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), BangladeshBrazilian Institute of the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources (IBAMA), BrazilCentral European University (CEU), Hungary Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), EgyptCentro de Investigaciones de la Economa Mundial (CIEM), CubaCentro Latino Americano de Ecologa Social (CLAES), UruguayCenter for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Colombia University, United StatesCommission for Environmental Cooperation of North America (CEC), CanadaDevelopment Alternatives (DA), IndiaEnvironment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD)/Abu Dhabi Global Environmental Data Initiative (AGEDI), Abu DhabiEuropean Environment Agency (EEA), DenmarkUNEP/GRID-Arendal, NorwayGateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury, New ZealandIndian Ocean Commission (IOC), MauritiusInstitute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), JapanInternational Global Change Institute (IGCI), New ZealandInternationalInstitute forEnvironment andDevelopmentInternational Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), United KingdomInternational Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), CanadaIsland Resources Foundation (IRF), US Virgin IslandsInternational Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC), The NetherlandsIUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN), SwitzerlandKuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), KuwaitMoscow State University (MSU),Russian FederationNational Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), UgandaNational Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), JapanNetherlands Environment Assessment Agency (MNP), The NetherlandsNetwork for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA), Cote dIvoireScientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), FranceScientific Information Center (SIC), TurkmenistanMusokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA) of the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC), ZimbabweState Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA), Peoples Republic of ChinaStockholm Environment Institute (SEI), Sweden, United Kingdom and United StatesThailand Environment Institute (TEI), ThailandThe Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), IndiaThe Macaulay Institute, United KingdomThe Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC), HungaryUnited Nations University (UNU), JapanUnited Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), United KingdomUniversidad del Pacfico, PerUniversity of Chile, ChileUniversity of Costa Rica Development Observatory (OdD-UCR), Costa RicaUniversity of Denver, United StatesUniversity of Kassel, GermanyUniversity of South Pacific, Fiji IslandsUniversity of the West Indies, Centre for Environment and Development (UWICED), JamaicaUniversity of the West Indies, WI St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and TobagoWorld Resources Institute, United StatesivAcknowledgementsUNEP acknowledges the contributions made by many governments, individuals and institutions to the preparation and publication of the fourth GlobalEnvironment Outlook: environment for developmentassessment report. A full list of names of individuals and institutions involved in the assessment process is included from pages 506514. Special thanks are extended to:GEO-4 COLLABORATING CENTRESArab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Drylands (ACSAD), Syria African Futures Institute, South AfricaArab Forest and Range Institute (AFRI), SyriaArabian Gulf University (AGU), Bahrain Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), ThailandArab Planning Institute (API), KuwaitAmerican University of Beirut (AUB), LebanonBangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), BangladeshBrazilian Institute of the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources (IBAMA), BrazilCentral European University (CEU), Hungary Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), EgyptCentro de Investigaciones de la Economa Mundial (CIEM), CubaCentro Latino Americano de Ecologa Social (CLAES), UruguayCentre for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University, United StatesCommission for Environmental Cooperation of North America (CEC), CanadaDevelopment Alternatives (DA), IndiaEnvironment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD)/Abu Dhabi, Global Environmental Data Initiative (AGEDI), Abu DhabiEuropean Environment Agency (EEA), DenmarkUNEP/GRID-Arendal, NorwayGateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury, New ZealandIndian Ocean Commission (IOC), MauritiusInstitute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), JapanInternational Global Change Institute (IGCI), New ZealandInternational Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), United Kingdom International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), CanadaIsland Resources Foundation (IRF), US Virgin IslandsInternational Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC), The NetherlandsIUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN), SwitzerlandKuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), KuwaitMoscow State University (MSU), RussiaNational Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), UgandaNational Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), JapanNetherlands Environment Assessment Agency (MNP), The NetherlandsNetwork for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA), Cote dIvoireScientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), FranceScientific Information Center (SIC), TurkmenistanSouthern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC) Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA), Zimbabwe State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA), Peoples Republic of ChinaStockholm Environment Institute (SEI), Sweden, United Kingdom and United StatesThailand Environment Institute (TEI), ThailandThe Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), IndiaThe Macaulay Institute, United KingdomThe Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC), HungaryUnited Nations University (UNU), JapanUnited Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), United KingdomUniversidad del Pacfico, PerUniversity of Chile, ChileUniversity of Costa Rica Development Observatory (OdD-UCR), Costa RicaUniversity of Denver, United StatesvUniversity of Kassel, GermanyUniversity of South Pacific, Fiji IslandsUniversity of the West Indies, Centre for Environment and Development (UWICED), Jamaica University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago World Resources Institute, United StatesFUNDINGThe Governments of Belgium, The Netherlands, Norway and Sweden together with the UNEP Environment Fund funded the GEO-4 assessment and outreach activities.High-Level Consultative GroupJacqueline McGlade (Co-Chair), Agnes Kalibbala (Co-Chair), Ahmed Abdel-Rehim (Alternate), Svend Auken, Philippe Bourdeau, Preety Bhandari, Nadia Makram Ebeid, Idunn Eidheim, Exequiel Ezcurra, Peter Holmgren, Jorge Illueca, Fred Langeweg, John Matuszak, Jaco Tavenier, Dan Tunstall, Vedis Vik, Judi Wakhungu, Toral Patel-Weynand (Alternate)Coordinating Lead AuthorsJohn Agard, Joseph Alcamo, Neville Ash, Russell Arthurton, Sabrina Barker, Jane Barr, Ivar Baste, W. Bradnee Chambers, David Dent, Asghar Fazel, Habiba Gitay, Michael Huber, Jill Jger, Johan C. I. Kuylenstierna, Peter N. King, Marcel T. J. Kok, Marc A. Levy, Clever Mafuta, Diego Martino, Trilok S. Panwar, Walter Rast, Dale S. Rothman, George C. Varughese, and Zinta ZommersOutreach GroupRichard Black, Quamrul Chowdhury, Nancy Colleton, Heather Creech, Felix Dodds, Randa Fouad, Katrin Hallman, Alex Kirby, Nicholas Lucas, Nancy MacPherson, Patricia Made, Lucy OShea, Bruce Potter, Eric Quincieu, Nick Rance, Lakshmi M. N. Rao, Solitaire Townsend, Valentin YemelinGEO Coordination section Sylvia Adams, Ivar Baste, Munyaradzi Chenje, Harsha Dave, Volodymyr Demkine, Thierry De Oliveira, Carolyne Dodo-Obiero, Tessa Goverse, Elizabeth Migongo-Bake, Neeyati Patel, Josephine WambuaGEO Regional Coordinating teamAdel Abdelkader, Salvador Snchez Coln, Joan Eamer, Charles Sebukeera, Ashbindu Singh, Kakuko Nagatani Yoshida, Ron Witt, and Jinhua Zhang UNEP Extended TeamJohannes Akiwumi, Joana Akrofi, Christopher Ambala, Benedicte Boudol, Christophe Bouvier, Matthew Broughton, Edgar Arredondo Casillas, Juanita Castano, Marion Cheatle, Twinkle Chopra, Gerard Cunningham, Arie de Jong, Salif Diop, Linda Duquesnoy, Habib N. El-Habr, Norberto Fernandez, Silvia Giada, Peter Gilruth, Gregory Giuliani, Maxwell Gomera, Teresa Hurtado, Priscilla Josiah, Charuwan Kalyangkura, Nonglak Kasemsant, Amreeta Kent, Nipa Laithong, Christian Lambrecths, Marcus Lee, Achira Leophairatana, Arkadiy Levintanus, Monika Wehrle MacDevette, Esther Mendoza, Danapakorn Mirahong, Patrick Mmayi, Purity Muguku, John Mugwe, Josephine Nyokabi Mwangi, Bruce Pengra, Daniel Puig, Valarie Rabesahala, Anisur Rahman, Priscilla Rosana, Hiba Sadaka, Frits Schlingemann, Meg Seki, Nalini Sharma, Gemma Shepherd, Surendra Shrestha, James Sniffen, Ricardo Snchez Sosa, Anna Stabrawa, Gulmira Tolibaeva, Sekou Toure, Brennan Van Dyke, Hendricus Verbeek, Anne-Marie Verbeken, Janet Waiyaki, Mick Wilson, Kaveh Zahedi Production Coordination: Neeyati PatelGEO-4 e-peer-review coordination: Herb Caudill, Shane Caudill, Sylvia Adams, Harsha DaveData Support: Jaap van Woerden, Stefan Schwarzer, Andrea DeBono and Diawoye KonteMaps: Bounford.com and UNEP/GRID-ArendalEditors: Mirjam Schomaker, Michael Keating, and Munyaradzi ChenjeDesign and layout: Bounford.comCover Design: Audrey RinglerOutreach and Communications: Jacquie Chenje, Eric Falt, Elisabeth Guilbaud-Cox, Beth Ingraham, Steve Jackson, Mani Kabede, Fanina Kodre, Angele Sy Luh, Danielle Murray, Francis Njoroge, Nick Nuttall, Naomi Poulton, David Simpson, Jennifer Smith GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK 4viContentsForeword xviPreface xviiiReaders Guide xxSection A OverviewChapter 1 Environment for Development 3Section B State-and-Trends of the Environment: 19872007Chapter 2 Atmosphere 39Chapter 3 Land 81Chapter 4 Water 115Chapter 5 Biodiversity 157Section C Regional Perspectives: 19872007Chapter 6 Sustaining a Common Future 195Section D Human Dimensions of Environmental ChangeChapter 7 Vulnerability of People and the Environment: Challenges and Opportunities 301Chapter 8 Interlinkages: Governance for Sustainability 361Section E The Outlook Towards 2015 and BeyondChapter 9 The Future Today 397Section F Sustaining Our Common FutureChapter 10 From the Periphery to the Core of Decision Making Options for Action 457The GEO-4 Process 498Acronyms and Abbreviations 502Contributors 506Glossary 515Index 526viiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSChapter 1 Environment for DevelopmentFigure 1.1 Ratification of major multilateral environmental agreements 9Figure 1.2 Number of people affected by disasters