General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Services ... · General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations ... It helps fill in this mysterious gap in

General Studies Manual

for UPSC and State Public Services

Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-1: From Earliest Times to Indus Valley Civilization

www.gktoday.in

First Published in 2010

Last Updated: November 2013

© 2010-2013 Suresh Soni | All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied in any material form (including photo copying or

storing it in any medium in form of graphics, electronic or mechanical means and whether or not transient or

incidental to some other use of this publication) without written permission of the copyright owner.

Disclaimer

While all care has been taken in the preparation of this material, no responsibility is accepted by the author for any

errors, omissions or inaccuracies. The material provided in this resource has been prepared to provide general

information only. It is not intended to be relied upon or be a substitute for legal or other professional advice. No

responsibility can be accepted by the author for any known or unknown consequences that may result from reliance on

any information provided in this publication

http://www.gktoday.in/�

General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-1: From Earliest Times to Indus Valley Civilization

© 2010-2013 Suresh Soni | All Rights Reserved | Email: [email protected]

P a g e

2 | P a g e

Contents Archaeology & Ethnoarcheology .......................................................................................... 4 Prehistoric Period: Classification .......................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2. Palaeolithic Era .................................................................................................... 4 Sohanian culture ................................................................................................................... 5 Acheulian culture .................................................................................................................. 5

Technology in Acheulian Culture .................................................................................................... 6 Middle Palaeolithic Era ......................................................................................................... 6

Tools of middle Palaeolithic Era ...................................................................................................... 6 Upper Palaeolithic Era .......................................................................................................... 7 Tools of Upper Palaeolithic Era ............................................................................................. 7

Chapter 3. Mesolithic Era ...................................................................................................... 8 Tools of Mesolithic Era.................................................................................................................... 8

Changes in Life- Mesolithic Era ............................................................................................ 9 From Nomadism to Sedentary settlements ..................................................................................... 9 First Disposal of dead and making of Graves................................................................................... 9 Emerging arts .................................................................................................................................. 9 Food Production .............................................................................................................................. 9

Chapter 4. Neolithic Revolution, Mehrgarh Culture and Chalcolithic Era .......................... 10 Mehrgarh Culture................................................................................................................ 10

First Period .................................................................................................................................... 10 Second Period ............................................................................................................................... 11 Third Period .................................................................................................................................. 11 Fourth Period ................................................................................................................................ 11 Fifth Period ................................................................................................................................... 11 Sixth Period ................................................................................................................................... 11 Seventh Period .............................................................................................................................. 11 Eighth Period ................................................................................................................................ 12

Chalcolithic Period .............................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 5. Indus Valley Civilization ..................................................................................... 12

Notable Observations.......................................................................................................... 13 The questions of Origin of Indus Valley Civilization ............................................................ 13 Salient Common Features of Entire Civilization ................................................................. 13 Observations about Harappa and Mohen Jo-dero ............................................................... 14

Great Bath ..................................................................................................................................... 14 Observations about other sites ............................................................................................ 14 Life at Indus Valley Civilization ........................................................................................... 15

Administration .............................................................................................................................. 15 Language ...................................................................................................................................... 16 Religion ......................................................................................................................................... 16 Protoshiva or Pashupati ................................................................................................................ 16 Linga Worship .............................................................................................................................. 17 Tree Worship and other rituals ..................................................................................................... 17 Talisman ....................................................................................................................................... 17 Food: ............................................................................................................................................. 17 Dress: ............................................................................................................................................ 17 Sports and Entertainments: .......................................................................................................... 17 Tools, arms and weapons: ............................................................................................................. 17 Science & Technology ................................................................................................................... 17 Burial Practice ............................................................................................................................... 18 Economy ....................................................................................................................................... 18 Agriculture .................................................................................................................................... 18 Animal Husbandry ........................................................................................................................ 18



P a g e

3 | P a g e

Transportation .............................................................................................................................. 19 Foreign Affairs .............................................................................................................................. 19 Consumer Affairs .......................................................................................................................... 19 Finance, Business and Industry ..................................................................................................... 19 Metallurgy ..................................................................................................................................... 19 Pottery ........................................................................................................................................... 19 Seals .............................................................................................................................................. 20

Question of Decline of Indus Valley Civilization.................................................................. 20 Environmental Changes: ............................................................................................................... 20 Aryan Invasion: ............................................................................................................................. 21

Introduction The past of humankind has been divided into two broad categories viz. Prehistoric and historic. Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing and the historic period to the time following it. It has been so fare believed that Modern Humans originated in Africa and have lived on our planet for around 150,000 years. In recent months, there have been some challenges to this theory. The anthropologists have long theorized that humans emerged from Africa and into East and Southeast Asia around 60,000 years ago; there has been a significant lack of fossil evidence to support these claims. The earliest skull fossil evidence in the region had dated back 16,000 years and was found in the early 20th century. In August 2012, a new skull was found that dates back to 46,000 to 63,000 years. This discovery has bolstered the genetic studies that point to modern humans inhabiting Laos and the surrounding environs at that time, according to a report of the anthropological discovery published in the latest edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The skull has been found in Tam Pa Ling, “the Cave of the Monkeys” in northern Laos. It helps fill in this mysterious gap in the fossil record. But, man learnt writing only about 5000-8000 years ago. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. It has been concluded that around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. The earliest record of human writing may be the Dispilio Tablet, dated to the 6th millennium BC. So, we humans have not learnt writing for a long time, even today 10-12 % of the Human Population is illiterate. So, written history gives us account of only 0.1% of human history. Then, before the invention of printing technology in the medieval period, written documents were few

Origin of Man The origin of man begins in the Miocene period, around twenty million years ago, when the great apes, from whom the humans evolved, flourished in large areas of the Old World. Proto humans appeared in the Pliocene period, around five million years ago, and their cultural evolution largely took place during the Pleistocene period, which began about two million years ago. While biologically humans differ from the other apes in their upright posture, ability to walk on two feet or hind limbs, extremely versatile hand, and an unusually powerful brain, culturally they differ in their ability to manufacture and use tools.



P a g e

4 | P a g e

and far between, and many of them have been lost due to being written on perishable materials like tree bark, palm leaf, papyrus and cloth. This means that the story of humankind has to be reconstructed largely with the help of non-literary or archaeological sources. These sources comprise objects – tools, weapons, ornaments, structures and artistic creations which were produced and used by humans and which have survived the ravages of time.

Archaeology & Ethnoarcheology Like other creatures, we humans also had to adapt ourselves to the environment, but unlike other beings, we have done so with the aid of technology and material culture (material objects like tools, weapons, utensils, houses, clothes, ornaments, etc). Since, the components of environment such as landscape, climate, flora and fauna also tends to change over time, archaeologists have to reconstruct past environments as well. Moreover, the biological remains of men have contributed to the understanding of not only his biological evolution but also cultural evolution. Archaeology, thus, is a multi-disciplinary study involving disciplines like geology, palaeontology, palaeobotany, biological anthropology and archaeological chemistry. Then, the cultural changes take place at an uneven pace in different regions. In many parts of the world, for example in India, prehistoric ways of life have survived more or less unchanged into modern times. The discipline, under which we study the non-industrialized societies, especially those practising hunting-gathering, fishing, primitive cultivation and pastoralism, is known as ethnoarchaeology. This study contributes to interpreting the archaeological record.

Prehistoric Period: Classification The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. These ages, besides being technological stages, also have economic and social implications. The Stone Age is divided into three periods, viz. Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. The suffix lithic indicates that technology in these periods was primarily based on stone. Economically the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods represent the hunting-gathering stage while the Neolithic represents the stage of food production, i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry.

Chapter 1. Palaeolithic Era The earliest human settlements in south Asia have been identified with an abundance of stone tool assemblages. The oldest known tools used by human beings were the simple cores and flakes, and they have been reported from the Siwalik hills at Riwat, near Rawalpindi in Pakistan. These tools date back to as old as two million years. However, the earliest reliable stone tool assemblages

Absolute and Relative Chronology Chronology of the past can be either relative or absolute. Relative chronology dates prehistoric events in relation to other events and geological deposits. The relative chronology tells us if a particular event is earlier or later than another event. On the other hand, the Absolute chronology dates events and phenomena in solar calendar years. The techniques such as Radiocarbon, K/Ar, fission tracks, thermoluminescence, TH230/U234 and dendrochronology are the techniques of absolute chronology. Out of then, the dendrochronology is applicable only to a period of a few thousand years and only in the few areas where old wood samples have been preserved. Then, the radiocarbon dating can date events up to sixty thousand years old. The other methods can, however, date events belonging to the entire prehistoric period. However, their application is dependent on the availability of suitable materials such as volcanic ash and rock at archaeological sites.



P a g e

5 | P a g e

belong to two distinct cultural and technological traditions viz. the Sohanian Culture and the Acheulian culture, which we study under the lower Palaeolithic cultures.

Sohanian culture The name is derived from the Sohan river, a tributary of Indus. The sites of Sohanian culture were found in the Siwalik Hills in North-west India and Pakistan. The artifacts of these stages were found in three river terraces which were correlated with the phases of the four-fold Pleistocene glaciations. These stages have been named T1, T2 and T3. The animal remains from this deposit included horse, buffalo, straight-tusked elephant and hippopotamus, suggesting an environment characterized by perennial water sources, tree vegetation and grass steppes. The tools included the pebble choppers, blades etc.

Acheulian culture Acheulian culture, named after French site of St. Acheul, was the first effective colonization of the Indian subcontinent and is almost synonymous with the lower Palaeolithic settlements in India. Remains of Acheulian culture have been found extensively from the Siwalik hills in the north to areas near Chennai in the south but not in the Western Ghats and the coastal region running parallel to them, northeast India and the Ganga plains. Heavy rainfall and dense vegetation in the Western Ghats and northeast India probably inhibited early man from colonizing these regions. In the case of the Ganga plains, the non-availability of stone and the swampy environment may have discouraged early man from occupying them.

The Acheulian culture was a hunter-gatherer culture that adapted to a variety of climates including but not limiting to western Rajasthan, Mewar plain, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Eastern Ghats, north of the Cauvery river.

The sites are densely concentrated in the central India and the southern part of the Eastern Ghats as this area received adequate rainfall, have perennial rivers, a thick vegetation cover and are rich in wild plant and animal food resources.

Palaeolithic Period: Some Observations to Note • The Palaeolithic period is further divided into three sub-periods, namely lower,

middle and upper. • Most Paleolithic sites in India developed in the Pleistocene period. • The tools made were generally of hard rock quartzite so the Paleolithic man was

called Quartzite Man. • The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It literally

means "Old Stone Age." It was marked by the hunting gathering nature. • Paleolithic Age spanned from 100000 years ago till 10000 years ago. It is divided into 3

ages viz. lower Paleolithic age which spans till 100000 years ago. • Middle Paleolithic which spans from 100000 years ago till 40000 years and upper

Paleolithic which spans from 40,000 years to 10000 years ago. • Paleolithic tools were club, sharpened stone, chopper, hand axe, scraper, spear, Bow

and arrow, harpoon, needle, scratch awl etc.

Important Palaeolithic sites in India: • Lingsugur in Raichur district, Karnataka was the first

site to be discovered from India. • Lidder river Pahalgam , Kashmir • Sohan valley Punjab, • Banks of River Beas, Bangagnga • Sirsa Haryana, • Chittorgarh and Kota, Rajasthan, • River Wagoon, Kadamali basins Rajasthan. • River Sabaramati and Mahi basins (Rajasthan &

Gujarat), • Basins of river tapti, Godavari, Bhima and Krishna • Koregaon, Chandoli and shikarpur (Maharashtra), • River Raro (Jharkhand), • River Suvarnrekha (Orissa), • Ghatprabha River Basin (Karnataka). • Pahalgam , Jammu & Kashmir • Belan Valley, Allahabad • Sinsgi Talav, Didwana , Nagaur Rajasthan • Hunsgi, Gulbarga in karnataka. • Attirampakkam in Tamilnadu



P a g e

6 | P a g e

The most known sediments yielding Acheulian assemblages are found in rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh . Acheulian people occupied a variety of microhabitats in different regions of India. The hunter-gatherers of Acheulian culture were more concentrated in Nagaur and Didwana of Rajasthan, Vindhya Hills of Central India (Bhimbetaka), Barkhera near Bhimbetka and at Putlikarar in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. The rock shelter and open-air sites represent seasonal camping places of the same populations.

Technology in Acheulian Culture Acheulian tools include the choppers, chopping tools, polyhedrons, spheroids, discoids, handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, denticulates, notches, flakes, blades and cores. They served a variety of functions like hunting, butchering and skinning of animals, breaking bones for extraction of marrow, digging of roots and tubers, processing of plant foods, and making of wooden tools and weapons. The main raw material used for making the weapons of the Acheulian era was Quartzite, though occasionally quartz was also used. In some parts of India such as Hulgi in Karnataka limestone was the main material.

Middle Palaeolithic Era The Acheulian culture was slowly transformed into the middle Palaeolithic by shedding some of the tool types and by incorporating new forms and new techniques of making them. In some parts of the world, the middle Palaeolithic culture is associated with the Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), however, no physical remains of Neanderthal man have been found in India. But, what has been found in India are the stone tools very similar to those found with this hominid species in Europe and other regions. The first general observation about the Middle Palaeolithic era is that in comparison to the lower Palaeolithic era, the distribution of sites is sparse. The reason for this is that the middle Palaeolithic culture developed during the upper Pleistocene, a period of intense cold and glaciations in the northern latitudes. In those times, the areas bordering glaciated regions experienced strong aridity. However, generally, the middle Palaeolithic populations occupied the same regions and habitats as the preceding Acheulian populations.

Tools of middle Palaeolithic Era Middle Palaeolithic tools were primarily made on flakes and blades made by finely trimming the edges. Some of them were used for manufacturing the wooden tools and weapons and also for processing animal hide. There are little hints of use of wooden shafts. In comparison to the lower Palaeolithic era, the tools in middle Palaeolithic became smaller, thinner and lighter. Then, there was also a significant change in the choice of raw material for making tools. While quartzite, quartz and basalt continued to be used, in many areas they were replaced or supplemented by fine-grained

Middle Palaeolithic Sites in India • Luni valley, around Didwana, Budha Pushkar in Rajasthan • Valleys of the Belan, Son river, Narmada river and their

tributaries in central India • Some sparse sites in Chota Nagpur platea, Deccan plateau and

Eastern Ghats



P a g e

7 | P a g e

siliceous rocks like chert and jasper. Tool Factory sites at chert outcrops occur at many places in central India and Rajasthan.

Upper Palaeolithic Era Upper Palaeolithic culture developed during the later part of the upper Pleistocene. There were very important changes in the Palaeolithic-environment which had its own impact on the distribution and living ways of the humans. Some of them were as follows:

• There was extremely cold and arid climate in the high altitude and northern latitudes.

• There was extensive formation of deserts in North west India

• The drainage pattern of western India became almost defunct and river courses shifted “westwards”.

• Vegetation cover over most of the country thinned out during this period. • Coastal areas of south-eastern Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra and Kutch developed quartz and

carbonate dunes as a result of the lowering of the sea level. • During terminal Pleistocene south-westerly monsoons became weak and the sea level

decreased by scores of metres. Due to the harsh and arid climate, the vegetation was sparse though the faunal fossils show presence of grasslands. The human population faced rusticated food resources and that is the reason that the number of Upper Palaeolithic sites is very limited in the arid and semi-arid regions. The most opulent archaeological evidence of this period comes from the Belan and Son valleys in the northern Vindhyas , Chota Nagpur plateau in Bihar , upland Maharashtra, Orissa and from the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.

Tools of Upper Palaeolithic Era The tools of Upper Palaeolithic Era are essentially characterized by blade and they show a marked regional diversity with respect to the refinement of techniques and standardization of finished tool forms. The middle Paleolithic tradition continued but in this period we see the parallel-sided blades struck from standardized prismatic cores. Further, the prototypes of traps, snares and nets were probably used during the upper Palaeolithic times. The bored stones and grinding slabs have also been found

The Upper Palaeolithic period has recorded a rich panorama of fossils in the peninsular rivers of India. One important discovery is of the ostrich egg shells at over 40 sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, which shows that ostrich, a bird adapted to arid climate, was widely distributed in western India during the later part of the upper Pleistocene.

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills. These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for more than 1 lakh years. This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings. These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early-historic and even medieval times. Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site.

Please note that it was earlier considered to be a Buddhist site and was later recognized as Paleolithic site by Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar who is now also called "father of rock art in India ". Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 1970



P a g e

8 | P a g e

giving hints to advancements in the technology of tool production. The bored stones are still used by fishermen as net sinkers in riverine fishing and marine fishing. The Upper Palaeolithic settlements also show a distinct trend of being associated with permanent sources of waters. The use of grinding stones might have been for processing plant foods such as wild rice. The earliest form of art is found in the form of ostrich egg shell pieces engraved with cross-hatched designs from the upper Palaeolithic period.

Chapter 2. Mesolithic Era The transition from the Palaeolithic period to Mesolithic period is marked by transition from Pleistocene period to Holocene and favorable changes in the climate. The climate became warmer and humid and there was expansion of flora and fauna contributed by increased rainfall. This led to availability of new resources to humans and thus the human beings moved to new areas. This period is marked with increased population, though core economy of this period continued to be based on hunting and gathering. The more important fact about the Mesolithic era in India is that the first human colonization of the Ganga plains took place during this period. There are more than two hundred Mesolithic sites found in Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapur and Varanasi districts of Uttar Pradesh. This era also marks the dramatically increased settlement in deltaic region of Bengal, the areas around Mumbai and other places of western coast of India.

Tools of Mesolithic Era The tools are Mesolithic Era are smaller in size and better in finishing (more geometric) than the Palaeolithic age and are called Microliths. These microliths are tiny tools of one to five centimetres length, made by blunting one or more sides with steep retouch. The main tool types are backed blades, obliquely truncated blades, points, crescents, triangles and trapezes. Some of the microliths were used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers.

They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by natural adhesives like gum and resin. Hunting-gathering way of life was slowly replaced by food production from about 6000 B.C. Thus we see that the use of the bow and arrow for hunting had become common in this period, which is evident from many rock paintings. The Bored stones, which had already appeared during the upper Palaeolithic, became common during this, and the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. These are believed to have been used as weights in digging sticks and as net sinkers. Similarly, shallow querns and grinding stones also occur at several sites. These new technological elements led to enhanced efficiency in hunting, collection and processing of wild plant foods.

The early period of Mesolithic age marks the hunting, fishing and food gathering which turn to hunting, fishing, food gathering as well as domesticating the animals.



P a g e

9 | P a g e

Changes in Life- Mesolithic Era From Nomadism to Sedentary settlements

There were some more interesting changes in lifestyle of the Mesolithic era humans. The favourable climate, better rainfalls, warm atmosphere and increased food security led to reduction in nomadism to seasonally sedentary settlement.

First Disposal of dead and making of Graves The sedentary settlements lead to beginning of the tradition of various ways of intentional disposal of the dead. The first evidence of intentional disposal of the dead comes from Mesolithic Era. Mesolithic human burials have been found at Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat , Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh etc. The dead were buried in graves both in extended and crouched position. In some cases two individuals were buried in a single grave. The dead were occasionally provided with grave offerings which include chunks of meat, grinding stones, stone, bone and antler ornaments, and pieces of haematite.

Emerging arts The Mesolithic man was a lover of art, evident from the paintings in several thousand rock shelters in the Vindhyan sandstone hills in central India. The paintings have been found in both inhabited and uninhabited shelters. The paintings are made mostly in red and white pigments, made form the nodules found in rocks and earth. The subject matter of the paintings are mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, though there are some related to human social and religious life such as sex and child birth.

Food Production The hunting-gathering way of life was slowly replaced by food production from about 6000 B.C. The core economic activities were now included hunting, fowling, fishing and wild plant food gathering. The first animals to be domesticated were dog, cattle, sheep and goat and the first plants to be cultivated were wheat and barley. This new subsistence economy based on food production had a lasting impact on the evolution of human society and the environment. In the humid lands, extending from the middle Ganga valley to China and Southeast Asia, rice cultivation and domestication of pig was accomplished probably around the same time because rice and pig existed in wild form in this region. The cultivation of yams and taro also took place in this region.

Mesolithic Era: Important Points • Agriculture had not fully developed. • The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been provided by Adamagarh in

Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan. A study has also suggested cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 years back near Sambhar lake in Ajmer Rajasthan.

• The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites and lot of microliths have been discovered.

• Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest Mesolithic site in India. Another major Mesolithic site in Rajasthan is Tilwara.

• In Guajarat some places on the banks of river Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites which include the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj etc.

• Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh of Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic site. Other sites in Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and lekkahia.

• In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with Adamgarh are major Mesolithic sites. • In Jharkhand Chhota nagpur plateau is a major Mesolithic site in India. • In Orissa Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh is a major Mesolithic site in India. • In south India Godavari basin is rich in microliths, • The rock painting of Mesolithic period is found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Madhya

Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of Rajasthan. Apart from the animals, hunting scenes, the Mesolithic sites have also painting of social life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of children and burial ceremony.



P a g e

10 | P a g e

Domesticated animals proved to be useful not only for meat but also for milk, hide, agricultural operations, and transport.

Chapter 3. Neolithic Revolution, Mehrgarh Culture and Chalcolithic Era The human settlements in the Mesolithic era got more sedentary and this was the beginning of establishment of villages. Man now could keep cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from pests. In due course, as the efficiency of agricultural production improved, some farmers were able to generate surplus food. As a consequence, a section of the population were freed from the task of food production and their talents and energies were diverted to tasks such as the production of pots, baskets, quarrying of stone, making of bricks, masonry and carpentry. This was the beginning of the new occupations such as the oil presser, washerman, barber, musician, dancers etc. This transition from hunting-gathering to food production is called the Neolithic revolution. Around 6000BC, the smelting of metals such as Copper began which was used for raw material to be used in tool production. Later, Tin was mixed with cooper and bronze appeared which stronger metal than both tin and copper was. Use of bronze for tools led to the invention of wheel which revolutionized transport and pottery production. The Neolithic period began around 10700 to 9400 BC in Tell Qaramel in Northern Syria. In South Asia the date assigned to Neolithic period is 7000 BC and the earliest example is Mehrgarh Culture. Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent.

Mehrgarh Culture Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent Agriculture-based Neolithic settlements. Despite being the agriculture settlement, it used only stone tools, so is why placed in Neolithic Era. It flourished in the seventh millennium B.C. Mehrgarh is located on the Bolan River, a tributary of the Indus, at the eastern edge of the Baluchistan plateau overlooking the Indus plain. The Mehrgarh culture has been divided into 8 sub periods and following are important features of these sub-periods:

First Period Earliest period of Mehrgarh is characterized by polished stone tools, microliths and bone tools. In this phase the subsistence economy consisted of a combination of hunting, stock-breeding and plant cultivation. The domesticated animals comprise cattle, sheep, goat and water buffalo while the cultivated plants comprise several varieties of wheat and barley. The houses were made of mud and mud-bricks. Multiple rooms without doors are believed to have been used for storing grain. The dead were buried under the floors of the houses where people lived. Some of the skeletons which were buried have been found sprinkled with red ochre. Necklaces of microbeads of steatite along with beads of turquoise, lapis lazuli and sea shell, stone axes and microliths have also been found in the graves.



P a g e

11 | P a g e

In two cases, bodies of young goats were also found. There was no pottery at this stage but baskets coated with bitumen were used.

Second Period This period has left evidences of handmade, basket-impressed coarse ware. There was emergence of wheel-made pottery painted in reddish and black color with simple straight and curved lines, rows of dots and crisscrosses. Sickles made of stone bladelets, set obliquely in wood handles with bitumen as the adhesive material, may have been used for harvesting. Metal technology started , evident from the discovery of a copper ring and a bead . Terracotta human figurines and bangles also appear.

Third Period Improved farming around 3000 BC is evident from a new variety of barley, viz. Hordeum sphaerococcum, which can be grown only in irrigated fields. The presence of cotton seeds suggests the possibility of the use of this fibre for textile manufacture. The Vessels were now decorated with paintings of birds and animals as also with geometric designs. Oats and another variety of wheat was added to the agriculture. Stone bead manufacturing and copper smelting started.

Fourth Period Emergence of polychrome pottery with a tall goblet with wide mouth and a pedestal base as a new shape. Extensive use of timber in the construction of houses, of female terracotta figurines with pendulous breasts and of stamped seals of terracotta and bone. Emergence of commercial transactions.

Fifth Period A marked decline in polychrome decoration on pottery.

Sixth Period Dramatically increase in pottery styles and the first evidence of pottery kilns. Pipal leaf and humped bull designs appear on pottery which anticipate Harappan motifs. Proliferation of terracotta figurines, improved female figurines.

Seventh Period Richness and variety of terracotta figurines very much similar to the Indus Valley Civilization. Medial partition of the hair suggesting the popular practice among Hindu women. Terracotta bulls with prominent humps and rams made in alabaster. Designs of swastika, cruciforms and running animals on terracotta figurines.



P a g e

12 | P a g e

Emergence of monumental architecture evident from a large brick platform.

Eighth Period Structured graves, semi-precious stone beads and a bronze shaft-hole axe. Cigar Snapped handmade Brick structures with fire places, stone blade industry using flint, composite stickle, grinding stones, bone tools, Pottery etc.

In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in a living person was found in Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. “Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization,”

Chalcolithic Period Chalcolithic is also known as Eneolithic period which saw the use of the metals among which the Copper was first. It is called Chalcolithic which means use of stone and well as copper was prevalent in this period. The earliest settlements of the Chalcolithic period range from the Gangetic basin to Chhotanagpur Plateau. The economy of this period was based upon agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing. Limited number of Copper and bronze tools have also been recovered.

The presence of painted pottery is a hall mark of the Chalcolithic period. The burial practice was another striking feature and the dead were buried in a particular

direction all over a particular area. The largest site of the Chalcolithic period is Diamabad situated on the left bank of the Pravara

River. The pottery ranges from Red ware , deep red ware to deep brown and black, Pictographic red

and black and polished red. Some Chalcolithic Cultures:

Ahara Culture: The sites of Ahar Culture were Aahar (Rajasthan), balathal, Gilund etc. The distinctive feature is black and red ware.

Kayatha Culture: Located in Chambal and its tributaries, the sturdy red slipped ware with chocolate designs is main feature

Malwa Culture: Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat. One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements.

Svalda Culture: The well-known sites are in Dhulia district of Maharashtra. Prabhas & Rangpur Culture: Both of them are derived from the Harappa culture. The polished

red ware is the hall mark of this culture.

Chapter 4. Indus Valley Civilization The centre of the civilization was in Sindh and Punjab in undivided India, from this centre, the civilization spread towards all direction. In West the last extent is seaboard of South Baluchistan at the Suktagendor which can be called its western border. In east Alamagirpur in Uttar Pradesh (District Meerut) can be called its Eastern Border. In North it extended up to Manda in Jammu &



P a g e

13 | P a g e

Kashmir and in south it extended up to Bhagvatrav in Narmada Estuary of Gujarat. However, later at Diamabad (District Ahamed Nagar Maharashtra) was the site where four figurines of Bronze on the bank of Pravara River found. This pushed the civilization's extension in further south. Indus civilization remnants have been discovered from as far south as Mumbai in Maharashtra State.

Notable Observations Most settlements in Indus Valley Civilization are on banks of rivers. As far as extension is concerned, the Indus civilization was largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and China It covered an area of around 13 Lakh square kilometers. This area is triangular in shape and no other ancient civilization was extended to such a large area. Remains of the site first found at Harappa so it is also called Harappan Civilization. Modern dating methods keep the civilization to be ranging from 2900 to 2000BC. The people of this civilization were definitely in touch with the other civilizations most prominentaly being the Mesopotamian civilization.

The questions of Origin of Indus Valley Civilization There are two main opinions:

Origin from Mehrgarh Origin from South India

Most researches link the origin of the Indus Valley Civilization to the Neolithic Mehrgarh. It is said that Mehrgarh was a centre of transformation from the hunter gatherer to farming (wheat and barley are found) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats). Mehrgarh dates back to 7000 BC and as early as 5000 BC, trade links with Arabian Sea coast and with central Asia have been established. So in the light of these evidences it has been made clear that Foundation of Indus valley civilization was laid in the Neolithic period. There is a contemporary Neolithic settlement found in South India in Karnataka Also. From this point of view, some say that IVC was a Dravidian Civilization.

Salient Common Features of Entire Civilization The first common feature is Indus script on seals. This script has not been deciphered yet. That is why all we know about the culture and life of those people is mostly derived knowledge from the other objects found. The second most important feature is town planning. The main features of town planning were use of baked as well as sundried bricks, well planned straight roads and a system of drainage. Most urban centres had a fortified citadel. A house held a kitchen, well or a water reservoir. Use of standard weights and measurement has been found throughout the civilization.



P a g e

14 | P a g e

They used to make pottery on wheels. They used to bury the dead.

Observations about Harappa and Mohen Jo-dero Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are 500 kms apart from each other. These, along with Dholavira, are called the nucleus cities of the civilization. Harappa, the first discovered site of this civilization was on bank of river Ravi, while Mohenjo-Daro was on banks of Indus River. Each of them has two prominent mounds where excavations took place. Notable findings at Harappa are rows of granaries, Citadels, Furnaces and a crucible to melt the bronze. Notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are the magnum opus Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization. This is the site where most unicorn seals have been found. Mohenjo-Daro is also sometimes known as largest urban centre of the civilization.

Great Bath The most famous building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a great bath. It is a 6x12 meter specimen of beautiful brick work. The water for the bath was provided from a well in an adjacent room. The floor was made up of bricks. Floor and outer walls were bituminized so that there is no leakage of water. There are open porch’s on four sides of the bath. There is use of Burnt bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but NO use of stone is there. The largest building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a granary. Then, there was also a pillared hall for social gatherings. The other notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are instruments of cotton weaving, Bronze figurine of dancing girl, evidence of violence and killing, seal of the mother goddess, the figurine of beared man, the seal of Proto Shiva, a seal in which a man is sacrificing a woman with his knife.

Observations about other sites Third important centre of the civilization is Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch area. The site is relatively newly discovered and here the historians found a tantalizing signboard with Indus script. Dholavira is different from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro on the account that its drainage system is much more elaborated then these two cities. While the two cities had two mounds each, leading to conclusion that there were two citadels, Dholavira had three citadels. Each of these three citadels of Dholavira was improved than Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and had an inner enclosure as well. The Dholavira is the largest Indus Valley Site in independent India. The second largest is Rakhigarhi near Hissar in Haryana. Near Hissar, there is another site called Banawali where Barley was a common crop in Indus valley times.



P a g e

15 | P a g e

The westernmost site Suktagendor is located near present borders of Iran and it was an important coastal / port town. Another important port town was Lothal. One more coastal city was Balakot, which is located near Karachi in Pakistan. The presence of horse has been doubtful in Indus Valley Civilization. The site where the historians were able to collect some bones of Horse is Surkotada in Bhuj area of Gujarat. The Kalibangan site in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan has given evidence of both Pre-harappan and harappan civilization. Here the historians have found a ploughed field and bones of camel. The peculiar type of circular and rectangular graves is another feature of Kalibangan. In terms of town planning, Kalibangan was not as developed as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira because here we neither find use of baked bricks nor a drainage system. A different kind of town planning we found at Lothal; this city was divided into 6 sections and each section had a wide platform of earthen bricks. Lothal and Rangpur are two sites where historians found rice husk. The magnum opus of Lothal is an artificial dock. Lothal's dock—the world's earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea.It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. A bead making factory has also been found in Lothal. A seal from Iran has been found which indicates its link with overseas countries. Then, Lothal is different from other sites of Indus Valley Civilization in terms of town planning that it has entry to the houses on the main street while in other sites have shown lateral entry. The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was Chanhu Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro. Alamagirpur was the eastern boundary of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidences say that this site developed in mature Harappan phase. Kot Diji and Amri were pre-harappan sites. The above information has been summarized in the following table:

Site Point to be Noted Dholavira Signboard, 3 citadels with improved inner enclosure Suktagendor, Lothal and Balakot Coastal Cities and Port Towns Surkotda Horse Bones Kalibangan Ploughed Field, Bones of Camel, Circular and Rectangular Graves, Neither Baked Bricks nor a

Drainage system. Lothal 6 sections in city, Artificial dockyard, Entry from the main street instead of lateral entry that

was common, The vase depicting a thirsty crow as been found at Lothal. Lothal and Rangpur Rice Husk

Life at Indus Valley Civilization Administration

Cities are the symbols of the Indus Valley civilization characterized by the density of population, close integration between economic and social processes, tech-economic developments, careful planning for expansion and promotion of trade and commerce, providing opportunities and scope of work to artisans and craftsmen etc. This was a sort of urban revolution, which could not have



P a g e

16 | P a g e

been possible without the strong central authority, specialized economic organization and socio-cultural unity. The size and architectural complexity of all large Harappancities mean something in terms of a socio-cultural development. The lay-out of the streets, the presence of a large-scale drainage system with its requirement for constant tending, the monumental citadels, all can be taken as an indication of tendencies toward a strong central government. Another feature of Harappan urbanization was the elaborate craft specialization and the contacts with other reasonably distant parts of asia. But the greatest challenge to the archaeologists is their failure to get any idea of the Harappan urban institutions. For example, we almost know nothing about the form of the state and the economic institutions. Maritime commerce with Mesopotamia was a part to their life, but the knowledge of inner working of these complex Harappan urban economic institutions completely eludes us.

Language Not a great deal of knowledge we have because the Harappa script has not been deciphered. The script was written (probably) from right to left (←←←). Here are some more guess works done:

The language might be proto-Sanskrit or proto-Dravidian, nobody knows. The harappan inscriptions are on Seals, copper tablets, bone, ivory but NOT on Bricks.

Religion Most prominent religious figures are Unicorn, Pashupatinath, Seven mothers (sapta matrika) and compound creatures. The later three are now inculcated in Hindu religion. The mother goddess was dominant shows that the society was predominantly matriarchal. There was a division of labour and society was diversified and stratified. The people were scholars, artisans, traders, warriors and businessmen.

Protoshiva or Pashupati One and only possibly male deity, as depicted on various seals. This deity is surrounded by 4 wild animals and this gives an indication that it is Pashupatinath or a prototype of Lord Shiva. The deity is surrounded by 4 animals viz. an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros. Apart from this there 2 deer’s beneath the seat of the deity. The headdress of the deity has two horns. It wears as number of bangles and has a pectoral round the neck, and an inscription of seven letters appears at the top. This representation has at least three concepts which are usually associated with Shiva viz., that he is (i) Trimukha (three-faced), (ii) Pashupati (Lord of animals), and (iii) Yogisvara or Mahayogi. The first two aspects are apparent from the seal itself. The deity is sitting cross-legged in a Padmasana posture with eyes turned towards the tip of the nose which evidence the Yogisvara aspect of the deity. The deity is always nude save for a cincture round the waist.



P a g e

17 | P a g e

Linga Worship Stone symbols of both male and female sex organs have been found which gives in indication that Phallus or Linga worship was in practice.

Tree Worship and other rituals The peepal tree has been depicted on many seals which gives a sense that it might be a sacred tree. Humped bull was a venerated animal and there are evidences of snake worship and snake charmers. No temples, No special places of worship, no castes. The people had a sense of arts and crafts and it is proved by the toys, figurines, bangles, stone statues, metal statues, etc. The people were expert in making seals.

Talisman On a seal is depicted a six-rayed motif which may signify the sun. Swastiks and cross signs were harbingers of good luck. A shell inlay, shaped like a heart, was probably used as a Talisman.

Food: Both veg and nonveg life. There are evidences of cultivation of Wheat, Barley, Rice, Date, melon, lemon etc. people were cattle herders and used milk and milk products. There are evidences that people made sweets. Half burnt bones give evidence of nonveg life.

Dress: A figure of a bearded man has been found in Mohenjo-Daro which indicated that they used sewn clothing’s. The cloth used to cover the torso in the upper part of the body in such as way that it kept right hand Free. There are evidences that they people took interest in cosmetics and had great aesthetic sense. Men kept long hair and kept bread or also shaven beard. The people of Indus valley civilization were aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, antimony rods but NOT hair dyes.

Sports and Entertainments: The large number of terracotta figurines and toys such as cart, bull, elephant, monkeys, chariots; whistles etc. indicate that the children entertained themselves. There are no clear evidences of Music in the civilization; however, the finding of a dance girl bronze figurine gives some insight about the social entertainment.

Tools, arms and weapons: They are made up of Copper and Bronze. They were unaware of the use of Iron.

Science & Technology The Harappan civilization was the womb of mathematics from where both the concept of numbers and the numerical system originated. The numerical system developed by the Harappan included



P a g e

18 | P a g e

symbols for most numbers and several innovations for mathematical manipulations such as addition and multiplication. The Harappan numerical system is decimal and additive multiplicative in usage. There are symbols for numerical for 4 to 100, 1000 and their derivatives. The numerical system which was first used by the Harappan later found its way into other ancient civilization. These people are known to have constructed the world’s first tidal port at Lothal at the head of the gulf company. They possessed a high degree of knowledge relating to the ebb and flow of tides and carried on brisk overseas trade with other civilizations. They were also conversant with the medical sciences and used various herbs and drugs to treat diseases. The people of Indus valley Civilization practiced Trephination which is kind of medical intervention making a burr hole in the skull to treat migraines and mental disorders. The evidences of Trephination have been found at Lothal, Kalibangan and Burzahom but not at Harappa or most other sites.

Burial Practice Surkotda and Dholavira are two sites where the burial practice resembled the megalithic burial practice. Burzhahom is a Neolithic site and here practice of burying dogs with the masters was common.

Economy The economy was based upon agriculture as well as trade. Commerce was important and there were links from overseas places.

Agriculture The agriculture was in flourishing condition which was due to timely and good rains. They sowed many crops including the rice, wheat, cotton, barley etc. Other crops were dates, melon, pea etc. Predominantly Rainfed Crops as Irrigation was based upon the rainwater but also the sources of irrigations were available. Wheat and barley were the most important Harappan Crops. In Harappa, 3 principle varieties of Wheat were sown; three varieties of barleys were also sown. The cultivation of lentils, mustard, linseed, Sesamum has been found. The Finger millet, Ragi, Bajra, Jawar were cultivated and it seems that they diffused from Africa.

Animal Husbandry The humped bull was domesticated animal, other were buffalo, pigs, elephants, donkeys, goats and sheep’s. Only Surkotada has given an evidence of domestication of Horse. Generally Horse is absent in the civilization. The goats, cows and Sheep were commonly domesticated in the mature harappan phase but the evidences of Buffalo have not been found in that much quantity.



P a g e

19 | P a g e

Transportation The carts and chariots were means of transport. For sea trade big boats were there to serve the purpose.

Foreign Affairs It has been established that this civilization had relationships with Mesopotamia civilization. In various cities of Mesopotamia, the harappan seals have been found which prove these relationships. The description of Meluha in the Mesopotamian literature refers to India. The Mesopotamian records mention the word Meluha for Indus region. The ancient name of the river Indus was Meluha. Sindhu is Sanskrit name, given by Hindus (Aryans), who invaded India.

Consumer Affairs The weights and measurements were calibrated to a considerable extent. The measures were standardized and perhaps there is binary system in use. A scale made up of Elephant tusk has been found at Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.

Finance, Business and Industry There was use of many kinds of metals including Gold, Silver, Copper, Lapis Lazuli , Turquoise, Amethyst, Alabaster, jade etc. It has been guessed that among the precious stones in the Harappan civilization; Jade came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran , Amethyst came from Maharashtra and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan. A Jewellery hoard has been found at Allahdino, an Indus valley Site near congregation of Indus river and Arabian sea. It has a necklace of 36 carnelian beads, Bronze spacer beads and a coper bead covered with Gold foil and 20 Gold lumps. The trade was multifaceted. It was operated on intraregional as well as interregional basis and had a guild system coupled with nomadic trade. There are no evidences of monetary exchange. Well developed stoneware industry. The manufacturing of the stone bangles was most prevalent in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Harappan civilization had an Economic Zone. This economic zone was along the bank of the Sirhind river.

Metallurgy These people were aware of Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Bronze and Tin but did not know much about Iron. Copper was the most widely used metal. Ganeshwar in Sikar District of Rajasthan is supposed to be the supplier of Copper to the cities of Indus Valley; however, the largest hoard of Copper came from Gungeria.

Pottery A large variety of pottery, both plain and decorated, has been found. Harappanwares were shaped on a potter’s wheel. The potters wheels, being made of wood, have not survived.



P a g e

20 | P a g e

The kilns in which the pots were baked have been unearthed. The heating was skilfully controlled as most of the pottery was carefully fired. Once the vessel was shaped on the wheels, the ochre was painted over it. Then the designs were painted on this red surface with a brush in black. The black colour was derived from magniferous haematite. The designs include a series of intersecting circles (a pattern exclusively found in Indus culture), tree placed in metopes, motif resembling a large comb, chessboard pattern, triangles, solar device, etc. figures of animals, birds, snake or fish occur rarely. Animals are shown with grass and birds on trees. No human figure is depicted on the pottery from Mohenjodaro but a few pottery pieces discovered from Harappa portray a man and a child. At lothal a vase a painting probably depicting the folk tale the thirsty crow and on another jar from the same site he has identified the depiction of the folk tale the cunning fox.

Seals The seals were used throughout the length and breadth of this civilization. Made of steatite, these seals range in size from 1cm to 5cm. two main types are seen

first, square with a carved animal and inscription second, rectangular with an inscription only.

The square seals have a small perforated boss at the back while the rectangular ones have a hole on the back of the seal itself. The seals were very popular; more than 1200 seals have been found at Mohenjodaro alone. The most remarkable one is the Pashupati seal depicting shiva seated on a stool flanked by an elephant, tiger, Rhinoceros and buffalo. Below the stool are two antelopes or goats. On one seal a goddess stands nude between the branches of a pipal tree, before which kneels a worshipper. Behind the worshipper stands a human faced goat and below are seven devotees engaged in a dance. A scene very often repeated on seals shows a man holding back two roaring tigers with his out-stretched arms. This is similar to the Sumerian Gilgamesh and his lions. The animal most frequently encountered on Indus seals is a humpless bull, shown in profile with its horns superimposed on each other and pointing forward. For this feature it has generally been called a unicorn.

Question of Decline of Indus Valley Civilization There are various theories of collapse of the Harappan civilization. The main theories are:

Environment Changes Aryan Invasion

Environmental Changes: It declined because of the change in the course of the rivers and because the rivers dried up. The decline theory of environment degradation was given by John Marshall. The dogma says that cutting of forests for agricultural and timber for fuel may have resulted in the barren land and



P a g e

21 | P a g e

silting of rivers. Another version of the same story says that it declined and decayed because of the Floods in the rivers. It has been postulated that in Saraswati region, the civilization declined mainly because of the shifting of the river channels. However, the decline was not sudden and took several hundred years.

Aryan Invasion: There is a theory that is based upon a Shloka in Rig Veda (VI.27.5). This Shloka says:

In aid of Abhyavartin Cayamana, Indra destroyed the seed of Varasikha. At Hariyupiyah he smote the vanguard of the Vrcivans, and the rear fled freighted.

This sloka mentions Hari-yupiah which has been linked to Harappa. Further it has been argued by the scholars that settlements in Baluchistan region were put under fire by the barbaric Aryans and invaders. There are found around 6 groups of human skeletons in Mohenjo-Daro which gives an indication that the civilization was subject to the foreign invasions. However, Wheeler says: It is not susceptible to proof and no serious value. The harappan civilization got disappeared around 1300 BC and the vacuum created was filled by numerous civilizations.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-2: Vedic Culture

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-2: Vedic Culture


P a g e

2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Origin of Vedic Culture .......................................................................................... 4

Aryans: A race or Linguistic Group? ............................................................................ 4 Aryans a Linguistic Group .................................................................................................... 4 Sanskrit was the language of Aryans .................................................................................. 4

The Original Home Controversy .................................................................................. 5 Consensus of the Opinion .................................................................................................... 5 Boghazkoi Inscriptions ......................................................................................................... 5 Sapta Sindhu ....................................................................................................................... 6 The names and identity of the 7 rivers ................................................................................ 6 Archaeological Evidences in context with Aryans ................................................................ 6

Chapter 2. Vedic Literature ..................................................................................................... 7 Shruti and Smriti ........................................................................................................ 7 The Shruti Literature: Rig-Veda .................................................................................. 7 Yajurveda ................................................................................................................... 8 Sam Veda ................................................................................................................... 8 Atharva Veda ............................................................................................................. 9 Brahmanas ................................................................................................................. 9 Aranyakas ................................................................................................................ 10 The Upanishads ........................................................................................................ 10

Aitareya Upanishad ........................................................................................................... 11 Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ................................................................................................ 11 Taittirīya Upanaishad ........................................................................................................ 11 Chāndogya Upanishad ....................................................................................................... 11 Kena Upanisahda .............................................................................................................. 11 Śvetāśvatara Upanishad ................................................................................................... 11 Kathopnishad .................................................................................................................... 12 Muktika .............................................................................................................................. 12 Māandūkya ........................................................................................................................ 12 Praśna ............................................................................................................................... 12

The Smriti Literature ................................................................................................. 12 Vedanga ............................................................................................................................ 12 Samkhya ............................................................................................................................ 15 Dharma, Karma and Rta ................................................................................................... 16 Vedanta ............................................................................................................................. 17 Advaita: ............................................................................................................................. 17 Vishishtadvaita .................................................................................................................. 17 Dvaita ................................................................................................................................ 17 Dvaitādvaita ...................................................................................................................... 17 Shuddhādvaita .................................................................................................................. 18 Achintya Bhedābheda ........................................................................................................ 18 Purnādvaita or Integral Advaita ........................................................................................ 18 Modern Vedānta ................................................................................................................ 18

Epics ......................................................................................................................... 18 Ramayan ........................................................................................................................... 18 Mahabharta ....................................................................................................................... 18

Puranas .................................................................................................................... 18 Upaveda ................................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 3. Vedic Political, Social and Economic Life ............................................................ 19 The Geography in Vedic Texts ............................................................................................ 19 The country of Aryans ........................................................................................................ 20 The Rivers .......................................................................................................................... 20 The Mountains ................................................................................................................... 20 The Seas ............................................................................................................................ 20 The Deserts ........................................................................................................................ 20 Name of the Places, Cities and Towns ............................................................................... 20 The Rig-Vedic Polity .......................................................................................................... 20



P a g e

3 | P a g e

Tribes and the Dasarajana Yudha ..................................................................................... 20 Jana , Rajana and Aspects of Land Territory ..................................................................... 21 The Grama and the Vajrapati ............................................................................................ 21 Taxation : The Bali ............................................................................................................. 21 Military & Spy functionalities ............................................................................................. 22 The Earliest Tribal Assembly - Vidhata ............................................................................. 22 Sabha & its Sabhavati ....................................................................................................... 22 Samiti ................................................................................................................................ 22 The differentiations between Sabha and Samiti ................................................................ 22 The Gana or the Republic .................................................................................................. 22 The Parishad ...................................................................................................................... 23 Rig Vedic Society ................................................................................................................ 23 Patriarchy .......................................................................................................................... 23 The Evolution of Varna System .......................................................................................... 23 Marriage and women ........................................................................................................ 23 Education .......................................................................................................................... 24 Institution of Gotra ............................................................................................................ 24 Amusements and entertainments ...................................................................................... 24 House holding ................................................................................................................... 24 Eating Habits ..................................................................................................................... 24 Dress code ......................................................................................................................... 25 Health and hygiene ........................................................................................................... 25

Rig Vedic Economy .................................................................................................... 25 The importance of Cow ...................................................................................................... 25 Crafts and Metallurgy ....................................................................................................... 25

The Vedic Religion .................................................................................................... 26 The Worship of Nature ....................................................................................................... 26

Rig Vedic Gods .......................................................................................................... 26 Dyu, Mithra, Varuna .......................................................................................................... 26 Indra and Marut ................................................................................................................ 27 Aditi, Sun, Savithri ............................................................................................................. 27 Agni: .................................................................................................................................. 27 Vayu and Rudra ................................................................................................................. 28 Soma & Brihaspati ............................................................................................................. 28 Visvedevas ......................................................................................................................... 28 Ashwins or Ashwinikumars ................................................................................................ 28 Yama & Yami ..................................................................................................................... 29 Usha .................................................................................................................................. 29 Other Rig Vedic Gods: ........................................................................................................ 29 Apsaras ............................................................................................................................. 29 Comparison of the Greek Dieties and Ancient Hindu Dieties .............................................. 30

Changes in life in Later Vedic Age............................................................................. 30 General Changes ............................................................................................................... 30 Changes in Economy .......................................................................................................... 30 The Four Varnas ................................................................................................................ 30 Types of Marriages in later Vedic Ages: ............................................................................. 30 Anuloma and Pratiloma Vivah: ......................................................................................... 31 Four Purushartha .............................................................................................................. 31 Ashrama System:............................................................................................................... 31 Sacrifices & Rituals ............................................................................................................ 32 Domestic Ceremonies ......................................................................................................... 32 Some Notable points ......................................................................................................... 33

Comparison of the Harappa and Vedic Civilizations ................................................. 33 Vedic India, Some more Observations ...................................................................... 34

A comparision of the Upanishada and Brahamanas ......................................................... 34 Concept of Rita and Dharma ............................................................................................. 35 The Concept of Sapta Rishi ................................................................................................ 36 The story of Agastya and Lopamudra ............................................................................... 36



P a g e

4 | P a g e

The Abhi-seka or coronation ............................................................................................. 36 The Metals ......................................................................................................................... 36 Aryamnah Pantha or the Milky Way .................................................................................. 37 Seasons in Rig-Veda .......................................................................................................... 37 Sita: ................................................................................................................................... 37 The story of Manu & Shraddha ......................................................................................... 37 The Manusmriti .................................................................................................................. 38 Dhratavatra ....................................................................................................................... 38

Chapter 1. Origin of Vedic Culture The founders of the Vedic culture were the Aryans, probably an immigrant people, whose first arrival in India is dated between 2000 and 1500 BC. After settling in India the Aryans composed a series of religious hymns, which were eventually compiled into a text known as Rig-Veda. Our knowledge of the Aryans in India during this earliest period is based primarily Rig-Veda. Our knowledge of the Vedic Civilization is based upon the information derived from the Vedic literature. It consists of 4 Vedas and Brahman. The Rig-Veda is most ancient covering a period from 1500 BC to 1000 BC and this is called Early Vedic Civilization.