of natural origin in SIDS 18Figure 1.3 Pollutants paths to the Arctic 20Figure 1.4 Population by region 21Figure 1.5 Life expectancy by region 22Figure 1.6 Urban population by region, per cent of total population 22Figure 1.7 Gross domestic product purchasing power parity per capita 24Figure 1.8 Primary energy supply per capita 27Figure 1.9 (a) Mobile phones, per 1 000 people and (b) Internet users, per 100 people, by region 28Chapter 2 AtmosphereFigure 2.1 Selected pollutants, their average residence times in the atmosphere and maximum extent of their impact 43Figure 2.2 Energy use per US$1 000 GDP (in PPP for 2000) 46Figure 2.3 Total primary energy supply byenergy source 46Figure 2.4 Number of passenger cars, by region 47Figure 2.5 Activity intensity versus per capita personal car use in 58 higher income metropolitan areas around the world 47Figure 2.6 Amount of space required to transport the same number of passengers by car, bus or bicycle 48Figure 2.7 Premature deaths due to outdoor urban PM10 exposure by region in 2000 52Figure 2.8 Emissions of (a) sulphur dioxide and (b) nitrogen oxides, by region 52Figure 2.9 Trends in average annual urban concentrations of pollutants (g/m3) in selected cities worldwide 53Figure 2.10 Estimated annual average concentrations of PM10 in cities with populations greater than 100 000, and in national capitals, for 1999 53Figure 2.11 Calculated annual average tropospheric ozone concentrations in 2000 obtained by combining the outputs of several models 54Figure 2.12 Global estimates of disease attributed to (a) indoor and (b) urban PM10 pollution, measured in DALYs 55Figure 2.13 The impact of local air pollution on the growth of wheat in suburban Lahore, Pakistan 56Figure 2.14 Global distribution of sulphur levels in diesel fuel in 2007 58Figure 2.15 Atmospheric concentrations of CO2over the last 10 000 years 60Figure 2.16 CO2 emissions from fossil fuels by region 60Figure 2.17 Per capita CO2 emissions at the regional level in 2003 61Figure 2.18 Observed warming over the 20th century compared with climate model calculations 61Figure 2.19 The (20002005) global carbon cycle 62Figure 2.20 Seasonal melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet 63Figure 2.21 Time scales and sea-level rise 64Figure 2.22 Paths to reach a 400 ppm CO2-equivalent greenhouse gas concentration target (Kyoto gas emissions plus land use CO2) 66Figure 2.23 Size of the Antarctic ozone hole over time 69Figure 2.24 Worldwide consumption of CFCs and HCFCs 70Figure 2.25 Effect of international agreements on the predicted abundance of ODS in the stratosphere 19802100 71Figure 2.26 Progress of leaded gasoline phase out in sub-Saharan Africa 73Chapter 3 LandFigure 3.1 Green and blue water, global flows 84Figure 3.2 Total forest area by region 89Figure 3.3 Primary forest area by region 89Figure 3.4 Designation of forests by region, 2005 90Figure 3.5 Declines in carbon in living biomass and in extent of forest 90Figure 3.6 Global land degradation using biomass production and rain-use efficiency trends between 19812003 92Figure 3.7 Kenya land use, biomass and rain-use efficiency 93Figure 3.8 PCDD (dioxin) in the atmosphere and deposition, 2003 94Figure 3.9 Drylands defined by the long-term mean of the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration 107Figure 3.10 Trends in greenness index in the Sahel, 19821999 108Figure 3.11 Arable land and area under cereals 110Chapter 4 WaterFigure 4.1 Global distribution of the worlds water 118Figure 4.2 The Global Ocean Conveyor 119Figure 4.3 The situation in relation to (a) drinking water and (b) sanitation coverage, 2004 120Figure 4.4 Changes in global water use by sector 121Figure 4.5 Annual precipitation trends, 19002000 126viiiFigure 4.6 Global glacier mass annual variability and cumulative values 127Figure 4.7 Reported cholera cases and fatalities by region 132Figure 4.8 Inorganic nitrogen levels per watershed by region, 19791990 and 19912005 133Figure 4.9 Algal blooms in the East China Sea 134Figure 4.10 Declines in organic contaminant concentrations in selected Russian and Chinese rivers 135Figure 4.11 Global volume of oil from accidental tanker spills exceeding 136 tonnes (1 000 barrels) 136Figure 4.12 Restoration of the Mesopotamian marshes in Iraq 144Figure 4.13 Exploitation status of marine fish stocks 145Figure 4.14 Fish trophic level changes in the North Atlantic and coastal areas at water depths less than 200 m, and total marine landings 146Figure 4.15 Fish meal usage in 2002 and 2012 (projected) 147Figure 4.16 Trends in aquaculture production, and trophic levels of fish used in fish meal production 147Chapter 5 BiodiversityFigure 5.1 Status of terrestrial ecoregions 163Figure 5.2 Examples of state, pressure and response indicators that have been adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity to measure progress towards the 2010 target 165Figure 5.3 Degree of protection of terrestrial ecoregions and large marine ecosystems, per cent 166Figure 5.4 Contemporary extent of agricultural systems 172Figure 5.5 Primary energy supply from various sources and projections to 2030 176Figure 5.6 Relationship between income and energy use in urban areas of 12 developing countries 177Figure 5.7 Harmful effects of ecosystem changes on human health 181Figure 5.8 Biocultural diversity in the world 183Chapter 6 Sustaining a Common FutureFigure 6.1 GDP by GEO region 201Figure 6.2 Ecological footprint and biocapacity by region, 2003 202Figure 6.3 Annual total and per capita GDP growth rate in Africa 204Figure 6.4 Population trends 204Figure 6.5 Major land-use categories in Africa, 2002 205Figure 6.6 Changes in sectoral shares in employment in sub-Saharan Africa 206Figure 6.7 Examples of current and possible future impacts and vulnerabilities associated with climate variability and change in Africa 207Figure 6.8 Per capita arable land 208Figure 6.9 Countries in crisis requiring external food assistance (October 2006) 211Figure 6.10 Energy consumption by sub-region 214Figure 6.11 Total CO2 emissions 215Figure 6.12 Trend in use of passenger cars 216Figure 6.13 Average annual PM10 concentrations (g/m3) in selected Asian cities, 2002 216Figure 6.14 Concentrations of NO2 (g/m3) in selected Asian cities, 2002 216Figure 6.15 Average freshwater use by sector in the period 19982002 217Figure 6.16 Access to improved drinking water as a per cent of the total population 218Figure 6.17 Status of coral reefs by sub-region, 2004 221Figure 6.18 Change in agricultural land area per sub-region 222Figure 6.19 Rice production in the Asia and the Pacific sub-regions 223Figure 6.20 Per capita municipal waste generation in selected Asian countries 224Figure 6.21 Annual mean temperature deviations in Europe 228Figure 6.22 Trends in total greenhouse gas emissions 229Figure 6.23 Estimated impact of different factors on the reduction of CO2 emissions from public heat and electricity generation in EU-25 229Figure 6.24 Household final consumption expenditure (European Union) 230Figure 6.25 Emissions and projections by sub-region for PM10and ozone precursors 232Figure 6.26 Car ownership in Europe 233Figure 6.27 Urban population in the EEA-32 countries exposed to air pollution over limit values and target values 235Figure 6.28 Unaccounted for water in Armenia 238Figure 6.29 Average pollution concentrations in European waters 238Figure 6.30 Urban population as a per cent of the total population 243Figure 6.31 Average annual forest change 247Figure 6.32 Catch of major groups of fish and invertebrates in the Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem 250ixFigure 6.33 Number of storms in the North Atlantic basin 251Figure 6.34 Re-infestation by Aedes aegypti in Latin America and the Caribbean 252Figure 6.35 Retreating glacier zone in the border area between Argentina and Chile 253Figure 6.36 Per capita GDP 253Figure 6.37 Per capita energy consumption 254Figure 6.38 Total energy consumption by sector, 2004 254Figure 6.39 Energy production by fuel type 256Figure 6.40 CO2 emissions by fuel type 257Figure 6.41 Housing density classes in the United States, 2000 258Figure 6.42 Comparison of per capita water use by region 261Figure 6.43 North American water use by sector, 2002 261Figure 6.44 Sources of freshwater impairment in the United States 263Figure 6.45 Trend in per capita GDP annual growth rate 265Figure 6.46 Trends and projections in per capita freshwater availability 266Figure 6.47 Current and projected water demand in West Asia 266Figure 6.48 The expansion of arable land 269Figure 6.49 Protected areas in West Asia 271Figure 6.50 Trends in annual per capita fish catch in West Asia 272Figure 6.51 Trends in urban population as a per cent of total population 272Figure 6.52 Per capita solid waste generation in selected countries 273Figure 6.53 Total final per capita energy consumption 274Figure 6.54 Arctic temperature trends 279Figure 6.55 Summer Arctic sea ice is shrinking at a rate of 8.9 per cent per decade 279Figure 6.56 The potential impact of a 5-metre sea level rise in Florida (above) and Southeast Asia (below) 281Figure 6.57 Trends in POPs and mercury in eggs of Thick-billed murres 283Figure 6.58 Numbers of ship-borne tourists to the Antarctic 286Figure 6.59 Ecological creditors and debtors 289Chapter 7 Vulnerability of People and the Environment: Challenges and OpportunitiesFigure 7.1 Progress to meeting MDG 1 305Figure 7.2 Regional trends and projections for 200510 in under-five mortality rates 306Figure 7.3 Foreign direct investment and aid dependency 307Figure 7.4 Number of armed conflicts by type 308Figure 7.5 Government effectiveness (2005) 309Figure 7.6 Research and development (R&D) intensity 310Figure 7.7 Environmental health risk transitions 311Figure 7.8 Poverty and the lack of access to basic services, 2002 311Figure 7.9 Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) and Human Development Index 312Figure 7.10 Causes of food emergencies in developing countries 314Figure 7.11 Domestic extraction used in EU-15 compared to imports of industrial minerals and ores 315Figure 7.12 Highest risk hot spots by natural hazard type 317Figure 7.13 Composition of transboundary waste reported by the parties to the Basel Convention in 2000 319Figure 7.14 Radioactive, chemical and biological hazards in Central Asia 320Figure 7.15 Spatial distribution of typical forms of the dryland archetype 323Figure 7.16 Vulnerability to drought and impacts on well-being 325Figure 7.17 Fish catch landings of Newfoundland and Labrador 327Figure 7.18 Landings in high seas by major fishing countries 328Figure 7.19 Links between climate-related changes and human health in Greenlands indigenous communities 329Figure 7.20 Trends and projections in oil security for energy-importing high- and low-income regions 331Figure 7.21 Environmental vulnerability scores for SIDS 333Figure 7.22 Caribbean casualties due to hurricanes 334Figure 7.23 Health status of four villages near the Barekese Dam in Ghana 338Figure 7.24 Coastal population and shoreline degradation 340Figure 7.25 Overall losses and insured losses due to natural hazards 341Figure 7.26 Example of a poverty map for Kenya 352Figure 7.27 Net ODA as a percentage of GNI in 2006 355xChapter 8 Interlinkages: Governance for SustainabilityFigure 8.1 Our shrinking Earth 367Figure 8.2 A variation of the GEO-4 conceptual framework highlighting the dual role of the social and economic sectors 368Figure 8.3 The nitrogen cascade and associated environmental impacts 371Figure 8.4 Linkages and feedback loops among desertification, global climate change and biodiversity loss 372Figure 8.5 Number of people affected by climate-related disasters in developing and developed countries 374Figure 8.6 Multiple environmental changes and their effects on human well-being constituents and determinants 375Figure 8.7 Waste trafficking 380Figure 8.8 International governance-environment-development-trade interlinkages 381Chapter 9 The Future TodayFigure 9.1 Strength of investments in opportunities to reduce vulnerability in human-environment systems and improving human well-being 402Figure 9.2 Population trends 412Figure 9.3 Gross domestic product 412Figure 9.4 Total global exports 412Figure 9.5 GDP per capita 413Figure 9.6 Global GINI index of income across states and households 413Figure 9.7 Ratio of GDP per capita top 10 per cent of population over bottom 10 per cent of population 414Figure 9.8 Total primary energy use 414Figure 9.9 Per capita primary energy use 414Figure 9.10 Global primary energy use by fuel 415Figure 9.11 Global anthropogenic SOX emissions by sector 415Figure 9.12 Global total equivalent carbon emissions from anthropogenic sources by sector 416Figure 9.13 Per capita equivalent carbon emissions from energy and industry by region 416Figure 9.14 Atmospheric concentration of CO2416Figure 9.15 Global mean temperature deviation trends since pre-industrial times 417Figure 9.16 Sea-level rise due to climate change 418Figure 9.17 Cropland and pasture by region 419Figure 9.18 Modern biofuel plantations as percentage of total land cover by region 419Figure 9.19 Forest land by region 419Figure 9.20 Global extent of soils with high water erosion risk 419Figure 9.21 Cereal yield by region 420Figure 9.22 Per capita food availability 420Figure 9.23 Global water withdrawals by sector 421Figure 9.24 Population living in river basins facing severe water stress 422Figure 9.25 Untreated domestic and municipal wastewater by region 422Figure 9.26 Mean species abundance and trends, 2000 and 2050 424Figure 9.27 Change in mean original species abundance (MSA) from 2000 by region 425Figure 9.28 Contribution to historical decline in mean original species abundance (MSA) to 2000 and to 2050 Global 425Figure 9.29 Total landings from marine fisheries 427Figure 9.30 Mean tropic index (MTI) of global fish landings 427Figure 9.31 Change in total biomass of select groups of fish 427Figure 9.32 Proportion of population with income less than US$1/day by region 429Figure 9.33 Proportion of malnourished children for selected regions 429Figure 9.34 Net enrolment in primary education by region 429Figure 9.35 Gender ratios of enrolment in primary and secondary education by region 430Figure 9.36 Life expectancy at birth by region 430Figure 9.37a Population trends Africa 432Figure 9.37b GDP/capita Africa 432Figure 9.37c Population with income less than US$1/day Africa 432Figure 9.37d Childhood malnutrition Africa 432Figure 9.37e Population living in river basins facing severe water stress Africa 432Figure 9.37f Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas Africa 432Figure 9.37g Primary energy use by fuel type Africa 433Figure 9.37h Equivalent carbon emissions Africa 433Figure 9.37i Anthropogenic SOX emissions Africa 433Figure 9.37j Treated and untreated wastewater Africa 433Figure 9.37k Historical and future declines in MSA Africa 433Figure 9.38a Population trends Asia and the Pacific 435Figure 9.38b GDP/capita Asia and the Pacific 435xiFigure 9.38c Population with income less than US$1/day Asia and the Pacific 435Figure 9.38d Childhood malnutrition Asia and the Pacific 435Figure 9.38e Population living in river basins facing severe water stress Asia and the Pacific 435Figure 9.38f Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas Asia and the Pacific 435Figure 9.38g Primary energy demand by fuel Asia and the Pacific 436Figure 9.38h Equivalent carbon emissions Asia and the Pacific 436Figure 9.38i Anthropogenic SOX emissions Asia and the Pacific 436Figure 9.38j Treated and untreated wastewater Asia and the Pacific 436Figure 9.38k Historical and future declines in MSA Asia and the Pacific 436Figure 9.39a Population trends Europe 437Figure 9.39b GDP/capita Europe 437Figure 9.39c Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas Europe 437Figure 9.39d Population living in river basins facing severe water stress Europe 437Figure 9.39e Equivalent carbon emissions Europe 437Figure 9.39f Anthropogenic SOX emissions Europe 437Figure 9.39g Primary energy use by fuel type Europe 438Figure 9.39h Treated and untreated wastewater Europe 438Figure 9.39i Historical and future declines in MSA Europe 438Figure 9.40a Population trends Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40b GDP/capita Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40c Population with income less than US$1/day Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40d Childhood malnutrition Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40e Population living in river basins facing severe water stress Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40f Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas Latin America and the Caribbean 439Figure 9.40g Primary energy use by fuel type Latin America and the Caribbean 440Figure 9.40h Equivalent carbon emissions Latin America and the Caribbean 440Figure 9.40i Anthropogenic SOX emissions Latin America and the Caribbean 440Figure 9.40j Treated and untreated wastewater Latin America and the Caribbean 440Figure 9.40k Historical and future declines in MSA Latin America and the Caribbean 440Figure 9.41a Population trends North America 442Figure 9.41b GDP/capita North America 442Figure 9.41c Population living in river basins facing severe water stress North America 442Figure 9.41d Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas North America 442Figure 9.41e Equivalent carbon emissions North America 442Figure 9.41f Anthropogenic SOX emissions North America 442Figure 9.41g Primary energy use by fuel type North America 443Figure 9.41h Treated and untreated wastewater North America 443Figure 9.41i Historical and future declines in MSA North America 443Figure 9.42a Population trends West Asia 444Figure 9.42b GDP/capita West Asia 444Figure 9.42c Population with income less than US$1/day West Asia 444Figure 9.42d Childhood malnutrition West Asia 444Figure 9.42e Population living in river basins facing severe water stress West Asia 444Figure 9.42f Rate of change in cropland, pasture and forest areas West Asia 444Figure 9.42g Primary energy use by fuel type West Asia 445Figure 9.42h Equivalent carbon emissions West Asia 445Figure 9.42i Anthropogenic SOX emissions West Asia 445Figure 9.42j Treated and untreated wastewater West Asia 445Figure 9.42k Historical and future declines in MSA West Asia 445Figure 9.43 Historical and future declines in MSA Polar (Greenland) 447Figure 9.44 Rate of change in global water withdrawals 448Figure 9.45 Rate of change of global pasture and cropland area 448Figure 9.46 Rate of change of global forest area 448Figure 9.47 Rate of change in average global MSA remaining 449xiiFigure 9.48 Rate of change in global atmospheric CO2 concentrations 449Figure 9.49 Rate of change of global temperature 449Chapter 10 From the Periphery to the Core of Decision Making Options for Action Figure 10.1 Two tracks to address environmental problems with proven and emerging solutions 460Figure 10.2 Mapping environmental problems according to management and reversibility 461Figure 10.3 Global and regional targets and monitoring programmes 465Figure 10.4 A continuum of SEA application 477LIST OF BOXESChapter 1 Environment for DevelopmentBox 1.1 Environment as the foundation for development 10Box 1.2 Human well-being 13Box 1.3 Ecosystem services 15Box 1.4 Wild meat trade 16Box 1.5 Material well-being from fisheries 17Box 1.6 Conflict in Sierra Leone and Liberia, and refugee settlement in Guinea 19Box 1.7 Chemicals affect Arctic peoples 20Box 1.8 Demographic transition 22Box 1.9 Urban sprawl, Las Vegas 23Box 1.10 Debt repayments continue to be a major impediment to growth 24Box 1.11 Trade, growth and the environment 26Box 1.12 Types of responses 29Box 1.13 Valuing the removal of the Elwha and Glines Dams 32Box 1.14 The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 33Chapter 2 AtmosphereBox 2.1 Energy use in the context of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 44Box 2.2 Examples of inertia in drivers 44Box 2.3 Features of different air pollutants 52Box 2.4 Key air pollution issues differ around the world 54Box 2.5 The health impacts of fine particles 56Box 2.6 Positive feedbacks in the Earth system 62Box 2.7 Ozone-depleting substances 69Box 2.8 UV-B radiation impacts in the Arctic 70Box 2.9 Climate change and stratospheric ozone interlinked systems 71Box 2.10 Worldwide ban on leaded gasoline within reach, with progress in sub-Saharan African countries 73Chapter 3 LandBox 3.1 Drivers and pressures affecting forest ecosystems 89Box 3.2 Sustainable forest management by smallholders in the Brazilian Amazon 91Box 3.3 Land degradation in Kenya 93Box 3.4 Soil erosion in the Pampas 96Box 3.5 Irrigation and salinity in West Asia 99Box 3.6 Disturbances in the carbon cycle due to losses of soil organic matter 100Box 3.7 Soil protection from chemicals in the European Union 101Box 3.8 The success story of the Dust Bowl 103Box 3.9 Gains can be made through better water use efficiency 104Box 3.10 Responses needed to deal with desertification 109Chapter 4 WaterBox 4.1 Sediment trapping is shortening the useful lifespan of dams 130Box 4.2 Increasing frequency and area of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the East China Sea 134Box 4.3 Physical destruction of coastal aquatic ecosystems in Meso-America 137Box 4.4 Coastal wetlands provide buffers to storm surges and extreme wave events 141Box 4.5 Implementation of European Union Water Framework Directive 141Box 4.6 Watershed markets 142Box 4.7 Restoration of ecosystems 144Box 4.8 Economic value of wetlands in the Middle Mun and Lower Songkhram River Basins 148Box 4.9 Integrated water resources management (IWRM) 150Chapter 5 BiodiversityBox 5.1 Life on Earth 160Box 5.2 Value of biodiversity and ecosystem services 161Box 5.3 The sixth extinction 162Box 5.4 Deep-sea biodiversity 163Box 5.5 Coral reefs in the Caribbean 170Box 5.6 Mangrove restoration for buffering storm surges in Viet Nam 171Box 5.7 Serenading sustainability: rewarding coffee farmers in Central America for biodiversity-friendly practices 175xiiiBox 5.8 Initiatives for implementation by biodiversity Multilateral Environmental Agreements 175Box 5.9 Biodiversity and energy supply for the poor 177Box 5.10 Examples of climate change impacts on species 177Box 5.11 Top biofuel producers in 2005 (million litres) 178Box 5.12 Payments for ecosystem services: reforesting the Panama Canal Watershed 185Box 5.13 Key questions to assist a fuller consideration of biodiversity and governance in policy development and implementation 186Box 5.14 Access and benefit sharing in India 187Box 5.15 Information gaps and research needs 189Chapter 6 Sustaining a Common FutureBox 6.1 Increasing demand diminishing global natural resources 202Box 6.2 Nature-based tourism 207Box 6.3 Drought frequency and extent 208Box 6.4 Deserts and dust 210Box 6.5 Food aid 211Box 6.6 Wetland conversion and the endangered wattled crane 212Box 6.7 Stream-flow modifications in the Zambezi River 213Box 6.8 Environment action plans 213Box 6.9 Progress towards the Millennium Development Goals 214Box 6.10 Water pollution and human health in South Asia and South East Asia 218Box 6.11 Climate change and its potential impacts 220Box 6.12 Electronic waste a growing human and environmental health hazard 225Box 6.13 Country groupings for Europe often referred to in this chapter 227Box 6.14 Energy efficiency and industrial restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe 229Box 6.15 Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) and the environmental policy agenda 231Box 6.16 Rising transport demand outstrips technical improvements 233Box 6.17 Lead a success story? 