Aryans: A race or Linguistic Group? Aryans a Linguistic Group

It was initially proposed by the German scholar Max Muller that Aryans belonged to a race. However, he later detracted and declared emphatically that the term Aryans, in scientific language, is utterly inapplicable to race. Aryan means language and nothing but language. It is now accepted that Aryan was not a race but was basically a linguistic group.

Sanskrit was the language of Aryans In 1786, Sir William Jones, in his famous address to the Asiatic society of Bengal, tried to prove definite relation between the Vedic Sanskrit and some of the principle languages of Europe and Asia such as Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Lithuanian, German , Persian, etc. The scholars have given a common name Indo-European to this group of languages and the people speaking them were known as the Indo-Europeans or Indo-Aryans. On this basis it has been surmised that Aryans spoke the common language and shared the common home, dispersed or emigrated to various parts of the world, including India. The Aryan migration of India is recorded in no written document, and it cannot yet be traced archaeologically, although recently some advance have been achieved in this respect too, but it is nevertheless firmly established as a historical fact on the basis of comparative philogy. The Indo-European languages of which Sanskrit in its Vedic form; is one of the oldest members, originated outside India, and the only possible way by which a language belonging to this family could be

What is a Classical Language? High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years; A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.



P a g e

5 | P a g e

carried all the way to India was the migration of the people speaking it. Sanskrit is one of the 22 languages of India included in the 8th schedule. In 2005, Sanskrit was made India’s official classical language. The first classical language was Tamil, which was given this status in 2004. India has 4 official classical languages “Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada & Telugu (2008). Sanskrit is

primary literary language of Hinduism and early texts of Buddhism The Classical Sanskrit is recorded dating back to 4th century BC (Panini’s Grammar). The Pre Classical Sanskrit is Vedic Sanskrit in which the oldest literature dates back to as old as 1500 BC. Sanskrit is a descendent of Proto Indo-European languages. Avesta which is the oldest Zoroastrian Text has shown some similarity with Rig Veda.

The Original Home Controversy It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited before the arrival of one or more of their branches to India. The original home of Aryans has been figured out by different scholars as follows:

Max Muller – Central Asia Swami Dayanand Saraswati – Tibet Mayor – Pamir’s Hurz Feld – Turkistan J C Rod – Bactria Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Polar Regions

Some historians tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans were neither foreigners nor did they migrate into India, but were the indigenous people, who regarded Sapta Sindhu as their original home. But this view has been rejected that if India been the original home of he Aryans they would have certainly tried to fully Aryanize the whole of this subcontinent before crossing the frontier barrier for some other lands. Besides, the vast disparities between the Harappan and Vedic cultures further prove that Aryans were not indigenous people.

Consensus of the Opinion The consensus of opinion is that the original homeland of the Aryans was somewhere in central Asia. In the beginning, they were settled somewhere in Iran and the central Asian regions bordering the Oxus and the Jaxartes (Greek name of a large river in Central Asia now known as Syrdar'ya ) and the Aral and Caspian seas; and they are now known as Indo-Iranians. From this base, sections of them may be presumed to have pushed up into the highlands of Afghanistan, and then to have descended from this base into the plains of the Punjab.

Boghazkoi Inscriptions As evidence that the Aryans originated somewhere in Central Asia, the Boghazkoi Inscriptions are important because these inscription mention the name of the Vedic gods and goddesses. It has been concluded that about the middle of second millennium BC, Aryan tribes which worshipped Vedic



P a g e

6 | P a g e

gods must have already been established in north-western India for a very considerable time, a several of these tribes had migrated far back to west as early as about 1400 BC.

Sapta Sindhu Most of the Rig-Veda civilization was centered on the River Saraswati which is now lost in Deserts of Rajasthan. The Rig-Veda mentions rivers Kabul, Swat, Kurram, Gumal, Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej etc. which proves that the settlements were in Afghanistan and Punjab as well. The cradle of Rig-Vedic civilization is called Sapt Saidhav Region. Sapta-Sindhu meaning 7 rivers is the

term which gave birth to the word "Hindu". Sapta-Sindhu was referred to as Hapta-Hindu by Persians etc. The term is found in Avesta of Zoroastrians.

The names and identity of the 7 rivers Scholars are not of same opinion on the names and identity of the seven rivers of Sapta Sindhu. There is a verse in Nadistuti sukta of Rigveda , hymn of praise of rivers which mentions the following 10 rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Marudvrdha , Vitasta , Arjikiya , Susoma. The Shutudri was Sutlej, Parushni was Ravi, Asikni was Chenab and Vitasta was Jhelum. The majority of the scholars believe that Sindhu & Saraswati (located in Rajasthan) were the most popular and sacred rivers of that era. Some scholars are of the opinion that the hymns in praise of the Saraswati are probably some of the oldest, composed more than 8000 years ago. The 5 rivers Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Vitasta, Vipas all were tributaries of Sindhu River. Together with Sarasawti and Sindhu, these 5 rivers constituted the Sapta Sindhu. However Saraswati has been mentioned as saptasvasa, which means she with 7 sisters. So, This further leads to a group of 8 Rivers.

Rig-Vedic Name Modern Name Sindhu Indus Vitase Jhelum Askini Chenab Purushni Ravi Vipas Beas Sutudri Satluj Gumal Gomati Krumu Kurram Drishdvati Ghagghar

Archaeological Evidences in context with Aryans The intial knowledge about the dispersal of Aryan groups was based only on comparative philology. Later some small archeological information has been found which includes the 60 thousand horse bones and some chariots. Horse was the best friend of Aryans and it made them able to make inroads in Asia. Archaeological evidence of the horse and horse specific have been unearthed in southern Tajikistan and in the Swat valley in Pakistan. Then, the grey pottery of the North East Iran is also one of the representative evidence of arrival of Aryans, because the Caspian region was the place where the grey pottery independently originated.



P a g e

7 | P a g e

Chapter 2. Vedic Literature The Vedas are said to have been passed on from one generation to the next through verbal transmission and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear) or revelation. The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhita and the allied literature based on or derived from the Vedas. We classify the Vedic literature into the following categories:

The four Vedas i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas. The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita. The Aranyakas. The Upanishads.

The basic material or mantra text of each of the Vedas is called "Samhita". Some post Vedic texts are also known as "Samhitas" such as Ashtavakra Gita, Bhrigu Samhita, Brahma Samhita, Deva Samhita, Garga Samhita, Kashyap Samhita, Shiva Samhita and Yogayajnavalkya Samhita.

Shruti and Smriti The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz. Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is “that which has been heard” and is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal. Shruti describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads. Smiriti literally means "that which is remembered, supplementary and may change over time”. It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas. There is another post Vedic class of Sanskrit literature called Epics which includes Ramayana and Mahabharta. It’s worth note that, there is not a distinct divide between Shruti and Smriti. Both Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a continuum, with some texts more canonical than others.

The Shruti Literature: Rig-Veda Rig-Veda is known as the oldest religious text in the world. It is also known as “First testament” of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 1500-1200 BC. It’s a collection of hymns by a number of priest families. It is organized in 10 books which are called Mandalas. The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the longest books. Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest books. 8th and 9th books are of mixed ages. Rig-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. The Rig-Veda contains 1017 (1028, including 11 hymns of the Valakhilya recession) hymns (Sukta) and is divided into ten mandalas. The first and the tenth Mandalas are said to have been added later as their language differs slightly from the other eight Mandalas.



P a g e

8 | P a g e

Origin of the Varnas and the Rig-Veda Please note that Varna system is of later Vedic origin. The tenth mandala, which was added later to the Rig-Veda, contains the famous Purushasukta which explains that the four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the primeval being Brahma (Purusa).

Some facts about Rig-Veda The Famous Gayatri mantra is in Rig Veda Mandala 3. Each mandala consists of Suktas which are basically eulogies. Rig-Veda has two recensions or Branches. The major surviving branch is Śākalya. Another branch is Bāskala or Vatkal. The first word of Rig-Veda is Agni. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni. Mandala 9 is completely devoted to Soma. Nasadiya Sukta which talks about the origin of the Universe is in 10th Mandala. It begins by paradoxically stating "not the non-

existent existed, nor did the existent exist then" and has attracted large body of literature of commentaries both in Indian theology and in Western philology.

Yajurveda “Yajus” means "sacrificial formula" and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It contains the rituals of the Yajnas. It is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BC. It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It was the manual of the Adhvaryus. Adhvarus wre the people prepared the ground and the altar, offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations. There are two distant forms of this Veda. In the oldest, the instructions about rituals are mingled with the verses from the Rig-Veda. The chief recession of this is that taught by a school of teachers called the Taitttiriyans. This was called Black Yajurveda. At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter from the verses to be recited and hence were called white (Shukla) Yajur-Veda, the other being called the black (Krishna) Yajur-Veda. This implies that the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita (no Brahman) while the Shukla Yajurveda has separately a Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana. Please note that world’s oldest prose literature of the Indo-Europeans is contained in Yajurveda.

Sam Veda “Saman” means melody and it contains the Rythmic compilation of Hymns for Rigveda. It ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It contains 1549 hymns which are meant to be sung at the soma sacrifice by a special class of Brahmans called "Udgatris". It has three shakhas or recensions: Kauthuma : Panchvish Brahmana the Jaiminiya : jaiminiya Brahmana Rāvāyanīya : Shadvish Brahmana

There are two Aranyakas : Chadogya Aranyaka and jaiminiya Aranyaka. Chadogya Aranyaka has Chadogya Upnishad and Jaiminiya Aranyaka has Jaiminiya Upnishad. .



P a g e

9 | P a g e

Gandharveveda is Samveda’s Upveda is is a technical treatise on Music, Dance and Drama. It is also called Natya Shashtra.

Atharva Veda Atharva-Veda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologtically the last of the four. It is important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas. ‘Atharvan’ was a legendary Rishi and is considered to have sung the Atharvaveda. He is also said to have first instituted the fire-sacrifice or yagna. Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa. There are two surviving recensions or Shakhas known as Śaunakīya (AVS) and Paippalāda (AVP). Gopath Brahmana is the Brahmana of Yajurveda. There are three Unishads viz. Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya. Satyamev Jayate, India’s Motto comes from Mundaka Upanishad.

Brahmanas The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text. The following diagram shows the Brahmans of Vedas.

Following is the list of Brahmans: Rig-Veda: Aitareya Brahmana: Sometimes it is also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana. It is older than

Kaushitaki in style and content. The legendary author ascribed for this Brahmana is Mahidas Aitareya. It is of Shakala shakhas of Rig-Veda

Kaushitaki Brahmana: It is of the Vatkal or Bashkala shakhas of Rig-Veda and sometimes also known as Śānkhāyana Brahmana. It is younger in content and style.

Samveda Panchavisha Shadvisha Jaiminiya

Yajurveda Kathaka Brahmana

Rig-veda

Aitreya kaushitaki Samkhyana

Yajur-Veda

Kasthaka kapilsthakatha Maitrayani Taitriya

Sam veda

Panchvisha Shadvisha Jaiminiya

Atharvaveda

Gopath



P a g e

10 | P a g e

Krishna: the Brahmanas are integrated into the samhitas: 1. Maitrayani 2. Carakakatha 3. Kapisthalakatha

Taittiriya Brahmana Shatapatha Brahmana

Atharvaveda Gopatha Brahmana

Aranyakas The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans. Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and mysticism. So they have moral science and philosophy. It also provides the details of the rishis who lived in jungles. Aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles. Please note that Aranyakas are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas or their appendices. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values. They form a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the Upanishads advocated. The Aitareya Aranyaka is appended to the Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig-Veda. The Sankhyayana or Kaushitaki Aranyaka is the concluding portion of the Kaushitaki Brahmana of the Rig-Veda. In the black YajurVeda, the Taittriya Aranyaka is only a continuation of the Taitttriya

Brahamana. In the white YajurVeda, the 14th book of the Satapatha Brahmana is in name only an Aranyaka- the Brihdarnayaka.

For the SamaVeda, the only Aranyakas are the first Aranyaka-like sections of the Chhandogya Upanishad, which belongs to the Tandyamaha Brahmana, and the Jaimniya Upanishad Brahmana, which is nothing but an Aranyaka of the Jaiminiya or Talavakara school of the SamaVeda and comprises the well Known Kena (or Talvakra) Upanishad.

There are no Aranyakas of Atharvaveda The Upanishads

The word Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in writing, and were called by the same name of Upanishad. Today Upanishads specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. The main motto of the Upanishads is “ Knowledge Awards Salvation” Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda.

MukhyaUpnishad Veda

Aitareya Rig-Veda Bṛhadāraṇyaka Shukla Yajurveda Taittirīya Krishna Yajurveda Chāndogya Sam Veda Kena Sam Veda Īṣa Shukla Yajurveda Śvetāśvatara Krishna Yajurveda Kaṭha Krishna Yajurveda Muṇḍaka Atharva Veda Māṇḍūkya Atharva Veda Praśna Atharva Veda



P a g e

11 | P a g e

The Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads which date as back as the first millennium BC. Latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The latest Upnishad is Muktikā Upnishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh.It dates to 1656. Dara Shikoh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian. There are 108 Upanishads and they are also called Vedanga. “Upa” means nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge imparted by the gurus to their disciples. There are 108 Upanishad. 11 are predominant and they are called “Mukhya Upanishads”. They are as follows:

Aitareya Upanishad Aitareya Upanishad should be noted for one of the 4 Mahavakyas viz. "Prajanam Brahama” or "Consciousness is Brahman".

The Four Mahavakyas of Vedas Prajnanam Brahma - "Consciousness is Brahman" (Aitareya Upanishad of the Rig Veda) Ayam Atma Brahma - "This Self (Atman) is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad of the Atharva Veda) Tat Tvam Asi - "Thou art That" (Chandogya Upanishad of the Sama Veda) Aham Brahmasmi - "I am Brahman" (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad of the Yajur Veda)

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad It is contained in the Shatpath Brahman. It contains the following Famous Shloka:

असतो मा सद्गमय तमसो मा ज्यो�तगर्मय मतृ्योर ्मा अमतृं गमय ॐ शां�त शां�त शां�त

बहृदारण्यक उप�नषद् 1.3.28. The meaning of the above Shloka is : Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real, Lead Us From Darkness To Light, Lead Us From Death To Immortality, OM , Let There Be Peace Peace Peace

Taittirīya Upanaishad This Upanishada is associated with the Taittiriya school of the Yajurveda. The Taittiriya Upanishad describes the various degrees of happiness enjoyed by the different beings in creation

Chāndogya Upanishad This Upanishad is associated with the Kauthuma Shakha of the Samaveda. Along with Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of principal fundamentals of Vedanta philosophy.

Kena Upanisahda "Ken" literally means ‘by whom’. It belongs to the Talavakara Brahmana of Sama Veda and is therefore also referred to as Talavakara Upanishad Īsa Upanishad It is one of the latest Mukhya Upanishads, dating approximately to Mauryan times

Śvetāśvatara Upanishad Upanishads are sources of serious philosophical thought; however, this Upanishad differs from other Upanishads by explaining the same principles in a very simple, easy-going and poetic way.



P a g e

12 | P a g e

Kathopnishad It was translated by Max Müller in 1879. It was rendered in verse by Edwin Arnold as "The Secret of Death". The central story is immortality and covers the story of encounter of Nachiketa, son of sage Vajasravasa, with Yama, God of death.

Muktika This Upanishad deals with the Para Vidya and Apara Vidya. The Para Vidya is knowledge that leads to Self Realization , Apara Vidya deals with everything else or the material knowledge. Mundaka Upanishad is notable as the source of the phrase Satyameva jayate (3.1.6)

Māandūkya Mandukya is the Shortest Upnishad. It contains twelve verses expounding the mystic syllable Aum, the three psychological states of waking, dreaming and sleeping, and the transcendent fourth state of illumination.

Praśna Six pupils interested in knowing divinity or Brahman come to sage Pippalada and requests him to clarify their spiritual doubts. Therefore, this Upnishad is in Question Answer format.

The Smriti Literature Vedanga

Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. They are as follows:

Shiksha (Phonetics) Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas (prātiśākhya), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi (word combination), specific to individual schools or Shakhas of the Vedas.

Kalpa (Ritual Canon) It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras. There are three kinds of Sutras part of Kalpa: Śrautasūtras, which are based on the Shruti, and teach the performance of the great

sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires Smartasūtras, or rules based on the Smriti or tradition. The Smartasūtras have two classes

viz. Grhyasutras, or domestic rules : They are basically treating the rites of passage, such as marriage, birth, namegiving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire. Dharmasutras or customs and social duties: The Dharmasūtras are the first four texts of the Dharmasastra tradition and they focus on the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The Dharmasūtras are written in concise prose, leaving much up to the



P a g e

13 | P a g e

educated reader to interpret.The most important of these texts are the sutras of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vasiṣṭha. The Dharmasūtras can be called the guidebooks of dharma as they contain the rules of conduct and rites as practiced in the Vedic schools. They discuss about the duties of people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdership, retirement and renunciation. These stages are also called āśramas. They also discuss about the rites and duties of kings, judicial matters, and even personal practices like the regulations in diet, offenses and expiations, daily oblations, and funerary practice.

Vyakaran (Grammar) Vyakaran includes the Aṣṭādhyāyī, of Panini. Most of the work of very early Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost. There are 4 parts of Panini’s Grammar: Śivasūtra: Contains phonology (notations for phonemes specified in 14 lines) Aṣṭadhyāyī: Contains morphology (construction rules for complexes) Dhātupāṭha:Contains list of roots (classes of verbal roots) Gaṇapāṭha: Contains list of classes of primitive nominal stems

Nirukta (explanation) It is traditionally attributed to Yāska, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian. It deals with etymology, particularly of obscure words, especially those occurring in the Veda

Chhanda (Vedic meter) It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a verse, which is called Padas. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or mantra and number of syllables divides each pada. There is a distinct taxonomy on this basis. For example a Gayatri Chhanda has 3 padas of 8 syllables containing 24 syllables in each stanza. Similarly, Anuṣṭup has 4 padas of 8 syllables containing 32 syllables in each stanza. Anustup is the typical shloka of classical Sanskrit poetry

Jyotisha (Astrology) It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish.

Shatdarshana: Shatdarshana are 6 orthodox schools of Hindu Philosophy. They are as follows:

School Author Beginning Main Book Nyaya Gautama 6th Century BC Nyayasutra Vaisheshika Kanaad 6th century BC Vaisheshik Sutra Sankya Kapil 6th century BC Sankya Sutra Yoga Maharishi Patanjali 2nd century BC Yog Sutra Poorva Mimansa Jaimini 4th Century BC Poorva Mimansa Sutra Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta Badrayan or Maharishi Vyas 4th century BC Uttar Mimansa Sutra

Nyaya Literally means recursion. It is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd century AD. The basic theme of this darshana is acquiring the Valid Knowledge. The system is based upon Logic. On this basis, the knowledge can be valid or invalid.



P a g e

14 | P a g e

There are four means of obtaining valid knowledge viz. perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), comparison (upamāna) and verbal testimony (śabda). Invalid knowledge includes memory (smṛti), doubt (saṁśaya), error (viparyaya) and hypothetical reasoning (tarka). The followers of Nyaya believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions.

Vaisheshika Vaisheshsika is a kind of Atomism. It was proposed by Maharishi Kanaad. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. The school deals in detail with "Padarth" or Matter. Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya, but the two eventually merged because of their closely related theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference. Please note that Vaisheshika is also different from the Modern Atomic Theory because Vaisheshika says that the behaviour of the atoms is guided by the Supreme being. The Vaisheshika School classified the matter or padartha into six categories: Dravya (substance): There are nine substances viz. pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire),

vāyu (air), ākaśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space), ātman (self) and manas (mind). The first five are called bhūtas (Panchabhutas) the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.

Guṇa (quality): There are 17 Gunas or qualities of matter. The Gunas are diferent from Dravya. While a Dravya is capable of existing independently by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. The 17 Gunas are rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praśastapāda added another Gunas such as gurutva (gravity), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), śabda (sound) and saṁkāsra (faculty). (By reading this you can imagine the knowledge level of our sages 5000 years ago )

Karma (activity): Activity is a feature of the some of the Dravyas. Ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space) and ātman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity)

Sāmānya (generality): When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sāmānya.

Viśeṣa (particularity) : By means of viśeṣa, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the viśeṣas



P a g e

15 | P a g e

Samavāya (inherence): Samavaya is basically cause and the effect by two substances. Acording to Praśastapāda, it is the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained

One more category was later added called abhāva (non-existence). Here, the first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceive) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

Samkhya Samkhya means Enumeration. The founder of the Sankya school of Philosophy was Maharishi Kapil. There is some distinct feature of this philosophy: It strongly proponents Dualism. There are only two realities viz. Purusha and Prakriti. By Purusha they mean Consciousness and by Prakriti, they mean substance or realm of

matter. Jiva or life is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti through the glue of desire,

and the end of this bondage is moksha. The above three points lead to the conclusion that this school does not believe in the

existence of God. At the same point , it does not describe what happens after moksha and does not mention

anything about Ishwara or God, because after liberation there is no essential distinction of individual and universal puruṣa. So what happens after Moksha is irrelevant thing for this school.

This philosophy adversely affected the Tantra sadhana a lot. Please note that Sankya School of philosophy, the dualism consists of fundamental difference

between consciousness and matter. It is different from the dualism in west, because in that the dualism differentiates between mind and body.

Yoga Yuj means “control” and Yoga also mean to “add”. This philosophy is very close to Samkhya

and can be easily distinguished as Yoga= Samkhya + Divinity. Thus, yoga school accepts the samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic

than the samkhya, because it also includes the divine entity to the samkhya's elements of reality.

Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy. The yoga phislosophy of Patanjali is also known as Raja Yoga. The other branches include Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Hatha Yoga.



P a g e

16 | P a g e

Raja Yoga is a system for control of the mind. As per Patanjali Yoga is defined as योग: �चत्त-

विृत्त �नरोध:, which means that Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind. Swami

Vivekananda translated the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff from taking various forms”.

Ashtanga Yoga The Yogasutras of Patanjali later became the basis of Ashtanga Yoga. This eight-limbed concept derived from Patanajali's Yogasutra is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation that is practiced today. These eight limbs are as follows: Five Yama: Yama refers to the five "abstentions". These abstentions are Ahimsa (non-

violence), Satya (Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-covetousness), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

Five Niyama: The Niyama refers to five "observances". These are Shaucha(purity), Santosha(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), and Ishvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).

Asana: Asana means to be seated. Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.

Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.

Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the mind or senses from an object or event. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

Hathayoga The Yogasutras of Patanjali which mainly postulate the Raj Yoga, date back to Mauryan Period while Hathayoga was introduced by Yogi Swatmarama. The major difference between Raj Yoga and Hathayoga is that Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications, while a Hatha Yogi starts his Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with Asanas (postures) and Pranayama. So Raj Yoga starts from Mind and Hathyoga starts from Body.

Mimansa Mimansa means investigation or enquiry. The primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close theology of the Vedas. It has two divisions, Purva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa. Poorva Mimansa is ancient.

Dharma, Karma and Rta The Mimansa philosophy says that the dharma is not accessible to reason or observation, instead, it must be inferred from the authority of the Vedas, which are considered eternal, authorless, and



P a g e

17 | P a g e

infallible. This implies that rather than paying attention to God exists not, this philosophy focuses on the character of the Dharma. The Pūrva Mīmāṃsā explains the Dharma as a "virtue", "morality" or "duty". The duty is to follow the prescriptions of the Saṃhitās and their Brāhmaṇa commentaries relating the correct performance of Vedic rituals. This implies that Dharma is the essentially ritualism, and there is a great significance of the Karma or action in attaining Dharma. In this way, Dharma is also fundamentally different from the Rig-Vedic Rta or Rita which is a principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. While Dharma and Karma are related to each other, Ṛta is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper functioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial orders. The Purva Mimansa was postulated by Jamini. The ideology of Poorva Mimansa was to counteract the challenge by Buddhism and vedanta which marginalized the Vedic supremacy and sacrifices. This school got momentum in Gupta period and reached its climax in 7-8th century. Sabara and Kumaril Bhatta were two main interpretators. It was one of the major forces to decline Buddhism in India, but later itself was eclipsed by Vedanta.

Vedanta Vedanta means Veda end or the purpose or goal of the Vedas. It was given by Badrayana or Maharishi Vyasa, who is one of the 7 chiranjivis and wrote "Mahabharta".

Sub-schools of Vedanta: Advaita:

Its proponent wes Adi Sahnakara and his Guru Gaudapada. The essence of this Vedanta is that "Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory."

Vishishtadvaita Its proponent was Rāmānuja. The basic theory is that "jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities". Vishishtadvaita advocates Bhakti to attain God.

Dvaita The proponent of the Dvaita was Madhwāchārya. This theory is also known as Tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God in the Brahman (Universe) and its incarnations such as Vishnu and Krishna. It says that all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal are mutually separate entities.

Dvaitādvaita The theory of Dvaitādvaita was given by Nimbarka. It is based upon the early school of Bhedābheda of Bhaskara. It says that jīvātman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. The jiva



P a g e

18 | P a g e

relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. This school identifies God in Krishna.

Shuddhādvaita The proponent of Shuddhādvaita was Vallabha. It says that World is Leela of God that is Krishna and he is Sat-Chid-Aananda. It identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation. Vallabha was also a famous saint of Pushti Marg. He won the famous debate of Brahmavad over Shankars.

Achintya Bhedābheda The proponent of Achintya Bhedābheda was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a follower of the Dvaita vedanta of Sri Madhwacharya. The doctrine of Achintya Bhedābheda or inconceivable and simultaneous one-ness and difference states that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God and he can be experienced through a process of long devotion. It identified God in Krishna. This Philosophy is followed by ISKCON.

Purnādvaita or Integral Advaita The proponent of Purnādvaita was Shri Arubindo. He propounded this doctrine in his “The Life Divine”. synthesized all the exant schools of Vedanta and gave a comprehensive resolution integrating cues from the Western metaphysics and modern science. Sri Arubindo is known to be one, who restored the umbilical cord of the Vedantic exegesis with the Vedas.

Modern Vedānta The proponent of Modern Vedānta was Swami Vivekananda. His phislosophy says that the c onditions of abject poverty should be removed; only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.

Epics Ramayan

Created by Maharishi Valmiki. Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (Kandas) and 500 sargas) and tells the story of Rama. Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh and ranges in 50000 lines in total. Valmiki is also regarded as India's First Poet. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana. It inspired Tulsikrita Ramayan “Ram Charit Manas” in 1576 by Tulsi Das.

Mahabharta The Mahabharta is attributed to Maharishi Vyas and the tale known as Bharta is a shorter version of 24,000 verses, while the Mahabharta contains 1 Lakh verses and 1.8 million words which makes it 10 times longer than "Iliad and Odyssey combined" and 4 times of Ramayana.

Puranas They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of Hindu Philosophy. 18 major Puranas are as follows



P a g e

19 | P a g e

• Agni Purana which has 15,400 verses • Srimad Bhagavata Purana which has 18,000 verses. The most celebrated and popular of the

Puranas, telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest chapter narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.

• Bhavishya Purana which has 14,500 verses • Brahma Purana which has 24,000 verses • Brahmanda Purana which has 12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some

Hindus recite as prayer • Brahmavaivarta Purana which has 18,000 verses • Garuda Purana which has 19,000 verses • Harivamsa Purana which has 16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa • Linga Purana which has 11,000 verses • Markandeya Purana which has 9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text

for Shaktas, Shortest Purana. • Matsya Purana which has 14,000 verses • Narada Purana which has 25,000 verses • Padma Purana which has 55,000 verses • Skanda Purana which has 81,100 verses, the longest Purana • Surya Puarana • Vamana Purana which has 10,000 verses • Vayu Purana which has 24,000 verses • Vishnu Purana which has 23,000 verses • Apart from the above there are Kurmi Purana, Shiv Purana also.

Upaveda Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain technical works. They are as follows:

• Āyurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda • Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda • Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda • Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and associated with the Atharvaveda

Chapter 3. Vedic Political, Social and Economic Life The Geography in Vedic Texts

Based on the geographical data in the Vedic literature, we can analyse about the Aryan expansion in India..



P a g e

20 | P a g e

The country of Aryans The Aryans used the term Sapta Saindhavas as the region where they settled down. They used this term in the context of country. The country of the Aryan was also designated as Aryavarta in the latter Scriptures. The Rig-Vedic Aryans had not yet established settlements in the southern India. The Sapta Saindhavas country of the Rig Vedic period was bounded by the Himalayas and Tibet in the east, Turkistan in the north, Afghanistan, in the west and the Aravallis in the south. The Ganga and the mountains of the Vindhya were the barriers not easy to cross in those days.

The Rivers When the early Rig Vedic hymns were written, the focus of Aryan culture was the region between the Yamuna and Sutudri (Sutluj), and along the upper course of the river Saraswati. The Saraswati river is now an insignificant stream, losing itself in the desert of Rajasthan, but then it flowed broad and strong. Out of thirty-one river mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-five names occur in the hymns of the Rig-Veda alone. In the Nadistuti, the Rig-Veda enumerates several streams most of which belong to the Indus system.

The Mountains The Rig Vedic people knew about the Himalayas but did not mention about the land south of the Yamuna, and they did not mentioned the Vindhyas Mountains or Satpura even. The other hills referred to are Arjika, Mujavant, Silament (Suleman range), etc., which were all ridges of the Himalayas.

The Seas The reference of seas in the early rig Vedic text is doubtful. However, in the later-Vedic literature, Samudram actually means the sea. There are references to eastern and western oceans in the Satapatha Brahmana, which indicate acquaintance with the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the later Vedic era.

The Deserts The Rig Vedic Aryans were not familiar with any kind of desert. However, an implied reference to Maru as the country of desert mounds near Kurukshetra has been traced in Taittiriya Aryanka.

Name of the Places, Cities and Towns Vedic culture was essentially a rural culture, and cities had not emerged; no important place name is hence recorded. In the Rig-Veda it was because of the migratory nature of the tribes and in the later-Vedic period of the regions comes to be known by the names of the tribes who controlled them.

The Rig-Vedic Polity Tribes and the Dasarajana Yudha

The entire territory of the Vedic Aryans was divided into a number of tribal principalities, ruled normally by the leaders. The Bharatas were the most important Aryan tribe, after whom the India came to be known as Bharata.



P a g e

21 | P a g e

In connection with the famous Dasrajna Yudha or the battle of ten kings, mentioned in various hymns of the Rig-Veda, many important Vedic tribes and their personalities are found mentioned. The battle of ten kings was between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu family and the confederacy of ten well-known tribes- Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are said to be Aryan tribe while the later 5 are said to be Non-Aryan tribes. In the bloody and decisive battle on the banks of river Parusni, the Bharatas emerged victorious. The Purus were another very important tribe in the days of the Rig-Veda. They were closely connected with Tritsus and the Bharatas, and lived on either side of the Saraswati. The Anus, Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas were the allies of the Purus against the Bharatas. These five are the five peoples (Panchjanah) fo the Rig-Veda. The Name Yadu and Turvasa normally occur together in the Rig-Veda.

Jana , Rajana and Aspects of Land Territory The tribe was known as Jana. The chief of the tribe was a Rajan. Rajan was protector of the tribe and its cattle. He fought wars on behalf of his Jana. Rajan was used for the tribal chief who was primarily a military chieftain leading the tribe in wars for the sake of taking possession of cows and other cattle wealth but not taking over possession of territories. This implies that the concept of land territory was completely absent in early Rig Vedic Era. The absence of territory is also proved by the fact that the term Jana appears many times in Rig-Veda but Janapada never appears. The term Rajya appears once and Rashtra appears for 10 times. It has been thus concluded that the territorial aspect of the polity appeared in the end of the Rig-Vedic Period. Here we must note that the Rajan was the leader of the people belonging to a particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. This is why he was known as Janasya gopa or Gopati Janasya. The rajan was one of the equals whose position was hereditary position generally but there are several reference, which suggest that the Rajan owned his office to the choice of the people. The Atharvaveda gives references for the election of the king by the tribesmen (visa).

The Grama and the Vajrapati The term Gram, appearing 13 times in the Rig-Veda, does not refer to a village, but is essentially a military tribal unit. A war or battle was thus called Sangrama. The Vrajapati was in charge of commonly held tribal pasture land and was the leader of the family. Vajrapati used to lead in the battles, and later became synonymous with the Gramani who himself originally was the head of the tribal unit called grama.

Taxation : The Bali The Rajan could not have an elaborate administrative machinery because the nature of the Rig Vedic economy. An economy in which the surplus was very small, the Rajan received only bali, i.e. offering to a prince or to a god from the conquered people. However these tributes were neither regular and nor stipulated and hence cannot be called a tax.



P a g e

22 | P a g e

Military & Spy functionalities There was no regular standing army. The military functions were invested in the Vedic assemblies. All the three persons viz. the Vrajapati, Kulapa (head of the family) and the Gramani functioned as military leaders. The Rajan held the Spies called Spasa to keep an eye on the conduct of the people. Ugra and Jivagribha were two officials probably meant for dealing with the criminals. The Madhyamasi seems to have acted as a meditator in disputes. There were no code of law in the early Vedic era.

The Earliest Tribal Assembly - Vidhata Vidatha appears for 122 times in the Rig-Veda and seems to be the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. Vidatha was an assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose. The Rig-Veda only once indicated the connection of woman with the Sabha whereas Vidatha is frequently associated with woman women actively participated in the deliberations with men. Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, performing all kinds of functions- economic, military religious and social. The Vidatha also provided common ground to clans and tribes for the worship of their gods.

Sabha & its Sabhavati The term Sabha denotes both the assembly (in early Rig-Vedic) and the assembly hall (Later Rig-Vedic). Women who were called Sabhavati also attended this assembly. It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic times. RigVeda speaks of the Sabha also as a dicing and gambling assembly, along with a place for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic. It discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and administrative functions and exercised judicial authority.

Samiti The references to samiti come from the latest books of the Rig-Veda showing that it assumed importance only towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period. Samiti was a folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies and prayers. References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

The differentiations between Sabha and Samiti In the beginning, there was no difference between the Sabha and the Samiti. Both were called daughters of Prajapati. Both were mobile units led by chiefs who kept moving along with the forces. The only difference between Sabha and Samiti seems to be the fact that Sabha performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not. Later, the sabha became a small aristocratic body and samiti ceased to exist.

The Gana or the Republic A Gana was a assembly or troop. The leader of the gana is generally called Ganapati .



P a g e

23 | P a g e

The Parishad The early parisad seems to be a tribal military assembly, partly, matriarchal and partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references lead to the non-Vedic character of the parisad. In later-Vedic period, it tended to become partly an academy and partly a royal council dominated by the priests, who functioned as teachers and advisers.

Rig Vedic Society The family was the basis of the social structure in Rig Vedic society. The Jana or the tribal society was given importance. There is another term mentioned in Vedic text is Vis which means a clan. Vis consisted of many gramas, which was a tribal unit meant for fighting (Samgrama). The society was divided into smaller gramas. Whenever there was a clash between gramas, it was a Sangrama.

Patriarchy The family was a joint unit and patriarch society and birth of a son was desired repeatedly. The institution of marriage was established. Status of women was equal to men and they received the Upanayan samskaras. They studied Vedas and some of them composed Vedic Hymns. There was presence of practice of polygamy as well as Polyandry. The eldest male member of the family was known as Kulapa (protector of the family). The social structure was based on kinship, which was rather simple. Terms for father, mother, brother, sister, son and daughter existed distinctly but nephews, grandsons and cousins were known by a common term naptri. Father’s and mother’s were known by a common term

The Evolution of Varna System There was Varna system, which was mainly based upon the color. Initially the society had only Aryans, who were fair in color. They conquered the indigenous people who were dark in color and once conquered they were used as slaves and called “Dasa”. The Dasyu have been identified as the enemies of the Aryan Vedic tribes. A relation between Dasa and Dasyu has not been established; however, Dasyu seams to be derived from Iranian Dahyu which means a tribe. In the later Vedic era, the tribal society was divided among 3 groups Warriors, priests and common public. Later the fourth division Shudras appeared in the later Rig Vedic society. The division of 4 Varnas viz. Brahman, Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra was initially not very sharp and based upon the occupation BUT later became sharp and based upon birth.

Marriage and women Despite of the patriarchal character of the family, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Five women have been mentioned as composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their parents. Some unmarried woman like



P a g e

24 | P a g e

Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow remarriage in the Rig-Veda. Marriage as an institution was well.

Education In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was given orally. Art of writing does not seem to have developed yet. In the well-known Gayatri mantra there is a prayer to savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritiual knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars. Rishis who composed hymns founded their own schools separately to teach their pupils and every person among the vis was entitled to learn Vedic mantras. In the later-Vedic phase, with the development of varnaasramas, education began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since Upanayan was confined to three upper Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education. Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When teacher was satisfied with the student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was delivered.

Institution of Gotra Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening social ties a new relationship were established between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible that animals were herded in common and such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the character of an exogamous institution.

Amusements and entertainments Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. We have been told that the Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. Some authors claim that Dhrupad of Indian classical music originated in Vedic Era. Dancing was common. The chariot race was a favourite sport and source of entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.

House holding The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some of the virtues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of the feet and hands every now and then, and purifying the atmosphere with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual when ritualism acquired special significance in the later-Vedic age. It became one of the many sources of the development of hierarchy and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.

Eating Habits The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat and rice where not known to them. Godhuma or wheat is mentioned in several later-Vedic texts only. Yava was also a



P a g e

25 | P a g e

generic term for various kinds of cereals. In later-Vedic times we have evidence of rice (Vrihi), bean-pulse (masa), sesamum (tila), millet (syamaka), kidney bean (mudga) mustard (sarshapa), etc. Milk, Milk products and cattle meat was popular. Alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer and Soma was acceptable to Gods.

Dress code Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called uttariya and the lower one was known as antariya. The dress for the male and the female did not differ much.

Health and hygiene Everyone aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years. Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well. Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in the surgical art. They were divine physicians who restored eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.

Rig Vedic Economy The importance of Cow

Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral . They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as Gojata, i.e. cowborn. When the Vedic people encountered buffalo in India they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow-haired. The cattle obtained in raids were divided among the families. Cattle formed an important item of donation and it may also have formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period. The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but NOT in measurements of lands.

Crafts and Metallurgy All kinds of crafts were practiced. There were potters, Chariot makers, carpenters, and weaver and leather workers. The metal work was known as follows:

• Copper was known as “Ayas” • Gold was known as Hiranya



P a g e

26 | P a g e

• Iron was also known as was known as Shyama or Krishna Ayas. The Vedic Religion

The Worship of Nature The Aryans were solely theists. They contemplation about life and the world was from the spiritual standpoint. The Vedic Aryans believed in the concept of one in many. They worshipped the forces of nature, but at the same time believed in the basic unity of nature. The Vedic people worshipped many gods not because of the fear of natural phenomena but for gaining their favours. All the natural phenomena such as the sky, thunder, rain, air were believed to be guided by their presiding deities, while natural devastations were taken to be an expression of their wrath. The hymns of the Rig-Veda were mainly sung for the glorification of the gods in order to appease them. God was regarded as the ruler, ordainer of the period of life, protector of men and giver of happiness. This implies that the religion of the Vedic Aryans was a form of nature worship. There were no places of worship like temples. There are no indications in the Rig-Veda of any "temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Somajuice and prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black aborigines. There was no separate priestly caste, and men did not retire into forests and subject themselves to penances in order to meditate on religion and chant these hymns. Natural phenomena were conceived as the expression of some spiritual different appearances of various gods. For the different appearances of the sky different deities were imagined, such as Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Dyus. Most of these natural events were personified and it was the birth of first mythology in the world.

Rig Vedic Gods Dyu, Mithra, Varuna

Aryans were a warlike race with a capacity for active enjoyments, and an appreciation of all that was lovely and joyous in nature. They looked up to the beauteous and bright sky, and worshipped it under the name of Dyu or Dyaus, equivalent to the Greek Zeus and the first syllable of the Jupiter. They also called the sky of day by the name of Mithra corresponding to the Zend Mithra; and they called the sky of night Varuna, corresponding to the Greek Ouranos. These common names under which the sky-god was worshipped by the different Aryan nations of the ancient times prove that the sky was worshipped under these names by the primitive Aryans in their original home. Thus, earliest divine power in Vedic literature is Dyaus. Dyu or Dyaus is the name of the sky or heaven that shines, and is the most ancient name for the divine power among the Aryans. It is the



P a g e

27 | P a g e

same word as the Zeus of the Greeks and the Jupiter of the Latins, the Tiu of the Saxons and the Zio of the Germans, and the name of the Deity among modern nations. Dyaus was referred as Dyaus Pitr, which later became Ju-piter. Pitr means Prithvi and Dyaus was coupled with prithivi and the two Dyaus-Prithivi are the universal parents. Varuna, apart from being the god of the sky, is also the god of law of nature called Rita. Varuna is also lord of the Patal Loka (Under world). He is one of the most prominent Devas in the Rig-Veda, and lord of the heavens and the earth.

Indra and Marut While the Hindu Aryans of the Punjab continued to worship the ancient sky-god under the ancient names of Dyu, Mitra, and Varuna, they paid special homage to the sky that rains, which they called Indra. Rise of rivers and the luxuriance of crops depend on the rain-giving sky; and in course of time, Indra became the most prominent deity in the Vedic society. Indra was conceived as a warlike deity, battling with the clouds, called Vritra, to obtain copious torrents of rain for man, and fighting with the demons of darkness, called Panis, to restore to the world the light of the morning. The Maruts or storm-gods were supposed to help Indra in his contest with the reluctant clouds, for in India the first showers of the rainy season are often attended with storms and thunder. Thus, Indra was the most important divinity and was lord of war. 250 hymns have been devoted to only Indra in Rig Veda, which is highest for any of the Gods. His other names are: Car-warrior (Rathestha) A winner ( Jitendra) Soma Drinker (Somapa). Indra is mentioned as son pf Dyaus. He killed a demon Vritra, so he is known as Vritrahan. He destroyed the forests so also known as Purandhar. He held the thunderbolt (Vajra) with which he destroyed the enemies. His wife is Indrani or Sachi (energy).

Aditi, Sun, Savithri Next to the sky, the sun was the most prominent object of the worship of the ancient Hindus. Aditi was the limitless light of sky, and her sons, the Adityas were the suns of the different months of the year. Surya was coterminous with Greek Helios, the Latin Sol, and the Teuton Tyr. Savitri is another name of the same deity Sun, and the sacred hymn, the Gayathri Mantra, which is still repeated every morning by pious Hinuds all over world; is a verse dedicated to Savithri. Please note that Vishnu, which in later Hindu mythology has become a name of the Supreme Preserver of all beings, was a name of the sun in the Vedic age. The rising sun, the sun at Zenith, and the setting sun were considered the three steps of Vishnu striding across limitless space.

Agni: Fire or Agni was an object of worship. No sacrifice to the gods could be performed without libations or offerings to the fire, and Agni was therefore considered to be the priest among the gods. But



P a g e

28 | P a g e

Agni is not only the terrestrial fire in the Rig Veda; he is also the fire of the lightning and the sun, and his abode was in heaven. The early sages Bhrigus discovered him there, and Atharvavan and Angiras, the first sacrificers, installed him in this world, as the protector of men. Thus, Agni is the God of fire and acceptor of sacrifices. He was considered an intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns have been devoted to only Agni in Rig Veda while Agni is mentioned in 218 hymns.

Vayu and Rudra Vayu or the wind is sometimes invoked in the Rig Veda. The Maruts or storm-gods are oftene invoked, as we have seen before, and are considered the helpers of Indra in obtaining rain for the benefit of man. Rudra, the loud-sounding father of the Maruts, is the Thunder, and in later Hindu mythology, this name has been appropriately chosen for the Supreme Destroyer of all living beings.

Soma & Brihaspati Agni, or fire, received special homage because he was necessary for all sacrifice. The libation of soma juice was similarly regarded sacred, and Soma was worshipped as a deity. Similarly, the prayer, which accompanied the libations or offerings, was also regarded as a deity, and was called Brahamanaspati. In later Hindu mythology, Brahman is selected as the name of the Supreme Creator of all living beings. Soma was prepared by extracting juice from the stalks of a certain plant, and the Soma God was god of the plants. 123 hymns are dedicated to Soma and most of them are from Soma Mandala.

Soma & Haoma The fermented juice of the plant called Soma appears to have been the only intoxicating drink used in Vedic times. So much were the ancient Aryans addicted to this drink, that Soma was soon worshipped as a deity both in India and in Iran (under the name Haoma in the latter country), and we find one entire Mandala, or Book, of the Rig-Veda, dedicated to this deity. (R C Dutt)

Visvedevas They are various Vedic gods taken together as a whole headed by Indra. 70 hymns are dedicated to Visvedevas in Rig-Veda.

Ashwins or Ashwinikumars Light and Darkness naturally suggested to the early Aryans the idea of twin gods. The sky (Vivasvat) is the father, and the Dawn (Saranyu) is the mother of the twin Ashwins and the legend goes on to say that Saranyu ran away from Vivasvat before she gave birth to the twins. There is a similar legend in Greek mythology, where and Erinnys (corresponding to Saranyu) ran away from her

Agni Soma Cult Aprt from lightning the Holy Fire, the Soma-drinking was another mark of the Arya cult, which may therefore be called 'the Agni-Soma cult-' Soma is a product of the Himalayan regions, so that when the cult moved down to the plains, Kirata (huntress) girls from the Himalayan hills supplied it to Brahmanas. The use of Soma, like the worship of Agni indicates the Himalayan region as the place where the Agni-Soma cult first originated.



P a g e

29 | P a g e

lover, and gave birth to Areion and Despoina. The original idea is that the Dawn and Gloaming disappears, and gives birth to Light and to Darkness. Please note that later, Aswins lost thier original charecter and simply became the physician gods, responsible for healing of the sick and the wounded, tending mortals with kindness. There are other twins Yama and Yami, who are kids of same parents - the Dawn and Sky. They also acquired different chareters in Rig Veda.

Yama & Yami Yama is considered to have been the first mortal who died and espied the way to the celestial abodes, and in virtue of precedence, he became the ruler of the departed. He is the guardian of the world of Dead. His twin sister is Yami and both Yama and Yami are Children of Surya. Yamini means Night and Yami is also known as Yamuna.

Usha Usha has been described as far - extending, many - tinted, brilliant Dawn, whose abode is unknown. She harnesses her chariots from afar and comes in radiance and glory. She is the young, the white-robed daughter of the sky, and the queen of all earthly treasures. She is like the careful mistress of the house who rouses every one from his slumbers and sends him to his work. Yet she is radiant as a bride decorated by her mother for the auspicious ceremony, and displaying her charms to the view. Such are the fond epithets and beautiful similes with which the Hindu Aryans greeted the fresh and lovely mornings of a tropical sky.

Other Rig Vedic Gods: • Pusan: The guardian of the Jungle Paths and Roads. • Aditi – Goddess of Eternity • Gandhrava – Divine Musicians • Rbhus – three semi divine deities of Rig-Veda.

Apsaras Dancers of the celestial Courts. Please note that Rig Veda mentions Apsara as the wife of Gandharva. Rig Veda allows for the existence of more than one Apsara. The maiden Apsara is Urvashi who became the wife of king Pururavas, first king of the Somavamsha. Narrative of Urvashi and Pururavas is found in the Rigveda (X.95.1-18) and the Shatapatha Brahmana (XI.5.1)

• Rudra – Archer of Gods • Aranyanai – Goddess of Forests • Usha – Goddess of Dawn • Prithvi – Goddess Earth.



P a g e

30 | P a g e

Comparison of the Greek Dieties and Ancient Hindu Dieties There was an essential difference between the Hindu gods of the Vedic age and the Greek gods of the Homeric age. The first thing we should note that the Sanskrit language is nearer and closer than the Greek to the original Aryan tongue, yet Hindu conceptions go nearer to the original Nature-worship of the primitive Aryans. The Gods of Homeric Greeks have attained a marked individuality and the charecters are so individualistic that "nature" almost escapes. But the Hindu Gods are still the powers of Nature and show manifestations of Nature. For example, we can identify Indra with Rains easily but can not identify Zeus with Sky. Therefore, we can say that Hindu conceptions are more true to their original sources.

Changes in life in Later Vedic Age General Changes

The Sabhas and Samitis continued to hold the ground, however the women were not allowed to sit in Sabha. Brahmins and Nobles took the place. The King became important and territorial authority became important. The term Rastra which indicated a territorial country got prominent in the later Vedic Age. Ashvamedha Yagya was considered to authorize the unquestioned authority over an area where the Royal Horse could run. The levy of taxes started and became prominent and the officer responsible for this function was sangrihitri. The standing army was not possessed by the king even in Later Vedic period and gramas mustered in times of war.

Changes in Economy The life became sedentary and the domestication of animals and cultivation increased. Cattle were still the currency and principle movable property. The idea of private possession of lands started taking shape. Ironsmiths, weavers, jewelers, dyers, potters, are the new classes of artisans. Trade was also boosted. The Gold piece of specific weight Satamana was used as a currency rate. Use of Gold as currency is mentioned in Satapatha Brahman. Nishka was another popular currency. The other matellic coins were Suvarna and Krishnala. Barter system still existed. Money lending as a trade was prevalent.

The Four Varnas The society was now divided into 4 varnas viz. Brahmans, Kahstriyas, Vaish and Shudras. Each of them was assigned its duty. The vaishyas were common people who were responsible for producing the agricultural commodities and rearing of the cattle. The engaged in trade and were called vaniks. Nagara was used for the first time, which meant a city and beginning of town life.

Types of Marriages in later Vedic Ages: Marriage Type Description Brahma Vivah Marriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals Daiva Vivah When father donated his daughter to a priest as a part of Dakshina. Arsa Vivah A token bride-price of a Cow and a Bull was given Prajapati Vivah Marriage without dowry



P a g e

31 | P a g e

Gandharva Vivah It was a kind of love marriage or swyamavara type Asura Vivah Marriage by Purchase Paisach Vivah Seduction of a girl while sleeping or mentally unstable due to a drink. Rakshasha Vivah Marriage by abduction

Anuloma and Pratiloma Vivah: The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was NOT allowed in the texts. New castes by Intermarriage of four castes: Account of Vashishtha

• The offspring of a Sudra and a Brahman woman becomes a Chandala. • That of a Sudra and Kshatriya woman, a Vaina. • That of a Sudra and Vaisya woman, an Antyavasayi. • The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Brahman woman becomes a Ramaka. • The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Kshatriya woman, a Paulkasa. • The son begotten by a Kshatriya on a Brahman woman becomes a Suta. • Children begotten by Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas on women of the next lower,

second lower, and third lower castes become respectively Ambashthas, Ugras, and Nishadas. • The son of a Brahman and a Sudra woman is a Parasava.

Four Purushartha Purushartha refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. The Four Purushartha of Hinduism are as follows:

• Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Today, it coresponds to religious, social and/or moral righteousness

• Artha: material and/or financial means of living • Kama : pleasure including sensual pleasures • Moksha: Liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment

The Hindu Philosophy says that Dharma is the gateway to Moksha.

Ashrama System: Four stages of the lifespan of 100 years were not established in the early Vedic era. They were well established in the later Vedic era and 4 Ashrams were:

• Brahamcharya Ashram: The first 25 years were set for student life • Grihastha Ashram: The age from 25 to 50 years was kept for having a family and discharging

the worldly duties such as giving birth to children and raising them • Vanaprastha Ashram: Age from 50-75 years was fixed for partial retirement and living life in

forests. • Sanyas Ashram: The last age of 75-100 years was fixed for complete retirement from the

world.



P a g e

32 | P a g e

Please note that 4th ashram has not been mentioned in early Vedic texts. The Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Sacrifices & Rituals • Rajsuya: This sacrifice conferred supreme power to King. • Asvamedha: Unquestioned control over an area • Vajapeya: It was a chariot race in which the Royal Chariot was to win race against the

kinsmen. This elevated the Raja to a Samrat. • Garbhdharana: The conception ceremony. • Pumsayam: Ritual to procure a male child. • Sementonayam: Ritual to ensure safety of the child in womb. • Jatakarma: Birth ceremony performed prior to cutting the umbilical chord of the newborn

infant • Culakarma: performed in 3rd year of the baby’s life • Upnayana: performed in the eighth year to confer dvija status.

Domestic Ceremonies 1. Garbhadhana (ceremony to cause conception) 2. Pumsavana (ceremony to

cause the birth of a male child) 3. Simantonnayana (arranging

the hair of the pregnant wife) 4. Jatakarman (ceremony on the

birth of a child) 5. naming the child 6. the first feeding 7. the tonsure of the head 8. the initiation; 9. the four vows for the study of

the Veda; 10. the bath of completion of

studentship 11. marriage 12. and the five sacrifices to gods,

manes, men, spirits, and to Brahma

Objective of Garbhadhana rite, was supposed to secure conception.

Some Vedic Terms Aghanya Not to be killed Agnyadheya ceremony which preceded the public rituals in Vedic Era. Akshavapa accounts officer Amaju Lifelong unmarried girl Bhagadugh carpenter Bhishaka Doctor or Vaidya Charmana Blacksmith Datra Sickle Duhitri Milker of cow and also a daughter Gaura Buffalo Gavishti a fight for cows. Gocarman a measure of distance Gotra A kinship unit Hiranyakara Goldsmith Jansaya Gopa Tribal Chief Kinsmen of the King Sajata Kulala Potter Purapati responsible for defense. Rathakara Chariot maker Samgavan A measure of time Sarabha Elephant Satdaya Compensation for manslaughter Sira Plough Sita Furrows Spas Spies Takshan carpenter Takshan carpenter Varatra leather strap of the Plough Vrihi Rice



P a g e

33 | P a g e

Some Notable points Kathopnishad deals with the dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama “Satyamev Jayate” India’s motto comes from “Mundaka Upnishad” Aitareya Brahman establishes Superiority of Brahmins. Shudra word comes in 10th Mandala of Rig-Veda In the later Vedic period, divine royal theory started. The king in the center was called Raja,

Samrat in East, Swarat in West, Virat in North and Bhoj in South. Coins were used in Later Vedic Age Most mentioned River is Indus, Most revered river is Saraswati. The marriage of a widow to brother or relative of the deceased was known as “Niyoga”. Rishi Agastya is known for Aryanization of South India. Jabala Upnishad mentions the 4 Ashrams for the first time. Swastika is said to be not only pre-Vedic but also Pre-Harappan and it existed from

Baluchistan, Indus Valley and even Turkmenistan. It is NOT an exclusive Aryan Symbol. Vaishya as a Varna has NO mention in Rig-Veda Yavyavati is another name for Ravi in Rig-Veda. Agni was a God which was worshipped by Aryans as well as Ancient Iranians. A hymn in Rig Veda is devoted to Lopamudra. She was wife of rishi Agastya and credited

with spreading the fame of the Lalita sahastranama. Her other names are Kaushitaki and Varaprada.

Gargi was daughter of Rishi Vachaknu and is mentioned in the Sixth and the Eighth Brahmana of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad

Atranjikheda is the place where largest deposits of the Iron weapons have been found. Comparison of the Harappa and Vedic Civilizations

The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.

Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia.

The Harappan civilization was urban in nature, Vedic culture was rural and pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.

In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially postoral and later became based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.

The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people.



P a g e

34 | P a g e

Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.

The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have been unearthed from surkotada.

Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged science of war.

Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, mother goddess, animals , snake and nature. The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.

The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced cremation. Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very distinctive in nature.

The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware). The Harappans were short statured, black in complexion, Aryans were tall, well-built and

handsome. The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley and

bread. The Aryans preferred Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink.

Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.

Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages , Indus script still remains undeciphered.

It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.

Vedic India, Some more Observations A comparision of the Upanishada and Brahamanas

The meaning of Upanishada adopted by Max Muller and usual ever since, makes the word mean firstly a session of pupils, hence secret doctrine, and secondly the title of a work on secret doctrine. Upa means nearby, Ni means down and sad means to sit. This implies that Upanaishada contain the instructions received by pupils sitting near a teacher. However, as per Oldenberg, the word Upanishada is derived from worship {Upasana}. Hopkins denotes that Upanishada denotes a subsidiary treatise {Upa-subsidiary} and does not account for secret meaning. Please note that all Upanishada have been passed down in a oral tradition and are parts of Shruti Literature.



P a g e

35 | P a g e

The Upanishads represent one important fact of social life in India. The Brahmanas, which lay so much stress on ceremonialism, were composed by the priestly caste, but the Upanishads which mark the beginning of the rationalistic epoch were composed by the kingly class.

Concept of Rita and Dharma Dharma is so called, because it holds; Dharma holds the people. Etymologically, Dharma is derived from the root Dhr—to hold—and its meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world. Rita is predecessor to Dharma and is the Original Rig Vedic concept which refers to the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Rita is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper functioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial orders. In Rig Veda, Rita appears as many as 390 times. Rita has been characterized as "the one concept which pervades the whole of Rig-Vedic thought. In the early Rig Vedic era, Rita was abstract; slowly the universal principle started mingling with the anthropomorphic tendencies of the Vedic period. In due course of time, it became associated with the actions of individual deities. The Rita became associated with Varuna, the omniscient, all pervading sky God. Adityas became the Chariotters of Rita. Varuna became the friend & keeper of Rita. Varuna became the universal Power, which maintained Rita and was celebrated as having "separated and established heaven and earth, spreading them out as the upper and lower firmaments, himself enthroned above them as the universal king, ordering the immutable moral law, exercising his rule by the sovereignty of Rita”. (James 1969) Eventually Dharma overshadowed Rita in the later Vedic Era. While Rita encompassed the ethical principles with a notion of cosmic retribution, Dharma was said to be a path to be followed as per the ordinances of Rita. Failing to follow this path meant appearance of various forms of calamity and suffering. Committing to the path of Rita was "Dharma" so we can say that Dharma was originally conceptualized as a subordinate component Rita Dharma became a very useful instrument in framing religious, moral and social regulations, that interest in it and discussion of its applications to social and moral order eclipsed all discussions of metaphysical and theological ideas. There was also an important change in later Vedic and Epic Era. The notion of Dharma shifted emphasis away from nature as executor of Rita and now it became more or less an individual duty to uphold the Dharma through one's actions. This was called Karma. Karma is what one does to uphold the Dharma and thus, the emphasis from the natural order vanished and it became essentially related to the pains and pleasures one experiences in life, and this tried to explain the gross inequality and injustice in the world. So, Karma was somewhat opposite to Rita as well as Dharma. Karma became the central piece of Hindu philosophy in later Vedic era.



P a g e

36 | P a g e

The Concept of Sapta Rishi Saptarshi or the seven sages are mentioned at many places in Vedic Literaure. The term “Saptarishis” is NOT mentioned in Vedic Richas but they are enumerated in different later Vedic texts, Upnishads and Brahmanas, They are considred to be the patriarchs of Vedic Religion. Ursa Major constelleation is coterminous with Sapta Rishi. Ursa Minor is coterminous with Laghu Sapta Rishi. There is one more star slighly visible within the Saptarishi and it is called Arundhati. The first list of the 7 sages was given by Jaiminiya Brahman. The rishis are Vasistha, Bharadvaja, Jamadagni, Gautama, Atri, Visvamitra, and Agastya The second list is given in Brihadaranyaka Upnishad which mentions the names as Gautama and Bharadvāja, Viśvāmitra and Jamadagni, Vasiṣṭha and Kaśyapa, and Atri. Gopath Brahmana enlists the 7 sages as follows: Vasiṣṭha, Viśvāmitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvāja, Gungu, Agastya, and Kaśyapa. The role played by the Saptarishis in the birth of Kartikeya, has been vividly described in Kumarsambhava of Kalidasa.Rishi Agastya was one of the legendary sage, about whom a lot of traditions prevalent. His greatest feat was the reconciliation of Indra and the Maruts after Indra had been annoyed at his proposing to give the Maruts an offering to the exclusion of Indra. This feat is the subject of three hymns of the Rigveda. Agastya married Lopamudra, and appears in a strange dialogue with Lopamudra in Rigveda. In the Rigveda, this appears to show him as an ascetic who finally yields to temptation.

The story of Agastya and Lopamudra Lopamudra is also known as Kaushitaki and Varaprada, there is one hymn in the Rigveda is attributed to her. Lopamudra was created by sage Agastya with the most graceful parts of animals such as eyes of the deer etc. She spread the fame of the Lalita sahasranama (the thousand names of the Divine Mother). The meaning of word Lopamudra is "loss of beauty" which refers to the loss caused to the animals in her creation. Agastya created her, secretaly introduced her to the palace of Vidarbha King, and later when she grew up asked the king to return her as his wife.

The Abhi-seka or coronation The Abhiseka meant consecration of a Vedic King (Rajan) after his election and was followed by coronation. Its a very elaborate ritual of vedic era. The consecration took place by sprinkling with water. ONLY the kings could be consecrated and please note that Abhiseka was an essential part of Rajsuya Yajna, the sacrifice of royal inauguration.

The Metals The exact metal denoted by this word when used by itself, as always in the Rigveda, is uncertain. The most probable accepted candidate for the use of word Ayas were either Copper or Bronze. In Rigveda, Agni has been referred to as Ayodamstra which means "one that with teeth of Ayas”, the teeth refer to flames of Agni. The Vajanseyi samhita notes that Gold was Hiranya, Iron was Syama



P a g e

37 | P a g e

(also Syama Ayas), Lead was sisa, Tin was Trapu, Lohita Ayas was Copper, because of its red color.

Aryamnah Pantha or the Milky Way The literal meaning of this word is "Aryaman's Way" and is an expression which occurs in the Brahmanas and denotes the "Milky way"

Seasons in Rig-Veda Rtu is the word used for seasons and is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda. One of the passages of Rig Veda mentions that name of spring (vasanta), summer (grisma), and autumn (sarad). Another passage also deals with rainy season (prd-vrs) and the winter {hima, hemanta}, but Rig-Veda does not clearly demarcates the seasons. The Satapatha Brahmana mentions that four-monthly sacrifices were performed at the begining of each season, so clearly denoting 4 seasons. The later texts divide a year into 5 seasons viz. vasanta, grisma, varsa, sarad, hemanta-sisira. Later, 6 seasons are reckoned, hemanta and sisira being divided, so that the six seasons can be made parallel to the twelve months of the year. Hemanta was the last season of a year. So, we can say that division of seasons into 6 rtus is NOT Rig Vedic.

Sita: "Auspicious Sita! proceed onwards, we pray unto thee, that thou mayest bring us prosperity and an

abundant crop" The above is a part of of a hymn to the Gods of agriculture. Among them, we find mention of Sita—the field furrows, which produced the crops. Later on this furrow-goddess became the heroine of one of the two great Epics of ancient India: Ramayan. Nishka Every considerable Aryan village had its artisans in those days as now, and we have frequent mention of the construction of carts and chariots, and of the use of metals. The numerous references to arms and weapons in the hymns show that they were of common use. We are told of armours and helmets, of the javelin, the sword and the battle-axe, of bows, arrows and quivers, of caparisoned war-horses and war-chariots. Similarly, there are references to ornaments made of gold and silver, to necklaces and breastplates, to bracelets, anklets, and golden crowns. The Nishka was probably a gold piece of a specified weight, used both as money and ornament. Metals were also extensively used for the manufacture of domestic utensils.

The story of Manu & Shraddha Ever thought about the meaning of Pandora's Box? Pandora was the first women of the world as per the Greek Mythology. Each God contributed in her creation by giving her unique gifts. Zeus gave a Jar to Pandora with instructions that she not open it; she gave in to her curiosity and opened it; all the miseries and evils flew out to afflict. All evils of the humankind such as diseases and disasters



P a g e

38 | P a g e

were now open to afflict the humankind, but only one item left in the box. This one item was Hope and so, when we say opening Pandora's Box, it means to create problems. All mythologies have their own concepts of first man or woman. In Indian mythology, Manu and Shraddha were the first man and women and so Manu is called the progenitor of humankind. Manu is also the very first Brahman king to rule this earth, who saved mankind from the universal flood. The progencies of Manu are Manavas (Human kind). Manu had 10 offsprings, including one daughter named Ila. If we go in a little deep in the mythology, we find that there is NOT a single Manu. Each kalpa has 14 Manus and each of them rules one Manvantara or eon. There are 504000 Manvantaras in each 100 years of Brahma's life.

The Manusmriti Manusmriti is the earliest text the Dharmashastra tradition and is known as laws of Manu. It was first translated by Sir William Jones in 1794. Manusmriti became a standard reference for all future Dharmashastras. The Hindu traditions say that manusmriti has recorded the words of Brahma. It was composed in around 200-300 BC. Oldest known commemntator on Manusmriti was Bharuci and the famous commentator is Medatithi.

Dhratavatra In early Vedic era, there was no distinct theory of Kingship and King (Rajan) was generally a tribal chieftain. This chieftain was the holder of the established order and moral rule which was called Dhratavatra.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-4: From Shungas to Guptas

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-4: From Shungas to Guptas


P a g e

2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. The Shungas, Kanvas and Mahameghavanas ....................................................... 3

Shunga Dynasty ......................................................................................................... 3 Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC) .............................................................................. 4 Agnimitra and later Shungas .............................................................................................. 4

Kanva dynasty ............................................................................................................ 4 Mahameghavahans of Kalinga ................................................................................... 5

Kharvela (209-170 BC) ........................................................................................................ 5 Chapter 2. Hellenistic Kings .................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 3. The Shakas and Their Satrap System ................................................................... 6

Moga: the earliest Shaka Ruler of India .............................................................................. 7 Azes-I & Azes II .................................................................................................................... 7

The Satrap system ...................................................................................................... 7 Kapisa satraps ..................................................................................................................... 7 Mathura satraps .................................................................................................................. 8 Satrapas of Western India ................................................................................................... 8 Ujjain Satrapas .................................................................................................................... 8 Indo-Parthian Kingdom ....................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 4. The Kushana Empire ............................................................................................. 9 Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80) ......................................................................................... 9 Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) ........................................................................ 9 Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) ........................................................................................ 9 Kanishka I ............................................................................................................................ 9 Vāsishka ............................................................................................................................. 10

The Kushana Art ....................................................................................................... 10 Mathura and Gandhara Schools ........................................................................................ 10 Various Mudras of Buddha ................................................................................................ 11 Amravati School of Art ...................................................................................................... 12

Kushana Empire: Important Observations ............................................................... 12 Chapter 5. Satavahana Empire ............................................................................................ 13

Simuka ............................................................................................................................... 13 Kanha ................................................................................................................................ 13 Satkarni-I .......................................................................................................................... 13 Satkarni II .......................................................................................................................... 13 Hala................................................................................................................................... 13 Gautamiputra Satkarni (Reign 78-102 AD)........................................................................ 14 Pulumayi-II........................................................................................................................ 14

Saatvahana Empire: Observations ........................................................................... 14 Chapter 6. Gupta Empire ...................................................................................................... 15

The Political History of Guptas ................................................................................. 15 Samudragupta: (335-380 AD) ........................................................................................... 17 Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) ................................................................ 18 Observations of Fa Hien’s visit during Vikramaditya reign ................................................. 19 9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta Vikramaditya ......................................................... 20

The Life in Gupta Empire .......................................................................................... 21 Caste System ..................................................................................................................... 21 International Trade ........................................................................................................... 21 Agriculture ......................................................................................................................... 22 Occupation ........................................................................................................................ 22 Guild System ..................................................................................................................... 22

Gupta Administration ............................................................................................... 22 Types of Taxes in Gupta Era .............................................................................................. 23 Religion in Gupta Era ......................................................................................................... 23 Changes in Hinduism ......................................................................................................... 24 Rise of Occult Practices ...................................................................................................... 24 Rise of six schools .............................................................................................................. 24

Gupta Art ................................................................................................................. 24 Temple art ......................................................................................................................... 25



P a g e

3 | P a g e

Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples .......................................................................... 26 Cave Architecture of Gupta Era: Ajanta Caves ......................................................... 26

Inscriptions of Gupta Era ................................................................................................... 26 Literature in Gupta Era ............................................................................................. 27

Kalidasa ............................................................................................................................ 27 Works of Kalidasa.............................................................................................................. 28 Bhāravi .............................................................................................................................. 29 Bhatti ................................................................................................................................. 29 Magha: .............................................................................................................................. 29 Sudraka ............................................................................................................................. 29 Vishakhadatta: .................................................................................................................. 30 Dandin ............................................................................................................................... 30 Ishwar Krishna: .................................................................................................................. 30 Vyasa ................................................................................................................................. 30 Vatsyayana ....................................................................................................................... 30

Science and Technology in Gupta Era ....................................................................... 30 Aryabhatta ........................................................................................................................ 30 Varahamihira .................................................................................................................... 31

The Later Guptas ...................................................................................................... 32 Skandagupta ..................................................................................................................... 32

Chapter 7. The Huna Invasions ............................................................................................. 33 Toramana : The early white Huna King .................................................................... 33 Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrant ...................................................................................... 34

Who was Yasodharman? ................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 8. Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas .................................................................... 34

Maukharis Dynasty ............................................................................................................ 34 Naga Dynasty .................................................................................................................... 34 Magha Dynasty .................................................................................................................. 34 Vaktataka Dynasty ............................................................................................................ 35

Chapter 9. Glory of Ancient India ......................................................................................... 35 Astronomers and Their Contribution .................................................................................. 35 Surya Siddhanta ................................................................................................................ 36 Panchasiddhanta of Varahamihira (505 AD) ..................................................................... 36 The twelve Yantras of Lalla (700 AD) ................................................................................ 36 The Siddhant Shiromani & Yasti Yantra of Bhaskaracharya (1072 AD) ............................. 37 Angles: Vikala, kala, bhaga, bhagana............................................................................... 38 Length: Yahodara, Angula, Hatha, Danda, Krosha and Yojanas ....................................... 38 Time: Vipal, Pala, Gati, Hora, and Dina ............................................................................. 38 Geometry in Vedic Age- Sulvasutras ................................................................................. 38 Knowledge of Days of Year................................................................................................ 39 Model of Sky ...................................................................................................................... 40 Saraswati Script ................................................................................................................ 40 Knowledge of Binary Numbers- Pingala ........................................................................... 40 Ghati Yantra ...................................................................................................................... 40 Panini's Grammar .............................................................................................................. 41 Concept of Tridosha in Ayurveda ....................................................................................... 41 The Lilavati of Bhaskara .................................................................................................... 42 Madhava ........................................................................................................................... 42 Yogavashishtha of Valmiki ................................................................................................ 42

Chapter 1. The Shungas, Kanvas and Mahameghavanas Shunga Dynasty

Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around 185-183 BC. Capital of Shunga Dynasty Was Pataliputra and its major centers were Ujjain, Mathura, Saket, Sanchi, and Kapilvastu. Vidisha



P a g e

4 | P a g e

was capital of later Shunga rulers. West Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. In South India, the contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were Saatvahanas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas. The extent of Saatvahana was modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived from Keralaputra).

Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC) Pushyamitra Shunga was the founder of the Shunga dynasty. He was viceroy of the Mauryas at Ujjain and was a real war hero. He was not happy with his king Brihadratha, who failed in containing the Yavanas and attacks from the western sides. He is credited to repulse the two attacks of Greeks and also conquest over Vidarbha. The first of these attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by Pushyamitra Shunga, was under Demetrius and another was under Meander. Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the Kalinga’s king Kharvela conquest. Some evidences say that Pushyamitra Shunga destroyed many stupas of Asoka. However, there are also evidences that Barhut Stupa was built during the Shunga Empire only. His son Agnimitra succeeded Pushyamitra.

Agnimitra and later Shungas Agnimitra was the second king of Shunga dynasty, who succeeded his father Pushyamitra Shunga. He had a short reign of 8 years.He is the hero of Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which he has been referred to as Raja. By the times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become independent of the Maurays. Agnimitra was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC.Who succeeded Vasumitra , not much details are available. Different accounts mention the name of different kings such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra. The last rulers of Shunga dynasty were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have some details.

Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC) We know about the king Bhagabhadra by a Heliodorus pillar, which was found in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh near modern Besnagar. Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador and he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu).The Heliodorus pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.

Devabhuti (87-73 BC) Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. Vasudeva Kanva thus assassinated the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and founded the Kanva Dynasty.

Kanva dynasty Vasudeva Kanva killed the last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty. The Kanvas were Brahmins and considered themselves as descendents from Rishi Kanva. At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as the Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the Gangetic planes was under different rulers. One of the Shunga rulers named Sumitra; who rules around 133 BC, was killed by Muladeva. Muladeva founded the independent



P a g e

5 | P a g e

Kosala Kingdom. Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva. Bhumimitra after reigning for 14 years was succeeded by his son Narayana, who was succeeded by Susharman. Much detail about these kings has been ascertained only based on Numismatics. Only these four kings of the Kanva dynasty are known. This dynasty is said to have been overthrown by the Satavahana dynasty.

Mahameghavahans of Kalinga After the decline of Mauryas, Kalinga rose to power around 1st century BC in the area of modern Odisha. We best know about the Third ruler of this dynasty, named ‘’ Kharvela’’. Kharvela is known to have revived the past glory of Kalinga.

Kharvela (209-170 BC) King Kharvela belonged to the epic time Chedi dynasty. His capital was Kalinganagara. We know about Kharvela from Hathigumpha inscription, found in a cave in Udayagiri

near Bhubaneswar. Kharvela reinstated the army and military of Kalinga. Kharvela led successful campaigns against the kingdoms of Magadha, Anga, and Satavahana. The Kalinga Kingdom was expanded till Ganga to Kaveri from north to south by Kharvela. Kharvela was a Jain follower, but despite being a Jain follower he never hesitated in warfare. He patronized the Jaina ascetics by making provision for their maintenance, constructing the house/dwellings.

Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela is a 17 lines inscription in Brahmi found at Udayagiri hills, Bhubneshwar, Orissa, 6 miles away from the place where Dhauli edit of Asoka was located. The inscription says that it is dated 165th year of Maurya kings and 13th year Kharvela reign, and gives a biographical sketch of the king. It says. In the first year the king rebuilt the capital of Kalinga. In the second year, he destroyed the capital of Musikas, a tribe of Hindus of Indus river area. In 4th year he subdued the Rastrakas and Bhijakas, the tribes near modern berar area. In the 5th year he extended a canal built by the Mauryas. In the 8th year, he advanced till Barabar hills and defeated the king of Rajgriha. In the 9th year he built the ‘’Mahavijayaprasad’’ place of great on both the banks of the river

Pranchi. In the 12th year he subdued the Brihaspatimitra of Magadha. He built magnificent temple at Bhubneshwar.

Chapter 2. Hellenistic Kings During the last two centuries of BC era, more than 30 Hellenistic kings ruled northwest and northern Indian subcontinent. The knowledge about these has been attained via the coins issued by them. The areas under these Hellenistic Kings were Taxila, Pakistan’s, Punjab Pushkalavati



P a g e

6 | P a g e

(Peshavar) & Sagala. Indo-Greek rulers have been mentioned as ‘’Yavanas’’ in the Indian literature. Some of the kings of indo-Greek dynasties are briefed here.

Antiochus II Approximately, in 250 BC, Diodotus, a governor of Bacteria, proclaimed his independence. He was one of the first such independent rulers. Antiochus II, who was a king of the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom, marched towards India and defeated the India king Subhagsena is Kabul in around 206 BC.

Demetrius I of the Bactria (200-180 BC) Demetrius I of Bactria was son of Euthydemus and conquered the extensive areas in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.He is created with real indo-Greek expansion in India and has been referred in Greek Sources as “King of Indians”. His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit written in Greek and Kharoshthi script. The coins were issued in silver and one of the coins was known as “Heracles”. His capital was Sakala (Sialkot Pakistan) which he named Euthydemia in memory of his father.His coins have been found in several parts of modern Pakistan, Afghanistan and central asia.

Apollodotus I Apollodotus I was the indo Greek ruler who ruled around 174-165 BC in the western and southern parts of the indo-Greek Kingdoms covering the area from Taxila in Punjab to Sindh. Apollodotus I was the first king who ruled in India only and this is said to be real founder of the indo-Greek kingdom of India and known as first “Real Indo Greek”. He was one of the generals of the Demetrius I of Bactria. We come to know about apollodotus I through the bilingual Indian standard square coins by him. The animals such as elephant and bull are depicted in his coins.

Apollodotus II Apollodotus II ruled in Punjab 80-65 BC and was an important ruler. He is said to have re-conquered the Taxila. He seems to be of same dynasty of which meander belonged to.

Menander II Menander II reigned around 90-85 BC in Gandhara, north of modern Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. He has been mentioned as the mighty Yavana King of Sakala. His capital Sakala was located in modern Punjab and refers to Sialkot, Pakistan. In the ‘’Milindapanho’’ dialogues between the Meander II and Nagasena have been recorded. He was Buddhist indo-Greek ruler and is the only indo-Greek ruler who is greatly respected in India. The coins of Meander have been engraved with “Dhammachakka” of Buddhism. He issued Gold Coins also and one of the coins are known as “Athene Promachus”.

Chapter 3. The Shakas and Their Satrap System The Shakas or the Scythians destroyed Indo-Greek rule in India. They are sometimes refers as the ancient Iranian people of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists. The 2nd century BC saw an upheaval in the Central Asia. The invasion by the Central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese



P a g e

7 | P a g e

region was responsible for the migration of the Shakas towards India. The construction of Great wall of china partially contributed to migration of the Hiung-chi, Wu-san Yueh-chi tribes from that region. These tribes migrated westwards and southwards. The first tribe to migrate was Yeuh-chi, which displaced the Scythians. Some sources say that the Scythians attacked Bactria and they entered the Indian subcontinent through the Bolan Pass. This was the foundation of Shaka rule in India. Most of the information about Shakas has been derived from Numismatics.

Moga: the earliest Shaka Ruler of India Maues (80-65 BC) or Moga was the earliest Shaka ruler. He established Shaka power in Gandhara. His capital was ‘’Sirkap’’ and he issued a large number of copper coins and few silver coins. Some sources indicate that he assumed the title of ‘’ maharaja mahatma ‘’ and his coins are bearing the images of Indian deities’ viz. Shiva, and Buddha. He used Greek and Kharoshthi in coin legends. The famous Taxila Copper Plate is ascribed to him as Moga Inscriotion. It was found in area of Taxila in modern Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a precise data and it is written in Kharoshthi. Taxila Copper Plate mentioned about the dedication of a relic of the Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist monastery by the Shaka ruler Patika Kusulaka. Patika Kusulaka is also mentioned in Mathura lion capital.

Azes-I & Azes II Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara, they were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the Jhelum river in eastern Punjab. Azes-I put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India. He annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long resistance. In 58 BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in India. Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II. There are some coins issued jointly be Azes-I and Azilises and jointly issued by Azilises and Azes II. Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas. Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana Empire in North West India.

The Satrap system The pressure from the Parthians (Iranians) and later from Kushanas, the Shakas got divided into 5 branches with their different seats of power at different places in modern Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. These rulers were known as satraps and Mahasatraps. Thus, Shakas are known to have proliferated the Satrpa system. The Satrap system was directly influenced by the Achaemenid and Seleucid administrations. The satraps were in Kapisa in Afghanistan. Taxila in western Punjab, Mathura, Ujjaini and upper deccan.

Kapisa satraps The Moga inscription or copper plate mentions two names Liaka Kusulaka and his son Patika Kusulaka. They ruled Chuksha and Pusha Pura. Patika Kusulaka had adopted the title of “Mahadandapati”. Both of them were straps under Moga.



P a g e

8 | P a g e

Mathura satraps First known satraps of Mathura are Hagana and Hagamasa. One of their successor named “Rajuvula” has been mentioned as Mahasatrapa in the Mora inscription , that was found near Mathura. Other satrapas are Sodasha, Sivadatta, and Sivaghosha. The coins of the Mathura Satraps have been engraved with standing image, which resembled Laxmi and Three Elephants.

Satrapas of Western India First known satrapa in the Western India was Bhumaka, who ruled in Saurastra. Bhumaka’s successor Nahapana was an important ruler of the Western satrapas. Some sources say that Nahapana was son of Bhumaka. Bhumaka has been discussed in the Periplus of Erythrean Sea.

Ujjain Satrapas Founder of the Ujjaini Satrapa is considered Castana or Shastana or Chastana. Chastana is considered to have won a battle against Saatvahanas. Chastana used 3 scripts viz. Greek, Kharoshthi and Brahami, in his coin legends. He has been mentioned as Tiastenes of Ozene (Chastana of Ujjain) in Ptolemy’s Geography.

Rudramadaman-I Chastana’s son was Jayadaman and grandson was Rudradaman. Rudradaman was a great figure. His exploits are described in the Junagarh Rock inscription dated Shaka Year 72, which means 72+78 = 150 AD. (Christian era +78 = Shaka Era). He represents himself as a Mahasatrapa. The Junagarh rock inscription says that he was chosen as a protector by all castes and thus adopted the ‘’Mahasatrapa’’ title. He defeated Satvahana king “Saatkarni” for two times and thus is considered to be the greatest of the Shaka rulers. The long rivalry between Rudradaman and Saatkarni was tried to be done away with the family relations (probably rudraman’s daughter was given in marriage to the Satavahanas), but this could not stop the enmity between them. In one of the wars, Saatkarni’s life was spared because of the family relations. Rudradaman conquered Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat, Konkan end Yudehas of Rajputana.Rudradamana is known to be good in knowledge of Grammar. The successors of Rudradaman ruled till the end of the 4th century AD and finally lost their power to the Arab Chieftains. Junagarh Rock Inscription credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam built by the Mauryans. This refers to the repair of Lake Sudarshana, which was constructed by Mauryas probably to contain the floods.

Indo-Parthian Kingdom Indo-parthian kingdom is also known as Gondopharid Dynasty. This dynasty ruled Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, during the 1st century AD. Parthians were some Iranian tribes and in this tribe, the kings assumed the title Gondophares. Gondophares-I seems to be the first rulers. Since the Parthians lived with Scythians for quite a long time, the features on coins mix up a lot.

Yavanesvara: Yavanesvara was a Greek writer who translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit. It had influenced astrology in India. This work was done in the times of Rudradaman.



P a g e

9 | P a g e

After the Gondophares, The Indo-Parthian rule in India ended and soon Kushanas overpowered them.

Chapter 4. The Kushana Empire As per the Chinese sources, the Kushanas (mentioned in Chinese texts as Guishuang) were one of the five tribes of Yueh-Chi or Yuezhi. Kushanas were also known as Tocharians. They were nomadic tribes and easternmost speakers of the Indo-Europeans Languages which were called "Tocharian languages". Their origin is connected to China and Central Asia. The modern Xiniang and Gansu of China are places where these tribes thrived before 2nd century AD. Xiongnu drove out them in around 170 BC. The Construction of the Chinese wall was a big factor of their moving away from the Chinese regions and they moved towards west and south.

Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80) Kujula Kadphises was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the Hindukush Mountains and laid down the foundation of the Kushana Empire. He established himself in Kabul and Kashmir and is credited for defeat of Last Greek Kings. He adopted the epithet of Dharma-thida. Another epithet adopted by Kujala Kadphises was Sachdharmathida, which is coterminous with SatyaDharma Sthitha. Both of the above epithets show that he was interested in both Buddhism as well as Shivaite.

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) Vima Taktu or Sadashkana was / were son/ sons of Kujula Kadphises and it is not sure who among them ruled after Kujula Kadphises or whether this refered to a single person. He is considered to be the predecessor of Vima Kadphises as well as Kanishka-I. He is credited for expansion of Kushana Power into the North West of India.

Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) The Rabatak inscription mentions that Vima Kadphises was son of Vima Takto and the father of Kanishka. He was one of the most important kings of the Kushana Empire who is best known for issuing large number of Gold Coins. Vima Kadphises was probably the first to introduce the Gold Coins in India in addition to the Copper and Silver coins. This testifies the prosperity of the Kushana Empire. Vima is also known to have maintained the Silk Route and trade with all sides including the China, Alexandria, and Roman Empire.

Kanishka I Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kushana Empire and is known for his military prowess.His main capital was Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capitals were Taxila (Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India). His date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that Kanishka was the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78. This has been mentioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably because he was thought to be a Shaka. Under Kanishka, Kushana Empire reached its climax and it extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir. As per the Tibetan Sources, Kanishka is considered to have conflicted with



P a g e

10 | P a g e

the Pataliputra and Saket and had taken Aśvaghosa, the Buddhist Monk to Purushpura. A city kanishkpur in Kashmir is also connected to Kanishka. Kanishka conflicted with Chinese general of King Han Ho-ti, the emperor of Han Dynasty and defeated him in second attempt. He is also known to have subjugated the rulers of Khotan, Yarkand etc. and is considered to have established a great kingdom only after the Mauryas in India. He was a patron of Buddhism and convened the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of Kashmir (or may be in Jalandhar) in 78 AD. Vasumitra headed this council and it marked the collection of Buddhist texts and engraving of the commentaries on Copper sheets. Some scholars are of the view that the Abhidhama Mahavishasa was prepared in the fourth Buddhist council. Some of the scholars in the Court of Kanishka were Parsva, Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara. Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka, though it is disputed. Sushruta who wrote Sushruta Samhita has also been connected to Kanishka. We know Sushruta, who had written Sushruta Samhita and Charak who had written Charak Samhita. However, both of them were from the Kushan period, earlier than the Guptas. During Kanishka’s time, Buddhism got divided between the Hinayana and Mahayana.

Vāsishka Kanishka-I was succeeded by Vāsishka, who had a short reign who is identified with the Vaskushana, Vajheska, Jushka in difefrent sources. Jushkapura near modern Zukar was a city founded by him. Kanishka II was a successor of Vāsishka and is known to have assumed the title of Kaisar.

The Kushana Art The Kings of the Kushana Empire had assumed eloquent titles such as Maharaj, Rajatiraj (King of Kings) etc. One of the successors of Kanishka was Vasudeva who is considered to be a Shiva worshipper and the figures of Shiva is found on his coins had assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudeo Kushano. These titles were adopted from their predecessors Shakas and appeared later in coins of all Kushana Kings and inscriptions.

Mathura and Gandhara Schools The first Buddha image appeared more or less simultaneously in Mathura and Gandhara regions in the first century C.E. under the Kushan political hegemony; a flurry of images appeared during the reign of Kanishka. Kushanas are considered to be the great patrons of art. Two schools, viz. Mathura School of Art and Gandhara School of Art flourished in the Kushana Era.Kushana had a cultural influence of the Hellenistic Greeks and this impact is seen these schools of arts as well.

Mathura School of Art: Artisans from Mathura continued the Mauryan sculptural forms of the yaksa and yaksi—male and female, respectively, fertility spirits. The blocklike compactness and smooth close-fitting robe,



P a g e

11 | P a g e

almost entirely devoid of folds, are replicated in the earliest standing Buddha image that belongs to the Mathura school. Its worth note that the first Mathuran image makers, never intended to sculpt an anatomically correct human Buddha. Their images were a composite of 32 major and 80 minor laksana, or marks. Later, the Human Buddha images evolved associated with manly beauty and heroic ideals. Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha's statues were carved out in the Mathura school. The presences of the two attendants by the side of Buddha who hold Chanwars is a feature of the Mathura school and this figure has been later inspired the images of Indian Deities. The sitting Buddha of Mathura School is in padmasana and soles of the feet have been decorated with Tri ratna and Dharmachakra signs. Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. Spotted red sandstone has been used in this school. In these sculptures, Buddha has depicted as Human and the main theme was Buddha and Bodhisattavas. The Mathura School of Art, noted for its vitality and assimilative character, was a result of the religious zeal of Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism. Mathura art, however, reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600). The Jina Image and Indigenous tyle of Buddhas image was a remarkable features of Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 jain Jinas standing back to back belongs to the Mathura school. The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi belong to the Mathura School.

Gandhara School of Art The Gandharan Buddha image was inspired by Hellenistic realism, tempered by Persian, Scythian, and Parthian models. Sculptors constructed Buddhist images with anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening. In this art, Buddha's curls were altered into wavy hair. The Buddha or Gandhar art is sometimes very thin, which is opposite in Mathura art. It looks like the Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky Mathura Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan image. The result of this synthesis ennobled, refined, and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period. This Gupta style became the model for Southeast Asian Buddha images. Gandhara School was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. The foreign influence is evident from the sculptures of Buddha in which they bear resemblance to the Greek sculptures. Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist to be precise) is used in Gandhara School of Art. The Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were the example of the Gandhara School. The other materials used were Mud, Lime, Stucco. However, Marble was NOT used in Gandhara art. Terracotta was used rarely. Bimaran Casket has yielded the earliest specimen of the Gandhara Art.

Various Mudras of Buddha The Buddha later evolved in various themes. One important theme is the Thai culture’s Sukhotai period Buddha (c. 1240–1438). The Sukhotai-style image is known for Thailand's two most known



P a g e

12 | P a g e

styles viz. Maravijay or Bhumisparsha Mudra and Abhayamudra. In the maravijaya seated posture where the Buddha extends his right hand to touch the earth—a gesture known as bhumisparsa-mudra—signifying the defeat of Mara, lord of darkness, and the walking image with the abhaya-mudra (gesture of fearlessness and reassurance). In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows: Abahayamudra : Don’t fear Dhyanamudra : meditation Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.

Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, begram & Taxila are the main centers where art pieces of Gandhara School have been found. Both Shakas and Kushanas were patrons of Gandhara School. The head of the Buddha matched very much with Greek God Apollo.

Amravati School of Art The third type of sculpture art that Flourished during the Kushana time was Amaravati School of art in the Andhra Pradesh. White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks. In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces etc. have got prominence.

Kushana Empire: Important Observations The central Asian Tribes introduced the Cap, Boot and helmet in India. Kushanas (Yueh Chi Tribe) is considered to have conducted the Horse trade by sea with the

Koying kingdom of modern Malaysia. The Kushanas issued largest number of copper coins. Charsada and Taxila were the karvan cities in Post Maurya Era. Asvaghosa was the first Dramatist who used Sanskrit in composing the plays. Sindoor (Vermillion) and Bamboo was introduced in India by Chinese traders. India was known as Shen-tu in the early Chinese texts. The works of Aśvaghosa were Buddhacharita, Mahalankara, Saundaranandakavya

(Saudarananda), Chandistrotra, Vajrasuchi. Sun God has been depicted on the coins of Kanishka-1 and Vāsishka Kujala Kadphises and Kanishka-I adopted and patronized the Buddhism, but Vima Kadphises

adopted Shaivism and was a Shiva Devotee. The 4 important schools of Jainism viz. Kottaka, Varana, Aryayudikiya and vesavadiya have

been mentioned in the Epigraphic Records of the Kushana Period.



P a g e

13 | P a g e

Chapter 5. Satavahana Empire Satavahana followed the Mauryas in Deccan. Satavahana dynasty ruled from Pune in Maharastra to Coastal Andhra Pradesh in the second century BC onwards. This dynasty was built up on the ruins of the Maurya Empire and around 1st century AD, they were the most prominent in the Modern Andhra Pradesh Region. They have been mentioned as Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs, Andhras and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranas and Coins. Most of the information about the Satavahana kings is interwoven with myths and the information has been collected by a large number of coins minted in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper. The origin of Satavahanas is a mystery but they are considered Brahmins and most kings use the names of their mothers with their names. The coins issued by Satavahanas had Bilingual legends. The name of the Kings was mentioned in Prakrit as well as some south Indian Language. Satavahana Kings promoted Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati l became important Buddhist centers during the Satavahana Era.

Simuka Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty and he is believed to have destroyed the Shunga Power. He did so with the aid of the Rathikas and Bhojakas. He reigned for around 23 years and was beheaded by his brother Kanha, who succeeded him.

Kanha Kanha was the second ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty. He extended the empire to further south. He was succeeded by Simuka’s son Satkarni-I.

Satkarni-I Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great ruler among the Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of his queen and he has been described as the Lord of Dakshinpatha. Kanha extended the empire to further south, Malwa and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and Rajsuya Yajna.

Satkarni II Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana Dynasty and date of his accession is considered to be 166 BC. He has been mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of the kharvela, in which he is depicted as enemy of Kharvela. In this inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela disregarded Satkarni and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry. Satkarni II was succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka and some other rulers like Hala.

Hala Hala was one more great king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King of the Satavahana line. He had compiled the "Gatha saptasati" or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha saptasati is in Prakrat. He is also mentioned in another text Lilavati. These rulers were small rulers only and are considered to be under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The expansion of the Satavahanas



P a g e

14 | P a g e

was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas pushed them southwards and the western Deccan was occupied by the Shaka King Nahapana.

Gautamiputra Satkarni (Reign 78-102 AD) Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described as the Destroyer of the Shaka, Pahalava and Yavana Power revived the lost power of Satavahana. Gautamiputra Satkarni is known to have made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His mother Gautami has mentioned his achievements in the Nasik Inscription. His empire extended from Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha, Western Rajputana, Saurastra and even Kalinga. Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He assumed the title of raja-raja and Maharaja. After Gautamiputra Satkarni, the Puranic inscription name other Satavahanas such as Pulumayi, Sri Satkarni, Siva Sri, Sivaskanda Satkarni , Madhariptra Sakasena, Sri Yajna Satkarni. One more important is Vasithiputra Pulumayi-II.

Pulumayi-II Pulumayi-II is known as Vasithiputta or Vashishthi Putra Satkarni. He was son of Gautamiputra Satkarni and was an efficient king like his father. He extended the power of Satvahanas to further south and it was now extended up to Bellary district of Modern Karnataka. The Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Rudradaman defeated the Dakshinapathpati Satkarni twice, but did not kill him because of the close family relationship. This has been corroborated as “that Pulumayi-II was married to daughter of Rudradaman. (However, there is confusion in this)Pulumayi-II has been described in largest number of inscription and this proves that he had a vast empire. In the evening of Pulumayi-II ‘s life, the Shakas revived under Chastana. The last Satavahana Ruler was Pulumayi-IV. Not many details have been found about him except that he built a tank in Vepura.

Saatvahana Empire: Observations Satavahanas are considered the flag bearers of Aryanism to Deccan. They were the first

Native Indians who had issued the coins with portraits of their kings. All the coins of Satavahanas used Prakrit dialect and also on backside the southern language (Telugu or Kannada). Prakrat seems to be the official language of Satavahanas.

The Satavahanas worshipped the Hindu Deities such as Rama, Krishna, Vasudeva etc. but they also patronized the Buddhism. The Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati in Maharastra became the important centers of Buddhism during the reign of Satavahanas and their successors.

Saatavahana Built many Chaitya and Viharas. Most of them were rock cut from the solid rock in North Western Deccan and Maharashtra. The Karle Chaitya of 1st century BC is one of the most important Chaitya. The Viharas of the 1 century AD at Nasik bear the inscription of the Gautami Putra Satkarni and Nahapana. The Amaravati Stupa was built in the reign of Satavahanas.



P a g e

15 | P a g e

Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the Mauryas. The King was the protector of the religion and had divine attributes. He possessed the qualities of ancient Gods.

The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into Aharas. The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya. Ahara was divided into Grama which was under the headmen called Gamika. Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana Dynasty.

King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint the coins. A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor.

The most important features of the state formation under Satavahanas were: o It was a result of a continuous process. o It was influenced by Mauryan Administration o It was influenced by North India

Gautamiputra Satkarni is claimed to have re-established the four fold Varna System. . Satavahanas ruled in Modern Andhra Pradesh , but most of the inscriptions of Satavahanas

have been found in Maharashtra. Nanaghat Inscription of Naganika (wife of Satkarni-I) has been found near Pune (District).

The Two cave inscriptions found at Nasik are of Gautamiputra Satkarni. At Nasik, Inscription of Pulumayi II has been found. The Karle cave inscription is of Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II.

Chapter 6. Gupta Empire The one century gap between the extinction of Kushana & Satavahanas (around 220-230 AD), till the rise of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty a century later, is known to be one of the darkest in the whole of history of India. After the disintegration of the Mauryas, the Kushanas kept the North united and Satavahanas kept the Deccan united. Further south there were three Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. In north, the Malvas, Yaudheyas, Kunidas etc. contributed to the extinction of Kushanas and in Deccan, the Vakatas and Ikshwaku contributed to the death of Satavahana dynasty. This dark period of one century was followed by a dawn of classical age which is also known as the Golden Age of Indian History. The classical age refers to the period between 320 AD to 550 AD when India was united again under the Gupta Dynasty. This period marks the crystallization of Hindu Culture and known for developments in all walks of life including the science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. The founder of this dynasty was Sri Gupta. But there were other early Guptas mentioned in many inscriptions such as Shiva Gupta in Nasik Inscription and Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. The origin of Gupta is shrouded in mystery.

The Political History of Guptas Though, the earlier origins of the family of the Guptas are not traceable, yet it is now almost accepted that the Gupta Kings were of a Gotra known as Dharana. It is stated in the Poona Copper



P a g e

16 | P a g e

Plate Inscription of Prabhavatigpta. Prabhavatigpta was a Vaktaka queen who was daughter of Chandra Gupta II and his wife Kubernaga, who was from the Naga family. The views of the different scholars regarding the origin of the Guptas have been summarized in the following table:

Scholar View A.S. Altekar Gupta were vaishyas as the ancient texts mention that the surname ending with

Gupta were Vaishyas. Dr. H C Raichaudhury Guptas were Brahmins R C Tripathi Guptas were Brahmins Dr. V Upadhyaya, Hira Chand Ojha Guptas were Kshatriyas K P Jayaswal & Dasharatha Sharma

Guptas were Jats and same Gotra still exists in Rajasthan

R C Mazumdar Guptas were from Ikshwaku Clan D. R. Regmi They are closely related to the Abhira Kings of Nepal.