234Box 6.18 Marginalization of rural areas 236Box 6.19 Water supply and sanitation in Armenia 238Box 6.20 Energy supply and consumption patterns 241Box 6.21 Regional participation in global multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) 242Box 6.22 Cultural diversity, traditional knowledge and trade 246Box 6.23 Agricultural intensification in Latin America and the Caribbean 247Box 6.24 Fisheries fluctuation in the Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem 250Box 6.25 Health, climate and land-use change: re-emerging epidemics 252Box 6.26 Energy efficiency makes economic sense 255Box 6.27 Fossil fuels and human health in North America 256Box 6.28 Potential human health impacts of climate change 257Box 6.29 States, provinces, municipalities and businesses take climate change action 257Box 6.30 Sprawl is threatening biodiversity in the United States 259Box 6.31 Sprawl and human health 260Box 6.32 Water shortages in the North American west 261Box 6.33 Drinking water, wastewater treatment and public health 262Box 6.34 The Great Lakes 264Box 6.35 Depletion of fossil groundwater in the GCC: what happens when the water is gone? 267Box 6.36 The health impacts of water pollution 268Box 6.37 Coral reef degradation and bleaching 271Box 6.38 Phasing out leaded gasoline in Lebanon 274Box 6.39 The Gulfs first wind power plant 275Box 6.40 Global-scale ecosystem services provided by the Polar Regions 277Box 6.41 From algae to polar bears, climate change is affecting Arctic biota at many scales 280Box 6.42 Polar Regions and ocean circulation 281Box 6.43 Hunters adapting to climate change 282Box 6.44 Habitat loss and fragmentation 285Box 6.45 The importance of monitoring and assessing species distribution and abundance 286Box 6.46 The Mediterranean Sea: taking a holistic approach 288Chapter 7 Vulnerability of People and the Environment: Challenges and OpportunitiesBox 7.1 The concept of vulnerability 304Box 7.2 A less violent world 308Box 7.3 Environmental justice 314Box 7.4 Contamination in Central Asias Ferghana-Osh-Khudjand area 320Box 7.5 Analysing different types of vulnerability in drylands 323Box 7.6 Institutional reform for poverty alleviation in drylands 326xivBox 7.7 Conflicts over marine resources 327Box 7.8 Indigenous Arctic Peoples 329Box 7.9 The resource paradox: vulnerabilities of natural resource rich, exporting countries 331Box 7.10 The ethanol programme in Brazil 332Box 7.11 Disaster preparedness and well-being 334Box 7.12 Ecotourism: paying the costs of invasive alien species control 335Box 7.13 Twinning marine protection and resource replenishment in community-based conservation in Fiji 335Box 7.14 The Hyogo Framework for action 336Box 7.15 Substituting micro-catchment for large-scale water projects 339Box 7.16 Increasing disaster vulnerability in urban areas: the New Orleans flood of 2005 342Box 7.17 Many Strong Voices building bonds 354Chapter 8 Interlinkages: Governance for SustainabilityBox 8.1 Feedback loops in the Arctic 369Box 8.2 System properties: thresholds, switches, tipping points and inertia 370Box 8.3 Examples of national-level mechanisms that bridge environmental governance challenges 377Box 8.4 Regional institutions and mechanisms 378Box 8.5 Eco-crime exploits loopholes of legal regimes 380Box 8.6 Sustainable consumption and production: the Marrakech Process 386Box 8.7 Portfolio management: analysis of impacts 387Box 8.8 Reinvesting resource rent: the case of Botswana 388Box 8.9 Types of governance disjunctures 390Box 8.10 Leadership and bridging organizations: bottom-up and top-down collaboration 391Chapter 9 The Future TodayBox 9.1 Comparing these climate projections with the Fourth IPCC assessment 417Box 9.2 Water stress 421Box 9.3 Defining and measuring biodiversity 423Box 9.4 Capturing the impact of environmental change on human well-being 426Chapter 10 From the Periphery to the Core of Decision Making Options for Action Box 10.1 Overview of global policy targets 465Box 10.2 Flexible use of policy instruments in Norway 470Box 10.3 Environment in Tanzanias public expenditure review 476Box 10.4 Rio Principle 10 and the Aarhus Convention 480Box 10.5 Acid rain 482Box 10.6 The changing role of the state 484Box 10.7 Monitoring implementation of the UNCCD in Niger 486Box 10.8 Use of market-based instruments in Europe 488Box 10.9 Documented returns on environmental investment 490Box 10.10 Value at risk revisited 491LIST OF TABLESChapter 1 Environment for DevelopmentTable 1.1 Links between the environment and the Millennium Development Goals 11Table 1.2 Economic instruments and applications 31Table 1.3 Purpose and application of different valuation approaches 32Chapter 2 AtmosphereTable 2.1 Trends and relevance of drivers for atmospheric issues 45Table 2.2 Linkages between state changes in the atmospheric environment and environmental and human impacts 50Table 2.3 Selected policies and measures to mitigate climate change 67Table 2.4 The most recent targets set by international conventions for substances emitted to the atmosphere 72Table 2.5 Progress from 1987 to 2007 in key factors for successful management of stratospheric ozone, climate change and air pollution 75Chapter 3 LandTable 3.1 Pressures and drivers of land-use change 85Table 3.2 Global land use areas unchanged (thousands km2) and conversions 19872006 (thousands km2/yr) 86Table 3.3 Links between land changes and human well-being 86Table 3.4 Progress towards sustainable forest management 91Table 3.5 Ecosystem and farming system responses to water scarcity 98xvChapter 4 WaterTable 4.1 Linkages between state changes in the water environment and environmental and human impacts 123Table 4.2 Observed sea-level rise, and estimated contributions from different sources 125Table 4.3 Impacts of excessive groundwater withdrawal 131Table 4.4 Linkages between state changes in aquatic ecosystems and environmental and human impacts 138Table 4.5 Selected responses to water issues addressed in this chapter 152Chapter 5 BiodiversityTable 5.1 Impacts on biodiversity of major pressures and associated effects on ecosystem services and human well-being 169Table 5.2 Biodiversity benefits to agriculture through ecosystem services 172Table 5.3 Energy sources and their impacts on biodiversity 179Table 5.4 Impacts of loss of cultural diversity 183Chapter 6 Sustaining a Common FutureTable 6.1 Key regional priority issues selected for GEO-4 203Table 6.2 African countries with 5 per cent or more of their land affected by salinization 209Table 6.3 Health and economic costs of PM10for selected cities 217Table 6.4 Change in mangrove area by sub-region 221Table 6.5 Threatened species by sub-region 221Table 6.6 Adoption of EURO vehicle emission standards by non-EU countries 234Table 6.7 Anticipated benefits of the EU Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution 235Table 6.8 Main threats to biodiversity reported in the pan-European Region 237Chapter 7 Vulnerability of People and the Environment: Challenges and OpportunitiesTable 7.1 Estimated attributable and avoidable burdens of 10 leading selected risk factors 307Table 7.2 Overview of archetypes analysed for GEO-4 318Table 7.3 Some findings of the World Commission on Dams 338Table 7.4 Links between vulnerability and the achievement of the MDGs, and opportunities for reducing vulnerability and meeting the MDGs 345Chapter 8 Interlinkages: Governance for SustainabilityTable 8.1 Recommendations from some recent UN environmental governance reform processes 383Chapter 9 The Future TodayTable 9.1 Key questions related to scenario assumptions 403Table 9.2: Progress on the MDGs across the scenarios 428Chapter 10 From the Periphery to the Core of Decision Making Options for Action Table 10.1 Classification of environmental policy instruments 468Table 10.2 Quantitative targets for Japans 3R Policy for 20002010 473xviForewordFew global issues are more important than the environment and climate change. Since taking office, I have consistently emphasized the dangers of global warming, environmental degradation, the loss of biodiversity and the potential for conflict growing out of competition over dwindling natural resources such as water the topics which are analysed in the GEO-4 report. Dealing with these issues is the great moral, economic and social imperative of our time.ENVIRONMENTRapid environmental change is all around us. The most obvious example is climate change, which will be one of my top priorities as Secretary-General. But that is not the only threat. Many other clouds are on the horizon, including water shortages, degraded land and the loss of biodiversity. This assault on the global environment risks undermining the many advances human society has made in recent decades. It is undercutting our fight against poverty. It could even come to jeopardize international peace and security. These issues transcend borders. Protecting the global environment is largely beyond the capacity of individual countries. Only concerted and coordinated international action will be sufficient. The world needs a more coherent system of international environmental governance. And we need to focus in particular on the needs of the poor, who already suffer disproportionately from pollution and disasters. Natural resources and ecosystems underpin all our hopes for a better world. ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGEIssues of energy and climate change can have implications for peace and security. This is especially true in vulnerable regions that face multiple stresses at the same time pre-existing conflict, poverty and unequal access to resources, weak institutions, food insecurity, and incidence of diseases such as HIV/AIDS. We must do more to use and develop renewable energy sources. Greater energy efficiency is also vital. So are cleaner energy technologies, including advanced fossil fuel and renewable energy technologies, which can create jobs, boost industrial development, reduce air pollution and help to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. This is a matter of urgency that requires sustained, concerted and high-level attention. It has a broad impact not just on the environment but also on economic and social development, and needs to be considered in the context of sustainable development. It should be a concern to all countries, rich or poor.Energy, climate change, industrial development and air pollution are critical items on the international agenda. Addressing them in unison creates many win-win opportunities and is crucial for sustainable development. We need to take joint action on a global scale to address climate change. There are many policy and technological options available to address the impending crisis, but we need the political will to seize them. I ask you to join the fight against climate change. If we do not act, the true cost of our failure will be borne by succeeding xviigenerations, starting with yours. That would be an unconscionable legacy; one which we must all join hands to avert. BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is the foundation of life on earth and one of the pillars of sustainable development. Without the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, we will not achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is an essential element of any strategy to adapt to climate change. Through the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the international community is committed to conserving biodiversity and combating climate change. The global response to these challenges needs to move much more rapidly, and with more determination at all levels global, national and local. For the sake of current and future generations, we must achieve the goals of these landmark instruments. WATERThe state of the worlds waters remains fragile and the need for an integrated and sustainable approach to water resource management is as pressing as ever. Available supplies are under great duress as a result of high population growth, unsustainable consumption patterns, poor management practices, pollution, inadequate investment in infrastructure and low efficiency in water-use. The water-supply-demand gap is likely to grow wider still, threatening economic and social development and environmental sustainability. Integrated water resource management will be of crucial importance in overcoming water scarcity. The Millennium Development Goals have helped to highlight the importance of access to safe drinking water supplies and adequate sanitation, which undeniably separates people living healthy and productive lives from those living in poverty and who are most vulnerable to various life-threatening diseases. Making good on the global water and sanitation agenda is crucial to eradicating poverty and achieving the other development goals. INDUSTRYIncreasingly, companies are embracing the Global Compact not because it makes for good public relations, or because they have paid a price for making mistakes. They are doing so because in our interdependent world, business leadership cannot be sustained without showing leadership on environmental, social and governance issues. Ban Ki-moonSecretary-General of the United NationsUnited Nations Headquarters, New York, October 2007xviiiPrefaceThe Global Environment Outlook: environment for development (GEO-4) report is published in what may prove to be a remarkable year a year when humanity faced up to the scale and pace of environmental degradation with a new sense of realism and honesty matched by firm, decisive and above all, imaginative action.It highlights the unprecedented environmental changes we face today and which we have to address together. These changes include climate change, land degradation, collapse of fisheries, biodiversity loss, and emergence of diseases and pests, among others. As society, we have the responsibility to tackle these and the development challenges we face. The trigger propelling countries and communities towards a rediscovery of collective responsibility is the most overarching challenge of this generation: climate change.Humanitys capacity to order its affairs in a stable and sustainable way is likely to prove impossible if greenhouse gases are allowed to rise unchecked. Attempts to meet the Millennium Development Goals relating to poverty, water and other fundamental issues may also fail without swift and sustained action towards de-carbonizing economies.The difference between this GEO and the third report, which was released in 2002, is that claims and counter claims over climate change are in many ways over. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has put a full stop behind the science of whether human actions are impacting the atmosphere and clarified the likely impacts impacts not in a far away future but within the lifetime of our generation.The challenge now is not whether climate change is happening or whether it should be addressed. The challenge now is to bring over 190 nations together in common cause. The prize is not just a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases, it is a comprehensive re-engagement with core objectives and principles of sustainable development.For climate change, by its very nature cannot be compartmentalized into one ministerial portfolio, a single-line entry in corporate business plans or a sole area of NGO activism. Climate change, while firmly an environmental issue is also an environmental threat that impacts on every facet of government and public life from finance and planning to agriculture, health, employment and transport.If both sides of the climate coin can be addressed emission reductions and adaptation then perhaps many of the other sustainability challenges can also be addressed comprehensively, cohesively and with a long-term lens rather than in the segmented, piecemeal and short-sighted ways of the past.GEO-4 underlines the choices available to policy-makers across the range of environmental, social and economic challenges both known and emerging. It underlines not only the enormous, trillion-dollar value of the Earths ecosystems and the goods-and-services they provide, but also xixunderscores the central role the environment has for development and human well-being.The year 2007 is also momentous because it is the 20th anniversary of the report by the World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future. It augurs well that the reports principal architect and a person credited with popularizing the term sustainable development as the chair of the Commission former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland is one of three special climate envoys appointed this year by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.The GEO-4 report is a living example of international cooperation at its best. About 400 individual scientists and policy-makers, and more than 50 GEO Collaborating Centres and other partner institutions around the world participated in the assessment with many of them volunteering their time and expertise. I would like to thank them for their immense contribution.I would also like to thank the governments of Belgium, Norway, The Netherlands, and Sweden for their financial support to the GEO-4 assessment that was invaluable in, for example, funding global and regional meetings and the comprehensive peer review process of 1 000 invited experts. My thanks are also extended to the GEO-4 High-level Consultative Group whose members offered their invaluable policy and scientific expertise. Achim SteinerUnited Nations Under-Secretary General and Executive Director, United Nations Environment ProgrammexxReaders guideThe fourth Global Environment Outlook environmentfor development (GEO-4) places sustainable development at the core of the assessment, particularly on issues dealing with intra- and intergenerational equity. The analyses include the need and usefulness of valuation of environmental goods and services, and the role of such services in enhancing development and human well-being, and minimizing human vulnerability to environmental change. The GEO-4 temporal baseline is 1987, the year in which the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) published its seminal report, Our Common Future. The Brundtland Commission was established in 1983, under UN General Assembly resolution 38/161 to look at critical environment and development challenges. It was established at a time of an unprecedented rise in pressures on the global environment, and when grave predictions about the human future were becoming commonplace.The year 2007 is a major milestone in marking what has been achieved in the area of sustainable development and recording efforts from local to global to address various environmental challenges. It will be: Twenty years since the launch of Our Common Future, which defined sustainable development as a blueprint to address our interlinked environment and development challenges. Twenty years since the UNEP Governing Council adopted the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond, to implement the major findings of the WCED and set the world on a sustainable development path. Fifteen years since the World Summit on Environment and Development (the Rio Earth Summit), adopted Agenda 21, providing the foundation on which to build intra- and intergenerational equity. Five years since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002, which adopted the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.The year 2007 is also the halfway point to the implementation of some of the internationally recognized development targets, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These and other issues are analysed in the report.The GEO-4 assessment report is the result of a structured and elaborate consultative process, which is outlined at the end of this report. GEO-4 has 10 chapters, which provide an overview of global social and economic trends, and the state-and-trends of the global and regional environments over the past two decades, as well as the human dimensions of these changes. It highlights the interlinkages as well as the challenges of environmental change and opportunities that the environment provides for human well-being. It provides an outlook for the future, and policy options to address present and emerging environmental issues. The following are the highlights of each chapter:Chapter 