The Kshatriya Origin of the Guptas has been maintained on the account that Chandragupta II wedded to a princess named Kumara Devi, who belonged to an ancient Licchhavi clan. The Licchhavi clan was celebrated during the period of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru but for next 9 centuries the history is lost. Therefore, it is the marriage of Kumaradevi with the Chandragupta II, which has been the basis of arguments that Guptas were Kshatriyas.

Sri Gupta (240-280 AD) Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. The details about the Sri-Gupta, the first ruler of the Gupta Dynasty come from the accounts of ITsing who came to India in around 690 AD. Sri Gupta has been identified with Che-li-ki-to of ITsing, who as per his details, had built a temple 500 years back from is visit for Chinese Pilgrims. Some of the scholars are of the view that Sri-Gupta was a feudatory of the Kushanas.

Ghatotkacha: (c. 280-319 A.D.) Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he succeeded him after his death. Not many details are available about Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (c. 319-335 AD) Chandragupta-I was son of Ghatotkacha and is considered to be the real founder of Gupta Empire. He was most powerful monarch and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. The earlier kings were given the titles Maharaja only. Chandragupta –I can be called the first independent ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He was married to Licchhavi princes Kumara Devi and this helped him to get influence and extend the dominion. Samudragupta was born of this dominion. This is proved by the inscriptions of Samudragupta, in which he proudly described himself as Licchavidauhitra, but not at Guptaputra.

Gupta Era Chandragupta-I ascended to the throne in 319-320 AD. The Valabhi Era of Gujarat has been identified coterminous with the Gupta Era. The Valabhi kings were feudatories of the Guptas and they might have used it as era of their overlords. Dr. Fleet has treated with this at length and has established that beginning of this era is Saka era 242, which means 242 +78 = 320 AD. This coincides with the Nepal Era of Jaydev-I that is 320 AD. The first year of the Gupta Era may be taken as February 26, 320 AD to March 13, 321 AD, of which the first date is coronation of Chandragupta.



P a g e

17 | P a g e

Samudragupta: (335-380 AD) Samudragupta was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 years back, Chandragupta-I had publicly announced that Samudragupta would be his heir apparent and thus abdicated the throne in his favor. This was justified by the killer instincts of Samudragupta who displayed a greater degree of skill in the arts of both peace and war. But this nomination was perhaps not liked by many and coins of an obscure prince Kacha say that there was some trouble over the succession. Samudragupta was the greatest ruler of the Gupta Dynasty and ruled till around 380 AD. The western scholars equate him with Napoleon and call him Indian Napoleon due to the extensive military conquests. His court poet and minister Harisena composed the Allahabad pillar Inscription or Prayag Prasasti. The Pillar was an Asokan Pillar erected by Asoka six century before him. This Inscription is a eulogy of Samudragupta and mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudragupta defeated 9 kings in North, 12 Kings in South, reduced all the Atavika states to vassalage. It also mentions that more than five states in the frontier states surrendered and accepted his suzerainty. He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after Pushyamitra Shunga. He is depicted in his coins playing Veena. He allowed the king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodhgaya. Another term used by Harisena for him is Kaviraja, which testified him as a patron of poetic arts and a poet himself. Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramanka. The reign of Samudragupta was from Brahmaputra to Chambal and from Himalaya to Narmada in south and he subdued the Shakas and Kushanas. The dominion under the direct government of Samudragupta in the middle of the 4th century was thus comprised of all the populous and fertile areas of the Northern India. He established diplomatic relations with the Kushana Kings of Gandhar and Kabul and also the Buddhist king of Ceylon. In 330 AD, Meghavarna, the Buddhist King of Ceylon had sent two monks, one of whose was his brother to visit a monastery built by Asoka. But they got scant hospitality and returned with

Shaka embassy to Samudragupta The Saka dynasty which was overthrown in 395 had been originally founded in the first century by a chief named Bhumaka. Bhumaka was followed by Nahapana and Nahapana was destroyed by an Andhra King Gautamiputra Satkarni in 125 AD. However, the local government fell into the hands of Chastana and his descendants. In the Middle of the second century, Satrap Rudradaman who was grandson of Chastana defeated his Andhra Rival Vashishtiputra Satakarni, who was eventually married to his daughter. Rudradaman firmly established his power in west (Malwa, Kutch, Sindh, Konkan and other parts). The capital of Chastana and his descendants was Ujjain, which was one of the important commercial centers. Samudragupta was not able to undertake the conquest of the west and had received an embassy from Rudrasena, descendant of Rudradaman. But the rivalry did not ended and Chandragupta II, son of Samudragupta finally crushed his western rivals.



P a g e

18 | P a g e

complaints. Later, Meghavarna sent a mission laden with gems and gifts to Samudragupta with a request to built a monastery on the Indian Soil. The flattered Samudragupta gave permission. This monastery was built near the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya. The purpose was recorded in a copper plate and it described the monastery with a height of 3 stories and containing 6 halls. When Huen Tsang visited it he saw it occupied by Thousands of Monks and it extended ample hospitality to visiting monks.

Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) Chandragupta II, the great was son of Samudragupta and Datta Devi. Not much is known about the character but the corroborated facts about his life prove that he was a strong, vigorous ruler and was well qualified to govern and extend his empire. Before Chandragupta II, his elder brother Ramagupta ascended the throne after death of Samudragupta. Through, not many details about Ramagupta are available; the drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta gives an account that at Shringararupakam, Ramagupta was badly defeated by a Saka chieftain. To secure the people, he agreed to surrender his queen Druvadevi to the Sakas. Chandragupta II objected this and, Chandragupta-II in disguise of queen Druvadevi entered enemy’s camp and killed the Saka king to restore the huge empire, queen and the dynasty. Ramagupta is portrayed in this drama as a Coward king and impotent. Chandragupta II killed his brother and married to his widow, Druvadevi. Chandragupta reign covered a wide territory whose northern limit was Vahlakas Country, Southern Limit was the Ocean, Western Limit was the Mouth of Indus and Eastern Limit was Vanga. Marraiage alliances and conquests were one of the ways of Chandragupta II to extend his power and kingdom. His daughter Prabhavati was married to a Vaktaka prince. The prince died in due course and his young son became the ruler but the virtual ruler was Prabhavati. This helped Chandragupta II to exercise indirect rule over the Vaktataka Kingdom also. The most important event of Chandragupta-II’s reign was conquest of Sakas. He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom. His victory over Malwa helped in prosperity of the Malwa region and Ujjain became a commercial hub. Some scholars call Ujjain his second capital. Chinese traveler Fa Hien had visited India during the time of Chandragupta II. Numerous scholars and artists adorned the court of Chandragupta.

Chandragupta II and Mahrauli Inscription The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji. This pillar credits Chandragupta with the following:

Conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him.

Conquest of Vahlakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu.

Spread his fame to southern seas. Attained Ekadhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his

arms. This pillar was established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in

the honor of Lord Vishnu.



P a g e

19 | P a g e

Observations of Fa Hien’s visit during Vikramaditya reign Pataliputra was considerably neglected by the warrior kings like Samudragupta and Vikramaditya, but it continued to be a magnificent and populous city though out the reign of Chandragupta II.Later Patliputra was reduced to reigns in the wake of the Hun invasions in the 6th century. However, Pataliputra was rebuilt and revived by Shershah Suri as today’s Patna. The accounts of Fa Hien give a contemporary account of the administration of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Fa Hien (337 – ca. 422 AD) was so much absorbed in his quest for Buddhist books, legends, and miracles that he could not mention the name of the mighty monarch in whose rule he lived for 6 years. The picture he depicted cannot solve all the queries of the historians of today yet, they give a vivid picture of the state of the country. At Pataliputra, he saw and was impressed by Asoka's palace so it is sure that Asoka's palace was in existence even in the Gupta Era. He also describes about 1 stupa and 2 monasteries nearby , also ascribed to Asoka. He mentioned about 600-700 monks living there and learning their lectures from teachers from all quarters. He mentions that towns of Magadha were largest in the area of Gangetic Plains and he calls it central India. He mentions that there were a lot of charitable institutions, rest houses, and there was an excellent Free Hospital in the Capital which was endowed by benevolent citizens. The poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of illnesses were taken care of and doctors attended them and they were given food and medicine as per their wants. This depiction proves the earliest foundation of Charity and this charity was first of its kind in the word which spoke of characters of the citizens of the Gupta Era. India's is great as far as Charity was concerned and as we are told, earliest charitable hospital in Europe or anywhere else in the word was opened in 10th century. Fa Hien further explains that the population of the western part (Malwa) lived happily and did not worry. He mentions that they don't have to register their household and not to have attend any magistrate. People did not lock their houses. The passports and those who were willing to say may stay and those willing to go may go did not bind them. Fa Hien further mentions that no one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don't keep pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only Chandals did all these. Fa Hien mentions about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their approach so that other folk might not get polluted. Chandals were the only offenders of Dharma, as per Fa Hien. About administration, Fa Hien mentions that the authorities interfered as little as possible with the subject and they were left free to prosper and grow rich in their own way. Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Pataliputra and two years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or hindrance. The Roads were clear and safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India was probably never governed better than the era of Chandragupta



P a g e

20 | P a g e

Vikramaditya. The prosperity of the Indians and tranquility of the empire have been testified by the account of Fa-Hien and his unobstructed itinerary all around gives the details about the Golden Era of Mother India.

9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta Vikramaditya Chandragupta II was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine gems or Navratna adorned his court. The various fields of these 9 gems prove that Chandragupta gave patronage to arts and literature. Brief description about the nine Ratnas is as follows

Amarsimha Amarsimha was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda as it has 3 parts viz. Kanda 1, Kanda 2 and Kanda 3. It has 10 thousand words in it.

Dhanvantri Dhanvantri was a great Physician.

Harisena Harisena is known to have composed the Prayag Prasasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription. The title of this inscription of Kavya, but it has both prose and verse. The whole poem is in one sentence including first 8 stanzas of poetry and a long sentence and a concluding stanza. Harisena in his old age was in the court of Chandragupta and describes him as Noble, and asks him "You Protect all this earth".

Kalidasa Kalidasa is the immortal poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius whose works became famous worldwide in modern world. Translation of Kalidasa's works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have spread his fame all of the word and now he ranks among the top poets of all times. Rabindranath Tagore, not only propagated the works of Kalidasa but also expounded their meanings and philosophy that made him an immortal poet dramatists.

Kahapanaka Kahapanka was an astrologer. Not many details about him are found.

Sanku Sanku was in the field of Architecture.

Varahamihira Varahamihira (died 587) lived in Ujjain and he wrote three important books: Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka. The Panchasiddhantaka is a summary of five early astronomical systems including the Surya Siddhanta. Another system described by him, the Paitamaha Siddhanta, appears to have many similarities with the ancient Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha. Brihat Samhita is a compilataion of an assortment of topics that provides interesting



P a g e

21 | P a g e

details of the beliefs of those times. Brihat Jataka is a book on astrology which appears to be considerably influenced by Greek astrology.

Vararuchi Vararuchi is the name of another gem of Chandragupta Vikramaditya who was a grammarian and Sanskrit scholar. Some historians have identified him with Katyayana. Vararuchi is said to be the author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first Grammar of Prakrit Language. Vetalbhatta Vetalbhatta was a magician.

Kumaragupta –I (415-455 AD) Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I or Mahedraditya. The period assigned to him is 415-455 AD and his reign spanned for a long period of 40 years. He was an able ruler and there is no doubt that his empire suffered no diminution but extended. Like his grandfather, he celebrated the horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) as an assertion to his paramount supremacy. The records furnish that at the close of his reign, Kumaragupta's dominion suffered severely from the invasion of Huna Hordes, all over North India. The invaders from South India also disturbed him. He issued coins with images of killing a lion. He also issued a coin which bear the picture of Kartikeya.

Skandagupta: (455-467 AD) Kumaragupta–I was succeeded by Skandagupta. Skandagupta was the last powerful king of the Gupta Empire. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya, Devraj and Sakapan and subdued the invaders (Pushyamitras and Hunas) and brought back the peace and glory of his father. He faced invasion of White Huns, the central Asian tribes. He issued 4 types of Gold coins and 4 types of Silver coin. Bhitari Inscription details about the prowess of Skandagupta. After his death in 467 AD, the Gupta empire declined rapidly.

The Life in Gupta Empire Caste System

As Fa Hien, mentions that Chandalas lived at the outskirts of the society in miserable conditions and were segregated from the society proved that in Gupta Era the caste system had crystalized and became very rigid with Brahmins getting the top position in the society.

International Trade Gupta had a flourishing Roman Trade. The Trade contacts developed during the Kushana Period continued and Chandragupta II's conquest in western India further added to this trade. The people were prosperous and they were free to grow and flourish. The imporant port towns were Brigukachchaha, Kalyana & Sind, which were bulk trade centers with Romans. Ujjain had become a major commercial center and it was linked to southern and northern India. Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, Benares were other major trade centers. Trade was badly affected by the Huna Invasions. Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were



P a g e

22 | P a g e

major export items. The Port of Tamralipti was a good source of Trade with East Asia. Most of the commodities were taxed One Fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade.

Agriculture Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference. The land was fertile and means of irrigation were simple.

Occupation Gupta period had many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant development during this period. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins. The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the empire. The Coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied to a Yupastambha. The coins of Chandragupta bear Garuda preying a snake.

Guild System In ancient history, the glimpses of guild systems are seen in Jatakas Tales. Guilds refer to organizations of artisans, and traders, which have high place in the society. In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen. The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers. The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.

Gupta Administration There was an efficient administration established in the Gupta Empire. All powers were centered in the Kings but, the rulers did not interfere in the administrations of those regions which accepted their suzerainty. Elaborate administration system was evolved in the regions which were under the direct control of the Gupta Kings. The element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked as Gods and God’s representatives. The Kings adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharajadhiraj, Paramabhattaraka, Chakravarti, Paramesvara etc. The King was assisted by a council of Ministers. The minister’s office was almost hereditary. The supreme judicial power was invested in the King but the Mahadandnayaka carried out the judicial functions. The Gupta Kings created two new classes Sandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace) and Kumaramatyas (Offices of the crown Prince). Civil and criminal crimes were demarcated in Gupta Era. The following table presents the list of important officials:

Official Functions Mahabaladhikrita Commander in Chief Mahadandnayaka Chief Justice Mahapratihar Maintainance of Royal Palaces Mahasandhivigrahika or Sandhivigrahaka War and Peace Dandpashika Head of Police department Bhadagaradhikreta Royal Treasury Vinaysthitisansthapaka Education Department



P a g e

23 | P a g e

Sarvadhyaksha Inspector of all central departments Mahashwapati Cavalary Mahamahipalapati Elephants Vinayapura One who represented guests to King’s court Yuktapurusha Accounts of war booty Khadyapakika Royal Kitchen Ranbhandagarika Arms and ammunitions stores Mahanarpati Infantry

The empire was divided into a number of provinces, which were called Bhuktis. Each Bhukti was further divided into Vishaya or Bhoga which was also known as Adhisthana or Pattana. The smaller level was Vithi which referred to a Tehsil. A Bhukti was placed under Uparaka and Vishaya under Vishayapati. The village level disputes were solved by the village headmen called gramapati or gramadhyaksha and this was the smallest administration unit. Kutumbis and Mahattaras are other words used for similar village level officers. Chiefs of the Guilds were called Nagarseths who represented the Guild in the urban trading circles. The Sarthavaha also represented the trading communities. The Prathamakulika represented the crafting communities (artisans) and Prathamakayastha represented Government official community.Pustapala were junior (district level) record officers. The terms Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were used for Land measurements. The Araghatta or Ghati Yantras were the instruments of irrigation which were known earlier and now became more popular in Gupta Era.

Types of Taxes in Gupta Era Bali: The Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the King became

compulsory in Gupta Era. Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part of produce. Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc. Hiranya: This was thetax paid in cash (Gold) Hiranya means Gold. Halivakara: Hal means a Plough, so Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a

plough used to pay tax. Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers. Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi in modern times. Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax. Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.

Religion in Gupta Era Buddhism was generally prevalent in Northern India including Kashmir, Afghanistan and Swat Valley two centuries prior to Christian era and 2 centuries after it. Jainism was prevailing but did not attain much popularity. Hinduism never ceased to exist and retained the large share of both the popular as well as Royal Favor. It is evident from the coins of Kadphises II, the Kushana emperor



P a g e

24 | P a g e

who adopted Hinduism with such a great deal that he repeatedly put images of Shiva on his coins and described himself as a devotee of Shiva. The development of the Mahayana School of Buddhism from the time of Kanishka was in itself a testimony to the reviving power of Brahminical Hinduism. This newer Buddhism was very much common to the Hinduism. The revival of the Sanskrit was first made possible by the western Satraps as evident from the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka King who registered his achievements in elaborate Sanskrit. The Gupta Emperors made the Sanskrit fostered by the Satraps in the 4th and 5th century AD. In Gupta empire both Buddhism and Hinduism received support and the Gupta Kings were perfectly tolerant about the three religions prevalent at that time, but they were beyond doubt zealous Hindus who were guided by the Brahmin advisors and skilled in the Sanskrit language. The Jainism remained confined to the merchant communities of western India. Christianity had also arrived in India but it was confined to the Malabar Region.

Changes in Hinduism However, Hinduism also underwent some important changes during these times. The sacrifice was replaced by Worship and mediation of the Brahmins was somewhat replaced by Devotion and Bhakti. The Shakti cult emerged in the Gupta era, which was based upon the fact that the male can be activated only through union with females. Therefore, this was the beginning of worship of wives / consorts of Indian Gods such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali and other goddesses. The worship of Mother Goddess, which was prevalent in the Harappan India, finally got incorporated in the Hinduism by Guptas times. By the end of 5th century, Tantrism had also become prominent.

Rise of Occult Practices The emergence of Tantrism and worship of female deities also led to occult practices, which kept sexual union in the center. The sexual rites started becoming prominent and now they started taking shape of religious sexuality, which reached its zenith in India by the end of the 6th and 7th century, as evident from numerous temple arts centered on the religious sexuality in that era.

Rise of six schools The six schools of Hindu Philosophy viz. Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta started taking definitive shape because of the philosophical debates between the Hindu and Buddhists on the question of presence of God, attaining salvation, karma, fate, Birth and Death and rebirth.

Gupta Art Gupta Period is called the "Golden age of India" or the "Classical Age of India" partially due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature.



P a g e

25 | P a g e

Temple art The rock cut architecture reached its zenith in the Gupta Era and this era marked the beginning of the Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples built in the Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of Vishnu and Lingams) and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. Following is a brief description of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era: Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar Pradesh: Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh. The temple was discovered by Captain Charles Strahan and was named so by Alexander Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a large and elaborate edifice with typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara) and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has also been linked to the "Sarvatobhadra temple" mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara Purana by several scholars. Bhitargaon Temple : Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in 6th century. Dhamekha Stupa: The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD, recovered from the site, its older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander Cunningham in search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an inscription.....Ye Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu.....written in Brahmi script. This inscription is of 6th or 7th century. Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan bricks has been found which gives in indication that Asoka might have commissioned it. Other Temples

Other temples of the Gupta Era are as follows: Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur Shiva Temple of Bhumara Parvati Temple of Nachria Kathura Mukund Darra Temple of Kota Lakshaman Temple of Raipur Shiva Temple of Koh. Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur Salient features of the Gupta Temples:

In Gupta period, the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a ssqquuaarree sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged. The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch. Gupta style temple was modeled on the architectural norms of the Mathura school.



P a g e

26 | P a g e

Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof. Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh , Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at Nachna Kuthar

have a square tower of Shikhara. Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era. Main style of temple architecture in i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style actually began from

the Gupta era. The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh. The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.

Cave Architecture of Gupta Era: Ajanta Caves Out the 31 rock cut cave monuments at Ajanta, five are Chaitya Grihas viz. cave 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29. Cave 26, 27 and 29 are most important as far as development in the Buddhist art is concerned. Cave 26 is a Chaitya Griha which is perhaps the last excavation. It is an elaborate cave. The grandest depiction in all Buddha arts is Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (22 ft). The Ajanta caves are divided into 2 groups. The first group of caves which were great shrines and monasteries was carved out in the second century BC, at the magnificent site of Ajanta, which is located in the horse shoe shaped gorge of Waghora river, in Aurangabad district of Maharastra. The second group of caves was created in 5th and 6th century AD during Gupta and Post Gupta periods under the rule of the Vaktaka Kings (Gupta Era), with a renewed activity that was richer and more ample. The Buddha was represented in Human and these representations are found both on the facades and in the interior. Finally, the wall painting, profuse and sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most striking artistic achievement of Ajanta. One of the most prominent and outstanding figures are of humanized serpents, a Nagaraja and Nagini with an attendant figure as finest sculptures in human forms. The Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, when he finally achieves release from the mortal world, is a profoundly moving scene. The Gupta Period, grand Viharas were excavated which were considerably larger than the earlier Viharas. Every inch of the wall and ceiling space was originally covered with fine paintings, the mural paintings are greatest treasure of the entire heritage of Indian Art.

Inscriptions of Gupta Era Gupta era is known for a large number of pillars erected at a number of places. Out of them two most important are Prayag Prasasti : Also known as (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta.

Composed by Harisena. Very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style. Garuda Pillar: Garuda Pillar refers to the Mahrauli Pillar Inscription/ Mahrauli Iron Pillar)

of Chandragupta II.



P a g e

27 | P a g e

Mandsaur Inscription: It is ascribed to Vattasbhatta. Eran Stone Inscription of Samudra Gupta Sanchi stone inscription and Mathura stone inscription. Nalanda Inscription Gaya Copper Plate (Speaks of Samudra Gupta) Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Speaks of Chandragupta II & Kumaragupta) Junagarh Rock inscription speaks of Skandagupta.

Literature in Gupta Era Sanskrit literature reached its climax in the Gupta period. This era is known for equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became the Ligua franca of India in that era. The final editing of the Ramayana and Mahabharta took place in Gupta Period. Puranas, Smritis and Dharmashashtra literature was developed in the Gupta period. Yajnavalkyasmriti is almost regarded as the official law book of Guptas. Naradasmriti was also written during the Gupta period. All the successive redactions in the Manu’s Dharmashastras were carried out in Gupta Period.

Kalidasa There are several stories about life of Kalidasa, though none of them seems to be authentic. However, the most famous story about life of Kalidasa says that Kalidasa was an illiterate idiot and was a dumb fool to start with. A king's daughter was a very learned lady and the story goes as she wanted to marry only a person who will defeat her in "Shastarthaa" (scriptural debate). However, if anyone is not able to defeat her, would be black faced and kicked out of the country. The idea was enough to irk the Pundits. Nobody wanted to get his face blackened and sent out of the country, so these witty people took Kalidasa to her. These Pundits spotted Kalidasa cutting a branch of a tree on which he was sitting himself. They told the princess that Kalidasa does only mute or symbolic debates. The debate started and the princess showed him one finger, which she meant that "Shakti is One". However, Kalidasa took its meaning that she will poke his one eye and he showed him two fingers. The princess took this answer to be a valid one manifesting that Shakti is in duality (Shiva and Shakti). Continuing the debate, princess showed her five fingers manifesting that there are 5 elements earth, water, fire, air, and void. Kalidasa manifested it as that she will slap him. So, in answer he showed her his Fist. The princess again took this as a valid answer as she manifested that all five elements combine and make the body or srusti. Thus, she married with Kalidasa. But after marriage she came to know that it was a fraudulent marriage and thus kicked him out of the house. After this humiliation, Kalidasa straightaway went to Kali's temple and dedicated himself to Kali. Goddess Kali was appeased and granted him profound wisdom and art and speaking ability. He returned home and his wife spoke these words:

Smriti works of Gupta Era:

Parashara (100-500 CE) Katyanayan (400-600 CE) Pitamaha (400-700 CE) Pulatsya (300-700 CE) Vyasa (200-500 CE) Harita (400-700 CE)



P a g e

28 | P a g e

asti kashchit vaag-vishesha Which literally mean you are an expert now in speaking? These three words spoken by his wife are the opening words of his three great works as follows: Asti : Kumarasambhavam starts with asti-uttarasyaam dishi kashchit : Meghdoot starts with kashchit kaantaa Vaag : Raghuvamsha starts with vaagarthaaviva

Please note that the above story may be neither historically correct nor there are any evidences to prove it. It goes as it is , so no need to prove it.

Works of Kalidasa

Mālavikāgnimitram Mālavikāgnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love. This was known to his chief queen, who imprisions her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as queen of Agnimitra. Mālavikāgnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.

Abhijñānaśākuntalam Abhijñānaśākuntalam is a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.

Vikramōrvaśīyam Vikramōrvaśīyam is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Puruvas a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualitites of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Pururavas is a mythological entity representing Sun and Vikramaditya means the "Glory of Sun".

Raghuvamśa Raghuvamśa is a Sanskrit epic poem that is a long (19 Sargas) narration of genealogy of Lord Rama's Raghu Vamsa beginning with King Dileep up to Agnivarna.

Kumārasambhava Kumārasambhava is an epic poem which has 17 sirgs, ot of which only 8 are accepted as his authorship. Kumara or prince is Kartikeya and it refers to birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of Love). Kartikeya later killed Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son os Shiva and Parvati.

Ritusamhara Ritusamhara is again a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. These Sargas refer to 6 seaosns (Ritu) viz, Grisma (Summer) , varsha (Rains), Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (Cool), Sisira (Winter) and Vasantha (Spring). It mentions the feelings, emotions and experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.



P a g e

29 | P a g e

Meghaduta Meghaduta means a messenger of Clouds. It’s a poem with 11 stanzas. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord Kubera (King of Wealth). His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kalidasa. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the Yaksha and he wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his message and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates about the beautiful sights and visual perceptions he would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife. The true beauty and grandeur of the literature in Gupta Era can be seen in the kavyas. The greatest among all the names is Kalidasa who lived in 4th century CE and was contemporary of Chandragupta II. His earliest production was Ritusamhara. But earliest drama was Malvikagnimitram. Meghaduta is pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumarasambhava and Raghuvamsa have the epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals with the union of Shiva and Parvati and birth of their son Kartikeya who destroyed Tarakasur. Taghuvamsa described the life and career of 28 kings of Raghu Dynasty which included Rama. The Prakrit Poem Setubandha is believed to have been written/ revised by Kalidasa for king Pravarsena. Malvikagnimitra, Vikramovarshiyam and Abhijanan-Shakuntalam are three plays penned by Kalidasa. Please note that Kalidasa’s style was imitated by Ceylon King Kumaradasa who has written Janakiharana. Kalidasa wrote Malvikagnimitra which accounts the celebration of Vasantotsava (Spring festival).

Bhāravi Bhāravi is best known for Kiratarjuniya, written around 550 CE. Kirat is Shiva who speaks to arjuna in for form of a mountain dwelling hunter. This epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works in Sanskrit which is known for complexity of the Sanskrit.

Bhatti Bhatti or Batsabhatti is best known for Bhaṭṭikāvya which is also known as Rāvaṇavadha and was written in the 7th century CE.

Magha: Śiśupāla-vadha was written by Magha in 7th century AD and is one of the 6 Sanskrit Mahakavyas. It was inspired by the works of Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin, all of them, as the author says but surpasses Bharavi in his style and wordplay.

Sudraka Mrichhakatika means a "little clay cart'. It is a Sanskrit play written by Shudraka in the 2nd century AD. Arthur W. Ryder translated it in 1905 as The Little Clay Cart. It’s a play full with romance, sex, court politics and comedy. It depicts the story of a poor man Charudatta with a nagarvadhu Vasantsena. The play seems to be a reworked version of Daridracharudatta, another play. Śudraka seems to be an Abhira King Indranigupta who used Shudraka as his pen name. There is a description of a civil court in Mrichhakatika, whose headquarters were at Nalanda.



P a g e

30 | P a g e

Vishakhadatta: We know about only two plays of Vishakhadatta viz. Mudrārākṣasa and the Devichandraguptam. Out of them Mudrārāksasa is the only surviving play. Devichandraguptam is survived in fragments only. Mudrarakshasha means "Ring of the Demon". It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne. Rakshasha is the last Minister of Nandas who is lured in Chandragupta's side, by Chanakya.

Dandin Dandin had written Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita. He lived in Kanchi and is best known for Dasakumarcharita "The Tale of the Ten Princes" which depicts the adventures of 10 princes. Dasakumarcharita was first translated in 1927 as Hindoo Tales and The Adventures of the Ten Princes Bhatrihari: Bhartṛhari was a fifth century Sanskrit author who wrote Vakyapadiya , a treatise on Sanskrit Grammar and Satakatraya which is also known as Nitishatak and has 100 verses on philosophy. Batrihari seems to be a King but many scholars say that he was not a king but a courtier serving the king.

Ishwar Krishna: His main work is Sankyakarika. It was a commentary on Sankya Philosophy.

Vyasa Vyasa has written Vyasabhasya , it was a commentary on Yoga philosophy

Vatsyayana Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, which was the first commentary on Gautama's Nyaya Sutras. Kamasutra is a treatise on Human Sexual behavior and makes the part of the Kamashashtra. The first transmission of the Kama Shashra is attributed to Nandi, the bull of Shiva, as per the traditions. The Nandi bull is Shiva’s doorkeeper and he overheard the lovemaking of the Gods and recorded his utterances, for benefit of humankind. However, Kama sutra seems to be the first treatise on the principles / advices in sexuality.

Science and Technology in Gupta Era The Gupta era is known for tremendous development in the development of astronomy, astrology, mathematics and metallurgy. The 230 foot high Mahrauli pillar speaks of the well developed metallurgy in that era which has not rusted in last 15 centuries. The coins of Gupta era were finely struck and engraved.

Aryabhatta Aryabhatta was the legendary mathematician of the Gupta Era. He wrote Aryabhattiya at the age of 23 years and later, Arya-Siddhanta. He worked on the approximation for pi to 3.1416. In trigonometry, he concluded for a triangle, the result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the



P a g e

31 | P a g e

area. He also worked on the motions of the solar system and calculated the length of the solar year to 365.8586805 days. Aryabhatta lived in Kusumpur in Pataliputra.

Contributions of Aryabhata (476 AD) Aryabhata is the author Aryabhatiyam which sketches his mathematical, planetary, and cosmic theories. This book is divided into four chapters: The astronomical constants and the sine table Mathematics required for computations, Division of time and rules for computing the longitudes of planets using eccentrics and epicycles, The armillary sphere, rules relating to problems of trigonometry and the computation of eclipses. Aryabhata took the earth to spin on its axis; this idea appears to have been his innovation. He also considered the heavenly motions to go through a cycle of 4.32 billion years; here he went with an older tradition, but he introduced a new scheme of subdivisions within this great cycle. According to the historian Hugh Thurston, Not only did Aryabhata believe that the earth rotates, but there are glimmerings in his system (and other similar systems) of a possible underlying theory in which the earth (and the planets) orbits the sun, rather than the sun orbiting the earth. The evidence is that the basic planetary periods are relative to the sun. That Aryabhata was aware of the relativity of motion is clear from this passage in his book “Just as a man in a boat sees the trees on the bank move in the opposite direction, so an observer on the equator sees the stationary stars as moving precisely toward the west." In his book named 'Aryabhattium', Aryabhatta has given lot of references of Suryasidhanta. He had developed instruments like chakra yantra (disk instrument), Gola yantra (type of armillery sphere) and shadow instruments. Aryabhatta deduced that earth is a rotating sphere: the stars do not move, it is the earth that rotates. Its diameter is 1,050 yojanas. Its circumference is therefore 1050 x 13.6 x π = 44,860 km. Aryabhatta also deduced that: “The moon eclipses the sun, and the great shadow of the earth eclipses the moon.”

Varahamihira Varahamihira lived in Ujjain and was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of Chandragupta II. He wrote Panchasiddhantaka, the five treatises on astronomy (NOT astrology). It summarises five earlier astronomical treatises, namely the Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhantas.

Gupta Era: Other Important Observations The Mathura school of sculpture has represented the phases of transition from the Kushan period to Gupta Period. Most of the earliest Gupta sculptures are from Mathura school. This school reached its mature phase during the Gupta Period. The Panchayatan style of Temple, in which the temple had four subordinate shrines on four corners, is seen in its earliest (primitive) form in Dasavatara temple of Deogarh, Lalitpur.



P a g e

32 | P a g e

India’s earliest structural temples belong to Gupta period. Temple number 17 at Sanchi is considered to be the earliest structural temple. One of the most remarkable feature of Gupta Administration was the process of devolution of power. Other features were the office of Sandhivigrahaka, and systematic provincial administration, much more improved than the Mauryas. However, at the same time, the republics got extinct during the Gupta era. The Vakataka dynasty, which was contemporary of the Guptas, had never struck their own coins and they used coins of the other contemporaries. The Kayastha as a new caste of officials had emerged in the Gupta age. Please note that the later Guptas were not the same Guptas but were actually the feudatories of the imperial Guptas.

The Later Guptas Skandagupta

Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great Gupta Ruler. He ascended to the throne on 455 AD and is known to have crushed the White Huna Invasion in the first or early years of his reign itself. Twelve year reign till his death in 467 AD was filled with wars with Hunas and this led to weakening the economy of his empire which is evident from the low quality of Coins issued during his and his successor’s reigns. The white Hunas invaded from the northwestern sides in around 455 AD. Skandagupta was the mature years and ripe experience, inflicted upon those barbarians, and gave them such as decisive defeat that India was saved for some two decades. However, in 465 a fresh swarm of nomads again poured across the frontiers and is known to have occupied the Gandhara. After death of Skandagupta in 467 AD there were repeated attacks on the heart of the dominions and the empire succumbed to the repeated attacks of the foreigners.

Successors of Skandagupta Who was successor of Skandagupta is a mystery. The genealogy has been corroborated from four royal seals from Nalanda and one from Bhitari that Purugupta succeeded Skandagupta. When Skandagupta passed away, the empire perished but the dynasty remained. It is thought the Skandagupta could not leave any male capable heir and was succeeded by his half brother Purugupta, who was son of Kumaragupta I and Queen Ananda. The later kings / princes were Kumaragupta III, Buddhagupta and Narsihmgupta. In the western provinces of Malwa, the names of rajas Buddhagupta and Bhanugupta are found. They cover the period of around 484 to 510 AD. The death of Buddhagupta is thought to have occurred in around 495 AD. It was followed by the accelerated feudalization of the state structure, and the later of these two princes (or Kings) occupy a dependent position probably subordinate to the Huna Chieftains.



P a g e

33 | P a g e

Chapter 7. The Huna Invasions The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and devastated the smiling cities of India. These central Asian hordes were in four cardinal directions they were known as follows: Northern Huna - Black Huna Southern Huna - Red Huna Eastern Huna - Celestial Hunas Western Hunas - White Hunas.

The nomad Mongol tribes known as Huns have found first mention in the Bhishma parva of Mahabharta. As per Dr V. A. Smith, the sholkas that mention the Hunas must have been placed after editing in 4th or 5th century AD. In Mahabharta these tribes have been mentioned as Malechhas and Malechhas included several tribes such as Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Paundras and Kiratas,Khasas, Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas etc. Practice of Polyandry was common in Hunas (several husbands one wife). The Hunas moved westwards and divided into two major streams. One directed towards the valley of Oxus (today known as Amu Darya, a boundary between Iran and Central Asia and in Indian texts known as Vaksu) and another towards Volga River (Westwards towards Europe). The latter are thought to have poured into Eastern Europe and forced the Goths to the south and causing the Gothic wars, indirectly. Hunas filled the land between Volga and Danube but they could not make full use of their advantageous position. The Hunic Empire in Europe was finished within 20 years by a fresh swarm of barbarians from Northern Asia. However, the Asiatic domain of the Hunas lasted a bit longer. In Persia (Iran), the former are known to have attacked the Sassanid King of Persia, Peroz I and captured him. Peroz I was killed in the hands of Hunas and these Hunas assailed the Kushan Kingdom of Kabul and then from from there poured into India. Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to have conquered Gandhara. About Ramanila, we know only through his coins. Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is known to have consolidated under Toramana.

Toramana : The early white Huna King We know about the 6th century White Huna King Toramana from Kura Inscription in which his name is mentioned as Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula. He has also been referred in Rajtarangini. The silver coins of Toramana are very much similar to the Gupta Kings. It is thought that Toramana invaded the Gupta Empire with the help of a scion of the Gupta family called Harigupta. Moreover, the feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna's conquest. Toramana acquired the Malwa region by 510 AD and the local prince Bhanugupta was unable check him. Toramana was succeeded by Mihirkula, his son.



P a g e

34 | P a g e

Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrant Mihirkula means "one from the Sun Clan", In Persian Mihirkula refers to Mehr Gul that also refers to Sun Flower. Mihirkula came to power in 510 AD and was an antibuddhist, known for his cruelty against the Buddhists. He destroyed the temples and monasteries and was tyrannical to the Buddhists. His reign extended up to Gwalior. His contemporary Gupta King was Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II. Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II is known to have a devout Buddhist. He fought with Mihirkula and was supported by Yasodharman of Malwa in this fight. Mihirkula was defeated, captured by Yasodharman but was allowed to take refuge in Kashmir where he died shortly afterwards, probably due to a fatal attack by a King of Kashmir. This was the end of White Hunas in India. The year was 528 AD. Thus, Yashidharman is credited to check the Huna expansion in India.

Who was Yasodharman? We know about Yasodharman from the Mandsor Inscription and Bijaygarh Inscription of Bayana near Bharatpur, in Rajasthan, which was erected / created by Vishnuvarhana, son of Yasodharman. He initially is thought to have been friendly with the Guptas but later turns their enemy and carried his victorious arms. However, not many details are known about Yasodharman. He appeared and disappeared quickly, most probably by 540 AD. After the Hunas were checked, the Gupta Empire destroyed into many parts and several kings appeared in the scene all over north India. By the mid of the 6th century Guptas lost the control over the Magadha also. There were many contemporary dynasties of the Guptas and probably most ancient of them is Maukharis.

Chapter 8. Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas Maukharis Dynasty

Maukharis or Mokharis or Mukharas is an ancient family, which seems to be the vassals of Guptas earlier. This dynasty was concentrated around modern Uttar Pradesh and a portion of Southern Bihar.

Naga Dynasty Naga family became prominent in Modern Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior by third century AD and remained in existence till end of 4th century. The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Nagadatta and Achyuta. The Mathura and Gwalior dominions of the Nagas was annexed to Gupta Kingdom by Samudragupta.

Magha Dynasty Magha dynasty ruled around Kaushambi and they were contemporary of Guptas. The rulers such as Nava is known by coins only.



P a g e

35 | P a g e

Vaktataka Dynasty Vaktaka dynasty was the most important follow up dynasty of the Satavahanas and they ruled in modern Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. They were contemporary of Guptas. Vindhyashakti, whose name is derived from the Vidhya Mountains, founded Vaktaka dynasty. Pravarasena was an able ruler who is also known to be the real founder of this dynasty. One of the important ruler of this dynasty was Rudrasena I who is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Rudrasena I was followed by Prathivisena I. During the campaign of Chandragupta II against the western Satraps, Chandragupta II is considered to have alliance of Prathivisena I and later cemented this tie with a marital alliance giving his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II, the prince of Vaktaka Family. The capital of Vaktataka during the reign of Prathivisena and Rudrasena II was Nandivardhana, which is near modern Nagpur.

Chapter 9. Glory of Ancient India Astronomers and Their Contribution

The following table shows the astronomers, their contribution and the instruments used by them, which are briefly described in this module:



P a g e

36 | P a g e

Surya Siddhanta In India people had started the use of the astronomical instruments before 1000 BC. During this period one of the prominent books 'Suryasidhanta' was written for astronomical calculations. Please note that there are several works with the same name, BUT the Original writer of Surya Siddhanta is UNKNOWN. The title 'Suryasidhanta' means sun theory and it highlights the calculations of positions of stars and planets. Some of the Indian mathematicians later have developed their own instruments and developed their own methods to facilitate the theory of 'Suryasidhanta'. Introduction of zero in mathematics and the decimal method of calculation is one of such invaluable contribution. We should note that Varahamihira had contrasted Surya Siddhanta along with his 4 other treatises in the panchsiddhantika viz. Paitamaha Siddhantas, Paulisha , Romaka Siddhantas and Vasishta Siddhanta. Citation of the Surya Siddhanta is also found in the works of Aryabhata.

Panchasiddhanta of Varahamihira (505 AD) He has done a valuable job of compilation of five astronomical theories, which were in use before Crist, and suryasidhanta is one of them. This compiled book is known as 'Panchasidhanta'. He had developed some ring and string instruments.

The twelve Yantras of Lalla (700 AD) Lalla was an Indian astronomer and mathematician who followed the tradition of Aryabhata I. Lalla's most famous work was entitled Shishyadhividdhidatantra. He was well known because of twelve instruments which he brought into practice. One of the most discussed shloka of Lalla is

In the above Shloka, Lalla describes the 12 Instruments as follows: Sphere, ring, dial, bow, time measuring water vessel, Gnomon, divider, scissor. Circular seat with central stick, semicircle with stick, combination of sticks, are the twelve instuments along with a stick. The 12 instruments are as follows:

1. The Gola yantra is a type of armilliary sphere used to locate planetary positions. 2. Bhangana is a ring with angular graduations alonge its circumference, it is a type of

protractor. 3. Chakra is a circular disk with angular graduations; it is also a type of protractor. 4. Dhanu is a semicircular disk with angular graduations and a stick pivoted at the center, it is

a type of protractor with a plumb bob arrangement. 5. Ghati is a small vessel with a hole at the bottom. It was used to measure time. 6. Shanku is a type of gnomon, a long vertical cone used to identify East-West-North-South

direction based on shadow of its tip.



P a g e

37 | P a g e

7. A special geometrical construction known a 'Matsya' was used for the above purpose. Altitude of sun and day time was also measured with this instrument based on the shadow.

8. Shakata consists of two 'V' shaped sticks, pivoted at the end. 9. Kartari means a seizer. This instrument is made up of two sticks both pivoted together. It

was used like a caliper, and also to measure angle with the help of protractor. 10. Pitha is a horizontal disk with a vertical stick at its center. It was used to measure local time

based on its shadow, it was used to measure the height with the help of special geometrical contruction.

11. Shalaka is combination of two sticks with a string. 12. Yasti is just a long stick having standard dimensions; it was used to measure height and

distances. Special geometrical constructions were framed to facilitate the use of this stick. These proposed geometrical constructions were to construct the proportionate triangles with the help of which heights of terrestrial objects could be calculated.

The Siddhant Shiromani & Yasti Yantra of Bhaskaracharya (1072 AD) He was one of the promonent Indian mathematicien and astronomer, who wrote a book ‘Sidhantshiromani'. In his book he has documented valuable ancient liturature and given the references of many of the instruments used by the astronomers before him. Similarly he has documented the various methods for the use of these instruments. Yasti means a stick. Yasti Yantra was developed by Bhaskaracharya and has also been refered to as Dhi Yantra. The same type of instrument has also been described by ancient sages and astronomers, but Bhaskaracharya has developed this Yantra as unique methods to calculate the height of terrestrial objects like trees and mountains. The usage and principles have been described in the 'Shidhantashiromani' of Bhaskaracharya. The concept of this Yantra is to mount a stick on a pivot at a height d above the ground, and take

sightings of the top and bottom of the object such as a tree using the stick. The projected length of the stick on a horizontal line at the two sightings, L1 and L2, and the heights to which the stick is raised, h1 and h2, can be marked on an adjoining board. If the overall height of the object is H, and the horizontal line at the height at which the stick

is mounted splits it into H1 and H2, the lengths form similar triangles, and we can write h1/L1 = H1/L and h2/L2 = H2/L,



P a g e

38 | P a g e

where L is the distance to the object. Eliminating L from the equations using L = H2 (L2/h2), and since H2=d, we get H = H1 + H2 = (h1/L1) L + H2 == ( (h1/L1) (L2/h2) + 1 ) d .

Angles: Vikala, kala, bhaga, bhagana We refer to the following shloka from Surya Siddhanta

The above shloka means Sixty vikala is one kala, sixty units (kala) is one bhaga, it is said this way that, thirty units (bhaga) makes one rashi, twelve rashi makes one bhagana. The Vikala, Kala, Bhaga,Bhagna are the Units of Angle used in Surya Sidhnata. This knowledge about the division of the angles in a circle is one of the earliest knowledge. Today, Vikala, Kala and Bhaga are coterminous with the Second, Minute and Degree respectively. Please note that Rashi was also used as a unit of angle.

Length: Yahodara, Angula, Hatha, Danda, Krosha and Yojanas We refer to this shloka from Lilavati

Meaning of above shloka is as follows: Eight rice grains (yahodara) makes one fingure width (angula), twentyfore fingures make one hand (hasta), four hands make one stick (danda), 2000 danda make one krosha (unit of length). Four krosha make one yojana (unit of length), ten hasta make one vamsha (unit of length), one nirwatan (unit of area) is equal to 400 square vamsha.

Time: Vipal, Pala, Gati, Hora, and Dina Sixty Vipala makes one pala. Sixty pala makes one ghati. 150 Pala makes one Hora. 24 Hora (Hours) makes one Dina (a day).

Geometry in Vedic Age- Sulvasutras Some scholars have shown on the basis of evidence in Shatapatha Brahmana that Indian geometry predates Greek geometry by centuries. It has been argued that Geometry and Mathematics had a ritualistic beginning in India centuries before Greeks or Babylon. In these rituals, Earth was represented by Circular altar and heavens were represented in Squar altar. There were eagle shaped altars also. The examples are as follows:



P a g e

39 | P a g e

The Ritual consisted of converting the Circle into a square of identical area. As per a paper by Seidenberg: Babylonia [1700 BC] got the theorem of Pythagoras from India or that both Old-Babylonia and India got it from a third source. The source quoted was Sulvasutras. Sulvasutras deal with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks of specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully respected. This proves that despite of no existance of algebra, there was an awareness of precise purely geometrical calculations. Seidenberg's conclusion of India being the source of the geometric and mathematical knowledge of the ancient world has been included now in chronology of the texts. Please note that Sulva sutras belong to a bigger text Shrauta Sutras. The four major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana. Out of them the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the cases of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples. The Baudhayan Sulbasutra 1.48 says: The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas produced seperately by its two sides.It is represented as follows

In the Baudhayan's Sulva Sutras we should note that the Right angles were made by ropes marked to give the triads 3, 4, 5 and 5, 12, 13 (32 + 42 = 52, 52 + 122 = 132) Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included “Squaring the circle” (and vice-versa), thus geometrically constructing a square having the same area as a given area. It has worked out the square root of 2 to 1.414215, up to last 5 decimals.

Knowledge of Days of Year There have been found symbols that prove that the Aryans knew about

the year. In a ritual, pebbles were placed around the altars for the earth, the atmosphere, and the sky. The number of these pebbles was 21, 78, and 261, respectively. These numbers add up to the 360 days of the year. There were other features related to the design of the altars which suggested that the ritualists were aware that the length of the year was between 365 and 366 days.



P a g e

40 | P a g e

Model of Sky The Vedic People took Earth as Centre of Universe. The system they identified was as follows:

Thus Earth was taken on mid of the planetary system.

Saraswati Script Most probably, the first true alphabetic script was Saraswati Script that was practiced on the banks of Saraswati River. It has been hypothesized that symbol of Zero was devised by unknown Indians who were inspired with the Fish sign of Brahmi script that referred to 10. However, it was not till 6-8th century AD, when practical calculations were carried out using zero.

Knowledge of Binary Numbers- Pingala The Indian scholar Pingala (circa. 5th-2nd century BC) used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables). This was very much simialr to today's Morse code, shown in the following picture. Kindly compare them:

Morse Code Pingala’s Binary numbers

Pingala used the above in his Chhandahshastra. The knowledge of binary numbers indicates his deep understanding of arithmetic. Binary repersentation has now become the basis of information storage in terms of sequences of 0s and 1s in modern-day computers.

Ghati Yantra Kindly go thru the following Shloka



P a g e

41 | P a g e

The meaning of the above shloka is that a Ghatika or (bowl) is a hemispherical vessel made of copper with a small aperature at the bottom so that it sinks into the water 60 times in a day and night. The Ghati Yantra looked like this:

The clepsydra (Ghatī -yantra) was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times. The above Shloka is of Bharamagupta. Brahmagupta of Bhilamala in Rajasthan, who was born in 598, wrote his masterpiece, Brahmasphuta Siddhanta, in 628. His school, which was a rival to that of Aryabhata, has been very infuential in western and northern India. Brahmagupta's work was translated into Arabic in 771 or 773 at Baghdad and it became famous in the Arabic world as Sindhind. One of Brahmagupta's chief contributions is the solution of a certain second order indeterminate equation which is of great significance in number theory. Another of his books, the Khandakhadyaka, remained a popular handbook for astronomical computations for centuries. The gahtiyantra theory interprets that the vessel sinks in 24 Minutes.

Panini's Grammar The Panini's grammar was composed in 6th century B.C or earlier. This grammar has provided 4,000 rules that describe the Sanskrit of his day completely. It has been shown that grammar of Panini represents a universal grammatical and computing system. From this perspective it anticipates the logical framework of modern computers.