1: Environment for Development examines the evolution of issues since Our Common Future popularized sustainable development, highlighting institutional developments and conceptual changes in thought since then, as well as the major environmental, social and economic trends, and their influence on human well-being.Chapter 2: Atmosphere highlights how atmospheric issues affect human well-being and the environment. Climate change has become the greatest challenge facing humanity today. Other atmospheric issues, such as air quality and ozone layer depletion are also highlighted.Chapter 3: Land addresses the land issues identified by UNEP regional groups, and highlights the pressures of human demands on the land resource as the cause of land degradation. The most dynamic elements of land-use change are the far-reaching changes in forest cover and composition, cropland expansion and intensification, and urban development.xxiChapter 4: Water reviews the pressures that are causing changes in the state of the Earths water environment in the context of global and regional drivers. It describes the state-and-trends in changes in the water environment, including its ecosystems and their fish stocks, emphasizing the last 20 years, and the impacts of changes on the environment and human well-being at local to global scales.Chapter 5: Biodiversity highlights biodiversity as a key pillar of ecologically sustainable development, providing a synthesis of the latest information on the state-and-trends of global biodiversity. It also links trends in biodiversity to the consequences for sustainable development in a number of key areas.Chapter 6: Sustaining a Common Future identifies and analyses priority environmental issues between 19872007 for each of the seven GEO regions: Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, West Asia and the Polar Regions. The chapter points out that for the first time since the GEO report series was first published in 1997, all seven regions recognize climate change as a major issue.Chapter 7: Vulnerability of People and the Environment: Challenges and Opportunities identifies challenges to and opportunities for improving human well-being through analyses of the vulnerability of some environmental systems and groups in society to environmental and socio-economic changes. The export and import of human vulnerability have grown as a result of the phenomenal global consumption, increased poverty and environmental change. Chapter 8: Interlinkages: Governance for Sustainability presents an assessment of the interlinkages within and between the biophysical components of the Earth system, environmental change, the development challenges facing human society, and the governance regimes developed to address such challenges. These elements are interlinked through significant systemic interactions and feedbacks, drivers, policy and technology synergies and trade-offs. Governance approaches that are flexible, collaborative and learning-based may be more responsive and adaptive to change, and therefore, better able to cope with the challenges of linking environment to development.Chapter 9: The Future Today builds on previous chapters by presenting four scenarios to the year 2050 Markets First, Policy First, Security Firstand Sustainability First which explore how current social, economic and environmental trends may unfold, and what this means for the environment and human well-being. The scenarios examine different policy approaches and societal choices. They are presented using narrative storylines and quantitative data at both global and regional levels. The degree of many environmental changes differs over the next half-century across the scenarios as a result of differences in policy approaches and societal choices.Chapter 10 From the Periphery to the Core of Decision Making Options for Action discusses the main environmental problems highlighted in earlier chapters, and categorizes them along a continuum from problems with proven solutions to problems for which solutions are emerging. It also describes the adequacy of current policy responses, and possible barriers to more effective policy formulation and implementation. It then outlines the future policy challenges, pointing to the need for a two-track approach: extending policies that have been demonstrated to work for conventional environmental problems into regions lagging behind, and beginning to tackle the emerging environmental problems through structural reforms to social and economic systems.FOURTH GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK(GEO-4) ASSESSMENTGEO-4 conceptual frameworkThe GEO-4 assessment uses the drivers-pressures-state-impacts-responses (DPSIR) framework in analysing the interaction between environmental change over the past two decades as well as in presenting the four scenarios in Chapter 9. The concepts of human well-being and ecosystem services are core in the analysis. However, the report broadens its assessment from focusing exclusively on ecosystems to cover the entire environment and the interaction with society. The framework attempts to reflect the key components of the complex and multidimensional, spatial and temporal chain of cause-and-effect that characterizes the interactions between society and the environment. The GEO-4 framework xxiiis generic and flexible, and recognizes that a specific thematic and geographic focus may require a specific and customized framework. The GEO-4 conceptual framework (Figure 1), therefore, contributes to societys enhanced understanding of the links between the environment and development, human well-being and vulnerability to environmental change. The framework places, together with the environment, the social issues and economic sectors in the impacts category rather than just exclusively in the drivers or pressures categories (Figure 1). The characteristics of the components of the GEO-4 analytical framework are explained below.DriversDrivers are sometimes referred to as indirect or underlying drivers or driving forces. They refer to fundamental processes in society, which drive activities with a direct impact on the environment. Key drivers include: demographics; consumption and production patterns; scientific and technological innovation; economic demand, markets and trade; distribution patterns; institutional and social-political frameworks and value systems. The characteristics and importance of each driver differ substantially from one region to another, within regions and within and between nations. For example, in the area of population dynamics, most developing countries are still facing population growth while developed countries are faced with a stagnant and STATE-AND-TRENDS (S):TIME:HUMAN SOCIETYLocalRegionalGlobalPRESSURES (P):DRIVERS (D):ENVIRONMENTRESPONSES (R)to environmental challenges:1987 2007 (long-term) 2050 (medium-term)IMPACTS (I):2015 (short-term)Retrospective OutlookFigure 1 GEO-4 conceptual frameworkNatural capital:atmosphere, land, water and biodiversityEnvironmental impacts and change: Climate change and depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer Biodiversity change Pollution, degradation and/or depletion of air,water, minerals and land (including desertification)Environmental factors determininghuman well-being Ecological services such as provisioning services(consumptive use), cultural services (non-consumptive use), regulating services andsupporting services (indirect use) Non-ecosystem natural resources ie hydrocarbons,minerals and renewable energy Stress, inter alia diseases, pests, radiationand hazardsDemographic, social (institutional)and material factors determininghuman well-beingChange in human well-beingbroadly defined as human freedoms of choice andactions, to achieve, inter alia: Security Basic material needs Good health Good social relationswhich may result in human development or poverty,inequity and human vulnerability.Formal and informal adaptation to, andmitigation of, environmental change (includingrestoration) by altering human activity anddevelopment patterns within and between the D,P and I boxes through inter alia: science andtechnology, policy, law and institutions.Natural processes: Solar radiation Volcanoes EarthquakesHuman interventions in the environment: Land use Resource extraction External inputs (fertilizers, chemicals, irrigation) Emissions (pollutants and waste) Modification and movement of organismsHuman development: Demographics Economic processes (consumption, production,markets and trade) Scientific and technological innovation Distribution pattern processes (inter- and intra-generational) Cultural, social, political and institutional (includingproduction and service sectors) processesMaterial, Human and Social Capitalxxiiiageing population. The resource demand of people influence environmental change.Pressures Key pressures include: emissions of substances which may take the form of pollutants or waste; external inputs such as fertilizers, chemicals and irrigation; land use; resource extraction; and modification and movement of organisms. Human interventions may be directed towards causing a desired environmental change such as land use, or they may be intentional or unintentional by-products of other human activities, for example, pollution. The characteristics and importance of each pressure may vary from one region to another, but is often a combination of pressures that lead to environmental change. For example, climate change is a result of emissions of different greenhouse gases, deforestation and land-use practices. Furthermore, the ability to create and transfer environmental pressures onto the environment of other societies varies from one region to another. Affluent societies with high levels of production, consumption and trade tend to contribute more towards global and transboundary environmental pressures than the less affluent societies which interact in more direct fashion with the environment in which they live. State-and-trendsEnvironmental state also includes trends, which often refers to environmental change. This change may be natural, human-induced or both. Examples of natural processes include solar radiation, extreme natural events, pollination, and erosion. Key forms of human induced environmental change include climate change, desertification and land degradation, biodiversity loss, and air and water pollution, for example. Different forms of natural or human-induced changes interact. One form of change, for example, climate change, will inevitably lead to ecosystem change, which may result in desertification and/or biodiversity loss. Different forms of environmental change can reinforce or neutralize each other. For example, a temperature increase due to climate change can, in Europe, partly be offset by changes in ocean currents triggered by climate change. The complexity of the physical, chemical and biological systems constituting the environment makes it hard to predict environmental change, especially