Concept of Tridosha in Ayurveda Ayurveda adopts the physics of the five elements viz. Prithvi(earth), Jala(water), Agni (fire), Vayu(air) and Akasha (ether)). It notes that these five elements compose the Universe as well as human body. The Ayurveda divides the human body in SaptaDhatu or 7 constituent elements viz. Rasa dhatu (Chyle, Lymph, Plasma) Rakta dhatu (Haemoglobin fraction in blood) Mamsa dhatu (Muscle tissue) Medas dhatu (Fat or Adipose tissue) Asthi dhatu (Bone-tissue including cartilage) Majja dhatu (Bone Marrow) Sukra dhatu (Semen, Sperm, Ovum).

Then, Ayurveda talks about the balance of three elemental energies called: Vata: Air Pitta : Bile and



P a g e

42 | P a g e

Kapha: Phlegm Unbalance in any of the above three causes illness and this is called Tridosha. Plato in Greek medicine has also described the same 3 issues and it appears to be derived from the earlier tridosha theory of Ayurveda.

The Lilavati of Bhaskara Bhaskara (born 1114), who was from the Karnataka region, was an outstanding mathematician and astronomer. Amongst his mathematical contributions is the concept of diffeentials. He was the author of Siddhanta Shiromani, a book in four parts: Lilavati on arithmetic Bijaganita on algebra Ganitadhyaya on astronomy Goladhyaya on astronomy

Bhaskara's epicyclic eccentric theories of planetary motions are more developed than in the earlier siddhantas.

Madhava Madhava (c. 1340-1425) developed a procedure to determine the positions of the moon every 36 minutes. He also provided methods to estimate the motions of the planets. He gave power series expansions for trigonometric functions, and for pi correct to eleven decimal places.

Yogavashishtha of Valmiki Valmiki, the author of Ramayana has written Yoga Vashishtha in which there are some passages on scientific point of view relating to the description of the nature of space, time, matter, and consciousness. For example, one of the passage says: The world is like a potter's wheel: the wheel looks as if it stands still, though it revolves at a terriffic speed. Valmiki has also written Akshara Lakshana in which he deals with mathematics in general, algebra, trigonometry, chemicals and heat.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-3: Rise of New Religions and Maurya Empire

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-3: Rise of New Religions and Maurya Empire


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Buddhism .............................................................................................................. 4

Life of Gautam Buddha .............................................................................................. 4 The Basics of Buddhism .............................................................................................. 6

Four Noble Truths: ............................................................................................................... 6 Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg ...................................................................................... 7 Concept of Nirvana .............................................................................................................. 7

Buddhist Literature ..................................................................................................... 7 Tripitaka .............................................................................................................................. 7 Jatakas ................................................................................................................................ 8 Milinda Panha ..................................................................................................................... 8 Dipavamsa .......................................................................................................................... 8 Mahavamsa ......................................................................................................................... 9 Mahavastu ........................................................................................................................... 9 Buddha Charita ................................................................................................................... 9 Mahāvibhāsa Śāstra .............................................................................................................. 9 Lalitavistara ........................................................................................................................ 9 Divyavadana........................................................................................................................ 9 Udanavarga ......................................................................................................................... 9 Udana .................................................................................................................................. 9 Bodhi Vamsa ..................................................................................................................... 10

Buddhist Scholars ..................................................................................................... 10 Aśvaghosa ......................................................................................................................... 10 Nagarjuna.......................................................................................................................... 10 Asanga & Vasubandhu ...................................................................................................... 10 Buddhaghosa .................................................................................................................... 10 Dignāga or Dinnaga ........................................................................................................... 10 Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti ................................................................................................ 10 Dharmakirti ....................................................................................................................... 11

Buddhist Sangeeti or Councils .................................................................................. 11 First Buddhist Council: 400 BC ........................................................................................... 11 Second Buddhist Council : 383 BC ..................................................................................... 11 Third Buddhist Council: 250 BC .......................................................................................... 11 Fourth Buddhist Council: 72AD .......................................................................................... 11 Fifth Buddhist Council: 1871 .............................................................................................. 12 Sixth Buddhist Council : 1954 ............................................................................................ 12

Mahayana and Hinayana ......................................................................................... 12 Hinayana: .......................................................................................................................... 12 Mahayana: ........................................................................................................................ 12 Major Difference between Hinayana & Mahayana: ............................................................ 12

Bodhisattva .............................................................................................................. 12 Avalokiteśvara .................................................................................................................. 13 Manjusri: ............................................................................................................................ 13 Samantabhadra ................................................................................................................ 13 Ksitigarbha ........................................................................................................................ 13 Maitreya ............................................................................................................................ 13 Vajrapani ........................................................................................................................... 13 Sadāparibhūta ................................................................................................................... 14 Akasagarbha ..................................................................................................................... 14

Important Buddhist Shrines ...................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2. Jainism ................................................................................................................ 15

Important Tirthankaras ............................................................................................ 16 Concepts related to Jainism ..................................................................................... 17 Jain Literature .......................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 3. Sixteen Mahajanapadas ...................................................................................... 21 Kasi .................................................................................................................................... 22 Kosala ............................................................................................................................... 22



3 | P a g e

Anga .................................................................................................................................. 22 Magadha ........................................................................................................................... 22 Vajji or Vriji ........................................................................................................................ 22 Malla ................................................................................................................................. 22 Chedi or Cheti .................................................................................................................... 22 Vatsa ................................................................................................................................. 22 Kuru ................................................................................................................................... 23 Panchala ........................................................................................................................... 23 Matsya ............................................................................................................................... 23 Surasena ........................................................................................................................... 23 Assaka ............................................................................................................................... 23 Avanti ................................................................................................................................ 23 Gandhara .......................................................................................................................... 23 Kamboja ............................................................................................................................ 23

Chapter 4. Magadha Empire ................................................................................................. 23 Brihadrath Dynasty .................................................................................................. 23 Pradyota dynasty ..................................................................................................... 24 Haranyaka Dynasty .................................................................................................. 24

Bimbisara .......................................................................................................................... 24 Ajatshatru ......................................................................................................................... 25 End of Haranyaka Dynasty ................................................................................................ 26

Shishunaga Dynasty ................................................................................................. 26 Nanda Dynasty ......................................................................................................... 27

Invasion of Alexander ........................................................................................................ 27 Chapter 5. The Maurya Empire ............................................................................................. 27

Chandragupta Maurya ............................................................................................. 28 War with Selucus: .............................................................................................................. 29 Later Life of Chandragupta ............................................................................................... 29 Chanakya ........................................................................................................................... 29

Bindusara ................................................................................................................. 30 The Reign of Asoka ................................................................................................... 31

Conquest of Kalinga .......................................................................................................... 31 Asoka and Third Buddhist Council: .................................................................................... 32

Asoka’s Edicts & Inscriptions ..................................................................................... 32 Separate Edicts .................................................................................................................. 33 Other Pillars ...................................................................................................................... 34 Asoka’s Dharma ................................................................................................................. 34 Reason of Decline of Maurya Empire ................................................................................. 35

Political, Social and Economical Life during Mauryas .............................................. 35 Other departments ............................................................................................................ 37

Important Observations about Maurya Empire ........................................................ 40 The Insignificance of Coins ................................................................................................. 40 The Maski Edict revealed name of Asoka ........................................................................... 40 The lake constructed by Mauryas ...................................................................................... 41 The shelters of Ajivika sect ................................................................................................ 41

Introduction The post Vedic society was divided into 4 varnas viz. Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras. Birth had become the basis of Varnas and two higher Varnas viz. Brahmins and Kshatriya were given privileges. The later period saw tensions rising in the Varnas. The two dominant Varnas Brahmins and Kshatriya competed for dominance. Kshatriya acted as rulers and the reacted against the domination of the priests of Brahmins.



4 | P a g e

Apart from that India was now developing as a agro based economy. The importance of trade increased and Vaishyas started getting more importance. The Vaishyas came at third position after the Brahmins and Kshatriya and they looked for other religions which could improve their position. The money lending was a trade in post Vedic era, but Brahmins looked down upon this business. The Vaishya wanted some better religious position and that is one of the regions that the trader community “Vaishya” provided support to both Jainism and Buddhism. In Vedic era, the killing the cattle for sacrifices was a common practice. This ritual was not accepted in the new agro economy. In fact except Brahmins, almost all common public was irked by the ritualistic practices of the post Vedic period based upon exaggeration, superstition, Brahminical dominance. The position of Shudra got worse to worst. Sanskrit, which was the prime language in the Vedic and post Vedic period; now, started losing charm. Most people spoke Prakrit. The Position of women got inferior. Buddhism and Jainism were the movements that started to reform the Hinduism. Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira disputed the authority of the Brahmins.

Chapter 1. Buddhism Buddhahood in Sanskrit is Buddhatva. In Pali is it called Buddhatta or buddhabhāva. It is the state of perfect enlightment attained by a Buddha. The perfect enlightment is sammāsambodhi in Pali. This refers to the universal and innate property of absolute wisdom. Buddhism gave the greatest shock to Vedic religion in those times. The Buddhavamsa mentions 29 Buddhas in all. The 27 Buddhas, preceded Gautam Buddha and Maitreya, the 29th Buddha is next to come in future. Gautam Buddha was 28th Buddha. The Buddhavamsa related that in the present Kalpa, there are 5 Buddhas.

• Kakusandha • Koṇāgamana • Kassapa • Gautama • Maitreya

The fifth Maitreya is a future Buddha. The first among these 5 Buddhas of the present Kalpa is Kakusandha. Kakusandha is mentioned in the Sanskrit Buddhist texts as Krakucchanda. In Tibet he is known as Khorvadjig. He was born in Nepal, near Kapilvastu. He attained enlightment under a Sirisa tree. The second Buddha of the present Kalpa was Koṇāgamana. Third Buddha was Kassapa. In Sanskrit Buddhist texts, he is known as Kasyapa. He was also born in Nepal and attained enlightment under a Banyan Tree.

Life of Gautam Buddha Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme Buddha or ammāsambuddha or samyaksaṃbuddha. He was born in Lumbini, a little principality of Kapilvastu in modern day Nepal. His childhood name was Siddhartha. He was son of Shuddodhana a leader of the Shakya clan. The capital of this Sakya clan was Kapilvastu and it was not a monarchy but a sort of Republic. Queen Mahamaya was the name of mother of Gautam Buddha. Hathras district of Uttar Pradesh was renamed as "Mahamaya



5 | P a g e

Nagar", after Buddha's mother. The birth of Buddha is celebrated as Vesaka in some countries. In India, it is Buddha Purnima. Queen Mahamaya died soon after his birth and Maha Prajapati or Prajapati Gautami raised him. He was a prince so he had lived his early childhood in luxury. His father wished him to be a great king and so he was shielded from the religious teachings or human sufferings. However, as a child Gautama used to be absorbed in philosophical musings. He got married at the age of 16 with Yashodhara. She gave birth to a Son, Rahula. At the age of 29, while going to meet his subjects he encountered human sufferings such as old age, death and diseases. He used to ask his charioteer Channa about these sufferings. He deeply depressed by the truth that human life is momentary and one has to suffer a lot. He left his home at the age of 29 years, so that he could overcome old age, illness and death by living a life of an ascetic. This is called "the great departure' or Mahabhinishkramana. He first went to Rajgriha Rajgaha or Rajgir. He started begging alms over there and living life of an ascetic. The King Bimbisara after a request from Shuddodhana, launched a search and Siddhartha was recognized by the men of Bimbisara. Bimbisara offered him a throne, but Gautama refused. He left Rajgir but promised Bimbisara to visit his capital Magadha, later. Siddhartha studied under two hermits Alara and Udaka. He achieved high knowledge and was asked to succeed Udaka, but he was not satisfied with the path and his goal so he refused. The experiments with the life of ascetics could not bring desired fruits for Gautama. He left the Udaka, and moved on with 5 companions who were led by Kaundinya. They set out for more austerity. They tried enlightment through total deprivation of possessions including food. This led him to starving near death condition, and one day he collapsed into a river and almost drowned. This led him to reconsider the path. He started moving away from ascetics and moving closer to meditating and this is called the Middle Path, the path of having oneself away from extreme self-indulgence and extreme self-mortification. He accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl called Sujata. While meditating under a Pipal tree on the bank of river Niranjana at Gaya, he came across the desired truth, at the age of 35 years and after 49 days of meditating. He was now called Buddha or “Shakyamuni Buddha” which means the Buddha of Shakya Clan. The first disciples of Buddha after becoming enlightened were two merchants named Tapussa and Bhallika. After becoming enlightened, he sought to find his former teachers Arada and Udaka to teach them, but they had died. He then looked for Kaundinya and other companions. Gautama Buddha now preached his first sermon which deals with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, the core pillars of Buddhist teaching regarding the intrinsic suffering of existence and how to deal with it. This was called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Kaundinya &

Symbols of five major events in Buddha’s Life Event Symbol Buddha’s Birth Lotus & Bull The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana) Horse Enlightment (Nirvana ) Bodhi Tree First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan) Wheel Death (Parinirvana) Stupa



6 | P a g e

4 others became the first human beings to be taught Buddha 's teaching and become an arhat (spiritual practitioner). This event took place at Deer Park near Varanasi. Two gems of Buddhism viz. Buddha and Dhamma ware now ready. The five disciples and Buddha formed the first union of Buddhism, which is called Sangha. So, with the formation of a Sangha, the three gems of Buddhism (Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha) were completed. The reaming years of life, Buddha travelled many parts of the country, established the Sangha, and propagated his teachings. Thousands of people joined Sangha and these Sanghas spread in many parts. As promised previously Buddha now travelled to Magadha, the capital of King Bimbisara. During this visit Sariputta(who later founded Theravada tradition) and Mahamoggallana became Buddha's disciples. Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples. His ten foremost disciples were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. Rahula was his son, who became disciple at the age of 7. Buddha's parinirvāṇa happened at Kuśinagara at the age of 80 years.

The Basics of Buddhism Four Noble Truths:

Buddha in Dhammachakraparivartan taught four noble truths. They are the core teachings of Buddhism.

• Dukkha or “Sorrow” : The world is full of sorrow and everything from birth to death brings sorrows in life.

• Dukkha Samudaya or Cause of Sorrow : The cause of sorrows is desire. It is the un-fulfillment of human desires which leads him to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths.

• Dukkha Nirodha or Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of sorrow by triumphing over the desires.

• Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Magga or The path of Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid Dukkha by avoiding extremes of life and following middle path or Madhyam Patipada. The life of moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8 fold path is essential to prevent the Dukkha.



7 | P a g e

Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg The eight fold path was recommended to eliminate the human misery. It comprises of three basic divisions of Wisdom (Pragya Skanda), Ethical Conduct (Sheel Skanda) And Concentration (Samadhi Skanda). Following table represents the eight fold path:

Concept of Nirvana The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism. Buddhism denied the concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting rid of Cycle of Death and birth. It is achieved in the lifetime itself and not after death. To achieve nirvana one should follow moral code of Conduct.

Buddhist Literature Tripitaka

Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known as pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Sutta Pitaka It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close companions. This also deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha's death, dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir. Its sections are:

Digha Nikaya: Comprises the "long" discourses. Majjhima Nikaya: Comprises the "middle-length". Samyutta Nikaya: Comprises the "connected" . Anguttara Nikaya : Comprises the "numerical". Khuddaka Nikaya: Comprises the "minor collection”.

Vinaya Pitaka The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also be called as Book of Discipline. Suttavibhanga: The basic code of Monastic discipline is known as Patimokkha. It contains 227 rules for fully ordained Monks called bikkhus (Maha vibhanga) and 311 rules for fully ordained

Eight Fold Path

Pragya Skanda

Right Vision Right Resolution

Sheel Skanda

Right Action

Right Speech

Right Livelihood

Samadhi Skanda

Right Efforts

Right Memory

Right Meditation



8 | P a g e

nuns called Bikkhunis (Bikkhuni Vibhanga) They are contained in Suttavibhanga, one of the parts of Vinay Pitaka. Khandhaka: Khandhaka is the second book of Vinay Pitaka. It has two volumes viz. Mahavagga and Cullavagga. Mahavagga deals with the awakening of Buddha and his great disciples. Cullavagga deals with the first and second Buddhist councils and establishments of community of Buddhist nuns and rules for Buddhist community. Parivara: Parivara is the last book of Vinaya Pitaka. It covers the summary of analysis of rules mentioned in first two books of Vinay Pitaka. Its is latest book and seems to be later than the Fourth Buddhist Coincil in Ceylon. It also contains questions and answers.

Abhidhammapitaka Abhidhammapitaka deals with the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas. However, it does not contain the systematic philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of Abhidhamma Pitaka which most scholars agree that don't represent the words of Buddha himself. The 7 books are

Dhammasangani : It contains a matrix which lists the classification of Dhammas or ideas. Vibhanga : It has 18 chapters dealing with different teachings of Buddhism. It is in 3 volumes

and third volume is in question answer format. Dhatukatha: It has a matrix and various topics. Puggalapannatti : It has a matrix which deals with the list of the persons. Kathavatthu: It contains the debates and commentary on thoese debates. Yamaka : Yamaka has questions in pairs and understanding. Patthana : It also contains the questions and answers.

Jatakas Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and they contain the tales of previous births of Buddha in poems. The Jataka have also ben mentioned in the Khuddaka Nikaya. There are 547 poems. In Sanskrit it is called Jatakamala, In Khmer they are known as cietak, and in Chinese they are called Sadok.

Milinda Panha Milinda Panha means "Questions of Milinda". It contains the dialogue of Indo-Greek king Meander and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It has been written in second to first century BC and initially written in Sanskrit. There is only one copy in Sri Lankan Pali of this work. It was printed in the 6th Buddhist council in 1954.

Dipavamsa The meaning of Dipavamsa is "Chronicle of Island". It is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. It is believed to have been compiled around 3rd or 4th century BC somewhere in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka during the reign of King Dhatusena of Sri Lanka, the first Mauryan King of Sri Lanka. The Avukana Buddha statue was erected by King Dhatusena in Sri Lanka.



9 | P a g e

Dipavamsa is one of the most important works in Pali Literature. It details the tooth relic and Bodhi Tree's arrival in Sri Lanka. It also deals with the arrival of Buddha's teaching and preachers in Sri Lanka. It mentions that Buddha visited Kelaniya and Dighavapi in Sri Lanka.

Mahavamsa Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem. Mahavamsa means "Great Chronicle". It’s a historical poem in Pali Language which deals about the Kings of Sri Lanka. The first version of Mahavamsa dates back to 3-4th century BC during the reign of King Vijaya. The Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa (small chronicle) all together are sometimes known as Mahavamsa. It deals with the royal dynasties of not only Sri Lanka but the whole Indian subcontinent and is known as world's longest unbroken historical accounts. The consecration of Asoka and details of Selucus and Alexander have been detailed in it.

Mahavastu Mahavastu means the "Great Event". It’s a work in prose and verse and is written in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It details the miracles & earlier lives of Buddha.

Buddha Charita Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa and was compiled in second century BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals with Buddha's Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.

Mahāvibhāsa Śāstra Its an early Sanskrit work on Buddhism. Vibhasa means a compendium and has 3 prongs. It is attributed to vasumitra and deals with not only Buddhism but also Vaisheshika and Samkya philosophies.

Lalitavistara In Sanskrit Lalit is a Lotus. Lalitvistara is a Sanskrit text that deals with the biography of Buddha.

Divyavadana Divyavadana means divine tales. It contains anthology in 38 stories and is a sankrit text which deals with Mauryan and Sunga History. The Asokavadana is a story in it which deals with the legends of Asoka.

Udanavarga Udanavarga is an early Buddhist sanskrit text. It has verses attributed to Buddha and his disciples.

Udana Udana is a Pali text included there in the Sutta Pitaka's Khuddaka Nikaya. It contains the story of "Blind men and Elephant".



10 | P a g e

Bodhi Vamsa Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was composed by Upatissa under the rule of Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and many other things which mentioned in Mahavamsa.

Buddhist Scholars The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and conversion of Asoka the Great (304–232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation, he became a Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC. He convened the third Buddhist council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. He launched a vigorous campaign to propagate Buddhism which could be called Asoka’s Dhamma. The main scholars of Buddha are as follows:

Aśvaghosa Aśvaghosa is the Greatest Indian Poet Prior to Kalidasa. he is known as first Sanskrit Dramatist. His epics rivaled the contemporary Ramayana. He wrote Buddhist texts in Classical Sanskrit. He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king Kanishka. His main works are Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and Saundaranandakavya (details the life of Nanda).

Nagarjuna Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism. He was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra. He was born in a Brahmin family in Nagarjunkonda in modern Andhra Pradesh. Due to his birth in Brahmin family and later conversion in Buddhism, it can be justified that his early work was in sanskrit and not in Pali or Hybrid sanskrit. Most important work is Mūlamadhyamakakārikā , which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way. His theory is also known as Shunyavad “emptiness".

Asanga & Vasubandhu Both were half brothers and proponents of Yogachara and Abhidhamma Teachings. They were from modern Peshawar in Pakistan. Most important work of Vasubandhu was Abhidharmamoksha.

Buddhaghosa Buddhaghosa lived the 5th century AD and is known to be one of the greatest Pali scholar. His name means " Voice of Buddha". Considered to be most important commentator of the Theravada. Details of his life have been described in Mahavamsa and Buddhaghosuppatti. Please note Buddhaghosuppatti was not his work. He is said to have gone to Sri Lanka from India's Magadha and settled in Anuradhapura. The most important work is Visuddhimagga.

Dignāga or Dinnaga He is considered to be the founder of Buddhist logic.

Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a scholar at the Nalanda University. Prasannapadā is his main work which means happy words or clear words



11 | P a g e

Dharmakirti Dharmakirti lived in 7th century AD and was primary theorist of Buddhist Sankya. He was a teacher at the Nalanda University and a poet. He has written Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition. He has been called "Kant of India'.

Buddhist Sangeeti or Councils Six Buddhist councils have been convened. Here is a short description:

First Buddhist Council: 400 BC Held soon after the mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, around 400 BC under the patronage of king Ajatshatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgriha, in the Sattapani Cave. The idea was to preserve Buddha's teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples (Vinaya). Ananda , one of the great disciples of Buddha recited Suttas and Upali, another disciple recited Vinaya. Abhidhamma Pitaka was also included.

Second Buddhist Council : 383 BC It was held in 383 BC. This idea of this council was to settle a dispute on Vinaya Pitaka, the code of discipline. The dispute was on 10 Points such as storing salt in horn, eating after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms, eating sour milk after one's meal etc. It was not settles and Buddhism sects appeared for the first time. The subgroups were Sthaviravada, Mahasanghika and Sarvastivada. It was held at Vaishali under the patronage of King Kalasoka and the presidency of Sabakami. Sthaviravada followed the teachings of the elders and Mahasanghika became extinct later. Sthaviravada later continued till 3rd Buddhist council.

Third Buddhist Council: 250 BC Third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra under the patronage of King Asoka and under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. The teachings of Buddha which were under two baskets were now classified in 3 baskets as Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in this council, and they were known as "Tripitaka". It also tried to settle all the disputes of Vinaya Pitaka.

Fourth Buddhist Council: 72AD The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalvana, Kashmir in 72 AD under the patronage of Kushan king Kanishka and the president of this council was Vasumitra, with Aśvaghosa as his deputy. This council distinctly divided the Buddhism into 2 sects Mahayan & Hinayan. Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Tambapanni (one name of Sri Lanka) at Aloka Lena under the patronage of Vattagamani-Abaya. However, most scholars agree that this was not eligible to be called a Council as it was not under a king but a local chieftain. This council is also related to the cruel policy of Vattagamani-Abaya towards Jains, as it is said that a jain premises was destroyed and a Mahayan temple was built.



12 | P a g e

Fifth Buddhist Council: 1871 Fifth Buddhist Council took place in 1871 under the patronage of King Mindon in Mandalay, Burma. It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja, and Sumangalasami. The idea was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them systematically if any of them was dropped or altered.

Sixth Buddhist Council : 1954 The Sixth Buddhist Council was held in 1954 in Burma at Kaba Aye, in Yangoon under the patronage of Burmese Government led by Prime Minister U Nu. Construction of Maha Passana Guha, which is very much similar to India's Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held, was authorized by the government. It was aimed to preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya Pitaka. It held under the presidency of Mahasi Sayadaw and Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa. 500 buddhist scholars from 8 countries participated in this council.

Mahayana and Hinayana A Yana is a vehicle. A Hinayana is a lesser vehicle while a Mahayan is a Great vehicle.

Hinayana: Also called "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the "Defective Vehicle". It believes in the original teaching of Buddha. Don't believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual salvation through self discipline and meditation. Stharvivada or Thervada is a Hinayana sect, which follows the "doctrine of elders". Asoka Patronized Hinayan and Pali the language of masses was use by the Hinayan scholars.

Mahayana: This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol Worship. It is also called Bodhisattva Vehicle. Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from India to China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Zen, Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana. Fundamental principles of Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature. It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. Believes in Mantras.

Major Difference between Hinayana & Mahayana: Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offenses, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sutras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists

Bodhisattva A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in Buddhist art.



13 | P a g e

A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to all who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha. Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as follows:

Avalokiteśvara Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known as Guānshìyīn Púsà , in tibetan as Chenrezig, in Thai as Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. he is depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also. A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.

Manjusri: He is known as Wénshū in Chinse, Jampelyang in Tibetan and is a menifestation of great wisdom and meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand.

Samantabhadra Samantabhadra means Universal Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as Fugen Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the Tendai and Shingon sects. His manifestation is Action and he is key figure in Flower Garland Sutra.

Ksitigarbha Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff. Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are the principal Bodhisattvas of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.

Maitreya Answer of the above question is Maitreya. Maitreya will be successor of Gautama Buddha. He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a "water phial" in his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he will arrive when oceans will decrease in size (that is why keeps a Kumbha or philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land (Varanasi). Budai or Laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who lived during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one of the seven Lucky Gods of Japan.

Vajrapani Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani manifests Buddha's power, Manjusri manifests Buddha's wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha's compassion. In Japan a dharma protector called Nio is also Vajrapani.



14 | P a g e

Sadāparibhūta Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never disparaging” spirit.

Akasagarbha Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He is manifestation of wisdom.

The Trident in Buddhism Images At times the Buddha is presented as part of a trident, a symbol of the TRIRATNA, or Triple Jewels—BUDDHA (the teacher), DHARMA (the Teaching), SANGHA (community)—that constitute the core of the faith.

Important Buddhist Shrines Astamahasthanas

Astamahasthanas are 8 great holy places. 4 are as follows: Lumbini: Birth of Buddha. Bodhgaya: Enlightment of Buddha. Sarnath: First sermon or Dhammachakraparivartan Kushinagar: Death or mahaparinirvana Along with them, Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali are known as Astamahasthanas.

Amaravati Amarawati in Andhrapradesh’s Guntur district is also known as Dhanyakataka or Dharanikota and was the site of a great Buddhist Stupa built in pre-Mauryan times, ruled by Satavahana kings.

Nagarjunkonda Nagarjunkonda is near Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. Once, it was home to more than 30 Buddhist Viharas (Buddhist universities and monasteries), attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Sri Lanka. Nagarjunkonda was one the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the second centuary BC until the third century AD. It was named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist scholar and philosopher, who had migrated here from Amaravati to propagate and spread the Buddha’s message of universal peach and brotherhood. Remains were discovered in 1926 by archaeologist AR Saraswati in 1926.

Ajanta Caves Ajanta Caves are 31 rock cut caves from 2nd to 8th century AD, located in Aurangabad. The first caves called Chaityas were created during Satavahana Dynasty. Cave No. 1 has the painting of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted on the walls.

Angkor Wat Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia. The temple complex was built by Suryavarman II and it was first devoted to Vishnu and later to Buddhist.



15 | P a g e

Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, Uruvela, Sambodhi, Vajrasana and Mahabodhi till 18th century when Bodh Gaya name became popular. It has the Mahabodhi temple and Bodhi tree. It became Unesco world heritage site in 2002.

Bodhi Tree It’s a Pipal Tree (Ficus Religiosa) and known as Bo in Sri Lanka. Located in Bodh Gaya. Under this tree Gautama attained enlightment. The current tree is a descendent of the original tree. There are other Bodhi trees as well viz. Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the Bodhi tree (Bo) or also known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi planted in 288 BC in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka and both of them have been propagated from the original tree. It is also known as oldest living Human Planted tree in the world with a known planting date.

Borobudur Borobudur is located in Indonesia and comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. It’s a world Heritage site. There are 3 Buddhist temples which are known as Borobudur Temple Compounds.

Bamyan Caves: They are located in Afghanistan and have statues represented the classic blended style of Gandhara art of 6th century, They were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world, before they were blown by dyanamite by Taliban in 2001.

Ellora Caves Ellora Caves represent Buddhist, jain and Hindu Rock cut temples built by Rastrakuta Kings. Earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6; most caves of Buddhism are Viharas. Cave number 10 is a Chaitya hall also known as Chandrashala or Vishwkarma Cave and also known as carpenter's cave. At heart of this cave is a 15 ft statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

Pushpagiri University: Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri are the part of the Puspagiri University which flourished till 11th century in Orissa. They lie atop the Langudi hills in Jajpur and Cuttak of Orissa.

Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Somapapuri Vikramshila. Odantapuri & Somapapuri were the Buddhist Viharas founded by Palas.

Chapter 2. Jainism A Jain is a follower of Jina. A Jina is a victor or Conqueror. The Jains are followers of certain ascetics who obtained omniscience and who preached a doctrine, which promises a super mundane bliss of eternal salvation. Jainism originated centuries before Buddhism, but revived by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism. The religion is one of the oldest and actually has no evidence of its dates of origin. The Jain theology says that it is the oldest religion, which has no beginning and no end.



16 | P a g e

Important Tirthankaras A Tirthankara is a founder of a Tirtha. He achieves the enlightment and then shows the path to others. A Tirthankar achieves Moksha or liberation at the end of his human life. There are 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism. The first Tirthankara was Rishabhdev and Last 24th Tirthankara was Mahavira.

Meaning of Tirtha A Tirtha is a religious pilgrim place. Most tirths in India of any religion are based upon the banks of Rivers. A Tirtha in Sanskrit is derived of Tir, which is a bank of river. A Tirtha is a ford or a shallow coastal part of a water body which can be easily crossed. The idea of a Tirtha is to cross the river of human miseries. 20 out of the 24 Jain Tirthankara attained Niravana at Summet Shikhar or Shikharji located near Giridih, in Jharkhand, one of the most sacred places for Jains in the world Vasupujya attained nirvana at Champapuri in north Bengal; Neminatha on Mount Girnar in gujrat; and Mahavira, the last, at Pavapuri near Patna in Bihar.

Rishbhdev Rishbhdev is also known as Rishabh, Adinath, Adishwar or Kesariya Ji. He was born at Ayodhya in the Ikshwaku Kula or clan. In Hinduism he is known to be an avatara or incarnation of Vishnu. The name of Rishabh’s parents has been mentioned in the Bhagvata Purana. His parents were King Nabhi Raja and Queen Marudevi. Two sons of Rishabhdeva are worth mention. One was King Bharata, a Chakravarti Samrata and another is Bahubali. Bharta was the king, after whose name India is called Bharat Varsha. Please note that in Hindu Mythology Bharata is mentioned as son of Dushyanta. However, some sources say that Bharata was eldest of a hundred sons of a saintly king by the name of Rishbhdev. The Jain theology calls Rishabh a Tirthankara and Bharat a King, whose younger brother was Bahubali. Bahubali was Bahu Bali, one with enormous strength in his arms. The mythological stories relate that Bharat wanted to attack on the kingdom of Bahubali and both brothers nearly readied for a war. The minister negotiated and it was decided that the two brother only contest personally through Jal Yuddha, Malla Yuddha and Drishti Yuddha. Bharata struck him first, but when it was Bahubali turn, he respected the elder brother and did not strike him and became a renunciant. Some years later, Bharta won the Meru parvata and hoisted a flag there. However, when he reached the zenith, he found many flags out there. Therefore, he felt insignificance and accepted renunciation. Bahubali is also known as Gomateshwara. There are 5 monolithic statues, all are present in Karnataka, out of which 57 feet at Shravanabelagola in Hassan District was created in 981 AD and his highest. The location of other statues are : Karkala in Udupi District, Dharmasthala in Dakshina Kannada District, Venur in Dakshina Kannada District, Gommatagiri in Mysore District.



17 | P a g e

The Sign of Rishbhdev is a Bull and achieved nirvana on the Kailasa Mountain of the Himalayas as per digambar canons and as per shwetambar canons he achieved nirvana on Ashtapad mount.

Parshvanath Parshva was the son of king Ashvasena and queen Vama of Varanasi. He renounced the world and became an ascetic when he was 30 years old. He achieved Nirvana on the Sammet Sikhar, now named Parshvanatha after him. He has 108 names. He lived in Varanasi around 800 BC. Pārśvanātha is only Jain Tirthankar , always represented with the hood of a nāga shading his head. Two Yakshas viz. Yaksha Dharanendra and the Yakshi Padmavati are often shown flanking him.

Mahavira Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankara, known as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,and Gnatputra in many texts and Arugan or Arugadevan in Tamil texts. He is known as Nigantha Nātaputta in Buddhist Pali Canon. Historial dates assigned to Mahavira are 599-527 BC and he was born in to King Siddartha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra, which is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti and falls in March or Early April. His name was Vardhamana and he despite of being a prince, had exhibited a virtuous nature. He started engaging in meditation and immersed himself in self-contemplation. At the age of 30 he renounced his kingdom and family, gave up his worldly possessions, and spent twelve years as an ascetic. During these twelve years he spent most of his time meditating. He attained the Kevalya Gyan (Omniscience) and devoted the rest of his life to preaching the eternal truth of spiritual freedom to people around India. At the age of 72 years and 4.5 months, he attained Nirvana in the area known as Pawapuri on the last day of the Indian and Jain calendars, Dipavali. Mahavira was married to Yasoda. A daughter was born to Mahavira and Yasoda whose name was Anojja or Priyadarsana. Priyadarsana later married to a nobleman Jamali and became mother of a daughter Sesvati. Now here it is a controversy. The digambar Jain tradition is of the view that Mahavira had never married. He lived a life of an ascetic even as a boy and his parents were alive when he became a monk. The author has placed both the views and has no intention to hurt any Jainism follower.

Concepts related to Jainism Universal Truth or Kevalya Gyana

Jain doctrine is established upon undying, universal truths. As per the Jain Doctrine, during the first and two Aras, the truths lapse among the human beings and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, whose who have reached the Kevalya Gyana.

• Kundagrama where Mahavira was born is located in Muzaffarpur Bihar. • Father of Vardhamana, Siddarth was head of Gyatrika Kshtriyas. • His Mother Trishla was a Licchhavi princess and sister of ruler Chetak. • Chetaka’s daughter later married powerful King of Magadha , Bimbisara. • Mahavira’s Gotra was Kashyapa. • Family of Mahavira was called in Sanskrit Jnatri and in Prakrit Naata. The

male members of the family were called Jnatriputras or Naataputtas. • The most notable text about Mahavira is Kalpasutra by Acharya

Bhadrabahu I. • The first Sanskrit biography of Mahavira was Vardhamacharitra by Asaga



18 | P a g e

Kevalya Gyana or Kevala Nana (in Prakrat) is "absolute knowledge", "Enlightenment" and "Omniscience". It is the highest form of knowledge that a soul can attain. A person who has attained Kevala Gyana is called a Kevalin. To get a status of a Jina, attaining Kevalagyana is required first.

Jain Cosmology & Concept of Universe Mahapurana a great Jainism text, composed by Acharya Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha and completed by his pupil Gunabhadra says that “Some foolish men declare that Creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised, and should be rejected. If god created the world, where was he before creation? If you say he was transcendent then, and needed no support, where is he now?" The Jain cosmology says that world is made up of six Dravyas or substances:

• Jiva:All living substances. • Ajiva: Ajiva includes all Nonliving substances. • Pudagala: This means matter • Dharma-Tattva: This means Principle of Motion • Adharma tattva: This means principle of Rest • Akasa : This means space • Kala : This means time.

Samsāra Samsāra, as per Jain faith is worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and reincarnations in various realms of existence. The mundane existence is full of suffering and misery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksa is the only liberation from Samsāra.

Mahavratas Ahimsa is the fundamental Mahavrata of Jainism. Most Jains are vegetarians and this practice shows their faith in the principle of Ahimsa. Apart from that, there are 5 Mahavratas. Non-violence (Ahimsa) Truth (Satya) Non-stealing (Asteya) Chastity (Brahmacharya) Non-possession/Non-attachment (Aparigraha)

Tri Ratnas Triratnas are Samyak Gyan : means right knowledge Samyak darshana : Means right view Samyak Acharana: Means right conduct.



19 | P a g e

Jain Sects Jain Samgha could not maintain its unity after 200 years of Mahavira’s Parinirvana. It split in Digambar sect and Shwetambar Sect during the Mauryan Era. The Digambar sect observed the tenets of religion strictly and the monks remained naked. Shwetambar sect were liberal and they wore white clothes.

Jain Sangeeti The conferences of Jainism are called Jain Sangeeti. The first jain Sangeeti was convened in 300 BC and this conference was headed by Sthoolbhadra. The second Jain Sangeeti was called in 512 AD and was held in Vallabhi Gujarat. The chairman was Devardhi Kshammaramana.

Jain Symbol Jain Emblem or Jain Symbol was adopted in 1975, at the auspicious occasion of 2500th Nirvana anniversary of Lord Mahavira. This emblem is used in almost all of the Jain magazines, wedding invitation cards, Jain festival cards, and every magazine with links to events related to Jain society. Use of this emblem helps to create a culture showing dedication and trust for the religion and the values that are represented by the emblem. The pic shows the features of the Jain emblem.

Jain Literature Jain Literature is called Jain Agamas. They are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. There are in all 45 texts.

12 Angas 1. Ācāranga sūtra 2. Sūtrakrtanga 3. Sthānānga 4. Samavāyānga 5. Vyākhyāprajñapti or Bhagavati sūtra 6. Jnātrdhārmakathāh 7. Upāsakadaśāh 8. Antakrddaaśāh 9. Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh 10. Praśnavyākaranani 11. Vipākaśruta 12. Drstivāda (This Anga had disappeared by the time second sangeeti was organized in 512 AD.

The remaining Angas were written down in Ardhamagadhi (Jain Prakrit) Language.



20 | P a g e

• 12 Upanga Agams: Upanga Agamas are explanations to Angas • 6 Chedasutras: These are texts related to behavior of Monks and Nuns. • 4 Mūlasūtras: These are texts which provide a base in the earlier stages of the monkhood • 10 Prakīrnaka sūtras: These are texts on Independent or miscellaneous subjects • 2 Cūlikasūtras: These are texts which further enhance or decorate the meaning of Angas

Notable Points Shauraseni and Ardhamagadhi (Jain Prakrit ) (Most ancient): Agamas and sutras, Sanskrit: Tatvartha Sutra of Uma Swati, Jain Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics,

and Nighantus. Apbhramsa: Most of the known Apabhramsha texts are of Jain origin, they include Kahas,

rasas, and grammars Tamil: Tirukural, Cilappatikaram and Jivakachintamani Hindi: Ardha-kathanaka, Chhah-dhala, and Mokshamarga Prakashaka Kannada: Vaddaradhane Gujarati: Bharata-Bahubali Ras (it is considered to be the first Gujarati Book).

Royal Patrons of Jainism Asoka’s Grandson Samprati King Kharvela of Orissa: set up jain rock cut cave. Gangs, Kadambs, Chalukyas, Rastrakutas had patronized Jainism. King Amoghavarsha of Rastrakuta dynasty became a Jain Monk. He wrote Ratnamalika. The Chalukyan period rock cut caves at badami and aihole have the figures of Jain

Tirthankaras. Samatabhadra in Kanchi preached this religion. The Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu were built by Chalukya Dynasty kings between 11 to

13th century.

Other Observations Regarding Jainism The Jain religion professes peace and non-violence and this was the major reason that

mercantile community was attracted towards this religion. Chandragupta Maurya had abdicated his throne towards the end of his life and became an

ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu. He migrated to Karnataka and spent his ending days at sallekhana at Shravanabelagola. Bhadrabahu Cave is the place where he is said to have died by fasting.

Bhadrabahu propagated Jainism in South India. The metaphysical thoughts of Jainism are linked to Samkhya Philosophy. There are five Jain caves at Ellora, which belong to the ninth and tenth centuries and they all

belong to the Digambara sect. Cave 32 at Ellora is called Indra Sabha and it is a Jain Cave.



21 | P a g e

Tiger cave at Udayagiri, and Sittannavasala Cave at Padukottai are Jain caves only. Death through gradual starvation at the end of one's natural life is called 'Santhara'. Among

Jains it is a means to attain salvation and not suicide. The Jains profess a vast difference between suicide and Santhara. Suicide is committed in a fit of anger or depression while the decision to observe Santhara is taken with a calm mind.

Neminath or Arishtnemi was a Jain Tirthankar who was considered to be a kinsman of Lord Krishna.

11 close disciples of Mahavira are called Ganadhara. The Jain Samgha was made up of 11 Ganadharas.

Virasena, Mahaviracharya, Hemachandra and Mahendra Suri were well known Jain Mathematicians.

4 Sankalpas viz. Satya, Ahimsa, Astey and Aparigraha were adopted and preached by Parshvanth.

It took 12 year of Mahavir to attain Kevalya Gyan after a rigorous Tapascharya. Vardhaman rejected Vedic gods and Vedic Religion. Tapascharya means as per jain “Kaya Klesh” the rigorous mortification, and it leads to

salvation.

Chapter 3. Sixteen Mahajanapadas In the 6th century BC, there existed 16 large states in India, which are known as 16 Mahajanapadas. They are Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vriji, Malla, Chedi or Cheti, Vamsa or Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha or Matsya, Surasena, Assaka or Ashmaka , Avanti, Gandhara & Kamboja. The names of at least 9 among them are given in the Vedic Literature. Panini in the 4th century BC mentions as many as 22 different Janpadas, but also mentions 3 most important viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa. The society in Vedic period was rural, where smallest political unit was a Vis. However, some later Vedic texts detail about the Janpadas such as Kuru, Panchala, Matysa, Kunti, Kikata, Jayminia, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Kamboja etc. The rise of Janpadas is mainly attributed to the establishment of



22 | P a g e

settled agriculture communities. The development of an agriculture based economy led to increase in crops and cattle wealth coupled with use of iron in technology. The society was now totally divided into 4 Varnas. Based upon occupation, new labour class and landed classes emerged. The landed class was known as Gahapatis. The trade flourished and the towns, which were either located on trade routes such as Mathura or located, near the banks of rivers such as Magadha developed. This transition also saw an emergence of taxing, standing army, territorial powers etc. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are as follows:

Kasi Its Capital was Banaras. Kasi was located on the confluence of Ganga and Gomti rivers and somewhere around today’s Varanasi.

Kosala Its capital was Shravasti. Kosala was located in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It covers today’s districts Faizabad, Gonda, Bhahraich etc. and was bordered by River Gomti on the west, River Sadaniva in the east, Nepal hills in the north and River Syandika in the South.

Anga Its Capital was Champa. It covered the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar It was later annexed to Magadha by Bimbisar. Magadh was on its west and Raja Mahal hills on the west.

Magadha Its capital of Girivraja or Rajgriha. It covered the modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Shahabad of Bihar. It was bordered by River Son non North and Ganga on South.

Vajji or Vriji Its capital was Vaishali. It was located on the north of River Ganga in Bihar. The seat of 8 smaller clans / kingdoms called “Athakula” out of which Lichhavais, Janatriks, Videhas were very important. It was separated from Kosala from river Gandak.

Malla Its Capital was Kushinagar, Pawa. It covered the modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Chedi or Cheti It was located in the Bundelkhand division of Madhya Pradesh regions to the south of river Yamuna and along river Betwa or Vetravati. Its capital was Suktimati or Sotthivati located somewhere near Banda in Uttar Pradesh.

Vatsa Its capital was Kausambi. It covered the modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.



23 | P a g e

Kuru Its Capital was Indraprastha / Hastinapur / Isukara. It covered the modern Haryana & Delhi-Meerut-Ghaziabad region. Its eastern border was River Yamuna.

Panchala Its Capital was Its capital were Ahichhtra (Western Panchal) and Kampilya (eastern Panchala). It covered modern day Rohilkhand division & Upper Gangetic Plains of today’s Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand.

Matsya Its Capital was Viratnagar. It was located in the Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur districts of Rajasthan.

Surasena Its Capital was Mathura. It was located on the junction of Uttarpatha and Dakshinpatha around Mathura of Today.

Assaka Its capital was Potali, Potana or Podana. Located on the banks of the Godavari River. Its capital was Potali, Potana or Podana, which now lies in the Nandura Tehsil, Buldana district in the Indian state of Maharashtra and it was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range, and was in Dakshinapatha

Avanti Its capital was Ujjain & Mahismati. Located on present day Malwa region. It was divided into two parts by the Vindhyas, the northern part had its capital at Ujjayini and the southern part had its centre at Mahishmati.

Gandhara Its capital was Taxila. Covered the regions between Kabul and Rawalipindi in North Western Provinces, Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River.

Kamboja Its capital Rajpur. It was located around Punchh area of Kashmir.

Chapter 4. Magadha Empire Most powerful of all the Mahajanapadas was Magadha. Magadha was located near today’s Patna & Gaya. The first notable thing about Magadha was its geographical location which gave its rulers a locational advantage to acquire more and more power. Magadha was located between Ganga River in North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and Champa in East. The three sides protected the territory and it was not easy for any invader to invade Magadha so easily. The earliest capital of Magadha was Girivraja.

Brihadrath Dynasty The earliest known king of Magadha is Brihadrath. Name of Brihadrath appears in Rig-Veda (I.36.18, X.49.6). Magadha is mentioned in Atharvaveda. The puranic sources say that Brihadrath



24 | P a g e

was the eldest son of Vasu. According to Ramayana, Vasu founded Vasumati and Grivraja. Brihadrath founded the Brihadrath dynasty. His son was Jarasandha. Name of Jarasandha appears in Mahabharta and Puranas many times. Jarasandha was inimical to Yadavas and that is why he is mentioned as a villain in the Mahabharat. Jarasandha was a powerful king and a devotee of Shiva who at the time of his birth was in two pieces of human body born to two wives of Brihadrath. These two pieces were thrown into the forest on the order of Brihadrath. In the Forest, a Rakshashi known as Jara found these two pieces. When she joined them, they became one and thus the name Jarasandha (one who was joined by Jara was given). In the Mahabharta war, Jarasandha was killed by Bhima. The time period assigned to Jarasandha is approximately 1760 BC. Sahadev who also was killed in the epic war of Mahabharta succeeded him. The Brihadrath Dynasty ended approximately 8th century BC.

Pradyota dynasty Brihadrath dynasty was taken over by the Pradyota dynasty, which ruled Magadha for 138 years. Pradyota dynasty kings used to kill their fathers as a tradition to become kings. So patricide was common in Magadha.

Haranyaka Dynasty People get annoyed by this bloody tradition of patricide and civil revolt uprooted the Pradyota dynasty. The Buddhacharita by Aśvaghosa mentions that it was Bimbisara of the Haranyaka Dynasty, which succeeded the Pradyota dynasty.

Bimbisara Bimbisara was the first great king of the Haranyaka Dynasty. Bimbisara was the most remarkable king of the pre Mauryan dynasties of Magadha. He used the policy of marital alliances to expand his kingdom, a tradition which was not yet seen in any dynasty. He also used a policy of sending envoys to strengthen the bilateral relationships. Bimbisara had 4 wives. These wives were a result of Bimbisara’s Policy of dynastic alliances. His chief queen was Khema. The 4 queen of Bimbisara were Kosaladevi, sister of Pasendi or Prasenjit of Aiksvaka dynasty. Kashi was given to Bimbisara as a dowry gift in his marriage with Kosaladevi. Chellena the daughter of Cetaka or Chetaka, the Licchhavi King of Vaishali who was brother of Trishla, mother of Mahavira. Khema or Kshema was daughter of Madra King of Punjab. Vaidehi was daughter of Videha King. This proves that Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom. For example Kosaladevi brought Kasi under his rule, however, Kashi later became the cause of hostility between his son Ajatshatru and his brother in law Pasendi. Bimbisara was great in military skills as well. He defeated Brahamdatta of Anga and annexed Anga in Magadha. Further territories were also were annexed to Magadha by Bimbisara.

Religion of Bimbisara Both Traditions (Jainism and Buddhism) call him as their followers. Bimbisara was contemporary of both Mahavira and Buddha. The Jain texts mention that he was a disciple of Lord Mahavira.



25 | P a g e

The Buddhist texts mention that he met Buddha before enlightment. Buddha promised him to visit his capital after he gets enlightment. He was a patron of Buddha and as a mark of goodwill; he presented the Bamboo Grove (karanda venu vana) to the Sangha. However, Bimbisara’s life ended with a tragedy. He was imprisoned by his son Ajatshatru who starved him to death. So, like many of predecessor kings he was also a victim of patricide. In Bimbisara, we find a very efficient politician who had a clear vision of the political situation at his time. His success is attributed largely to the matrimonial alliances he made. He was known as Shrenik as per the Jain texts, which means that he had a large standing army. He is supposed to be one of the first kings to have a large standing army. After becoming a king at the age of 15 years, he not only expanded the empire but also patronized both the rising religions at that time. His success was also due to the efficient administration machinery, in which the Rajbhats or Mahamattas i.e. Royal officers were divided into many classes.

Ajatshatru The period assigned to Ajatshatru’s rule is 491 BC to 461 BC. He was son of Bimbisara’s wife Vaidehi so; the Buddhist texts mention his name as Vaidehi Putra Ajatshatru. Ajatshatru was NOT the only son of Bimbisara. There were many sons and daughters from his all wives but Ajatshatru proved to be dominant. He killed his father by starving him to death; this is what Buddhist traditions say. However, Jaina texts say that he was not involved in patricide. However, most scholars agree that he ended the life of his father. The Buddhist texts related that he after starving his father to death, expressed remorse in front of Buddha, who said him, “Go and no sin more…..”. He was instigated for this crime by Devadatta. Devadatta was a distant cousin of Buddha who wanted to usurp Sangha. The killing of Bimbisara brought enmity between Ajatshatru and Pasendi, the king of Kosala. His sister Kosaladevi died of shock of his husband’s tragic end. Pasendi immediately confiscated Kashi, which was given as a gift to Kosaladevi in marriage. Kasi remained a disputed territory between Pasendi and Ajatshatru for a long time. The dispute was later solved and result was in favour of Ajatshatru, who not only absorbed Kasi to his kingdom Magadha but also got daughter of Pasendi named Vajira. Ajatshatru expanded his territories by fighting a war with Licchhavis also. There were many reasons for his enmity towards the Licchhavis such as his half bothers were sheltered by Licchhavis, trade on the banks of river Ganga, a mine of gems near Ganga and most important the rising power of Licchhavis, which Ajatshatru wanted to destroy. The war / struggle continued for 16 years and ended in favor of Ajatshatru who absorbed the Licchhavis in his empire.

Mahshilakantaka & Rathamusala Mahshilakantaka & Rathamusala were two war equipments used (invented) by Ajatshatru against Licchhavis. The Mahshilakantaka was an engine kind of equipment which ejected big stones. The



26 | P a g e

Rathamusala was a Chariot which a musala (mace or blade) attached at both sides of chariot which when ran, caused a lot of casualties. It was also known as scythed chariot, which was invented by Ajatshatru. During the times of Ajatshatru, both Buddha and Mahavira attained Nirvana. Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path also attained Nirvana during the time of Ajatshatru.

Ajatshatru and First Buddhist Council Ajatshatru shared the relics of Buddha and enshrined them in a stupa. He also renovated 18 Buddhist Monasteries. Immediately after the death of Buddha, Ajatshatru sponsored the First Buddhist Council, which was organized in a hall erected by him outside the Sattaparnaguha Cave or Sattapani caves in Rajgir. This meeting was presided by Elder Mahakassapa. In this council Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka and Upali recited Vinaya Pitaka.

Legacy of Ajatshatru Ajatshatru built a fort at Pataliputra and so is known as founder of Patna. Many texts mention that is son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city. It is said that Under Udayin Pataliputra became prosperous city which later became world’s largest city under Mauryas. .

End of Haranyaka Dynasty Ajatshatru faced the same fate as his father. He was killed by his son Udayin. Not only these remarkable kings of the Haranyaka Dynasty were victims of Patricide, but also later kings shared the same fate. Udayin was succeeded by Anuruddha by Assassination, his son Munda & his son Nagdasaka also shared the same fate. This dynastic feuding triggered a revolt and the people thrown these Haranyaka Dynasty rule and imposed Shishunaga as ruler. This was the foundation of Shishunaga Dynasty.

Shishunaga Dynasty Shishunaga was the founder of this dynasty. He was an amatya / officer / governor of the last Haranyaka ruler Nagdasaka. After this coup d’état, Shishunaga made Grivraja his residence and deputed his son to Banaras. Shishunaga was succeeded by Kalasoka. During Kalasoka, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha. In Purana, he is mentioned as Kakavarna and in Sri Lankan texts he is mentioned as Kalasoka.

Kalasoka & Second Buddhist Council Kalasoka at Vaishali sponsored the second Buddhist Council in 383 BC. A Buddhist monk Yasa, who saw the local monks of Vaishali following the teaching laxily, invited this council. The dispute was on 10 Points such as storing salt in horn, eating after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms, eating sour milk after one's meal etc. It was not settleed and Buddhism sects appeared for the first time. President of this council was Sabakami. The last rulers of Shishunaga Dynasty were 10 sons of Kalasoka who ruled simultaneously. Out of them one son Nandivardhana is mentioned in Puranas.



27 | P a g e

Nanda Dynasty Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty. There are several theories about the birth of Mahapadmananda. The Purana theory say that Mahapadmananda was son of Nandivardhana & a Shudra Woman. Another theory says that there was a good-looking barber, who won the heart of a queen who subsequently killed the king. Thus, Mahapadmananda was a son of this barber. Whatever may be correct but this was the line which started the trend of lowborn (as of contemporary conditions) rule started in Magadha.

The Nandas were the first Non Kshatriya rulers in the history of India. They were also the first Empire Builders in the recorded history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas was consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000 (or 8,000) war chariots and 3,000 (or 6,000) war elephants. Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years. The last ruler was Dhanananda who was over thrown by Chandragupta Maurya thus founding Mauryan Empire in 321 BC.

Invasion of Alexander Alexander, the great invaded India in 326 BC during the rule of Dhanananda. Dhanananda is mentioned as Xandrames or Aggrammes or Ganderites in the Greek historical texts. These texts mention that crossing the Beas was the last outpost of Alexander’s army which was insisted by Alexander to cross Ganga as well. But by hearing that Dhanananda was waiting for them with 200, 000 army they were frightened and revolted and thus Alexander’s army turned back. Alexander began his homeward journey in 325 BC and in 324 BC he died in Persia.

Chapter 5. The Maurya Empire After Alexander's invasion, India particularly North West region was in a state of ferment as the people from this region tolerated the blows of the repetitive foreign invasions. On the other side, the Nandas were not popular because of its covetousness and greed leading to financial extortions by Dhanananda. These conditions were offering excellent opportunities for somebody to ride the wave of popular discontent to overthrow the unpopular

Meaning of Mahapadmananda Mahapadmananda had a large army and that is why he is called Ugrasena. His army might have been so large that it could be arranged in a Lotus shape : Padmavyuh He might have been so wealthy that his wealth was in Padama, a unit of counting equivalent to a million multiplied by a billion. Mahapadmananda subdued all the major powers such as Ikasvakus, Kurus, Panchals, Kasis, Surasens, Maithilas, kalingas, Asmakas etc. and that is why Puranas mention is name : Sarvakhstrantaka. (destroyer of all Kshtras) equivalent to Parshurama.



28 | P a g e

rule. Chandragupta Maurya was that hero, who tried his luck and due to his efforts coupled with his spirit & boldness, India was politically united for the first time in thousands of years.

Chandragupta Maurya The Purana account says that Chandragupta was a son of last Nanda Monarch Dhanananda from his Shudra concubine Mura and that is why is name is Maurya. This account has been rejected as well as accepted by many scholars and has been quite controversial.

As per the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Chandragupta was a scion of Moriya Clan, which was branch of Sakyas Khatriyas. These Kshatriyas had received a share in the relics of Buddha. Some other traditions link his ancestry to peacock tamers. So there is no single theory about the ancestry of Chandragupta. One thing on which all scholars agree is that he was from a “humble” background. He is mentioned in the Greek texts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos and Androcottus. Chandragupta is said to have served the Nanda Army as a General or Senapati in one of the theories. He, instigated by Vishnugupta or Chanakya revolted against his master but his revolt failed. Dhanananda insulted Vishnugupta, a Brahmin by breaching a social etiquette. When the revolt failed, both of them fled to safety. The Mahavamsa writes that Chandragupta while concealed in a woman's hut overheard the woman scolding her child, who in the act of eating had burnt his fingers by beginning from the center of the bread. She scolded the child and taught him that hot bread should not be touched from the center and it should be broken in pieces from the corners. Chandragupta learnt from this story and transferred himself to the North West. Traditional accounts also mention a story, that Vishnugupta was a teacher at the Taxila University. He found one day that Chandragupta was playing with children and he delivered justice among the boys, one of who was acting a criminal. Vishnugupta was impressed by his sense of justice. He took the boy to the king, who impressed by his intelligence ordered to be trained at Taxila University. Nevertheless, in the same event the king insulted Chanakya by breaching the etiquette and forced him out. To take revenge Chanakya groomed the young Chandragupta at Taxila University. Some scholars say that he met Alexander when he was a young boy. First of all, Chandragupta liberated North east from the Greek Governors and Satraps who were appointed by Alexander. Alexander’s death provided Chandragupta an opportunity to give a death blow to the Greek Rule in parts of India. After that he focused his attention on Magadha. Chanakya through diplomacy aligned Chandragupta with a neighbouring king Parvataka and the combined army dethroned the Nandas and seized the Magadha. Nandas were spared their life and let run with as much treasure as much a chariot can carry.



29 | P a g e

War with Selucus: After death of Alexander, Seleucus, one of the generals of Alexander; became his successor. He launched a campaign against India in 304 BC to recapture the territories won by Alexander. He crossed Indus but his mission failed and an alliance with Chandragupta ended the mission. By this treaty, Seleucus returned the Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade (Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia (Baluchistan) to Chandragupta. The alliance was cemented by Chandragupta. Following were the acts that cemented the ties:

• Chandragupta gave 500 war elephants to Selucus. • Seleucus sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta’s Court.

Possibly, there was a marital alliance in which son/ daughter of one was married to daughter / son of other. We know about Chandragupta’s empire from the rock edicts and inscriptions of Asoka and other rulers. The Girnar Rock Inscription gives an indication that his empire was expanded to the borders of modern Gujarat & Saurastra. In south India we find Asoka’s inscriptions and edicts, however, there are no evidences that Asoka or Bindusara conquered these areas. However, some sources say that Bindusara won the southern areas. Therefore, scholars agree that either Chandragupta or Bindusara conquered the parts of South India.

Later Life of Chandragupta In the later years of his life Chandragupta abdicated his throne in favour of his son Bimbisara. He became a disciple of Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint. He is believed to have spent his last years at Shravanabelagola. He is believed to have died by practicing Santhara at the Bhadrabahu Cave near Shravanabelagola.

Chanakya Vishnugupta, Kautilya are other names of Chanakya. He was born around 350 BC and is known for his being the chief architect of Mauryan Empire and writing the pioneering work in the Economics and Political Science that is Arthashstra. He is known as Indian Machiavelli in the western world, which is wrong in the sense that Chanakya worked two millenniums earlier than Machiavelli. Chanka was his father's name and Kotil was his Gotra explaining his two names. Chanakya was identified with Vishnugupta in a verse in his Arthashstra and also in Panchatantra of Gupta age by Vishnu Sharma. Mudrarakshasha of Vishakhadatta mentions that he was Dravid. Pali texts say that he was a Brahmin from Taxila. Strabo (a Greek Geographer) gives him the name Palibrothus.

• In Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta, he has been depicted by names Piyadamus, Vrishal, Chandrasiri & Kulihin.

• In Mudrarakshasa , Chandragupta has been depicted as a weak insignificant young man and Chanakya being the real ruler.



30 | P a g e

Historian Sir Thomas R. Trautmann has mentioned that Chanakya was born with a complete set of teeth, which gave a sign that he would become a King. However, his teeth were broken so he would rule through someone else. Chanakya mixed poison to the food eaten by Chandragupta Maurya, now king, in order to make him immune. Unaware, Chandragupta feeds some of his food to his queen, who is in her ninth month of pregnancy. In order to save the heir to the throne, Chānakya cut the queen open and extracts the foetus, who is named Bindusara because he was touched by a drop (bindu) of blood having poison. Arthashstra Kautilya’s Arthashastra was one of the great political books of the ancient world. Max Weber recognized it as "truly radical 'Machiavellianism", however it is wrong because Machiavelli’s The Price (Il Principe) was published in the 16th century, while Kautilya wrote Arthashstra long before birth of Jesus Christ. Despite of this Arthashstra is little known outside India. Arthashstra is divided into 15 books: 1. Concerning Discipline 2. The Duties of Government Superintendents 3. Concerning Law 4. The Removal of Thorns 5. The Conduct of Courtiers 6. The Source of Sovereign States 7. The End of the Six-Fold Policy 8. Concerning Vices and Calamities 9. The Work of an Invader 10. Relating to War 11. The Conduct of Corporations 12. Concerning a Powerful Enemy 13. Strategic Means to Capture a Fortress 14. Secret Means 15. The Plan of a Treatise

These 15 books though tagged as theoretical by many scholars, have been accepted as a source to describe the Mauryan Administration.

Bindusara His son Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta. His other name is Amitraghata which means destroyer of foes. The Greek scholars write him as “Amitrachates” or “Allitrochates”. Chanakya served as Prime Minister of Bindusara for some years. Later, Khallataka became his prime minister. During the initial years of his reign Bindusara subdued a revolt in Taxila & Avanti. At Avanti, he sent his son Asoka, the fearsome general and a great warrior right from his childhood to subdue the revolt. Bindusara had good foreign relations. He was friendly with the Greek King Antiochos-I and



31 | P a g e

asked him to send sweet wine, figs and a philosopher. The two things were sent but third "a philosopher" was not sent as the land of the law at Greece did not permit. Deimachos was a Syrian ambassador who came in the court of Bindusara.Bindusara ruled for approximately 25-26 years and his succession was disputed which ultimately gave India a great king called Asoka.

The Reign of Asoka Ashokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts represent Asoka as “wading through a pool of Blood” quoting that he terminated all 99 of his brothers except his uterine brother Tisya. The scholars have disputed this. For example, Rock Edict V of Asoka mentions about his brothers. It may be a falsified version of his bravery by the Buddhist monks who might have been interested in dark background of Asoka, who became the gentlest king after his conversion. The Buddhist texts mention his mother’s name as Subhadrangi. His first wife was a princess of Ujjaini called Devi or Vedisa. His two other wives were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. Asoka’s only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was born to Karuvaki. The name of Karuvaki and Tivara are mentioned in Queen’s edict.

Conquest of Kalinga Conquest of Kalinga is mentioned in Inscriptions. Kalinga was modern Orissa. Asoka’s coronation took place in 269-68 BC and eight years after his coronation he campaigned for Kalinga. Conquest of Kalinga took place in 9th year of Asoka’s reign. Its worth note that the Mauryan Empire was probably in friendly terms with the southern kings such as Cholas and Pandyas. Kalinga was strategically located in the heart of his territory and that is why his campaign to Kalinga was strategically important. Once Kalinga was won, there was no much need to win over further territories. The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It mentions that hundred and fifty thousand people were displaced, hundred thousand people were killed and many hundred thousands perished. The vivid description of Kalinga war is given in 13th Rock Edict. After the war of Kalinga Asoka realized the gravity of war and the event had a profound impact on his mind. He vowed to never wage such war and also directed his sons and grandsons. The 13th Rock edict mentions Asoka’s remorse after the war and his changed attitude from Dig-vajay to Dhammavijay. Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign after winning Kalinga. Nigrodha, a boy monk, inspired him. Later, he met Moggaliputta Tissa, who ultimately become his mentor. Later his brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also adopted Buddhism.

Asoka’s Names & Titles • Only inscriptions in the Maski edicts refer his name as Asoka. • Puranas refer his name as Ashokavardhana • Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions him as Asoka Maurya. • In Babhru Inscription he refers himself as Piyadassi laja Magadhe

(Piyadassi, King of Magadha). • He assumes two titles Devanampiya and Piyadassi in his inscriptions. • Devanampriya Priyadarsi, Dhammarakhit, Dharmarajika,

Dhammarajika, Dhammaradnya, Chakravartin, Samrat, Radnyashreshtha, Magadhrajshretha, Magadharajan, Bhupatin, Mauryaraja, Aryashok, Dharmashok, Dhammashok, Asokvadhhan , Ashokavardhan, Prajapita,Dhammanayak, Dharmanayak all are his titles.



32 | P a g e

Asoka and Third Buddhist Council: Asoka sponsored the third Buddhist Council in 250 BC. This council was held at Pataliputra. It was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in this council.

Asoka’s Edicts & Inscriptions The Edicts of Asoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Asoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Asoka during his reign from 272 to 231 BC dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan, Nepal and India. The first tangible evidence of Buddhism is represented by the rock and pillar edicts of Asoka detailing wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. These edicts mention that Buddhism reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created in a wide area. Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism. In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" and "King Piyadassi."

Language and Scripts of the Inscriptions Three languages have been used viz. Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. 4 scripts have been used Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi. Rest written in Greek or Aramaic. The Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual. The inscriptions found in Pakistan area are in kharoshthi script. The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharoshthi script, one extract of Edict 13 in the Greek language, and one bilingual edict written in Greek and Aramaic. British archeologist and historian James Prinsep decoded these edicts. Major themes are Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.

Stone Material for Pillars The spotted and white sandstone was sourced from Mathura. Buff colored Sandstone and Quartzite was sourced from Amravati.

Major Rock Edicts • Major Rock Edict I: Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive gatherings and killings of

animals. Only two peacocks and one deer were killed in Ashoka’s kitchen. He wished to discontinue this practice of killing two peacocks and one deer as well.

• Major Rock Edict II : Provides for care for man and animals, describes about Chola, Pandyas , Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India

• Major Rock Edict III: Generosity to Brahmans. Issued after 12 years of Ashoka’s coronation. It says that the Yuktas (subordinate officers and Pradesikas (district Heads) along with



33 | P a g e

Rajukas (Rural officers ) shall go to the all areas of kingdom every five years and spread the Dhamma Policy of Asoka.

• Major Rock Edict IV: Dhammaghosa is ideal to the mankind and not the Bherighosa. Impact of Dhamma on society.

• Major Rock Edict V: Concerns about the policy towards slaves. He mentions in this rock edict “ Every Human is my child…”Appointment of Dhammamahamatras is mentioned in this edict.

• Major Rock Edict VI: Describes King’s desire to get informed about the conditions of the people constantly. Talks about welfare measures.

• Major Rock Edict VII: Requests tolerance for all religions • Major Rock Edict VIII: Describes Asoka’s first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya & Bodhi Tree. • Major Rock Edict IX: Condemns popular ceremonies. Stress in ceremonies of Dhamma. • Major Rock Edict X: Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on popularity of

Dhamma. • Major Rock Edict XI: Elaborates Dhamma • Major Rock Edict XII: Directed and determined request for tolerance among different

religious sects. • Major Rock Edict XIII: Asoka’s victory over Kalinga . Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek

Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is the Largest Edict. It mentions Kamboj, nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra etc.

• Major Rock Edict XIV: Describes engraving of inscriptions in different parts of country.

Separate Edicts They were found at sites in Kalinga

• Separate edict I : Asoka declared all people are my sons • Separate Edict II : proclamation of edicts even to a single person. • Other Edicts • Queen Edict : mentions about second queen of Asoka • Barbara cave Inscription: giving away the Barbara cave to Ajivika sect • Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Expresses satisfaction over asoka’s policy

Pillar Edicts Asoka’s 7 pillar edicts have been found at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli. Minor pillar edicts have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Rummindei, Nigalisagar.

• Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people • Pillar Edict II: Defines dhamma as minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality,

truthfulness and purity • Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride etc



34 | P a g e

• Pilar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas • Pilar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and another

list of animals which have not to be killed at all occasions. Describes release of 25 prisionars by asoka.

• Pilar Edict VI: Dhamma Policy • Pilar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma Policy . He says that all sects desire both

self control and purity of mind.

Other Pillars • Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asoka’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax. • Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: It was originally located at Kapilvastu. It mentions that Asoka

increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.

Asoka’s Dharma In the Bhabru edict Asoka says that he has full faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma. But he never forced his ideal on people. The Pillar Edict II says:

Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti? Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace, socaye. The meaning is: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. In his Pillar Edict VII, he says that all sects desire both self control and purity of mind. In the Major Rock Edict XII, he directed and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects. He says that he honors all sects and both laymen and monks. We can say that Asoka’s Dhamma is a moral code of ethics. Asoka propagated his Dhamma with zeal and earnestness of a missioanry. He mentions in Minor Rock Edict I that as a result of his efforts for 1 year (or more) "Human beings who were unmixed were cause to be mixed with Gods throughout Jambudweepa. This was because of his well planned measures such as celestial Chariots (Vimana), luminous balls of Fire (used for showing light in nights) and elephants. Asoka abandoned the pleasure tours (vihara yatras) and hunting.

Death of Asoka and Decline of Maurya Empire Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. His policy of ahimsa partially contributed to the decline of Maurya Empire. None of the successors of Asoka rose to his status. His only son who was named in edicts was Tivara and there is a possibility that he died before his father's death as not much is heard about him later. Jaluka was one of his sons who is mentioned in Rajtarangini of Kalhana and became independent ruler of Kashmir. Kunala is said to have reigned for 8 years but in southern traditions he is mentioned as a blinded person. Ashokvadana says that Asoka was compelled to abdicate his throne in favor of his Grandson Samprati who was son of blind Kunala. Samprati was a great patron of Jainism with his seat was at Ujjain. Another grandson Dasaratha is mentioned in Vayupurana & Matsya purana, who has been testified by scholars. It is possible that the empire was partitioned into eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha getting eastern and Samprati getting western parts.



35 | P a g e

In the last module of history, we studied about various kings of the Mauryan Empire. The strength and influence of Mauryan Empire declined so dramatically after Asoka that after Asoka, 6 rulers of the same dynasty could rule only for 52 years. The last ruler of the Maurya Dynasty was Brihadrath who around 185-184 BC was killed by his own Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga and thus a new “Shung Dynasty” started.

Reason of Decline of Maurya Empire There are several reasons of declining of the Mauryan Dynasty. Some of them are as follows:

Immediately after the death of Asoka, the Mauryan dynasty was partitioned into two parts viz. east and west. This partition disturbed the unity of the empire.

The successors of Asoka were weak rulers and they appeared to not been able to handle the highly centralized tradition of domestic policy of the early Mauryas.

Some scholars say that pious policy of Asoka was responsible to the decline of the empire as it undermined the strength of the empire. Some scholars contradict this theory because Asoka only left policy of annexation but never dissolved or weakened his army.

Some scholars say that a Brahminical revolution was a reason of decline; however it is not accepted because Asoka, though patronized Buddhism, but never forced his religion on others.

Some scholars say that there was a pressure on Mauryan economy, which is evident from the low quality punch marked coins in the later Maurya period. However, this idea is not adopted because foreign accounts give details of a flourished economy.

Some scholars such as Romila Thapar say that Mauryan administration was highly centralized and only a prudent ruler could handle this machinery.

Some scholars hold the oppressive policy of the later Mauryan for decline of the empire. Whatever may be the reason, one thing is clear that Maurya Administration was Highly

centralized administration. Political, Social and Economical Life during Mauryas

King was the supreme source of all powers and was center of all authorities, judiciary and administration. The Mauryan Administration was highly centralized and King used to select ministers, high official. A well-planned system of supervision and inspection was there in the Mauryan Administration. The normal administrative machinery was as follows:

Mantriparishada The King was assisted by the council of Ministersor Mantriparishahda. The mantriparishadadhyakshya was head of the

King

Viceroys

Council of Ministers

Heads of Departments

Subordinate Civil Service

Rural Officers



36 | P a g e

Council of Ministers akin to our Chief Ministers and Prime Minister. Composition of

Mantriparishada was as follows:

The Adhyakshas or the Bureaucrates The second book of Kautilya Arthashastra (The Duties of Government Superintendents) or Adyakshaprachara contemplates a ubiquitous bureaucracy, which keeps in touch with all sections of the society. These superintendents were called Adhyakshas. Adhyakshas composed a highly skilled secretariat, divided into several departments. These departments and their superintendents are listed as below:

Akahalapadhyksha (Accountant General ) Sannidhata (Royal Treasury) Koshthagara (Treasury Superitendent) ) Akaraadhyaksha (Mines Superitendent) ) Suvarnaadhyaksha (Gold Superitendent) Panyaadhksha (Commerce Superitendent) Kupyadhyaksha (Forest Officer) Lavanadhyaksha (Salt ) Ayudhgaraadhyaksha (Armoury) Tulamanapantavaadhyaksha or Pautavadhyaskh (Weights and Measurements) Sutraadhyaksha (Textiles - spinning and weaving) Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture) Suradhyaksha (Excise) Navadhyasksha (Shipping and maritime) Mudradhyaksha (Government documents) Pattanadhyaskha (Ports) Lakshanaadhyaskha (Mint) Samstha (Trade Routes )

Mantriparishadaddhyaksha

Purohita (High Priest)

Senapati (Commander in Chief )

Yuvraj (Heir Apparent)

Amatyas Civil Servants



37 | P a g e

Other departments

The Gudhapurusha or Spies There was a well knitted espionage system in the Mauryan administration. The detectives were known as Gudhapurushas. As per the Arthashastra, there were two kinds of spies viz. Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). These spies were ears and eyes of the King, who kept the king informed about all the details of the bureaucracy. The agents included householders, merchants, disciples, ascetics, poisioners, Poisonous girls which were called “Vishkanyas”. The ambassadors who were appointed in the foreign countries were also sort of spies.

The Army: The overall in charge of the Mauryan army was Commander in chief, who was immediately junior to the King. He was appointed by the king. The army included 6 Lakh infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 war elephants, 1000 chariots and other things such as transport equipments. There was a War Council, which was further divided into 6 sub-councils each with 5 members which formulated policy for infantry, cavalry, elephant forces, chariots, navy and commiserate. Navy, Transport in forces and commiserate were Mauryan innovations.

Transport There was a separate department of road. The width of the cattle tracks, pedestrians, chariots and other traffic were different. There were trunk roads which were managed by the department of Roads. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads. Inns were constructed at places on the road. Nurseries and drinking water facilities such as wells, canals were provided

The Agriculture: Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department. There was full-fledged irrigation department as well. There was a network of canals which provided the water for irrigation as per the measurements of the land i.e. requirements. Pushyagupta, who was a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya, constructed “Sudarshan Lake” at Girnar in Gujarat. Rice of different verities was grown, Kondrava was a kind of coarse grain. Wheat, Pulses, Saffron, Mustard, Linseed, Sesamum etc. were grown.

The Caste System and slaves There was a well-developed “caste” system as per the accounts of Megasthenes. Megasthenes writes that there were 7 castes viz. philosophers (he indicated Brahmins), farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, craftsmen, magistrates and soldiers. So based upon the account we can figure out that the caste system was based upon “occupation” rather than birth. The marriage and polygamy both were present. Polygamy was confined to Royal classes. Normal people could marry to other women if there was no “son”. The women had their property in the form of Stridhana, which included bridal gift. Women enjoyed high status. The women were appointed as assistances and bodyguards of King. Offenses against women were punishable. There was no slavery in the sense



38 | P a g e

that people used to work as dasa, out of their own compulsions. No Arya including a Shudra could be made dasa forcibly. The 14th book of Arthashastra titiled Secret Means (Aupanisadika) deals with a number of rites and practices.

The Mauryan Art The age of Mauryas is known to have contributed to arts significantly. The palace of Chandragupta Maurya at the Pataliputra was mostly made up of wood. The traces of this palace have been found at Kumhrar near Patna. It’s an 80-pillar hall, which speaks of Mauryan Palace art. A large number of Stupas were built in Mauryan Era, many of them by Asoka. The Buddhist tradition writes that Asoka built 84000 Stupas. The rock cut caves of Mauryan era are at Barabar hills, located near Gaya and they are oldest surviving Rock Cut caves.The Nagarjuna Hills rock cut caves are of Asoka and his successors. The barabar caves have been cut of granite and are large halls which provided place for worshippers. The Asokan Pillars are Monolithic and mostly used Hard sandstone procured from Chunar near Varanasi. They were finely chiseled and highly polished. A Coomaraswamy has categorizes the Mauryan art into two distinct categories viz. Royal art and popular art. The Yaksha image from parkam and Yakshini Image from Besnagar are examples of Popular art. While, the pillars are example of Royal art. Asoka erected a Pillar to mark the spot in Deer Park Sarnath near Varanasi, where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma and where the Buddhist Sangha was founded. It has four lions standing back to back. The four lions symbolize the Power, Courage, Pride and Confidence and rest on a Circular abacus, which is girded by four animals. These four animals viz. Lion, Elephant, Horse, and Bull are the guardians of four directions viz. North, East, South and West respectively. The Chakra with 24 spokes has been chosen to be placed at the center of the Indian Flag on 22 July 1947. The Chakra symbolized Dhammachakraparivartan.

Census There was a proper system of census, which registered all the details of the deaths and births. Nagarika was the census officer who was responsible to keep a ready reference data of the farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that proper tax is levied.

Public health There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (Doctors) appointed along with a team of midwifes, nurses etc. Treatment was free universally. Food adulteration was a punishable offense which invited a death sentence.

Crimes and Judiciary Suppression of crimes, maintenance of peace and protection of the subjects were the chief duties of the King. The antisocial elements were called “Kantakas”. There were two kinds of courts “civils” and criminals. The civils courts were Dharmastheya and the Criminal Courts were “Kantakashodhna”. The idea of Kantakashodhna was to weed out the antisocial elements. The king



39 | P a g e

was the source of Supreme Justice. Death Sentences were common and Asoka’s edicts detail that he gave additional time to the persons under the Capital punishment to offer donations and repent so that they get a better life in next birth.

Economy: Revenue & Taxes There was an advanced concept of "responsibility accounting' which envisaged a preparation of budget and activity planning, reporting on the revenue and expenditure, responsibility for both the revenues and expenditures. The “full treasury” was guarantee to the prosperity of state says Arthashastra. Treasury received revenues from farms, mines, forests, pasture lands etc. Tributes

were received when a prince was born. Chief source for revenue was “land tax”. It was 16 to 1

4 of the

total produce and it was collected by the revenue officers. The more productive lands and irrigated lands invited more tax. All craftsmen (except royal) and traders paid taxes. Taxes were of two kinds viz. Bali & Bhaga. The Bali was religious tribute. Bhaga was the part of the produce. Asoka

edict says that Lumbini was exempted from Bali and Bhaga was reduced to 18 parts of the reduce.

Bhaga, which was 1/6th of the produce, was called shadbhaga (6th part) or Rajbhaga (state part). Maintenance of the Royal palaces, members, ministers and public welfare were the main avenues to use the revenue.

Foreign Trade: Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it was regulated by passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded property. Antiochus I with his joint rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather than the Attic Standard. This shows that the Mauryan Economy was world’s largest economy and the currency of Mauryas was accepted Worldwide and was main currency of those time. The trade routes were called Vanikpatha.



40 | P a g e

Provincial Administration: The Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces (probably). They were as follows: The Northern Province Uttarpatha was having its capital at Taxila and some mandals were Shakal, Kandhar and Saurastra. The Southern province Dakshinpatha’s capital was Suvarngiri. The eastern Prachyapatha was having its capital at Toshali near Kalinga. Magadha was the Central province & Capital of the entire kingdom. The provinces were administered by either a prince or a member of the royal family which was the viceroy of the king.

District Administration Each district was administered by three officers’ viz. Pradeshika, Rajuka, & Yukta. Pradesika was senior and Rajuka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to both of them. It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year and collect details of the administration.

Village Administration: Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama. The head of the grama was a Gramika. The Gramika was not a paid employee of the government but was elected by the village people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by a Gopa and 100 villages were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Gramika in Open Panchayats solved most disputes.

Important Observations about Maurya Empire The Insignificance of Coins

About the Mauryan Empire, we know from the literary sources, Epigraphic Sources and Foreign Accounts but the Numismatic Sources are least significant because the coins were punch marked and not beard much details. The coins became a major source of historic information only much later after Mauryas.

The Maski Edict revealed name of Asoka Maski is a site near Tungabhadra river in Karnataka’s Raichur District. In 1915, a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka (Maski Edict) was discovered by C. Beadon. This edict had the name of King Asoka. Prior to this edict, all edicts had the name of Devanampiye piyadasi and after the discovery of this edict, the real name of Asoka was concluded and it was also concluded that all the edicts found in the Indian Sub Continent were of Asoka.

Central Province

(Magadha)

Northern Uttarpatha

(Taxila)

Eastern Prachyapatha

(Toshali/ Kalinga)

Southern Dakshinpatha (Suvarngiri)

Western Avantipatha

(Ujjain)



41 | P a g e

The lake constructed by Mauryas Junagarh Rock Inscription was Not Issued by Asoka but was issued by Rudradaman I. This edict is in Sanskrit. This inscription mentions that Girnar lake was constructed by the Mauryas and he repaired some parts of this lake. It was a dam built by Mauryas to check floods.

The shelters of Ajivika sect The Barbara caves and Nagarjuna caves were mainly for the purpose of the Ajivikas Sects.

The Later Mauryas Magadha Empire under Asoka was extended from the foot of the Hindu Kush to the borders of the Tamil country. After the Kalinga war, Asoka became a monk and expansion of Buddhism in other countries took place during his time. None of the later Mauryas was efficient to keep such a vast empire intact. The sources of history after Mauryas are scant. There was no account left by Kautilya and Megasthenes about the later Mauryas. Our knowledge about the later Mauryas is based upon Puranas, Jain and Buddhism texts. Different Puranas give different accounts of Asoka’s successors. The account given by Vayu Purana says that Kunala succeeded Asoka while the Matsya Purana says that Suyasas succeeded Asoka. Nevertheless, all Purana accounts as well as Harchacharita of Banabhatta says- that the last Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was a weak ruler and his Senapati Pushymitra Shunga while a parading the entire Mauryan army before Brihadratha to show him the strength of the army assassinated him and this was the end of the Mauryas.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-5: Middle Kingdoms

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-5: Middle Kingdoms


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Reign of Harsha .................................................................................................... 3

Political Events during Harsha’s reign ........................................................................ 3 Coronation of Harsha and Annexation of Kannauj .............................................................. 4 Conquests of Harsha ........................................................................................................... 4 Conflict with Pulkesin II ....................................................................................................... 5 Conquest of Ganjam ............................................................................................................ 5 Territories of Harsha ............................................................................................................ 5

Administration & Legacy of Harsha ............................................................................ 5 Interest in Literature ............................................................................................................ 6 The religion of Harsha ......................................................................................................... 6 Prayag Assembly ................................................................................................................. 7

Chapter 2. Changes in Society during Early Medieval India .................................................... 7 Indian Feudalism ........................................................................................................ 7

What is feudalism? .............................................................................................................. 7 The Land Grants & Administrative Rights ............................................................................ 8 Political decentralization ..................................................................................................... 9 Emergence of new landed intermediatories ........................................................................ 9 Changes in agrarian relations ............................................................................................. 9

Other changes in Society during Early Medieval India ................................................ 9 Proliferation of castes ......................................................................................................... 9 Position of Brahmins .......................................................................................................... 10 Position of Vaishya ............................................................................................................ 10 Position of Shudras ............................................................................................................ 10 Position of Marriage & Women .......................................................................................... 11 Literature and science ....................................................................................................... 11 Development of local cultures .......................................................................................... 12 Development of Vernacular Languages ............................................................................ 13 Development of Regional Art & Culture ............................................................................ 13

Chapter 3. Chalukyas of Badami .......................................................................................... 13 Political Summary of Chalukyas of Badami ............................................................. 13

Pulkesin I ........................................................................................................................... 14 Kirtivarman I ...................................................................................................................... 14 Pulkesin II .......................................................................................................................... 14 Vikramaditya I ................................................................................................................... 15 End of Chalukyas of Badami .............................................................................................. 15 The legacy of Chalukyas of Badami ................................................................................... 15 Important Observations about the temples of Badami Chalukyas: ................................... 17 Literature of Chalukyas of Badami .................................................................................... 17

Chapter 4. Rastrakuta Empire .............................................................................................. 17 Political Summary of Rastrakutas ..................................................................................... 18 Legacy of Rashtrakutas ..................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 5. Chalukyas of Kalyani and Chalukyas of Vengi .................................................... 19 Western Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Kalyani .............................................................. 19 Eastern Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Vengi ................................................................... 19

Political History of Chalukyas of Kalyani .................................................................. 20 Legacy of Western Chalukyas ................................................................................... 21

Truketshwara Temple, Gadag ........................................................................................... 21 Temples of Lakkundi .......................................................................................................... 22 Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi ...................................................................................... 22 Mahadeva Temple, Itagi .................................................................................................... 22 Doddabasappa Temple, Dambal ....................................................................................... 22 Important features of the Temples of the Western Chalukyas: ......................................... 22

Chapter 6. Hoyasala Empire ................................................................................................. 23 Political Summary of Hoysalas ................................................................................ 23

Vishnuvardhana ................................................................................................................ 23 Veera Ballala II ................................................................................................................. 23 Veera Ballala III................................................................................................................. 24



3 | P a g e

The Legacy of Hoysalas ............................................................................................ 24 Chennakesava Temple, Belur ............................................................................................ 24 Hoysaleshwar Temple, Halebid ......................................................................................... 24 Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura ........................................................................... 25 Important Features of the Hoyasala Temples: .................................................................. 25

Chapter 7. Yadavas of Devagiri ............................................................................................ 25 Bhillama 1173-1191 AD ................................................................................................... 25 Singhana II ......................................................................................................................... 26 Raja Ramchandra .............................................................................................................. 26

Chapter 1. Reign of Harsha The period assigned to Harsha's reign is 606AD until 648 AD. For Harsha's period, though the historians have the ordinary numismatics and epigraphic sources, there are two most important sources (literary Works), which shed light on this era's political and social conditions. The first is a book of travels compiled by Chinese Pilgrim Huen Tsang, who visited almost all parts of India from 630 AD till 643-644 AD. Apart from the narrative, the work is supplemented by biographies of the pilgrim, which is written by his friend Hwui-li, and this provides some additional information. The second is Harshacharita authored by Banabhatta. Banabhatta was a Brahmin who stayed in the court of Harsha and enjoyed his patronage. Apart from the above, the official Chinese history documents also provide some details about the reign of Harsha.

Political Events during Harsha’s reign The family of Harsha is linked to Pushyabhuti of Thenshwar. In the later part of the 6th century, the Raja of Thaneshwar, Prabhakarvardhana raised himself against the neighbors including the Hunas settled in the North Western Punjab and also the clans of the Gurjars. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj and Parama Bhattaraka. This was the beginning of the Vardhana Dynasty in the north India. The Mother of Prabbhakarvardhana was a princess of the Gupta lineage and this probably stimulated the royal ambitions of Prabhakaravardhana.

Fact Box: Huen Tsang Huen Tsang or Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist Traveler who belongs to early Tang period of China. He was born in Henan province. He was basically interested in the improving the incomplete & misinterpreted information provided by the earlier Chinese monks, particularly Fa Hien. The title his work is "Journey to the West" (Si-Yu-Ki). Huen Tsang followed the Central Asian Route and visited from Kashmir in North to Saurastra and Vallabhi in west, Kamarupa in East and Malakotta in South. He stayed in various monasteries and came in touch with the scholars of that time. His association with Harshavardhana and Bhaskarvarmana of Kamarupa adds special value to his work. His observations are related to not only the life of the Kings and nobles but also the ordinary people. He writes about the way of life, doing agriculture, food habits, dress senses, jewellery, and types of taxes. Degraded position of the Chandals, elaborate description of the Nalanda monastery etc. He was attacked by robbers on the way, something which we don’t find in the narrations of Fa Hien who travelled in the Gupta Period. It shows that the administrative machinery deteriorated.



4 | P a g e

There were two sons of Prabhakarvardhana, the elder Rajyavardhana and younger Harshavardhana. In 604 AD, Prabhakarvardhana had sent a large army led by Rajyavardhana to attack the Huns at the North Western frontiers and sent his younger son Harsha with a cavalry. While Rajyavardhana advanced into the Hills, Harsha lingered in the forests of the foothills of the mountains.While he was employed in the forests, he got the news of the nearh death illness of his father. He needed to return and as he retunred, assuming that Rajyavardhana might have been killed, the court men favored Harsha to be the next King. Prabhakarvardhana had died. Meanwhile Rajya Vardhana returned. Without any struggle, he took place of his father at this point of time. The sister of these two brothers named Rajyashri was married to the Maukhari King Grahavarmana of Kannauj. Since, at the time of the death of Prabhakarvardhana, Rajya Vardhana was engaged in the battle against the Hunas, a king of Gupta lineage Devagupta of Malwa attacked the Maukharis and killed Grahavarmana. The windowed Rajyashri was confined in jail and probably mis-used by the attacker. The young King Rajyavardhana vowed to seek avenge and he led a ten thousand cavalry to atack the Malwa King. The King of Malwa was defeated without much effort, but the victory became sad soon after as a Gaur King Shashanka who had come to help Devagupta killed Rajyavardhana. Rajyavardhana was inveigled to a peace conference by fair promises by Sashaanka and was killed there.

Coronation of Harsha and Annexation of Kannauj The son of Rajyavardhana was too young to assume cares of the government and the court men did not hesitate to offer the crown to Harsha. When Harsha became the king, the tasks before him were to:

• Take avenge of his brother's killing • Free Rajyashri from prison.

The assassins were able to escape and Rajyashri was about to burn herself alive with her attendants. However, Harsha chased them, guided by the tribals and was able to trace her in the Vindhya Jungles. Shashanka escaped, though his kingdom was later annexed to that of Harsha's. However, Shashanka remained a headache for Harsha for a longer period. Son of Rajyashri was also an infant and this was the reason that Kannauj was also annexed with the kingdom of Harshavardhana.

Conquests of Harsha Harsha was a brave king who had the desired ability and energy to bring all India "under an umbrella". He overran the northern India, went from east to west and subdued all who were not obedient. In around five years, he had conquered the northwestern regions as well as a large part of Bengal. This was enough to raise his army strength from five thousand war elephants to fifty thousand war elephants and twenty thousand cavalry to one lakh cavalry. His great career of



5 | P a g e

victory continued until 643 AD and the last attack was on the inhabitants of Ganjam on the Coast of Bay of Bengal.

Conflict with Pulkesin II However, his long career of victory was eclipsed by one great failure against Pulkesin II. Pulkesin II, the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty vied with Harsha and was able to stop the ambitions of Harsha towards south. If Harsha was Uttarpathapati, Pulkesin II, the Chalukya King of Vatapi was able to raise himself to the rank of lord paramount of the South and called himself Dakshinapathapati. Harsha, unable to endure the existence of such a powerful rival in south, planed to overthrow Pulkesin II and advanced towards south with troops from all parts of his reign. However, his effort failed. The passes on the Narmada River were guarded so efficiently that Harsha accepted that river as his southern frontier. This was sometime in 620 AD (some sources say 635AD).

Conquest of Ganjam The last conquest of Harsha was the Ganjam in modern Odisha. Harsha was not able to annexe initially because of his enmity with Shashanka. However, Ganjam was conquered in 642-643 AD and after that, Harsha became content to sheathe the sword. The later part of Harsha’s life is almost an imitation to the Great Asoka Maurya, but it took 37 years and numerous conquests to Harsha to adopt the Asoka route.

Territories of Harsha The reign of Harsha was from whole of basin of Ganga including Nepal, to the Narmada in South. Harsha ruled on the pattern of the Gupta Kings and the local administration remained in the hands of the local Kings. From King of Kamarupa in Assam to King of Vallabhi in Gujarat, several local kings attended the courts of Harsha. Harsha was the last true Hindu King of Northern India.

Administration & Legacy of Harsha We know about the administration of Harsha mostly from the accounts of Huen Tsang, who was most impressed by the Civil Administration. The principal source of revenue was the rent of the crown lands, which was 1/6th of the produce. The officials were remunerated by land grants and the tax administration was not so rigid. The crime was rare though unlike the narrations of Fa Hien, the routes were less safe. This evident from the fact that Huen Tsang was stopped and looted by the



6 | P a g e

robbers. The punishments were severe than the Gupta rulers. The nose, ears, hands, feet of the criminals were mutilated and death sentence prevailed.

Interest in Literature Harsha was a great patron of the literature and was an accomplished calligraphist and author of reputation. He has written three extant Sanskrit Plays viz. Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika and one grammatical work. His plays are as follows:

• Nagananda: Nagananda has an enlightening Buddhist legend for its subject and is one of the best works of the Indian Drama. It describes the story of the Jimutavahana's self-sacrifice to save the Nagas.

• Ratnavali: Ratnavali is a great drama, which narrates the story of a princess called Ratnavali and a king called Udayana. Ratnavali is probably the earliest textual references to the celebration of Holi, the festival of colors.

• Priyadarsika: Priyadarsika is another great play by Harsha.

Banabhatta Banabhatta is considered the greatest ornament in the literary circle of Harsha. Bana's Kadambari is not only the most celebrated prose romance in Sanskrit, but also the best work with universal appeal. Similarly Harshacharita, is probably first work of its kind is the biography of his great hero Harsha. The work is not only the first attempt of Biography Indian literature but also an authentic work. There are two more works attributed to Banabhatta viz. Chhandakasthtaka and Parvatiparinaya. Please note that Banabhatta did not complete Kadambari. His work was later finished by his son Bhushanbhatta (or maybe Pulindabhata) and thus Kadambari is divided into two parts viz. Purvabhaga and Uttarbhaga, ascribed to the father and son respectively.

The religion of Harsha In Harsha, we find a learned king who was well versed in the doctrine of Sammitiya School, an offshoot of the Vatsiputriya school of Early Buddhism. After the Ganjam conquest, Harsha started showing the favor for the quietest teachings of Buddhism. He favored the Hinyana initially and Mahayana later. We find in him a great devotee of Buddhism, who enforced the Buddhist traditions with utmost strictness. He forbade the slaughter of any living thing. Use of animal flesh was a punishable offense in his reign. The benevolent institutions based upon Asoka’s model were established through his empire. Numerous monasteries were erected in the closing years of his empire. Huen Tsang describes about the numbers of the monks occupying the monasteries to be around two Lakh ! Father of Harsha was a Sun Devotee, his remote ancestor Pushyabhuti was a Shiva follower, his brother Rajyavardhana and sister Rajyashri were Buddhism devotees, but Harsha was benevolent of all the three and erected temples also. However, the in the closing part of his reign, his favorite was the faith of Buddhism. We find King Harsha's autograph in Baanskhera inscription of Haryana.



7 | P a g e

Prayag Assembly Every five years, Harsha called for an assembly at Prayag. This ceremony began with the worship of Surya, Shiva and Buddha (a testimony to his tolerance to all faiths), and after that he use do charitable distribution. It is told that every Buddhist monk was given 100 pieces of gold, a pearl and cotton clothe. He also used to donate the cloths and ornaments he wore and then asked his sister Gayatri for cloths and ornaments.

Bhandi Bhandi was a leading noble of Kannauj and on advice of the political leaders of Kannauj; he offered the crown of Kannauj to Harsha after death of Grahavarmana. Bhandi was later described as one of the chief officers of Harsha. When Harsha chased Shashanka for release of his sister, through Bhandi only Harsha could know that his sister has been released and Shashanka has escaped.

Simhanada Simhanada was the General of the Harsha's army and his Prime Minister. When Harsha was preparing to conquest the South, Simhanada warned him about the dreadful consequences. This was for the first time that Harsha did not pay attention to his seasoned councilor and paid the price for the same when Pulkesin II defeated him. Out of all the powers of the Deccan, the most dominant power up to some 250 AD was Andhra, the Saatvahana Dynasty. After some 3 centuries of the extinction of the Saatvahana, no specific information is available. During those times, the Maharashtra region was ruled by the Rastrakuta dynasty which up till mid of the 8th century became a powerhouse of Deccan.

Chapter 2. Changes in Society during Early Medieval India Indian Feudalism

From the post-Maurya period, and especially from Gupta times, India’s political and administrative developments tended to feudalise the state apparatus.

What is feudalism? In Europeans sense, feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. However, in context with ancient India, the system gradually developed from the beginning of the land grants. The practice of making land grants to the Brahmanas was a custom, sanctified by the injunctions laid down in the Dharmashashtras, Epics and Puranas. The Anusasana Parva of the Mahiibharata devotes a whole chapler to the praise of making gifts of land (Bhumidanaprasamsa).

The earliest land grants belonging to the first century BC were given to the Buddhist priests and Brahmanas and other religious establishments. However, in the post-Guptas period even administrative officials were granted land. The landed beneficiaries were given both powers of taxation and coercion, leading to the disintegration of the central authority. The secular recipients of the grants and the autonomous holders of land are generally termed as fief holders and free holders. The major outcome was decentralization.