when it is subject to multiple pressures. The state of the environment and its resilience to change varies greatly within and among regions due to different climatic and ecological conditions. Impacts The environment is directly or indirectly affected by the social and economic sectors, contributing to change (either negative or positive) in human well-being and in the capacity/ability to cope with environmental changes. Impacts, be they on human well-being, the social and economic sectors or environmental services, are highly dependent on the characteristics of the drivers and, therefore, vary markedly between developing and developed regions. ResponsesResponses address issues of vulnerability of both people and the environment, and provide opportunities for reducing human vulnerability and enhancing human well-being. Responses take place at various levels: for example, environmental laws and institutions at the national level, and multilateral environmental agreements and institutions at the regional and global levels. The capacity to mitigate and/or adapt to environmental change differs among and within regions, and capacity building is, therefore, a major and overarching component of the response components.The GEO-4 framework has been used in the analyses of issues in all the 10 chapters, both explicitly and implicitly. Its utility is in integrating the analyses to better reflect the cause-and-effect, and ultimately societys response in addressing the environmental challenges it faces. A variation of Figure 1 is presented in Chapter 8 as Figure 8.2 to better highlight the dual roles of economic sectors such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries and tourism in contributing to development and human well-being, and also in exerting pressure on the environment and influencing environmental change, and in some cases, to human vulnerability to such change.80oArctic Circle40oTropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn0o40oAntarctic Circle180o 135o 90o 45o180o 135o 90o 45oN oHu d s o nGu l f o fMe x i c oB a f f i nB a yCaribbeanS e aDenmarkStraitA R C T I C O C E A NCh u k c h iS e aB e a u f o r tS e aB e r i n gS e aBering Strait Gu l f o fAl a s k aDavisStraitP A C I F I CO C E A NN O R T HA T L A N T I CO C E A NS OA T L AO CA N T A R C T I CO C E A NSouth AmericaCaribbeanMeso-AmericaNorth AmericaPolar(Arctic)80oArctic Circle40oTropic of CancerTropic of Capricorn0o40oAntarctic Circle0o 45o 90o 135o0o 45o 90o 135oo r w e g i a nS e aNorthSeaBlack SeaRed SeaG u l f o fG u i n e aAralSeaS e a o fO k h o t sB e r i n gS e aSe aofJ apanEastChi naSeaYellowSeaB a y o fB e n g a l S o u t hC h i n aS e aCel ebesSeaC o r a lS e aT a s m a nS e aMozambiqueChannelGul fofAdenMe d i terraneanSeaCaspianSeaPhilippineSeaA R C T I CO C E A NB a r e n t s S e a K a r a S e aL a p t e vS e a E a s tS i b e r i a nS e aU T HN T I CE A NI N D I A NO C E A NP A C I F I CO C E A NA R C T I C O C E A NBalticSeaEastern EuropeCentralEuropeWesternEurope CentralAsiaSouth AsiaNorthwest Pacificand East AsiaSouth East AsiaSouthPacificAustraliaNorthern AfricaCentralAfricaEasternAfricaWesternAfricaWesternIndianOceanSouthernAfricaPolar(Antarctic)MashriqArabianPeninsulaNewZealandUNEP Regional OfficesCollaborating centresUNEP HeadquartersxxviName Region Sub-regionAFRICACameroon Africa Central AfricaCentral African Republic Africa Central AfricaChad Africa Central AfricaCongo Africa Central AfricaDemocratic Republic of the Congo Africa Central AfricaEquatorial Guinea Africa Central AfricaGabon Africa Central AfricaSo Tom and Prncipe Africa Central AfricaBurundi Africa Eastern AfricaDjibouti Africa Eastern AfricaEritrea Africa Eastern AfricaEthiopia Africa Eastern AfricaKenya Africa Eastern AfricaRwanda Africa Eastern AfricaSomalia Africa Eastern AfricaUganda Africa Eastern AfricaAlgeria Africa Northern AfricaEgypt Africa Northern AfricaLibyan Arab Jamahiriya Africa Northern AfricaMorocco Africa Northern AfricaSudan Africa Northern AfricaTunisia Africa Northern AfricaWestern Sahara Africa Northern AfricaAngola Africa Southern AfricaBotswana Africa Southern AfricaLesotho Africa Southern AfricaMalawi Africa Southern AfricaMozambique Africa Southern AfricaNamibia Africa Southern AfricaSaint Helena (United Kingdom) Africa Southern AfricaSouth Africa Africa Southern AfricaSwaziland Africa Southern AfricaUnited Republic of Tanzania Africa Southern AfricaZambia Africa Southern AfricaZimbabwe Africa Southern AfricaBenin Africa Western AfricaBurkina Faso Africa Western AfricaCape Verde Africa Western AfricaCote dIvoire Africa Western AfricaGEO-4 REGIONSxxviiName Region Sub-regionGambia Africa Western AfricaGhana Africa Western AfricaGuinea Africa Western AfricaGuinea-Bissau Africa Western AfricaLiberia Africa Western AfricaMali Africa Western AfricaMauritania Africa Western AfricaNiger Africa Western AfricaNigeria Africa Western AfricaSenegal Africa Western AfricaSierra Leone Africa Western AfricaTogo Africa Western AfricaComoros Africa Western Indian OceanMadagascar Africa Western Indian OceanMauritius Africa Western Indian OceanMayotte (France) Africa Western Indian OceanRunion (France) Africa Western Indian OceanSeychelles Africa Western Indian OceanASIA AND THE PACIFICAustralia Asia and the Pacific Australia and New ZealandNew Zealand Asia and the Pacific Australia and New ZealandKazakhstan Asia and the Pacific Central AsiaKyrgyzstan Asia and the Pacific Central AsiaTajikistan Asia and the Pacific Central AsiaTurkmenistan Asia and the Pacific Central AsiaUzbekistan Asia and the Pacific Central AsiaChina Asia and the Pacific NW Pacific and East AsiaDemocratic Peoples Republic of Korea Asia and the Pacific NW Pacific and East AsiaJapan Asia and the Pacific NW Pacific and East AsiaMongolia Asia and the Pacific NW Pacific and East AsiaRepublic of Korea Asia and the Pacific NW Pacific and East AsiaAfghanistan Asia and the Pacific South AsiaBangladesh Asia and the Pacific South AsiaBhutan Asia and the Pacific South AsiaIndia Asia and the Pacific South AsiaIran (Islamic Republic of) Asia and the Pacific South AsiaMaldives Asia and the Pacific South AsiaNepal Asia and the Pacific South AsiaPakistan Asia and the Pacific South AsiaSri Lanka Asia and the Pacific South AsiaxxviiiName Region Sub-regionBrunei Darussalam Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaCambodia Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaChristmas Island (Australia) Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaIndonesia Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaLao Peoples Democratic Republic Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaMalaysia Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaMyanmar Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaPhilippines Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaSingapore Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaThailand Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaTimor-Leste Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaViet Nam Asia and the Pacific South East AsiaAmerican Samoa (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificCocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) Asia and the Pacific South PacificCook Islands Asia and the Pacific South PacificFiji Asia and the Pacific South PacificFrench Polynesia (France) Asia and the Pacific South PacificGuam (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificJohnston Atoll (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificKiribati Asia and the Pacific South PacificMarshall Islands Asia and the Pacific South PacificMicronesia (Federated States of) Asia and the Pacific South PacificMidway Islands (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificNauru Asia and the Pacific South PacificNew Caledonia (France) Asia and the Pacific South PacificNiue Asia and the Pacific South PacificNorfolk Island (Australia) Asia and the Pacific South PacificNorthern Mariana Islands (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificPalau (Republic of) Asia and the Pacific South PacificPapua New Guinea Asia and the Pacific South PacificPitcairn Island (United Kingdom) Asia and the Pacific South PacificSamoa Asia and the Pacific South PacificSolomon Islands Asia and the Pacific South PacificTokelau (New Zealand) Asia and the Pacific South PacificTonga Asia and the Pacific South PacificTuvalu Asia and the Pacific South PacificVanuatu Asia and the Pacific South PacificWake Island (United States) Asia and the Pacific South PacificWallis and Futuna (France) Asia and the Pacific South PacificxxixName Region Sub-regionEUROPEAlbania Europe Central EuropeBosnia and Herzegovina Europe Central EuropeBulgaria Europe Central EuropeCroatia Europe Central EuropeCyprus Europe Central EuropeCzech Republic Europe Central EuropeEstonia Europe Central EuropeHungary Europe Central EuropeLatvia Europe Central EuropeLithuania Europe Central EuropeMontenegro Europe Central EuropePoland Europe Central EuropeRomania Europe Central EuropeSerbia Europe Central EuropeSlovakia Europe Central EuropeSlovenia Europe Central EuropeThe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Europe Central EuropeTurkey Europe Central EuropeArmenia Europe Eastern EuropeAzerbaijan Europe Eastern EuropeBelarus Europe Eastern EuropeGeorgia Europe Eastern EuropeMoldova, Republic of Europe Eastern EuropeRussian Federation Europe Eastern EuropeUkraine Europe Eastern EuropeAndorra Europe Western EuropeAustria Europe Western EuropeBelgium Europe Western EuropeDenmark Europe Western EuropeFaroe Islands (Denmark) Europe Western EuropeFinland Europe Western EuropeFrance Europe Western EuropeGermany Europe Western EuropeGibraltar (United Kingdom) Europe Western EuropeGreece Europe Western EuropeGuernsey (United Kingdom) Europe Western EuropeHoly See Europe Western EuropeIceland Europe Western EuropeIreland Europe Western EuropeIsle of Man (United Kingdom) Europe Western EuropeIsrael Europe Western EuropeItaly Europe Western EuropeJersey (United Kingdom) Europe Western EuropexxxName Region Sub-regionLiechtenstein Europe Western EuropeLuxembourg Europe Western EuropeMalta Europe Western EuropeMonaco Europe Western EuropeNetherlands Europe Western EuropeNorway Europe Western EuropePortugal Europe Western EuropeSan Marino Europe Western EuropeSpain Europe Western EuropeSvalbard and Jan Mayen Islands (Norway) Europe Western EuropeSweden Europe Western EuropeSwitzerland Europe Western EuropeUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandEurope Western EuropeLATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEANAnguilla (United Kingdom) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanAntigua and Barbuda Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanAruba (Netherlands) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanBahamas Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanBarbados Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanBritish Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanCayman Islands (United Kingdom) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanCuba Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanDominica Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanDominican Republic Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanGrenada Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanGuadeloupe (France) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanHaiti Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanJamaica Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanMartinique (France) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanMontserrat (United Kingdom) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanNetherlands Antilles (Netherlands) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanPuerto Rico (United States) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanSaint Kitts and Nevis Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanSaint Lucia Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanSaint Vincent and the Grenadines Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanTrinidad and Tobago Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanTurks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanUnited States Virgin Islands (United States) Latin America and the Caribbean CaribbeanBelize Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaCosta Rica Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaEl Salvador Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaGuatemala Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaHonduras Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaxxxiName Region Sub-regionMexico Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaNicaragua Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaPanama Latin America and the Caribbean Meso-AmericaArgentina Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaBolivia Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaBrazil Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaChile Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaColombia Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaEcuador Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaFrench Guiana (France) Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaGuyana Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaParaguay Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaPeru Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaSuriname Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaUruguay Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaVenezuela Latin America and the Caribbean South AmericaNORTH AMERICACanada North America North AmericaUnited States of America North America North AmericaPOLARAntarctic Polar AntarcticArctic (The eight Arctic countries are: Alaska (United States), Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden)Polar ArcticWEST ASIABahrain West Asia Arabian PeninsulaKuwait West Asia Arabian PeninsulaOman West Asia Arabian PeninsulaQatar West Asia Arabian PeninsulaSaudi Arabia West Asia Arabian PeninsulaUnited Arab Emirates West Asia Arabian PeninsulaYemen West Asia Arabian PeninsulaIraq West Asia MashriqJordan West Asia MashriqLebanon West Asia MashriqOccupied Palestinian Territory West Asia MashriqSyrian Arab Republic West Asia MashriqOverviewChapter 1 Environment for DevelopmentA SectionThe environment is where we live; and development is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable.Our Common FutureCoordinating lead authors: Diego Martino and Zinta ZommersLead authors: Kerry Bowman, Don Brown, Flavio Comim, Peter Kouwenhoven, Ton Manders, Patrick Milimo, Jennifer Mohamed-Katerere, and Thierry De OliveiraContributing authors: Dan Claasen, Simon Dalby, Irene Dankelman, Shawn Donaldson, Nancy Doubleday, Robert Fincham, Wame Hambira, Sylvia I. Karlsson, David MacDonald, Lars Mortensen, Renata Rubian, Guido Schmidt-Traub, Mahendra Shah, Ben Sonneveld, Indra de Soysa, Rami Zurayk, M.A. Keyzer, and W.C.M. Van VeenChapter review editor: Tony PratoChapter coordinators: Thierry De Oliveira, Tessa Goverse, and Ashbindu SinghEnvironment for DevelopmentChapter 1Credit: fotototo/Still PicturesMain messagesIt is 20 years since the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future, emphasized the need for a sustainable way of life which not only addresses current environmental challenges but also ensures a secure society well into the future. This chapter analyses the evolution of such ideas as well as global trends in relation to environment and socio-economic development. The following are its main messages:The world has changed radically since 1987 socially, economically and environmentally. Global population has grown by more than 1.7 billion, from about 5 billion people. The global economy has expanded and is now characterized by increasing globalization. Worldwide, GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) has increased from US$5 927 in 1987 to US$8 162 in 2004. However, growth has been distributed unequally between regions. Global trade has increased during the past 20 years, fuelled by globalization, better communication, and low transportation costs. Technology has also changed. Communications have been revolutionized with the growth of telecommunications and the Internet. Worldwide, mobile phone subscribers increased from 2 people per 1 000 in 1990 to 220 per 1 000 in 2003. Internet use increased from 1 person per 1 000 in 1990 to 114 per 1 000 in 2003. Finally, political changes have also been extensive. Human population and economic growth has increased demand on resources.The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) recognized 20 years ago that the environment, economic and social issues are interlinked. It recommended that the three be integrated into development decision making. In defining sustainable development, the Commission acknowledged the need for both intra- and intergenerational equity development that meets not only todays human needs but also those of more people in the future.Changing drivers, such as population growth, economic activities and consumption patterns, have placed increasing pressure on the environment. Serious and persistent barriers to sustainable development remain. In the past 20 years, there has been limited integration of environment into development decision making. Environmental degradation is therefore undermining development and threatens future development progress. Development is a process that enables people to better their well-being. Long-term development can only be achieved through sustainable management of various assets: financial, material, human, social and natural. Natural assets, including water, soils, plants and animals, underpin peoples livelihoods. Environmental degradation also threatens all aspects of human well-being. Environmental degradation has been demonstrably linked to human health problems, including some types of cancers, vector-borne diseases, emerging animal to human disease transfer, nutritional deficits and respiratory illnesses. The environment provides essential material assets and an economic base for human endeavour. Almost half the jobs worldwide depend on fisheries, forests or agriculture. Non-sustainable use of natural resources, including land, water, forests and fisheries, can threaten individual livelihoods as well as local, national and international economies. The environment can play a significant role in contributing to development and human well-being, but can also increase human vulnerability, causing human migration and insecurity, such as in the case of storms, droughts or environmental mismanagement. Environmental scarcity can foster cooperation, but also contribute to tensions or conflicts. Environmental sustainability, Millennium Development Goal 7, is critical to the attainment of the other MDG goals. Natural resources are the basis of subsistence in many poor communities. In fact, natural capital accounts for 26 per cent of the wealth of low-income countries. Up to 20 per cent of the total burden of disease in developing countries is associated with environmental risks. Poor women are particularly vulnerable to respiratory infections related to exposure to indoor air pollution. Acute respiratory infections are the leading cause of death in children, with pneumonia killing more children under the age of five than any other illness. A combination of unsafe water and poor sanitation is the worlds second biggest killer of children. About 1.8 million children die annually and about 443 million school days are missed due to diarrhoea. Clean water and air are powerful preventative medicines. Sustainable management of natural resources contributes to poverty alleviation, helps reduce diseases and child mortality, improves maternal health, and can contribute to gender equity and universal education. Some progress towards sustainable development has been made since 1987 when the WCED report, Our Common Future, was launched. The number of meetings and summits related to the environment and development has increased (for example, the 1992 Rio Earth Summit and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development), and there has been a rapid growth in multilateral environmental agreements (for example, the Kyoto Protocol and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants). Sustainable development strategies have been implemented at local, national, regional and international levels. An increasing number of scientific assessments (for example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) have contributed to a greater understanding of environmental challenges. In addition, proven and workable solutions have been identified for environmental problems that are limited in scale, highly visible and acute, (for example, industrial air and water pollution, local soil erosion and vehicle exhaust emission). However, some international negotiations have stalled over questions of equity and responsibility sharing. Interlinkages between drivers and pressures on the global environment make solutions complex. As a result, action has been limited on some issues, for example, climate change, persistent organic pollutants, fisheries management, invasive alien species and species extinction.Effective policy responses are needed at all levels of governance. While proven solutions continue to be used, action should also be taken to address both the drivers of change and environmental problems themselves. A variety of tools that have emerged over the past 20 years may be strategic. Economic instruments, such as property rights, market creation, bonds and deposits, can help correct market failures and internalize costs of protecting the environment. Valuation techniques can be used to understand the value of ecosystem services. Scenarios can provide insights on the future impacts of policy decisions. Capacity building and education are critical to generate knowledge and inform the decision making process. Society has the capaci