8 | P a g e

The Land Grants & Administrative Rights The early Pali texts of the pre-Maurya period refer to the villages granted to the Brahmanas by the rulers of Kosala and Magadha. A term used for such grants was “Brahamdeyya”. The Earliest epigraphic record of a land grants in India is a Saatavahana inscription of the first century BC, which refers to the grant of a village as a gift in the Ashvamedha Sacrifice. However, it is not clear, whether the administrative or revenue rights of these lands were also given to those priests or not. It has been guessed that the administrative rights were perhaps given up for the first time in the grants made to Buddhist monks by the Satavahana ruler - Gautamiputra Satakarni in the second century AD. Such a land grant included the rights that : The royal troops could not enter such land granted The government officials and district police was not supposed to disturb such lands. From the period of later Mauryas, the land grants included the transfer of all sources of revenue, and the surrender of police and administrative functions. The grants of the second century AD mention that the transfer of the king's control only over salt, which implies that he retained certain other sources of revenue. But in some other grants, it was recorded that the donor (King) gave up his control over almost all sources of revenue, including pastures, mines including hidden treasures and deposits. Then, the donor not only abandoned his revenues but also the right to govern the inhabitants of the villages that were granted. This practice became more prevalent in the Gupta period. There are many instances of grants of apparently settled villages made to the Brahmanas during the Gupta era. In such grants, the residents, including the cultivators and artisans, were expressly asked by their respective rulers not only to pay the customary taxes to the donees, but also to obey their commands. All this provides clear evidence of the surrender of the administrative power of the state. One of the important aspect of the Kings sovereignty was that he used to retain the rights of the punishing the culprits. In the Post-Gupta times, the king made over to the Brahmanas not only this right, but also his right to punish all offences against family, property, person, etc. We see that, by giving such privileges, the state was bound to disintegrate. Out of the seven organs of the state power mentioned in literary and epigraphic sources, taxation system and coercive power based on the army are rightly regarded as two vital elements. If they are abandoned, the state power disintegrates. This was the system created by the grants made to the Brahmins. The land was granted for as long as the existence of the sun and the moon, which implies the permanent break-up of the integrity of the state. The above discussion makes it clear that in the Post-Gupta period, the Brahamdeyya carried freedom from taxes, Administrative freedom and also the freedom from punishments (Abhayantarasiddhi). The widespread practice of making land grants in the Gupta period paved the way for the rise of Brahmin feudatories, who performed administrative functions not under the



9 | P a g e

authority of the royal officers but almost independently. What was implicit in earlier grants became explicit in grants from about 1000AD; and well recognised in the administrative systems of the Turks. The implications were many but the major implication was the creation of powerful intermediatories wielding considerable economic and political power. As the number of the land-owning Brahmins went up, some of them gradually shed their priestly functions and turned their chief attention to the management of land. Thus, their case secular functions became more important than religious functions. The comprehensive competence based on centralised control', which was the hallmark of the Maurya state gave way to decentralisation in the post-Maurya and Gupta periods. The functions of the collection of taxes, levy of forced labour, regulation of mines, agriculture, etc., together with those of the maintenance of law and order, and defence which w re hitherto performed by the state officials, were now systematically abandoned, first to the priestly class and later to the warrior class. Thus, the main implications of the Indian Feudalism in early medieval period are as follows:

Political decentralization The seed of decentralization that was sown in the form of Land grants turned into a vividly branched political organization made up semi-autonomous rulers, Samantas, Mahasamantas and others such as Rajpurushas.

Emergence of new landed intermediatories The emergence of landed intermediaries- a dominant landholding social group absent in the early historical period- is linked to the practice of land grants which began with the Saatavahana.

Changes in agrarian relations Free vaishya peasants dominated the agrarian structure in early historical India and labour services provided by the Shudra. But, from the sixth century AD onwards the peasants stuck to the land granted to the beneficiaries because they were asked not to leave the village granted to the beneficiaries or migrate to tax-free village. This resulted in the immobility of the population and isolation from the test of the world. Its implication was very profound such as development of localized customs, languages and rituals.

Other changes in Society during Early Medieval India The social changes in the early medieval India were mainly the product of certain economic developments, such as land grants and large scale transfers of land revenues and land to both secular and religious elements, decline of trade and commerce, loss of mobility of artisans, peasants and traders, unequal distribution of land and power etc.

Proliferation of castes Increasing pride of birth, characteristic of feudal society, and the accompanying self-sufficient village economy, which prevented both spatial and occupational mobility, gave rise to thousands of castes in India.



10 | P a g e

The changes in economy were also a result of emergence of certain new castes and decline of certain old ones. For example, the constant transfer of land of land revenues made by princes to priests, temples and officials led to the rise and growth of the scribe or the Kayastha caste which undermined the monopoly of Brahmans as writers and scribes. Similarly, the decline of trade and commerce led to the decline in the position of the Vaishyas. The process of proliferation and multiplication of castes was yet another marked feature of the social life of the period. Many new communities, which are known to us by the generic term Rajputs, were also recognized as Kshatriyas during the period. The foreign elements, which could not be put in any three higher classes, were naturally designated as the Shudras. The guilds of artisans gradually hardened into castes due to lack of mobility in post-Guptas times. The maximum affected people were the Shudra and the mixed castes.

Position of Brahmins The Brahmins stood at the top of the social hierarchy during and post Gupta period. They had regained their power and were responsible for reinterpreting the regulatory canons of life as laid down by the earlier texts. However, Brahmins had numerous subsections now divided on the basis of many criteria such as knowledge of Vedas etc. Getting birth in a Brahamin family was a privilege. Brahmins had freedom from death-sentence, exemption form taxes, precedence on the road, lesser punishment for certain offences in comparison with other castes. Many writers have documented the exemption of the Brahmans from capital punishment. The most severe punishment for a Brahmin was banishment. When a Brahman killed a man, the former had only to fast, pray and give alms. On the other hand, if somebody killed a Brahmin, he was ought to be greatest sinner and performed the worst crime. No punishment or remorse could wipe off the Brahman-hatya, the greatest crime of those periods!

Position of Vaishya Vaishyas in the early medieval India were almost degraded to the Shudra community. In fact, Alberuni also did not find any difference between the Vaishyas and Shudra. If you are a Vaishya or a Shudra, and you dared to recite the Vedas, your ruler would cut off your tongue! One difference was that the Shudra had freedom to sell all kinds of goods, but the Vaishya were forbidden to carry on transactions in some specified articles like salt, wine, meat, curds, swords, arrows, water, idols etc.

Position of Shudras



11 | P a g e

Shudras were the most numerous sections in the community and their number increased from age to age. Some of the Shudras were regarded as mixed castes, born of unions of upper castes males with lower caste females or vice versa. There were eight Shudra castes called “Ashtashudras” viz. Vyadha, Bhada, Kola, Koncha, Haddi, Doma, Jala, Bagatita, Vyalagrahi and Chandala. However, there was another Shudra caste also whose position was lower then the above eight castes. These people were called the Antyajas. These Antyajas were beyond and below the the four orders and four Varnas of the Indian society.

Position of Marriage & Women The knowledge about the traditions prevalent in the institution of marriage in that era comes from two works viz. Smritichandrika and Smrityarthasara. The former says that the intercaste marriage is forbidden in Kaliyuga. Savarna marriages are necessary for the performance of religious rites, while Asavarna marriages are of an inferior type as being dictated by desire. The later says that the marriage of Brahmins with Shudra women forbidden not the same in other castes. The polygamy was prevalent in the royal class and has been well documented in Vaijayanti. The women’s position is far degraded from that in early eras. The husband and other male relations, to begin with must so arrange things that the wife never becomes independent. The wife must also be guarded not only against physical but also against mental unchastity for the sake of her offspring. wife’s right to maintenance in case of her supersession , they provide for her residence in her husband’s house as well as her maintenance even in the event of her committing adultery. When the wife is guilty of slight adultery, she must be maintained, though deprived of conjugal rights, till her performance of a penance.

Literature and science During early medieval period, there was a considerable development in the literature. However, the quality of the content in them was not of a high order. It was basically of general imitative and reproductive character. The list is very big; however, here we note some of the most significant artworks.

• Naishadhiyacharitam of Shriharsha is the most outstanding epic of this period, written under the patronage of Gahadawala king Jayachandra of Kannauj.

Antyajas In the days of the composition of the early smritis, untouchables were called Antyajas. The Vedvyasamriti counts twelve names and includes all those who eat cow’s flesh as Antyajas. Alberuni described eight groups of people, who were members of crafts and professions, but did not belong to the four-fold caste system, namely washerman, shoemaker, juggler, basket and shield-maker, sailor, angler, hunter of wild animals and birds, and weaver. These correspond to Rajaka, Charmakara, Nata or Sailushika, Buruda, Navika, Kaivarta, Bhilla and Kuvindaka, who have been regarded as Chandals and Antyajas in all early Smriti texts and as Shudras by Manu. Thus, they belonged to the lowest caste.



12 | P a g e

• Rajatarangini of Kalhana is unique as the only known attempt at true history in the whole of surviving Sanskrit literature. A few short poems were also written during this period.

• The Gita-Govindam of Jayadeva is known as the most musical song ever written in Sanskrit. • The Aryasaptashati of Govardhanacharya is an erotic poem following the tradition of

Gathasaptashati of Hala • Lalitavigraharaja-Nataka was a drama by Somadeva, the Harikeli-Nataka by Visaladeva,

the Prasanna-Raghava by Jayadeva. • In Lexicology, the Abidhana Chintamani, Deshi-Namamala, Anekarthasamgraha and

Nighantushesha of Hemachandra are of worth note. • Bhoja had written the Rajamriganka on astronomy. • The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya flourished in the south in the twelfth century.

His Siddhanta-Shiromani comprises four parts; Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita and Gola. The last deals with astronomy.

• A very significant idea in the Siddhanta-Shiromansi is that of perpetual motion, which was transmitted by Islam about AD 1200 to Europe where in course of time it led to the development of the concept of power technology.

• The Rasarnava is a work on Tantra, which deals with metallic preparations and alchemy. The Dakarnava is a Buddhist tantric work composed in Apabhramsha. The Sadhanamala, a Buddhist tantric work belongs to the twelfth centur

• The field of erotic literature saw some development. Ratirahasya by Kokkaka, Haramekhala by Mahuka, Rativilasa by Jayamangal etc. are some important works on Kamashastra.

• In the field of music we have Matanga, Dhatupatha as codified by Bhimasena, Kuttanimatam of Damodargupta etc.

• Bhatta utpala wrote a work on Vastuvidya. • On cosmetics we have Gandhashatra by Padmashri in his work on erotics. The

Vishnudharmottara gives much attention to painting was the chitrasutra mentioned by Damodargupta. The Aparajita-Prichcha is a work on architecture which appears to have been written in Gujarata in AD 1200. The Sangita-Ratnakara of Sharangadeva was written in the 13th century in the south. The Laghvarhannitishastra of Hemachandra is a work on political science. Another work on the duties and obligations of princes was the Rajaniti-Kamadhenu of Gopala.

Development of local cultures The foundation of various kingdoms and fiefdoms whose people were generally confined to them only led the development of localized culture, making India a diverse geographical area. The Hunas and other foreign elements were absorbed into the Indian society and cleared the ground for the rise of larger defined units such as Rajputana. Similarly, Bengal, which was earlier divided into two parts viz. Gauda and Vanga, later the whole region was named after Vanga.



13 | P a g e

The inhabitants of the different nations differed in customs, clothing and language. For example, the Kavalayamala (8th century) notes the existence of 18 major nationalists and describes the anthropological character of 16 peoples.

Development of Vernacular Languages Though the Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class at the higher administrative levels, this language later become complex, verbose and ornate. The Apabhramsha started to differentiate into proto-Hindi, Proto-Bengali, Proto-Rajasthani proto-Gujarati, Proto-Marathi, Proto-Assamese, Proto-Ordya, Proto-Maithili languages. From the 6th century onwards, the linguistic variation became very fast because of lack of inter-regional communication and mobility. In the tribal areas, the Brahmanas imposed various forms of Sanskrit on the existing Aryan and Pre-Aryan dialects. The consequential interaction gave rise to regional languages. The migrating Brahmanas also enriched the regional languages. This resulted in the development of regional scripts and regional grammar.

Development of Regional Art & Culture In the field of art and architecture, this period ushered in a new age marked by regional styles in sculpture and construction of temples, which became particularly prominent in south India from the eighth century onwards. The post-gupta iconography prominently displays a divine hierarchy, which reflects the pyramidal rank in society. The Vishnu, Shiva and Durga became the supreme deities, lording over many other divinities of unequal sizes. The Mahayajnas and danas (donations) were gradually replaced by a system known as Puja. Puja was interlinked to the doctrine of Bhakti, which became a distinct feature of medieval religion. Both puja and Bhakti became integral ingredients of tantricism, which arose due to the acculturation of the tribal people through large-scale religious land-grants.

Chapter 3. Chalukyas of Badami Mid of the 6th century marks the rise of a very strong power in Deccan and that is Chalukyas of Vatapai or Chalukyas of Badami.

Political Summary of Chalukyas of Badami The Chalukyas seem to be a race of Rajputs from North who imposed their rule upon the Dravidian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland. The Royal Emblem of Chalukyas of Badami was “Varaha”. The earliest reference in this dynasty is of one Jayasimha, who has also been referred to as Vallabha. The first independent king of this dynasty was Pulkesin I.

Contribution of Al-Beruni Alberuni, who visited India with the Turkish invader Mahmud Ghazni and his army, has given a vivid account of India society during those times. He visited India frequently and stayed in different parts of the country. Assisted by learned scholars of India, he translated from Sanskrit a few Indian works on astronomy, especially the Paulisasiddhanta, Brihatsamhita and Laghujatakam of Varahmihira. Probably he was the first to introduce the treasure of the Sanskrit literature to the Islamic world. His Tahkik-i-Hind (Reality of Hindustan) is the most important work in which he gives a good graphic description of India, as he had seen. While narrating the social conditions of India Alberuni observes that the Hindu society was based on caste system. He describes the institution of marriage, the position of women, the Hindu fasts and festivals. He observed that Hindus have numerous books about all the branches of science. He provides us long lists of famous books of Indians astronomy, medicine, alchemy, etc.



14 | P a g e

Pulkesin I The real founder of Chalukyas of Badami was a chieftain Pulkesin I, who made himself master of a town called Vatapi, which is modern Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka in around 543 AD. He is said to have claimed a paramount position by performing the Ashwamedha Yajna. Pulkesin-his descendants and I are called Chalukyas of Badami. Pulkesin I assumed the titles of Satyashraya, Vallabaha and Dharmamaharaja. He had overthrown the Kadamabas. The Badami Cliff inscription tells that Pulkesin I performed all of the 5 yajnas which make a king paramount and they are Hiranyagarbha, Agnistoma, Vajapeya, Bahusuvarna and Paundarika. Name of meaning of Pulkesin is “Hair of Lion”

Kirtivarman I The two sons of Pulkesin-I viz. Kirtivarman I and Mangaldesa extended the possessions of the family both eastward and westward. Kirtivarman-I completely subjugated the Kadambs and secured the extension of the Kingdom. Goa which was then known as Revatidwipa was annexed by Kirtivarman I. His brother Mangaldesa assumed the responsibilities of the government after his death as his son Pulkesin II was too young at the time of his death. Some scholars say that this succession was disputed and Pulkesin II overcame this rivalry. He ascended the throne in 608 AD. For two decades this able prince adopted a career of aggressive conquests in all directions and defeated the Kings of Lata (South Gujarat), Gurjara (Rajputana), Malwa and Kadamabas in the west and Pallavas of Vengi in the east.

Pulkesin II Pulkesin II is the most celebrated ruler of the Chalukyas of Badami. His birth name was Ereya and he was born to Kirtivarman-I. Since, he was too young when his father died, his paternal uncle Mangaldesa was made the king. Some sources say that his uncle denied him his right to get the throne when he grown up and he rebelled against his uncle. Ereya organized an army near modern Kolar in Karnataka and defeated and killed Mangaldesa (Peddavadagur inscription). He defeated the Kadamabas of the Banavasi, Alupas of modern Southern Karnataka, Maurya of Konkan and after a naval war captured Island of Elephanta from the Mauryas of Konkan. He also defeated the Kosala, Kalinga etc. in the east. In down south, he defeated Mahendravarman-I. This was the time when Harsha was a major power in Northern India. Pulkesin II and Harsha engaged in a battle at the banks of the Narmada. This was a decisive battle in which Harsha lost a big part of his elephant army and had to retreat. This is mentioned in the Aihole Inscription. The same battle has been described by Huen Tsang too.

The fame of Pulkesin II spread beyond the geographical limits of India and reached the ears of Khusrau II the King of Persia. Khusrau II in 36th year of his reign i.e. 625 AD received a complementary embassy from Pulkesin II. He reciprocated the embassy with a Persian embassy which was welcomed with due honors in India. One of the large Frescoes of Ajanta Paintings in Cave Number 1 vividly represents the ceremonial attending the presentation of their credentials by the Persian Courts. This is a great record of India-Persia relations in those times.



15 | P a g e

The battle ended with a treaty in which Harsha was made to recognize river Narmada as his southern border. After this victory, Pulkesin II assumed the titles of Parmeshwara, Prithivivallabha, Satyashraya etc. and became the paramount power in modern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. He also assumed the title of Dakshinpatheshwara around the same time, on the lines of Harsha’s title Uttarpatheshwara. Pulkesin II was also the one of the first kings in South India to issue the Gold Coins. The enmity of Pulkesin II with Pallavas of Kanchi finally took his life in 642 AD, when one of the Pallava Kings (Narsimhamvaraman) plundered his capital and probably put him to death. For next 13 years Pallavas dominated in South India including the Vatapi.

Vikramaditya I In 655 AD, one of the five sons of Pulkesin II known as Vikramaditya I attempted to restore the unity of the Kingdom and was successful in throwing Pallavas out of Vatapi. The enmity of the Chalukyas continued by Vikramaditya I and he befriended with other enemies of Pallavas. He advanced to Kanchipuram but was defeated by the Pallavas. During the reign of Vikramaditya I , one branch of the Chalukyas was able to establish itself in Gujarat who in next 100 years offered vigorous oppositions to the Arabs. Vikramaditya I was succeeded by his son Vinayaditya, who continued the expeditions. The reign of Vinayaditya is assigned 680 AD to 696 AD. His reign was generally peaceful. During those times, Persia was politically unstable mostly due to the Arab Invasions.

End of Chalukyas of Badami The successors of Vinayaditya continued to exist for next half century. The last ruler was Kirtivarman II who was also known as Rahappa. His reign was a short period of 7 years from 746 AD to 753 AD. The Chalukyas of Badami were continuously disturbed by the growing powers of Rastrakuta and Pandyas and finally were destroyed by them. The blunder of Kirtivarman II was to undermine the rising power of Dantidurga, who established the Rastrakuta Empire.

The legacy of Chalukyas of Badami The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture". Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) as well as structural, are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka. The building material they used was reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area



16 | P a g e

within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state. Ravana Phadi Cave The earliest monument of Chalukyas of Badami is the Ravana Phadi Cave at Aihole, not far from Badami. It was probably made around A.D. 550 and is dedicated to Siva. Ravana Phadi Cave is one of the Earliest Rock Cut Temple located at Aihole, the first capital of the early Chalukyas. At Aihole, they built more than 70 Hindu Temples later. Badami Cave Temples Badami cave temples are located at Badami. The red sandstone cliffs of Badami offered a spectacular setting for the excavation of four caves, three Brahmanical and one Jaina (Parshwavanath). The largest and most impressive of these is Cave 3, dedicated to Vishnu. An inscription next to a Varaha depiction states that Mangalesa, a brother of King Kirtivarman, dedicated the cave in A.D. 578. Members of the royal family of Chalukyas patronized many Chalukyan monuments. All of them were created in sixth and 7th century. The architecture is a mixture of the Nagara style and Dravida style. Apart from the above four, there is a fifth natural Buddhist cave in Badami. Virupaksha Temple, Hampi Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi in Karnataka on the banks of the Tungabhadra river. Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and was created by the Chalukyas of Badami initially in 8th century. The temple was improvised in Vijaynagar Empire. It is in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi that full glory of the Early Chalukyan art can be seen. This temple was was built in 735 AD by a queen of Vikramaditya II. To celebrate the victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Lad khan Temple The Lad Khan temple is the earliest temple of Aihole, which dates back to 5th century AD. An inscription on this temple says that it was dedicated to Durga. There is a Shiva ling out there. The temple is known as Lad Khan after its owner (in most recent times) at a place used as cattle sheds or houses. This temple has a large porch and is made in a Panchayat hall kind of design with 12 pillars. This was earliest experiment for a pillar based structures in the temple architecture.

Navbhramha Group of Temples, Alampur The Navabrahma Group of temples is located at Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. There are total 9 temples and present a marvelous piece of art of the Chalukyas of Badami outside Karnataka. These temple are based upon the Nagara style and do not reflect the Dravidian style of temple architecture (8 out of 9 are clearly Nagara style). The Alampur temples are the finest example of the Chalukyas of Badami Art. The Nava Bhramma temples are Taraka Bhramma, Swarga Bhramma, Padma Bhramma, Bala



17 | P a g e

Bhramma, Garuda Bhramma, Kumara Bhramma, Arka Bhramma, Vira Bhramma and the Vishwa Bhramma. These temples are all enclosed in a courtyard on the left bank of the river Tungabhadra. Temples at Pattadakal Numerous temples at Pattadakal on the bank of river Malprabha, some kilometers from Aihole mark the return of the Chalukya patronage to Karnataka after several years of activity in the Andhra Pradesh. The first temple is Galagnatha Temple which is in Nagara style similar to the Alampur temple.

Important Observations about the temples of Badami Chalukyas: • These temples are a mixture of Northern and Dravida style of temple architecture and

represent a transition as well as experimentation in the temple architecture. • The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka

and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh , which is near Kurnool. • The largest temple of Chalukyas of Badami is Virupaksha Temple, whose complex encloses

30 sub shrines and a large Nadi mandapa. This was also earliest example of Shiva temples, which have a Nandi pavilion in front of he temple.

Literature of Chalukyas of Badami The most important literature of the Badami Chalukyas is the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script. Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Somesvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa. The Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakesi II.

Chapter 4. Rastrakuta Empire In the mid of the 8th century, Dantidurga , who was one of the chieftain of ancient rastrakuta family fought his way to the front and overthrew Kirtivarman II, thus bringing an end to the main branch of Chalukyas. This was the beginning of the Rastrakuta Empire in Deccan.

Different Temple Architecture Styles A typical Hindu temple consists of an inner Sanctum called Garbha griha, where the idol is placed, which has a circumambulation, a congregation hall and a porch. The temples can be distinguished with the Shikhara or Vimana. On this basis, there are two types of temple viz. Nagara which is North Indian and Dravida which is South India.

• The northern-style (Nagara), Shikhara is shaped like a beehive and is made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements called kapotas and gavakshas. The temple also has a very unusual, open ambulatory around the sanctum, with pillars and no wall on the outside.

• In Dravida style, tower consists of progressively smaller storey’s of pavilions. • The Vesara style has characters of both. • The Gadag style is a feature of the Western Chalukya temples and it is characterized by

ornate columns. • The Kalinga architecture is different. It has Rekha Deula,Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula

types of temples. Out of them the Khakhara Deula is essentially of a female deity such as Durga or Chamunda. Konark Sun temple is a Pidha Deula.



18 | P a g e

Political Summary of Rastrakutas

Dantidurga Dantidurga’s reign is from 735 AD to 756 AD. He is also known as Dantivarman or Dantidurga II. Just after occupying Vatapi, he also carried out several conquests but became unpopular very soon and was deposed by his uncle Krishna I. Dantidurga made Gulbarga his capital and defeated the Karnatbala of the Badami Chalukya (Kirtivarman II). He also defeated the kings of Lata (Gujarat), Malwa, Kalinga, Nagas and assumed the title of Rajadhiraja.

Krishna I Krishna I is known for completing the establishment of Rastrakuta supremacy over the dominions of Chalukyas. Last Badami Chalukya Kirtivarman II though defeated by Dantidurga, but remained in power till 757 AD when he was destroyed by Krishna I. This is mentioned in the copper plate grant of Govinda III. Krishna I is best known for execution of the most marvelous architectural work in India i.e. Kailas Temple at Ellora. Kailas Temple is the most extensive and most opulent example of rock cut architecture in India.

Govinda II Krishna I was succeeded by Govinda II, his eldest son. He became unpopular soon and was excessively indulged in the sensual pleasures. He left the administration to his younger brother Dhruva (Nirupama).

Dhruva Dhruva was an able prince who continued the wars with the neighbors and expanded the frontiers of Rastrakuta empire. This was the reign of Dhruva, when Rastrakuta emerged as one of the great powers in India.

Govinda III Dhruva’s son Govinda III was also one of the most remarkable princes of this dynasty. The capital of rastrakuta up till now was Nasik and it was shifted to Manyakheta (Malkhed) by Govinda III. Govinda III's conquests were up to Cape Camorin in south, Kannauj in North and Banaras in South. His rein was from 794 to 814 AD.

Amoghavarsha Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha or Amoghavarsha I or Nrupathunga. The reign of Amoghavarsha is from 800 to 878 AD (though some scholars says that his reign was 62 years), one of the longest reigns. He was the greatest ruler of the Rastrakuta Empire. He indulged in constant wars with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and remained successful. Amoghavarsha was a patron of the Jains and liberally patronized the Digambara sect of Jains. His contribution led to rapid progress made by the Digambara Jain sect in the 9th and 10 th century under Jinasena and Gunabhadra. (As evident from Mahapurana). Both of these Digambar Jain monks enjoyed favor of more than one monarchs and much responsible to eclipse Buddhism. The result was that Buddhism finally disappeared from Deccan in the early 12th century.



19 | P a g e

Amoghavarsha deeply loved his subjects and many historians have compared him with Asoka. Successors of Amoghavarsha Amoghavarsha was succeeded by Krishna II. Though his period is 878 AD to 914 AD but it seems that he started ruling during his father's reign. He was followed by Indra II, who was succeeded by Amoghavarsha II. Amoghavarsha II was assassinated by his brother Govinda IV, within one year of his rule. Govinda IV reigned till 935 AD. The feudatories of Govinda IV revolted and deposed him. He was succeeded by Amoghavarsha III (also known as Baddiga). These all rulers were less important and finally, the dynasty came to an end as the last ruler Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailpa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries.

Legacy of Rashtrakutas The reign of Rastrakutas of Manyakheta was from 753 AD to 982 AD. The rastrakutas were great patrons of architecture.The Rastrakuta architecture was a splendid form of Rock cut architecture. Most of the shrines were Buddhist caves such as Ellora and Elephants at Maharastra. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora Ellora caves, located 30 km northwest of Aurangabad, make up one of the major cave temple groups in India, belonging to the Rastrakuta period. In Ellora there are Buddhist, Hindu as well as Jain cave temples, spread over a stretch of 2 km. These are not just cave temples but also temples sculpted out of rock and are much richer in style and detail. Caves 1-12 are Buddhist, 13-29 are Hindu and 30-34 are Jain, excavated in that order. Most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple. It was carved out of single solid granite about 100 feet high and the temple measures 150' X 100'. There are four main parts of the temple, and those are the main shrine, the entrance gateway to the west, a Nandi pavilion and cloister all round the courtyard.The architecture style used in Kailasanatha temple was Dravida.

Chapter 5. Chalukyas of Kalyani and Chalukyas of Vengi Western Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Kalyani

After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by Dantidurga, they revived after two centuries in around 972-73AD. This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed). This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Hoyasala Empire finally destroyed them in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Eastern Chalukya Empire: Chalukyas of Vengi The origins of the Chalukyas of Vengi go back to the time of Pulkesin II when he had appointed his brother Kubja Vushnu Vardhana as a Viceroy of Vengi in around 620 AD. This developed as an



20 | P a g e

independent kingdom for a short period and later remained under the control of first Rastrakuta and then Cholas. They contributed to the growth of the Telugu literature.

Political History of Chalukyas of Kalyani The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Tailapa II Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its former glory. Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race except the Gujarat region. We know about his reign from the Gadag records. He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called three gems of Kannada literature. Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was finally captured and probably killed in captivity. This was in 995 AD. Two years later Tailpa died and his crown was passed on to his son Satyasraya

Satyasraya The period of reign of Satyasraya was 997 to 1008 AD. Though, to star with, he adopted the aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous consequence of a war with the great Chola Rajaraja-I. Rajaraja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women and children. Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was Someshwara I.

Someshwara I Someshwara I, who was also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamalla reigned from 1042 AD to 1068 AD. The contemporary Chola King was Rajadhiraja Chola I who became Chola king in the same year i.e. 1042. Someshwara I had established Kalyani as its capital. He faced the attack of Rajadhiraja Chola-I, who overran initially the Chalukyan capital and demolished the forts and erected the pillars as a memorabilia of the victories, but the Chalukyan counter attack forced them out. Under Someshwara-I , the Chalukya army raided Chola capital Kanchipuram but it was repelled back. Finally in the battle of Koppam, Rajadhiraja Chola was killed. But his younger brother took the command and drove the Chalukyas back. In this attack, brother of Someshwara-I was killed. The reign of Someshwara I is known for numerous wars. This able king of the Western Chalukya Empire ended his life by drowning himself in the river Tungabhadra, due to his inability to endure a fever. Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son



21 | P a g e

Someshwara II, but Someshwara II was soon deposed by his younger brother Vikramaditya VI, whose reign is from 1076 - 1126 AD.

Vikramaditya VI: Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire. He left the maximum number of inscriptions, all in Kannada. He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned for around half a century in tolerable peace. Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi in late in his career and engaged with serious battles with a Hoyasala King of Dorsamudra known as Vishnu. In the capital Kalyani during the times of Vikramaditya VI, a celebrated jurist of the 12th century called Vijñāneśvara lived. Vijñāneśvara has written a treatise on inheritance which is among the most influential legal treatises in Hindu Law outside Bengal. The title of this work was Mitāksarā. Mitākṣarā is considered to be an important commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti. Another work by Vijñāneśvara is Dayabhaga, which is also related to Hindu law. Death of Vikramaditya VI was followed by a decline of Chalukya Empire. The Western Chalukya Dynasty ended in 1190, when most parts of its territory were absorbed by Yadavas of Devagiri and Hoyasals of Dorsamudra. The last King of Western Chalukyan Empire was Someshwara IV. After his death, the remaining territories of the Western Chalukyan Empire were absorbed by the Great Hoyasala King Veera Ballala II.

Legacy of Western Chalukyas While the buildings of the Chalukyas of the Badami are centered in and around Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami & Alampur, the buildings of the Western Chalukyas are widely dispersed, which reflect the system of the local government and decentralization in the Western Chalukyan Administration. The major improvement over the previous Badami Chalukya temple was the "Architectural Articulation" or ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine. The presence of Figure sculpture such as Heroes of Ramayana and Mahabharata and loving couples (Mithuna) was additional structure of these temples at the earliest period. The Western Chalukyan Temples are either Ekakuta (one mandapa of one shrine) or Dvikuta (a common hall attached to two shrines). The style has characters of both the Northern as well as Dravidian temple architecture. This combination of both of these style is known as Vesara Style, also Central Indian Style, which is represented by the Hoyasala Temples. Most of the temples of the Western Chalukyas are dedicated to Shiva, some of them dedicated to Vishnu and Jain Tirthankars also. The Hoysalas architecture was clearly influenced by the Western Chalukyan Architecture.

Truketshwara Temple, Gadag



22 | P a g e

Gadag Style: The Gadag Style refers to the ornate columns in the temples. This style originated in the period of the Western Chalukya King Someshwara I. The finest example of Gadag style is Trikuteshwara Temple at Gadag. The hall mark of the Gadag Style of Ornate pillars is visible in the Trukuteshwara Temple complex located at Gadag. This temple was created during the reign of Someshwara I in the 11th century. The temple is dedicated to Shiva and has three lingams mounted on a single stone. The ornate pillars are located in an exclusive Saraswati Shrine in the temple complex.

Temples of Lakkundi Lakkundi is a tiny village in Gadag District of Karnataka. Here, we find 50 temples of the Western Chalukyan Empire, most important of which are Mahadeva Temple and Kahi Visheveshwar Temple. The place is also a source of around 30 inscriptions of the Chalukyas, Kalachuris, Seunas, Kadambas and Hoysalas.

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi is one of the most ornate temples in Karnataka. This temple was initially built in the Western Chalukyan Empire and later additions were done by Verea Ballala II, the great Hoyasala King. It’s a Dvikuta Temple.

Mahadeva Temple, Itagi About 20 kilometers from Nakkundi is located the Mahadeva Temple of Itagi. It was built by one of the commanders of the Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI in 1112 AD. This temple is one of the finest example of "Dravida Articulation" in Nagara style. This is evident from the picture of the Shikhara of the main shrine shown here.

Doddabasappa Temple, Dambal Doddabasappa Temple located at Dambal in Karnataka is one more example of fine Western Chalukyan Art. This temple is a variant of Dravida style called the karnatadravida Temple style. The temple is built on uninterrupted 24 pointed star shaped floor plan, which is different from the pre existing 6-12 and 24 interrupted star shaped temples. Other Western Chalukya Temples are located at Kuknur, Lakmeshwar, Bankarupa etc.

Important features of the Temples of the Western Chalukyas: • The western Chalukya temples show an improvement over the previous experiments. These

temples are show a transition from the Nagara to Dravida style and create a new style Karnatadravida.

• The ornate columns are seen as one of the most important features and that is why some of the temples such as “Mahadeva Temple” are called finest in Karnataka after Halebid.



23 | P a g e

• The Temple plan in most of the plans is star shaped. Most temples are dedicated to Shiva and Nandi at the entrance of the shrine appears as a main feature.

Chapter 6. Hoyasala Empire A family or clan named Hoyasala had attained considerable power in the present day Karnataka during the 12th and 13th century. This empire ruled almost all the present day Karnataka between the 11th to mid of the 14th century. Their capital was Belur which was later shifted to Halebidu. This period was a very important era for the development of the art, architecture and religion in the Southern countries. The Hoyasala Empire contributed in the growth of both the Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

Political Summary of Hoysalas The earliest known king of this empire is Nripa Kama II who lived around 1026-1047 AD. He was probably a feudatory of the Western Gang Dynasty and is known to have indulged in futile wars against the Cholas. However, another early Hoyasala ruler Vinayaditya was a feudatory of Chalukyas of Kalyani. Vinayaditya was having family ties with Western Chalukyan King Someshwara I. His son Ereyanaga tried to establish himself as an independent monarch but was not successful. He was succeeded by Veera Ballala-I who was also an unimportant ruler. The first notable great Hoyasala king was Vishnuvardhana, who was also known as Bittiga.

Vishnuvardhana The period assigned to reign of Vishnuvardhana or Bittiga is 1108-1152 AD. He is best known for taking steps to consolidate the Hoyasala Empire. He established his capital at Dorsamudra, which is modern Halebidu in Karnataka. Vishnuvardhana was younger brother of Veera Ballala-I. He assumed the title of Talakadagonda and Veera Ganga. He built Nirtinarayana temple at Talakad and Chennakasava temple at Belur. He was originally a Jain and Jain religion enjoyed high favour under his minister Gangaraja's protection. He carried out numerous conquests and defeated the mighty kings of the Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms. It is said that under the influence of Ramanujacharya, Vishnuvardhana converted to Hinduism and became a Vashnavite. This is evident by a number of Vishnu temples, built during his reign. He died in 1152 and his son Narsimha I ascended the throne. Narsimha I killed the Western Chalukyan ruler Tailapa III. He was succeeded by Veera Ballala II.

Veera Ballala II Veera Ballala II (1173–1220 AD) was another greatest monarch of the Hoyasala Empire. He put the Chalukyas of Kalyani to en end by defeating Someshwara IV. After this defeat Someshwara IV shifted his capital to Banavasi, and the Kalyani passed to the hands of Yadavas of Devagiri. With



24 | P a g e

Cholas he had family relationships. The successors of Vera Ballala II were mostly unimportant rulers. The last great King was Veera Ballala III.

Veera Ballala III Veera Ballala III was the last great ruler of the Hoyasala Empire. His reign was from 1291 AD till 1343 AD. In 1310, the commanders of Sultan Alauddin Khilji had invaded the Deccan devastating most of the countries. By 1318 Devagiri was occupied by Sultan of Delhi and by 1336, almost all Hindu Kingdoms of the south except the Hoyasala Empire were annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. A muslim Madurai Sultanate was also formed in those years. Veera Ballala III campaigned against the muslims. He made Tiruvannamalai as his new capital and founded another capital at the banks of River Tungabhadra at Hosapattana where his able commanders Harihara and Bukkaraya (popularly known as Hakka and Bukka) founded the Vijayanagar Empire in 1336. Veera Ballala III was killed in one of the battles against the Delhi Sultan in 1343. He was succeded by Harihara Raya I who founded the Sangama Dynasty of the Vijayanagar empire. The following picture shows the dynasties in the 12th century in India.

The Legacy of Hoysalas By the 13th century, the power of the Cholas had declined. This was the time for a great and sophisticated culture when marvelous temples were built in Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu. Hoyasala influence was at its zenith during the 13th century and the artists of this empire freely borrowed from the Chalukya and Chola traditions and created a style unique in many ways. Hoyasala history is clear from the time of King Vishnuvardhana, who ruled from A.D. 1108 to A.D. 1142. Inscriptions show that the king, his wife and his ministers were generous patrons of temples.

Chennakesava Temple, Belur Vishnuvardhana, who defeated the imperial Cholas in A.D. 1116, in the memory of establishment of his dynasty and this victory, built a temple for Kesava, or Chennakesava, at Belur, and named it the Vijayanarayana temple. The temple is a classic example of the ornate style of temple art under the Hoysalas. They inherited a rich tradition of temple building from the Chalukyas and the Cholas.

Hoysaleshwar Temple, Halebid Hoysaleshwar Temple was built between A.D. 1121 and A.D. 1160 in the area of Halebid, known then as Dorsamudra, which was the capital of the Hoysalas. It was also built during the reign of Vishnuvardhana. The temple is Dvikuta, means two shrines which are called "Hoysaleswara" and "Shantaleswara". Shantala was queen of Vishnuvardhana. The temple is best known for sculptures on the outerwalls.



25 | P a g e

Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura was built by Soma, a commander of the Narsimha III. It is also one of the finest structures of the Hoyasala architecture.

Important Features of the Hoyasala Temples: The Hoyasala built around 1500 temples at 958 centers between 1000 AD to 1346 AD. The finest temples were commissioned during the times of Vishnuvardhana. He was a subordinate to the Western Chalukyas and probably after declaring independence wanted to excel in this art also. This is evident from one of his inscriptions which says "built it from the wealth which he amassed from the sword”. The Hoyasala temple architecture was heavily influenced by the Western Chalukyas, Cholas as well as Pallavas, though there was a departure from the Chalukyan style. This is evident from the fact that in the beginning, the temples were not over decorated, but the later temples have this feature in almost of its totality.

Chapter 7. Yadavas of Devagiri The Yadavas of Devagiri were the descendants of the feudatory nobles of the Western Chalukyan Empire. The most important territory which they had under them was between Devagiri (Modern Daultabad) and Nasik and was known as Sevana or Seuna, though they had influence in modern Maharashtra, North Karnataka and parts of Southern Madhya Pradesh.

• They are known as founders of Marathi Culture. The name Seuna has been used for them in the Hoyasala and Kakatiya inscriptions and seems to be probably derived from the name of Seunachandra, second ruler of this dynasty. This dynasty was founded by Dridhaprahara. His son Seunachandra ruled an area of present Khandesh which was known as Seundesa.

Bhillama 1173-1191 AD The first of Yadavas in this line to achieve importance was Bhillama or Bhillama V, who established the sovereign Seuna Kingdom and founded Devagiri in 1187 AD. His territory was bordered by Parmaras in North, Kaktiya in east, Hoyasals in South and Solankis in west. The mighty Devagari fort which was 184 meters was captured by Alauddin Khilji in 1294 and was later plundered by Malik Kafur again 1307, 1310 and 1318 was an important landmark of his reign. Bhillama was killed in a battle with a Hoyasala Chief in 1191 AD. The second great ruler of this dynasty was Singhana II.



26 | P a g e

Singhana II Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most important ruler of the Yadavas Dynasty. He carried out several conquests and expanded the kingdom from the banks of Narmada to Tungabhadra. He invaded Gujarat and other countries and made the Yadavas Kingdom matching in extent the realms of the Chalukyas and the Rastrakutas. Singhana II was a great patron of fine arts and literature. Sarangadeva, the great author of Sangita Ratnakar was an accountant in the court of Singhana II. His work Sangeet Ratnakara is considered to be one of the most important works on Hindustani as well as Classical Music.

Raja Ramchandra The Yadavas of Devagiri, akin to the Hoyasals were destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Raja Ramchandra was the last sovereign Hindu Ruler of Deccan. When Alauddin Khilji, sultan of Delhi crossed the Narmada River, the northern frontier of Yadavas in 1294, the Yadava Ruler Raja Ramchandra (1291-1309 AD) was obliged to surrender and was ransomed his life by a large treasure that included 600 maunds of pearls, two Maunds of Diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires. (One maund was around 40 Kilograms, though Maund was officially pegged at 37.3242 kilograms in

British India/ independent India).The Sultan's incursions were again repeated by Malik Kafur in 1309 and Ramchandra again submitted to the invader.After his death, his son in law Harpala revolted against the Muslim Sultan in 1318 and was defeated, then flayed (skinned) alive and was decapitated. This was the miserable end of the Yadavas of Devagiri. Ramchandra like other Yadava rulers was a patron of art and literature. In his court, the celebrated Sanskrit author Hemadri or Hemadpant served as a Chief Minister. Chaturvarga Chintamani was his encyclopedic Sanskrit work. Hemadpant introduced Modi script for writing in Marathi from Ceylon and has left some valuable historical sketch of Yadava dynasty.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-6: Sangam Literature and Southern Kingdoms

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-6: Sangam Literature & Southern Kingdoms


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. The Sangam Literature ......................................................................................... 3

Tamilkam and the Sangam Age ................................................................................. 3 Iraiyanar Akapporul and Sangam legend............................................................................ 4

Basics of Sangam Literature ....................................................................................... 4 Earliest Extant Tamil Work: Tolkāppiyam ............................................................................ 4 Earliest Tamil Work: Agattiyam ........................................................................................... 5 Themes of Sangam Literature ............................................................................................. 5 Classification of Sangam Literature ..................................................................................... 5 Patinenmēlkanakku ............................................................................................................. 6 Patinenkīlkanakku ............................................................................................................... 6 Impact of Sanskrit on Tamil Literature ................................................................................ 7

Chapter 2. The Pandya Kingdom ............................................................................................ 7 Extent of Pandya Empire ..................................................................................................... 7 Capitals and Main Cities: ..................................................................................................... 7

Political History of Pandyas ....................................................................................... 8 First Pandya Empire ............................................................................................................. 8

Chapter 3. The Chera Kingdom ............................................................................................. 10 First Cheras: Uthiyan Cheralathan ..................................................................................... 11 Second Cheras (Later Cheras) ............................................................................................ 11

Chapter 4. The Chola Empire ................................................................................................ 11 Early Cholas ............................................................................................................. 12

Karikala Chola ................................................................................................................... 12 Medieval Cholas ....................................................................................................... 12

Vijayalaya Chola ............................................................................................................... 13 Aditya Chola I .................................................................................................................... 13 Parantaka Chola I .............................................................................................................. 13 Rajaraja Chola I ................................................................................................................. 14 Rajendra Chola -I .............................................................................................................. 15 Rajadhiraja Chola 1018-1059 AD ..................................................................................... 16 Rajendra Chola-II (1051-1063 AD) ................................................................................... 17 Virarajendra Chola (1063-1070 AD) .................................................................................. 17 Kulotthunga Chola-I (1070 – 1120 AD) ............................................................................. 18 Vikrama Chola 1120-1135 AD .......................................................................................... 19 Kulotthunga Chola II 1133 AD – 1150 AD ......................................................................... 19 Rajaraja Chola II 1150 – 1173 AD ..................................................................................... 19 Rajadhiraja Chola II 1166 AD -1178 AD ............................................................................ 19 Kulothunga Chola III 1178- 1218 AD ................................................................................ 20 Rajaraja Chola III 1216-1256 AD ..................................................................................... 20 Rajendra Chola III 1246 – 1280 AD.................................................................................... 20

Temple Architecture of Cholas ................................................................................. 21 Special Features of the Chola Architecture:....................................................................... 21 Vijayalaya Cholisvara Temple, Thanjore ........................................................................... 21 Koranganatha Temple, Srinivasanallur ............................................................................. 21 Muvarkovil, Pudukkottai .................................................................................................... 22 Tiruvalisvaram temple, Tiruneveli ..................................................................................... 22 Brihadeeswarar Temple of Tanjore ................................................................................... 22

Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram ....................................................... 22 Chapter 5. The Pallava Confederacy .................................................................................... 22

Political Summary of Pallavas ................................................................................. 23 Sivaskanda Varman ........................................................................................................... 23 Simhavishnu ...................................................................................................................... 23 Mahendravarman-I ........................................................................................................... 23 Narsimhmvarman-I ........................................................................................................... 23

Legacy of Pallavas ................................................................................................... 24 Most important Features of the Pallava Architecture: ...................................................... 24 Mandagapattu rock cut temple ......................................................................................... 24 Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram ................................................................................ 25



3 | P a g e

Vaikuntha Perumal temple, Kanchipuram ......................................................................... 25 Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram ......................................................................................... 25 The mystery of 7 Pagodas ................................................................................................. 25

Introduction The ancient tradition recognizes three Kingdoms of South India viz. Pandyas, Chola and Chera. Apart from that one more, Pallava rose to power (2nd century AD and later). Out of these the Pandyas kingdom occupied the extremity of the Southern Peninsula, south of Pudukottai, Chola Kingdom extended northwards to Nellore and Chera Kingdom laid to the west which mainly included Malabar Coast. We know from the history of Mauryas that Chola and Pandyas realms were well known to Asoka, but as far as Chera is concerned, Asoka specifies two kingdoms viz. Keralaputra and Satyaputra. Since races that spoke Dravidian language occupied all the kingdoms of South, they are generally known as Dravidians. During the Vedic Civilization, this region was not penetrated by any of the Aryan languages and these kingdoms completely secluded from the Northern India. This region was in touch with the outer world only through the medium of maritime commerce and these Kingdoms were extremely successful in the maritime trade. The ancient political history of Southern India is irretrievably lost and the sources to trace the development of a very high degree of civilization achieved by the Dravidians are scant. It is not possible to define when and how the Aryans penetrated the Southern countries. However, most historians take 500 BC as the mean date of Aryan penetration to the Southern India. We know from the Maurya History, that Asoka had introduced Buddhism in South and his son Mahinda had built a monastery in the Chola Country, still it is impossible to define whether, Asoka and Mahinda saw any Brahmincal influence on those people. Jainism also had found a great favour in those countries. The history corroborated as well as documented of the Southern empires begins with the Maurya period, though the earliest Dynastic annals are available of the Pallavas beginning with 2nd century AD. However, Pallavas are not included in the three kingdoms of south mainly because of the reason that this dynasty was an intrusive foreign and Non-Dravidian race.

Chapter 1. The Sangam Literature Tamilkam and the Sangam Age

Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. The development of Tamil was faster than Malayalam and it had therefore become a common language for intellectual expression. In Chera Kingdom, the prevalent language was Malayalam, which developed later. Tamilkam, Tamilgam, Tamilham or Tamizhakam refers to the Tamil realm or the ancient Tamil Country. This refers to the territories under today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry, South Andhra Pradesh, parts of southern Karnataka and Maldives.



4 | P a g e

After the Vedic periods, this region saw emergence of clearly identifiable social formation. We know about these from the Asokan Inscriptions as well as Indika of Megasthenes. During the 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, earliest extant (existing today) works of Tamil Literature was created and which is known as Sangam Literature. The period from the 3rd century BC to 3rd Century AD is named after the Tamil Sangams as Sangam period. Sangam refers to the assemblies or confluence.

Iraiyanar Akapporul and Sangam legend Iraiyanar Akapporul, which is also known as "Iraiyanar's writing on love”, is a work of Tamil literature which dates back to around 5-8th centuries AD. This work has 60 Nrupas or verses. Iraiyanar Akapporul is the oldest work, which gives reference to the Sangam Legend and gives the first mention of the Sangam Period. This reference is in a commentary by Nakkirar which describes 3 Sangams which span in thousands of years. As per this legend

• First Sangam (Mudharchangam) was held at Madurai and was submerged under the sea. It lasted for 4400 years and had 549 members and 4449 poets. This includes authors like Hindu gods such as Siva, Kubera and Murugan. First Sangam was presided by Rishi Agasyta and was patronized by 89 Pandya Kings.

• The second Sangam (Idaichangam) is described to have convened in Kapatapuram which lasted for 3700 years and had 59 members and 3700 poets. This also submerged under sea. Second Sangam was presided by Tolakappiyar and was presided by 59 kings.

• The third Sangam (Kadaichamgam) was held in Madurai and lasted 1850 years. It had 49 members and 449 poets. Third Sangam was presided by Nakkirar and was presided by 49 Patron Kings.

The legend provided by Iraiyanar Akapporul says that 8598 poets contributed to these Sangams and all of them were patronized by 197 Pandya Kings and they lasted for 9990 years. The information is exaggerated and unrealistic and is now rejected by the Scholars. This reference has only of indicative importance.

Basics of Sangam Literature The scientific analysis of the literature says that this work was composed in 120-150 years and most of the literature was composed from 100 AD to 250 AD. There are 2289 poems available under Sangam Literature now; many of them are very short having only 3-5 verses. 102 of them are anonymous. The number of poets estimated is 473.

Earliest Extant Tamil Work: Tolkāppiyam Tolkāppiyam is a work of Tamil Grammar, which is said to be the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature. There are three books in Tolkāppiyam viz. Ezhuttadikaram, Solladikaram and Poruladikaram, and each of them are composed of nine chapters. This work has divided the Tamil



5 | P a g e

Language into two types’ viz. Sentamil (Classical Tamil) and Kotuntamil (Spoken Tamil). Sentamil is used in almost all literary works of the Tamil Language.

Earliest Tamil Work: Agattiyam However, the first work on Tamil Grammar, which is not extant and is lost irretrievably, is Agattiyam. Rishi Agastya wrote it. Tolakappiar who wrote the above-mentioned Tolkāppiyam is said to be a disciple of Rishi Agastya. As per the Tamil traditions, Rishi Agasyta invented the Tamil Language and brought its syntax from the lord Shiva.

Themes of Sangam Literature On the basis of interpretation and context, the Sangam literature can be described into two types viz. Agam (inner) and Puram (outer). The topics of Agam are related to personal and human aspects such as love and sexual things. The topics of Puram are related to human experiences and emotions such as Heroism, Valor, Ethics and Philanthropy. The poems have also been classified on nature themes which are known as Thinai. The themes are as follows:

• Kurinji (Mountianous Theme). • Mullai (Forests Theme) • Marutham (Agricultural Land Theme) • Neithal (Coastal Theme) • Paalai (Desert Theme)

The literature was lost and forgotten. The Tamil Scholars S V Damodaram Pillai and U V Swamitha Iyer brought it into light. They printed and published different works such as Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar urai, Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai, Manimekalai, Cilappatikaram, Pattupattu, and Purananuru in different parts of the 19th century, all with commentaries.

Classification of Sangam Literature Broadly, we can divide the Sangam literature in 2 parts viz. Patinenmēlkanakku and Patinenkīlkanakku. Out of them, the Patinenmēlkanakku refers to the oldest surviving Tamil Poetry of the Sangam Age, dating back to 200 BC to 100 BC while the Patinenkīlkanakku refers to the collection of 18 poetic works, which belongs to Post Sangam period, and date back to 100 AD to 500 AD. This classification has been further summarized as follows: (Not to be crammed)

Sangam Literature Oldest Extant work on Grammar : Tolkāppiyam Oldest conceptual work on Grammar : Agattiyam Published Works Patinenmēlkanakku (Sangam Period) Patinenkīlkanakku (Post Sangam Period) Total 18 Works Total 18 Works Ettuttokai (The Eight Anthologies)

Pattuppāttu (The Ten Idylls) 1. Nalatiyar 1. Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu

1. Ainkurunūṟu 1. Tirumurukārruppatai 2. Nanmanikkatigai 2. Tirukkural 2. Akananūru 2. Kuriñcippāttu 3. Inna Narpathu 3. Thirikatukam 3. Puranānūru 3. Malaipatukatām 4. Iniyavai Narpathu 4. Acharakkovai 4. Kalittokai 4. Maturaikkāñci 5. Kar Narpathu 5. Pazhamozhi Nanuru 5. Kuruntokai 5. Mullaippāttu 6. Kalavazhi Narpathu 6. Siruppanchamulam 6. Narrinai 6. Netunalvātai 7. Ainthinai Aimpathu 7. Muthumozhikkanchi 7. Paripātal 7. Pattinappālai 8. Thinaimozhi 8. Elathi



6 | P a g e

Aimpathu 8. Patirruppattu 8. Perumpānārruppatai 9. Ainthinai Ezhupathu 9. Kainnilai

9. Porunarārruppatai 10. Cirupānārruppatai

Patinenmēlkanakku This is the collection of the Sangam Period works. Ettutokai is a large volume of the poems which is consisting of more than 2000 poems. These works, which are called “The Eight Anthologies”, are on deferent themes such as Narrinai on love, Kuruntokai on love, Aiankurunuru on erotic love etc. So most works of Ettukottai are of Agam style. Most works of Pattuppāttu are of Puram context and they have works on seasons and picturesque nature of Tamil Country. They are based upon the themes of the nature.

Patinenkīlkanakku Patinenkīlkanakku is the post Sangam work that is of Agam as well as Puram context. Some important points of some of these works is as follows:

• Naaladiyar was composed by Jain monks and the theme is the transient nature of life and youth. It was work of Nalatiyar.

• Nanmanikkatiga is the collection of 100 songs of Vilambi Naganaar and deals conditions / emotions of 4 types of people who cannot sleep in the night and they are thief, lovelorn, after money, and worrying about losing money.

• Inna Narpathu describes the things which should be avoided by the people. It deals with the things that bring unhappiness such as beautiful but disloyal wife, wealth of a miser, life under a tyrant and a beautiful flower without fragrance.

• Iniyavai Narpathu deals with the things which should not be avoided by a person and seek even in adverse situations such as learning even by begging, advice of learned persons, healthy children, and not coveting other's spouse.

• Kalavazhi Narpathu deals with war and politics. • Ainthinai Aimpathu deals with human emotions, love, separation, lovers' quarrels. • Thinaimozhi Aimpathu also deals with the Agam subjects such as love, seperation, lover

fights etc. • Same is with Ainthinai Ezhupathu. • Same is with Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu . • Thirukkural is the first work in all of the Dravidian literature which deals with the ehics. It

was authored by Thiruvalluvar. It is also known as Kural and is a collection of 1330 couplets.

• Thirikatukam deals with herbal medicines. • Acharakkovai deals with the personal behavior and correct methods to follow. • Pazhamozhi Nanuru deals with the character of the person.



7 | P a g e

• Siruppanchamulam deals with the nature and combines the benevolent humans with benevolent neighbors.

• Muthumozhikkanch deals with the right behavior and chastity. • Elathi deals with human qualities and also narrates some herbal medicines. • Kainnilai deals with the agam concepts.

Impact of Sanskrit on Tamil Literature The Tamil language and literature did not flourish in isolation and was influenced by Sanskrit. The Aryans had penetrated the whole of the Tamil Land by 6th century AD and Post Sangam literature contains some traces of Aryan Culture. Influence of Sanskrit is more on the five epics of Tamil Literature, which were written between 1st century AD to 9th century AD. Out of them Silappatikaram, which was written by Ilango Adigal, brother of Senguvattan, a Chera King and who was a Jain monk is a highly regarded epic. The other four epics are

• Manimegalai which is a Buddhist Religious Work • Civaka Chintamani which is a Jain Religious work • Valayapathi which is also a Jain work of 9th Century • Kundalkesi which is a Buddhist work of 5th century by Nagasena.

Chapter 2. The Pandya Kingdom Pandya Kingdom refers to the Pandyas of Mahabharata Period about whom, we only know from the traditional legends and epics. Of this ancient Pandya Kingdom was a king known as Sarangdhwaj, had taken part in the epic war of Mahabharata. This Pandya Kingdom and its landmarks such as Rishabha Mountain, Agastya and Varuna Tirthas, Kumari, Thamiraparni, Gokarni etc. find their place in Mahabharata. The other references, which may or may not be historically correct, link them with the events of Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the Pandya Kings were allies of the Pandavas. However, the Pandya Empire was a dynasty, which finds its place in Sangam literature, and later sources show their rule till 15th century AD. The territory was also known as Pandya Country. The Pandya kings adopted the fish or a pair of Fishes as their family crest.

Extent of Pandya Empire The Pandya country, as per the traditions extended from the Podukottai district to Kanyakumari in south and Achankovil River in Kerala (west) to River Vegai (Madura) in East. The kingdom was ordinarily divided into 5 principalities which were known as "Five Pandyas". The early days capital of Pandyas is Korkai.

Capitals and Main Cities: Korkai, which is now an insignificant village in Tamil Nadu, was the commercial capital and important port of the Pandya Kingdom. Korkai has been a cradle of South Indian Civilization and as



8 | P a g e

per traditions; it is considered the home of three brothers who were supposed to have founded the Pandya, Chera and Chola Kingdoms. Korkai was center of Pearl trade and this trade was the chief source of wealth for the Pandya Kings. Today, Korkai is located 6 kilometers from the coast. The shift is because of the silting up of the delta, which rendered Korkai inaccessible to ships. After Korkai, the commercial capital of the Pandyas was shifted to a new port of at a town Old Kayal, which were about one and half kilometers from the mouth of river Tambraparni and located in present Tinnevely district. Visit of Marcopolo Marcopolo landed in Pandya Empire (at Kayal) in 13th century and impressed by the wealth and magnificence of the King, Prince as well as people, tagged it as the richest kingdom in existence. However, the same silting process in 14th century caused the abandonment of the Kayal too, and the Portuguese were compelled later to shift their business to a port of Tuticorin, which was free from silting of Delta. The capital of Pandyas was later shifted to Madura (now Madurai). Madura, the Later Capital of Pandyas Madura, the later capital of Pandyas was the central seat of Tamil Sangam literature. Today, Madurai is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities. Madura was located on the banks of River Vaigai in Tamil Nadu. As early as 3rd Century BC, Megasthenes visited Madurai and quoted this city as "Methora" in his document Indika. In Sangam literature, Madura finds special place in Mathuraikkanci, a Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology. This work praises a Pandya King Nedunchezhiyan. Similarly Madura has been described by Pliny, Ptolemy and Strabo too.

Political History of Pandyas No continuous history of the Pandya Kings prior to 12th century AD has been clearly written. In Maurya Period, the Pandya Kingdom was independent. One of the Pandya Kings had sent an embassy to Augustus Caesar. Pandya Kingdom was well known to Greeks and Romans for its pearl trade. Many Roman coins have been found on many places in Pandya Empire, which shows an existence of a well-developed trade between the Romans and Pandyas in the early centuries AD.

First Pandya Empire Post Sangam period, the first Pandyan empire was established by a King named Kadungon, who defeated Kalabras in 6th century AD. The successors of Kadungon indulged in fighting with the nearby Chera and Chola Kings. Huen Tsang, who visited in 6th century AD traveled up to Kanchi which was southernmost point of his itinerary. He has mentioned the people of this area as Malakottai. Malakottai may refer to the Pandyan kingdom. Huen Tsang mentions that the people in this reason little cared for learning; there were Buddhist Monasteries, which were almost in ruins. The last Pandya King of this first Pandyan Empire was Maravarman Rajasimha II who ruled from 900-920 AD. He was a contemporary of the Chola King Parantaka Chola I, who overran his kingdom and captured Madura. Parantaka Chola-I after this victory, earned the title of



9 | P a g e

Maduraikonda. Rajsimha II fled to Ceylon after this defeat and returned to Kerala, where he lived in low profile under a Chera King. The great Rajaraja Chola-I in 1000 AD, reduced the Pandya Empire, akin to the other kingdoms of South, to a tributary and after that, it continued for a century or even long under the Cholas. In the turn of the 13th century, a vassal of Chola Empire named Jatavarman Kulasekaran I ascended to the Madura Throne in 1290, turned rebel to Cholas. The Cholas invaded him and sacked Madurai. Jatavarman Kulasekaran I surrendered to the Chola king Kulothunga with wife and son and acknowledging his surrender, he was returned his capital. But during this, the ancient coronation hall of Pandyas in Madurai was destroyed and it also destroyed the records if any of the previous Pandyas. This was the reason that the history of Pandyas lost in obscurity.

Sundara Pandyan To take revenge of this assault, younger brother of Kulasekaran, named Maravarman Sundara Pandyan, who came into power in 1216 AD, invaded the Chola Kingdom. The armies of Sundara Pandyan sacked the cities of Thanjaur and Uraiyur of Chola Kings and drove the Chola kings out in exile. His armies marched up to Chidambaram and in memory of this victory, Sundar Pandyan conducted a Thulabaram at the Chidambaram temple and donated wealth equal to his weight. But, victory of Sundar Pandyan over Cholas was followed by a march of the Hoyasala army towards Sri Rangapattam. Kingdom of the Cholas was returned after interference of Hoyasala king Veera Ballala III, but now Cholas accepted suzerainty of the Sundar Pandyan. This was the revival of second Pandyan Empire.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan After Maravarman Sundara Pandyan, we know about his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251-61). He was a mighty conqueror who invaded Ceylon and carried off the great booty. The famous tooth relic of Buddha was also included in this booty. With this victory Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was called "Second Rama" for plundering the Island of Sri Lanka. He covered the Srirangam temple with Gold. He also conflicted with the Kakatiya Kings of Warangal. Invasion of Malik Kafur Early in the 14th century, a dispute arose about the succession of the Pandya throne and one of the claimants appealed to the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khilji for help. This probably resulted in an invasion by the Sultan’s forces in 1310 under Malik Kafur. Malik Kafur sacked, looted Madura and marched up to Rameshwaram, where he erected a mosque. After that invasion, the Pandya kings ruled sporadically at undefined territories and a sort of confusion was there. Malik Kafur was followed by two other expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate in 1314 AD led by Khusrav Khan and in 1323 AD by Ulugh Khan. What happened to Pandyas after that, very little is known. Later Muhammad Bin Tughlaq created a southern province and placed Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan as its



10 | P a g e

governor. In 1333 AD Sayyid declared his independence and created Madurai Sultanate. Madurai Sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors, who kept on ruling until arrival of British.

Chapter 3. The Chera Kingdom Not many details are available about the pre-Christian era history of the Chera, Keralaputra and Satyaputra. “ Satyaputras The first historical evidence about Kerala is found in the inscriptions of Asoka who cited four kingdoms viz. Choda (Chola), Pada, (Pandya), Ketala Puto (Keralaputra), Satiya Puto (Satyaputra) in the south of his empire. Keralaputra and Satyaputra is mentioned in the Rock Edict II and Girnar Inscription.However, it referred to which territory and which dynasty was mostly unknown. The historians have identified it with the portions of the Malaya Mountains of the Western Ghats and certain lowlands around those areas. Satyaputra are mentioned in the Puranas and Tamil Literature as well. In the Asoka's edicts, they find their place with Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputra. This means that Satyaputra had rose to prominent power by the time of Asoka. However, after that, there are not many details available about this dynasty. Kerala The word "Kerala" is of Prakrat origin and is not available in Sangam texts. The etymological identity of Kerala and Chera link them but it was not certain that whether the present Kerala was the Chera Kingdom. However, Pandyas, Cheras and the Cholas were mentioned in surviving Tamil Literature (comprising of Chilappatikaram, Tirukkural etc), complementing their mention in the existing Sanskrit Literature viz. Puranas, Vedas, Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Few historians now believe that ancient Chera Kingdom included the today's Kerala but separated in 389 AD and the Chera Realm was restricted to Tamilnadu (around Coimbatore) and southern parts of Karnataka. Insignia of Cheras: Bow and Arrow The Chera Kings adopted the "Bow and arrow” as a crest or cognizance of their dynasty. They released a few coins, which were characterized by a bow device engraved on them. Though the authentic list of the Rajas of Travancore and that of Cochin is from beginning of 13th century & 15th century onwards, yet the Chera Dynasty is considered to be the two dynasties that ruled in two different eras. The First Chera dynasty ruled from 300 BC to 300 AD in the Sangam Era and another dynasty from the 9th century AD onwards. The only source of knowledge of the first Chera dynasty is Sangam Text. Cheras ruled in North Travancore, Cochin and Southern Malabar. Capital of the early Cheras was Vanchi Muthur in Kizhanthur-Kandallur and Karur Vanchi and the later Cheras was Mhodayapuram, Kulashekarapuram.



11 | P a g e

First Cheras: Uthiyan Cheralathan First recorded King of the Cheras is Uthiyan Cheralathan, who ruled anytime between 1st to 3rd century AD. He fought numerous battles and in one such battle with Cholas, he was defeated and due to humiliation, he committed suicide that was a common practice those days. The second king of the Chera Dynasty was Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan , who died in a battle with Chola Kings. The next important ruler was Senguttuvan, who is hero of a famous Tamil Epic Silapathikaram. Senguttuvan is best known for sending the first embassy to China from South India. His capital was Karur. The navy of Senguvattan was the best navy in the world.

Second Cheras (Later Cheras) Kulashekhara Alwar, a Tamil King in 800 AD, founded the second Chera Dynasty. He had united the parts of the Modern Kerala and ruled from his capital Mahodayapuram that is today's Kodungallur. Kulashekhara wrote Perumal thirumozhi, one of the most celebrated devotional works of the Tamil Bhakti cult. He renounced the crown to become a Vashnavite saint and lived in Srirangam. After Kulashekhara Alwar, all kings are insignificant and some of them became saints. The last Chera King was Rama Varma Kulashekhara who ruled from 1090 to 1102 AD. His contemporary Chola ruler was Kulothunga Chola-I with whom he fought a war. His life is shrouded in mystery as after this war, he is supposed to have left India and embraced Islam. This ended the Chera dynasty and the rulers were confined to the area around Travancore.

Chapter 4. The Chola Empire As per the traditions, the Chola Country or Cholamandalam was the area bound on the North by the Pennar, South by the Vellaru River, at Eastern Coast of Bay of Bengal from Nellore and Pudukottai to west until Coorg. Its most ancient capital was Uraiyur, near the Trichurapalli in Tamil Nadu. Therefore, the heartland was the fertile valley of the river Cauvery. The Chola dynasty is one of the longest ruling dynasties of South India, and it existed from 300 BC until late 13th century AD, though the territorial limits kept varying from time to time. This period of around 1500 years can be divided into 4 parts as follows: Early Cholas The Early Cholas refer to the Chola Kingdom of the Sangam Age from 300 BC to 200 AD. Most of the information about this, we have in the form of Sangam Literature, legends and religious texts of Buddhism and Jainism. Dark Period After this early Chola Kingdom fell, there is a dark period, in which they existed but insignificantly. Medieval Cholas The rise of the medieval Cholas is from 850 AD when Vijayalaya Chola of Thanjaur re-established the Chola Power in South India. These Chola Kings ruled till 1070 AD and the Cholamandalam flourished.



12 | P a g e

Later Cholas From 1070 AD till 1279 AD, is the period assigned to the later Cholas. During this time, the Chola Empire reached its Zenith and became the "Most Powerful Country" of the world. These Cholas colonized the South East Asian Countries and had the most powerful army and navy of the world at that time.

Early Cholas Not much authentic information is available about the Early Chola Kingdom. The main source of its knowledge is the Sangam Literature. The other sources are Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which is a work of an anonymous merchant of Alexandria, works of Ptolemy, Mahavamsa- the Buddhist Text of Ceylon, Pillars of Asoka, Hathigumpha description of Kharvela- the Kalinga King and other numerous stone inscriptions found at various parts in the Southern Peninsula.

Karikala Chola The most significant Early Chola ruler is Karikala Chola, who ruled around 270 BC and is mentioned in the Sangam Literature. The meaning of his name "Kari + Kalan" refers to "Slayer of Elephants" but also means “the one with burnt limbs". This indicates a fire accident in his early age, which left his legs charred. One of the Sangam Poems testifies this. Karikala Chola is best known for winning the famous "Battle of Venni" in which both the Pandyas and Cheras were crushed by him. The current location of Venni is near Thanjaur.The "Battle of Venni" was a turning point in his career and he was established as a firm power in the South. Some legends say that he won the whole of Ceylon Kingdom, after the Battle of Venni. World's earliest water-regulator structure in stone at Kallanai (Grand Anicut)on River Cauvery was built by Karikala Chola. It was constructed mainly to divert the water from Cauvery River for irrigation. This dam stands as a huge mass of 329 meters (1,080 feet) long and 20 meters (60 feet) wide, across the main stream of the Cauvery and is a major tourist attraction today.

Medieval Cholas From the Third century AD to 9th Century AD is the interregnum in the Chola History. The Chola hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras was lost after the close of the Sangam Era and south India was disturbed by the predatory activities of the Kalabhras. Kalabras was probably a tribal clan from the Deccan and they did not speak Tamil. They might be the ascendants of the Saatvahana, whose empire had demised by early 3rd century AD. Kalabhras were patrons of Buddhism and also Jainism. The demise of the Saatvahana dynasty in Deccan created a chaos and out of this chaos the Kalabhras tried to create a niche for themselves. They invaded the southern Tamil countries which were not in a position to counter attack. The Pallavas drove out the Kalabhras. Later, most of the Chola territories were lost to Pandyas and Pallavas. In the medieval period, Chalukyas rose to power. The Cholas and Chalukyas kept fighting over control on Vengi Kingdom for a longer period of time.



13 | P a g e

Vijayalaya Chola The first medieval Chola ruler was Vijayalaya who in 848 AD re-established the Chola rule. His capital was Thanjaur. The question, whether Vijayalaya was from the same Chola Dynasty, is not resolved. Vijayalaya was able to get benefit from the Pandya-Pallava rivalry. He perhaps captured Thanjaur in 848 AD by removing the Mutharaiyars, a family that belonged to the Pandya Clan or was a feudatory of Pandyas. Vijayalaya was a Pallava feudatory. Because of this victory, the Cholas became powerful and Vijayalaya wiped out both the Pandyas and Pallavas from the Thanjaur area. Vijayalaya renovated Thanjaur and built solesvara temple at Padukottai. The rise of the Chola power miffed both the Pallavas and Pandyas. The Pandya King Varagunavarman II and Pallava King Nandivarman III became allies to block the rising Chola Power. Nadivarman III died in 869 AD and a dispute arose between his son Nripatunga and Aparajita Pallava, stepbrother of Nriptunga. Aparajita came in the side of Cholas. The armies of Chola and the Pandya met at Sripurambiyam, near Kumbakonam. Aditya Chola I led the Cholas.

Aditya Chola I Aditya Chola I was son of Vijayalaya and he succeeded him after his death. At Sripurambiyam, he led the Chola army, as his father was ailing with age related problems. In this war, he defeated the Pandya forces. The victory was of Aparajita, but Aditya Chola reaped the real benefit. A few years later Aditya Chola I attacked the Pallavas and killed Aparajita. This was the end of Pallava Dynasty and whole territory of the Pallavas (Capital : Kanchi) was annexed to the Chola Kingdom. Thus the power of Cholas was further consolidated by Aditya Chola I. He was a great Shiva devotee and built a number of Shiva Temples on the banks of river Cauvery. With Cheras he had friendly relations. He died in 907 AD and his son Parantaka Chola I succeeded him.

Parantaka Chola I The foundation of the Chola Kingdom by Vijayalaya and Aditya Chola-I was further enhanced by Parantaka Chola I. His reign was from 907 AD to 955 AD. Just three years of ascending to the throne, he attacked the Pandyas and captured Madura, and assumed the title Madurakonda. The Pandya King was Maravarman Rajsimha II. Maravarman Rajsimha II prayed the King of Ceylon for help, who sent an army for aid to Maravarman Rajsimha II. However, Parantaka Chola defeated the combined army badly. Maravarman Rajsimha II fled to Ceylon and whole of Madura and Pandya Territory was merged in Chola kingdom. This victory earned him the title of Maduraiyum Elamum Konda Parakesarivarman (The conqueror of Madura and Ceylon). Apart from this major war, Parantaka-I also led some other minor wars. His 48 years reign was otherwise peaceful and prosperous. When he died in 955 AD, his second son Gandaraditya Chola succeeded him. This is because, Rajaditya, the son and successor of Parantaka, was killed in battle with Krishnaraja I, the Rashtrakuta king, in 949 A. D.



14 | P a g e

Gandaraditya Chola was insignificant ruler and 30 years from 955 AD i.e. 985 AD, the Chola Country was ruled by 5 Chola princes, all insignificant. Finally, in 985 AD Rajaraja Chola I ascended the Throne.

Rajaraja Chola I The birth name of Rajaraja Chola-I was Arulmozhi varman. He was also known as Arunmozhi udayar Periya Udayar. The 30 year period of the Dynastic intrigue was put to an end by Rajaraja Chola I. He was such an able King that for the period of next 20 years, he achieved so many victories that when he died in 1014 AD, he was beyond dispute the lord paramount of Southern India. His territory included today's whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Orissa, whole of Kerala and Sri Lanka. The adjacent graphics shows the territories of Rajraja Chola I, in the year 1014 AD. The first 8 years of his reign were utilized by Rajaraja Chola I for organizing and augmenting his army. Since ages, the Pandyas, Cheras and Sinhala were against the Cholas. The first attack was on Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi and in this campaign in Kerala, Rajaraja I destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur. However, some sources say that the port was under Pandyas. This conquest led him to assume the title "Mummudi Chola" (the wearer of three crowns Chera, Chola and Pandya). In Ceylon, Mahinda V was the King. In 991 AD, the army of Mahinda V mutinied against him and Mahinda fled to take refuge in Southern region of the Island. This was an opportunity used by Rajraja I , who attacked Ceylon in 993 AD. The army of Rajraja I crossed the ocean by ships, burnt Ceylon and destroyed Anuradhapura, the capital of the Sinhala kings of Ceylon. Rajaraja could win half of (northern) island of Sri Lanka and his son Rajendra Chola-I won rests of the territories in the island. In 998-999 AD, he captured parts of modern Karnataka from the Ganga Kings. By the turn of the millennium, Western Chalukyan Dynasty had rose to prominent power in North of Cholas.Rajaraja I was victorious against the Western Chalukyan King Satyasraya, son of Tailapa II. When the war with the Western Chalukyas concluded the Tungabhadra River became the northern frontier of the Chola Kingdom. He conquered Vengi and subsequently Kalinga. The last conquest was on Maldives most probably. The Rajrajeshwaram temple at Thanjaur, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site was built by Rajraja Chola . It is known as Brihadeeswarar Temple or Peruvudaiyar Kovil , devoted to lord Shiva. The temple was built by him on a command given by his lord Shiva in dream. The temple is a testimony to the Chola Power and wealth at the time of Rajraja Chola I. Stories of his victory have



15 | P a g e

been engraved on the walls of this temple. Rajaraja Chola I was a worshipper of Shiva. But he was a liberal minded king , who endowed a Burmese Buddhist Temple (Chudamani Vihara ) at the port of Nagapatam, which survived till 19th century, when in 1867, it was pulled down and the Jesuit priests erected Christian Building over them. Rajaraja Chola I died in 1014 AD and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola, who was declared crown prince in 1012 AD. The powerful standing army and a great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola I achieved even great successes under Rajendra Chola.

Rajendra Chola -I Rajendra Chola I succeeded his father Rajaraja Chola I in 1014 AD and reigned till 1044 AD. He was an able son and prince. He continued the ambitious career of his father and added more and more territories to the Chola Dominions. The powerful standing army and a great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola I achieved even great successes under Rajendra Chola. Rajendra Chola I was declared crown prince in 1012 AD, but he was active with his father since 1002 AD, when he conquered the Rastrakuta Country on behalf of his father. He also led a campaign against the western Chalukyan King Satyasraya and his successor Jayasimha II crossing the Tungabhadra river and attacking them at the heart of their capital, ruining the Chalukyas. Only 4 years after he became King, in 1018 he declared his eldest son Rajadhiraja as crown prince. Conquest of Ceylon by Rajendra Chola In 1018 AD, he led a campaign on Illam (Sri Lanka). The Powerful navy of Rajendra Chola I overran the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura. The Sinhala King Mahinda V was taken prisoner and was transported to the Chola Country. He was held a prisoner for 12 years and died in captivity. The whole of Sri Lanka (Iramandalam) was conquered by Rajendra Chola-I. Conquest of other empires: In 1021, his turned his attention to the Western Chalukyan Empire and defeated Jayasimha II in the Battle of Maski. Jayasimha II was returned his territory and was made a tributary subordinate. He also subdued the Eastern Chalukyas. After that his forces marched to Kalinga and reached the Pala Kingdom, where they met with forces of Mahipala and defeated them. The weight of the Chola arms was felt by almost all the Northern Kingdoms in this two year campaign. Victory over the Chalukyas, Kalinga, Gangas and Palas etc. led him to assume the title “Gangaikonda”.



16 | P a g e

Naval Conquests of Rajendra Chola: In 1025 AD, the Naval forces of Rajendra Cola I crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya Kingdom (Sumatra) of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. The capital Kadaram (part of Malaya) was sacked and its king was made a prisoner. Along with Kadaram, the Sumatra and Malaiyur were attacked and sacked. Kedah in today's Malaysia was also attacked and occupied. Relations with China: Cholas had good relations with the contemporary Chinese Kingdoms. The contemporary Chinese rulers were from the Song Dynasty who sent a mission to Chola country in 1015 AD to Rajaraja Chola I (Lo-ts’a-lo-ts’a) and again in 1033 AD to Rajendra Chola I (Shi-lo-cha Yin-to-loChu-lo Sri Raja Indra Chola). The commercial trade was extensive between them, and today's South East Asian territories might have been the midway in the trade routes , which indicate a reason of enmity between Cholas and these countries. Gangaikonda Cholapuram Gangaikonda Cholapuram was constructed by Rajendra Chola I to commemorate his conquest over the Chalukyas and other feudatories, Kalinga, Gangas, Palas etc. . . . These victories led him to assume the title Gangaikonda. Gangaikonda Cholapuram was erected as a new capital of the Cholas, which served as a Capital of the later Cholas until the Chola dynasty came to an end in 1280. It is now a small village in Tamil Nadu. There is a great Shiva Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. All the future princes of the Chola dynasty were coronated at the Gangaikonda Cholapuram after Rajendra Chola I. Now, only the temple at the Gangaikonda Cholapuram survives. A magnificent Royal Palace of burnt bricks was built over there, which was later turned to ruins most probably by the Pandyas. When Rajendra Chola I died in 1044 AD, the extent of the Chola Empire was the widest in the word and naval prestige was highest. The benevolent imperialism of the Cholas was maintained by his successor Rajadhiraja Chola.

Rajadhiraja Chola 1018-1059 AD Rajadhiraja Chola was declared crown prince / Co-regent as early as 1018 AD during time of his father Rajendra Chola I. He ruled with full regal status and was leader of the most of the military conquests of his father including that of Ceylon. He emphasized his claim to a paramount power by performing an Ashwamedha Yajna. In 1059, he was killed in the Battle of Koppam near Mysore, while fighting with the Chalukyas. He was killed on the back of the elephant and this is why he came to be known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (The king who died on elephant). His life was of a true warrior. In the Battle of Koppam, his younger brother Rajendra Chola II, declared himself Monarch and immediately took the command of the army, changing the scenario and result of this important battle.



17 | P a g e

Battle of Koppam We have read in the Western Chalukyan Kingdoms that Someshwara I ascended the throne in 1042 AD, and reigned till 1068 AD. This was one of the brilliant periods for the Chalukyas of Kalyani. However, the reign of Someshwara-I was known for continuous conflicts with the Cholas. He replaced his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani probably because of this pressure. The major conflict was over control over Vengi. Vengi kept moving in the hands of Eastern Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas, Cholas, Pandyas through the history. In 1044 Someshwara-I had launched a campaign to master Vengi, captured it and gained short term control. On this side, Chola King Rajadhiraja Chola was eager to restore Chola Power in Vengi. Rajadhiraja Chola defeated the western Chalukyan forces in the Battle of Dannanda (in Guntur) and Chalukyan forces were wiped out from Vengi. The forces of Rajadhiraja Chola had been successful to sack Kollipakkai, Kampilli, Pundur, Yetagiri and the Chalukyan Capital Kalyani. But before 1050 AD, Someshwara was able to make a dramatic recovery. He was successful in driving out the Chola forces of his capital and he carried war in the heart of the Chola kingdom. In 1053-54 AD, Rajadhiraja and his younger brother Rajendra Chola II led a campaign against the Chalukyas. The fierce battle was fought at Koppam on the river Krishna. Rajadhiraja Chola was wounded to death on the elephant and Rajendra Chola II crowned himself as next Chola Monarch. He was able to re-activate the Chola army which fought with the Chalukyas without getting demoralized. The result was that Chalukya army was defeated. But Rajendra Chola II was not able to annex any of the Chalukyan territory with this war. The disgrace of Koppam gave sleepless nights to Someshwara -I. In 1059, another battle took place at Mudakkaru. In this battle, Someshwara got defeated.

Rajendra Chola-II (1051-1063 AD) Rajendra Chola II had declared himself the King in the battlefield of Koppam in 1054 AD. He was declared heir apparent by his elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola 3 years ago. He was a great patron of dance and poetry. He provided necessary support for a musical dance drama Rajarajeswara Natakam at the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjaur. In 1063, he was succeeded by Virarajendra Chola.

Virarajendra Chola (1063-1070 AD) Virarajendra Chola was a significant Chola ruler who reigned from 1063-1070 AD. He was younger brother of Rajendra Chola II and Rajadhiraja Chola. We see that in a span of around 18-20 years, there was a rapid succession in the Chola Kings as three brothers ruled one after another. This gave an opportunity to Someshwara-I to launch a campaign against them. They conflicted in 1066 but the Chalukyas led by Someshwara I were again defeated. In 1067, Someshwara wrote Virarajendra Chola to meet at a place called Kudal Sangamam for war. Virarajendra waited for him, but Someshwara -I did not turn up. Miffed by this Virarajendra overran Chalukya Kingdom and planted a pillar of victory at Tungbhadra. In 1067, he conquered Vengi. Virarajendra also carried out some successful conquests in Sri Lanka and Kadaram (Malaya).



18 | P a g e

We know from some sources that Someshwara-I drowned himself in River Tungabhadra due to a fever. After this, there was a civil war in Western Chalukyas for succession. After death of Someshwara I, his son Someshwara II succeeded him in 1068. But a dispute broke between him and his younger brother Vikramaditya VI. Vikramaditya VI approached Virarajendra Chola and begged him to be nominated for the Chalukya Throne. Virarajendra accepted his prayer and made him heir to the Chalukya throne. Thus Vikramaditya VI became a tributary subordinate to Virarajendra Chola. Virarajendra Chola gave his daughter in marriage to Vikramaditya VI and this was a significant marital alliance between the Cholas and Chalukyas. In Virarajendra Chola we find a brave, able, wise and strong King who not only maintained the status of the Cholas but also was able to increase the in Chola strength. He died in 1070 AD. In his life he patronized arts and cared for temples of all deities specially Lord Vishnu. Virarajendra Chola was succeeded by Athirajendra Chola who reigned only for few months of 1070 AD. There was a civil unrest in the Chola kingdom and he was killed in this unrest. With the death of Athirajendra Chola, the dynasty of the Vijayalaya Chola came to an end. The next Cholas (Later Cholas) were actually a fresh blood arising out of the Chola-Chalukya marital alliances. Trouble in Chola Kingdom The death of Virarajendra Chola in 1070 AD was followed by troubles in Chola Kingdom. Further, Vikramaditya VI, his son-in-law attained significant position and soon started taking the Chola alliance as a liability. When Virarajendra died, there was an uprising (probably religious) in Chola Kingdom. After hearing this, Vikramaditya VI went to the Chola Capital and destroyed the uprising. Vikramaditya VI remained at Gangaikonda Cholapuram for around a month and then returned to his capital. At Gangaikonda Cholapuram, he installed Athirajendra as new King. However, within a few months, Athirajendra was killed in a fresh outbreak of rebellion. His own people most probably killed him. Athirajendra had no male successor. When Athirajendra died, Rajendra Chola or Rajendra Chalukya, who was later known as Kulotthunga Chola I, captured Chola throne. This was the beginning of a new line of Chola Kings who were offspring’s of Chola-Chalukya alliance.

Kulotthunga Chola-I (1070 – 1120 AD) Rajendra Chola I, the great Gangaikonda had a daughter named Ammanaga Devi. She had been given in marriage to the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The offspring of this union was Rajendra Chola or Rajendra Chalukya who later became Kulotthunga-I. Kulotthunga literally

means the "upraiser of fame of the (two) families". A few years of Kulotthunga Chola -I were spent in suppressing the uprisings. In Sri Lanka also, some parts had declared their independence. Vikramaditya VI did not accept the accession on Chola throne by Kulotthunga and this was a trouble to deal with.



19 | P a g e

Kulotthunga Chola I led two military campaigns in Kalinga and annexed some parts of the territories of Southern Kalinga into Chola Empire. The rivalry between Kulotthunga and Vikramaditya VI let Kulotthunga assume a title " Viruduraja Bhayankara" i.e. Frightning for the Vikramaditya, as his inscriptions say. A war was fought between the combined armies of Kulotthunga & Someshwara II and Vikramaditya VI. This battle ended in confusion. Under Kulotthunga, the empire remained intact except Sri Lanka. Still the boundary between the Western Chalukya and Chola was Tungabhadra river. He was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola in 1120 AD.

Vikrama Chola 1120-1135 AD As a prince, his father as Viceroy of Vengi appointed Vikrama Chola. He was recalled in 1118 AD and was declared as Co-regent. He ruled with his father till Kulotthunga died in 1122 AD. The Western Chalukyas had become prominent and they annexed Vengi by attacking the Eastern Chalukyas. His period as a prince was more important for, he led the conquests to Kalinga. He was able to recover Vengi. He assumed the title of "tyagasamudra" and was a great devotee of Shiva. He was succeeded by his son Kulotthunga Chola II in 1133 AD.

Kulotthunga Chola II 1133 AD – 1150 AD Kulotthunga Chola II was son and successor of Vikrama Chola. There are no significant warfare in his account. He was a patron of the Chidambaram temples. His reign was generally peaceful. He was succeeded by Rajaraja Chola II in 1150 AD.

Rajaraja Chola II 1150 – 1173 AD Kulotthunga Chola III had made Rajaraja Chola II his heir apparent and coregent in 1146 AD. The territories remained intact, but the weakness of the Kingdom administrations had started becoming apparent in his rule. He still had full control over the Vengi, Kalinga, Pandya, Chera etc. territories and also invaded Sri Lanka, but the closing years of his reign saw a civil Unrest in the kingdom, in the former Pandya Territories. Before he died, he made Rajadhiraja Chola II as his heir appparent and coregent in 1163 AD. During his reign the Airavateswarar Temple at Darasuram near Kumbakonam was built. It is a world heritage site today. He made grants to the temples at Tanjore, Chidambaram, Kanchi, Srirangam, Trichy and Madurai. He was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja Chola II.

Rajadhiraja Chola II 1166 AD -1178 AD Rajaraja Chola II was succeeded by Rajadhiraja Chola II, who was most probably not his son. His reign is known for further weakness in the Chola Kingdom and uprising, followed by independence of local feudatories particularly among the Pandyas. The Pandyas were allowed to rule as they wished during the reign of Kulotthunga I, subjected to subordiness to the Cholas. There was a civil war among the Pandyas, which required Chola's attention and intervention. But, the Pandyas



20 | P a g e

started gaining prominence and the central Chola Kingdom got weakened day by day. Rajaraja Chola II was succeeded by Kulothunga Chola III in 1178 AD.

Kulothunga Chola III 1178- 1218 AD Kulothunga Chola III was able to crush the Pandyas in Madurai, Cheras of Venad, Hoysalas of Mysore as well as the Sinhala Kings of Sri Lanka. The century took a turn and a Pandya vassal of Chola Empire named Jatavarman Kulasekaran I ascended to the Madura Throne in 1290, turned rebel to Cholas. The Cholas invaded him and sacked Madurai. Jatavarman Kulasekaran I surrendered to the Chola king Kulothunga III with wife and son and acknowledging his surrender, he was returned his capital. But during this, the ancient coronation hall of Pandyas in Madurai was destroyed and it also destroyed the records if any of the previous Pandyas. To take revenge of this assault, younger brother of Kulasekaran, named Maravarman Sundara Pandyan, who came into power in 1216 AD, invaded the Chola Kingdom. The armies of Sundara Pandyan sacked the cities of Thanjaur and Uraiyur of Chola Kings and drove the Chola kings out in exile. His armies marched up to Chidambaram and in memory of this victory, Sundar Pandyan conducted a Thulabaram at the Chidambaram temple and donated wealth equal to his weight. But, victory of Sundar Pandyan over Cholas was followed by a march of the Hoyasala army towards Sri Rangapattam. Kingdom of the Cholas was returned after interference of Hoyasala king Veera Ballala III, but now Cholas accepted suzerainty of the Sundar Pandyan. This was the revival of second Pandyan Empire and decline of the mighty Chola Power.

Rajaraja Chola III 1216-1256 AD When Rajaraja Chola III, son of Kulothunga Chola III came into power in July 1216, the Chola Kingdom had reduced to a very small territory compared to the earlier Cholas. In the graphic, the green shaded area shows the territories of Rajaraja Chola III in 1246 AD, 10 years prior to his demise. His reign was of continuous troubles. The Pandyas had become the important power in South and Vengi and other areas were now under the Hoysalas. Since Rajaraja III was now a vassal of Pandyas, he did not pay tributes to the Pandyan overlord. The Pandyan army entered his Chola Capital and Rajaraja III fled. He was captured at Sendamangalam. The Hoyasala King Narsimha interfered and then only the Chola King was released. The Hoysalas attacked the Pandya army and defeated them on the banks of river Cauvery. For rest of his life Chola King Rajaraja III was dependent upon the Hoysals for aid and help. He recognized his son Rajendra Chola III as heir apparent in 1246 AD.

Rajendra Chola III 1246 – 1280 AD Rajendra Chola III came to power in 1246 AD, when his father was alive. He tried to stop the rapid decline of the Chola Kingdom, but at this time, the Hoysalas turned hostile and Pandyas became

ies of Rajaraja Chola III



21 | P a g e

powerful. The sudden tide of the Sundar Pandyan and his able successors swept out the Chola Kingdom. Rajendra III faced a war and defeat in that war in the hands of Pandyas. The remaining territories of the Cholas were annexed to Pandya Territory and the new king was Kulasekara Pandyan I , who was in reign since 1268, but got the Chola territories in 1280. The Chola Kingdom ended thus with Rajendra Chola III. Whether Rajendra Chola III died in the war or else, is a question, which has not been resolved.

Temple Architecture of Cholas We have read above that in the beginning of the medieval period, the Kings did not directly patronize the religious shrines and gave only indirect support. Most of the artworks were produced by the guilds of the artists who were actually funded by the villages and monks. The tradition of direct patronization of the temples began with the Pallavas. The Chola period saw the culmination of this tradition, which resulted in the most sophisticated buildings of that era. The Tamil Nadu temples were fully evolved in their style and design by the 8th century.

Special Features of the Chola Architecture: • The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at the entrance to the mandapa, or hall which started

from the Palava period became a unique feature of the Chola Temples. • The Dravidian Style got fully developed after a transition from the rock cut strucutres of the

Pallava Period. • Early Chola temples at the Bank of river Kaveri were smaller and brick made, in comparision

to the colosus buuildings of the Imperial Cholas. • The temples of the Imperial Cholas are covered with exquisite well composed sculptures and

frescoes. • Largest and tallest of all Indian temples i.e. Siva Temple of Thanjore was built in Chola

Period. • Ganas, among the sculptures at the temple, are the most memorable figures made in Chola

temples

Vijayalaya Cholisvara Temple, Thanjore Under Pallavas, some of the finest temples had been created at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram. However, the largest and most impressive buildings were created under the Cholas post 850 AD, when Vijayalaya Chola took the control of Tanjore. The earliest Chola Temple we find at Narthamalai, where Vijayalaya Chola commissioned a temple named "Vijayalaya Cholisvara" temple, dedicated to lord Shiva.

Koranganatha Temple, Srinivasanallur Koranganatha Temple is located at Srinivasanallur, in Tiruchirapalli District, on the banks of river Cauvery. This temple was built by Parantaka Chola -I . The



22 | P a g e

base of this temple has the sculpted mythical animals ‘Yazhi’ . Yazhi is a recurring pattern and unique feature of Chola architecture.

Muvarkovil, Pudukkottai "Muvarkovil" literally means temple of three. It was commissioned by Parantaka Chola -II or one of his feudatories. It has three shrines standing side by side, however, only two are extant now.

Tiruvalisvaram temple, Tiruneveli Tiruvalisvaram temple is the first example where all features of the Chola temple architecture are seen. It is covered with well compsoed sculptures and friezes. Entire cornice of the temple has been ornated with creepers and foliage.

Brihadeeswarar Temple of Tanjore Brihadeeswarar Temple or Peruvudaiyar Kovil or Rajrajeshwaram temple at Thanjavur is the world's first complete "granite" temple. It was built by Rajraja Chola-I and is a part of UNESCO's world Heritage sites. The Vimana or the temple tower (known as Raja Gopuram) is 216 Feet in height and is one of the tallest buildings of its kind. The Nandi is carved out of a single rock. This temple has completed 1 millennium in 2010. It was dictated by lord Shiva to Rajraja Chola I, when he triumphed Ilam (Sri Lanka) Island.

Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram was made by King Rajaraja's son Rajendra I, who assumed the title "Gangaikonda".

Chapter 5. The Pallava Confederacy Pallava literally means a Branch. The Pallavas were a prominent power in India for more than 4 centuries but there are no records about them in the vernacular legends. They were forgotten until discovery of a copper plate grant in 1840. The name "Pallava" appears to be identical to Pahalva, the foreign clan which is frequently mentioned in the Inscriptions and Sanskrit literature. This led to development of a theory that the Pallavas who became a ruling dynasty of the South India might have come from the North Western Frontier of India. This theory has been supported on the basis of the fact that the Pahalavas were prominent in the 2nd century AD and were classified with the Sakas and Yavanas by the local historians. The other theories say that Pallavas were earlier Feudatories of the Saatvahana. Some other historians say that they are offspring of Cholas in one side and Naga Rulers of Ilam (Sri Lanka) on the other. The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions the name of a king Vishnugopa whose realm was in Kanchi. Several members of the Pallavas bear the same name.



23 | P a g e

The terms Tondaiyar and Tondaman (i.e. people of Tondamandalam) have also been used for the Pallavas.

Political Summary of Pallavas Sivaskanda Varman

The first Pallava about whom we hear is Sivaskanda Varman of second century AD. He was lord of many subordinate chiefs and was able to perform Ashwamedha, which was permissible to only the paramount sovereigns. Then, we know about Hastivarman, who was defeated by Samudragupta. The territories of the Pallavas initially were not very extensive and it was more or less taken as a predatory tribe like the Kalabhras.

Simhavishnu The picture about the Pallava dynasty starts getting cleared from Simhavarman, who ascended the throne in sometimes around 570 AD. He was a great military man and is known to have defeated the Tamil Countries and kings of Ceylon. His son Simhavishnu was the first Pallava monarch whose domain is believed to have extended beyond Kanchipuram. Simhavishnu was patron of Bharavi, the great poet who wrote the famous Kiratrjuniya, the dialogue between Arjuna and Shiva and in which Shiva blessed Arjuna with the Pasupata Shastra. In the early 7th century, the Pallavas succeeded in imposing their rule for a few years upon the whole of the Western Chalukya Kingdom and at an unspecified date, they levied tribute even from the Kalinga territories.

Mahendravarman-I We know about a Pallava Monarch Mahendravarman-I , son of Simhavishnu who encountered with the ambitious Chalukya Monarch Pulkesin II. He was a great patron of art and architecture and 5 celled cave temples at Pallavaram were built during his reign. Mahendravarman-I wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana or ‘The Farce of Drunken Sport’ . Its a one act play. The celebrated rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram which are commonly called "Seven Pagodas" was excavated by the Pallavas most probably under Mahendravarman I.

Narsimhmvarman-I Mahendravarman I was succeeded by Narsimhmvarman-I in 630 AD, who was equally brave and able prince. He defeated is Chalukyan counterpart Pulkesin II in 642 AD and thus took the revenge of his father's defeat. Pulkesin II was killed fighting him. He assumed the title "Vatapikonda" after defeating the Chalukyan Monarch and sacking the capital Vatapi (Badami). Nayanmar saints like Appar and Tirugnanasambandar lived during his reign. Huen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during the reign of Narsimhavarman-I. Among the successors the important ones were Nripatunga who defeated a Pandya King Shrimara.



24 | P a g e

Legacy of Pallavas While the early Chalukyan ruled in the Karnataka, the early Pallavas ruled in the Andhra Pradesh. Under the ablest kings such as Mahendravarman, they extended their territories to the Tamil Nadu From the time of great Mahendravarman, finest examples of Pallava art were created in Tamil Nadu such as Shore Temple and 7 pagodas of Mahabalipuram. Today’s Mahabalipuram was known as Mamalai (Green Hill) in ancient times. Pallava King Mahendravarman successor Narsimhamvaraman was known as “Mamalla” or “The warrior”. This port city was named “Mamallapuram” after Narsimhamvaraman. This was one of the greatest ports of ancient times and here was a “cosmopolitan’ culture where people rubbed their shoulders with the Romans. This is evident from the roman coins found here and traces of a roman colony located here.

Most important Features of the Pallava Architecture: • The Pallava architecture shows the transition from the Rock Cut Architecture to the Stone

built temples. • The earliest examples of the Pallava art are the rock cut temples of the 7th century AD, while

the later examples are of structural temples built in 8th and 9th century. • The rock cut reliefs of the Pallavas are the earliest surviving royal portraits after the

Kushana images. • At the end of 6th century, King Harsha ruled in the North and he patronized the Buddhist

Institutions. In South, Pallavas expanded themselves from the much of the Andhra Pradesh of today to much of Tamil Nadu. The Pallava Kings are known to be one of the greatest patrons of the art, music, architecture, dance and literature. King Mahendravarman was a poet and a playwright who wrote a satire on contemporary life titled "Mattavilasa Prahasana". Another King of Pallava Dynasty named Rajsimha (Narsimhamvaraman) was such a great lover of art that he used the title "Kalasamudra" for himself.

Mandagapattu rock cut temple The earliest monument of Mahendravarman was Mandagapattu rock cut temple which was a single rock cut temple built without any wood, brick or metal. It is located near Villupuram in Tamil Nadu. This temple has the icons of large Dwarapalas which later became a characteristic of almost all south Indian temples. However, one of the most marvelous chapters opened with the reign of successor of Mahendravarman i.e. Narsimhavarman "Mamalla" or Rajsimha. During his reign at Mahabalipuram, massive boulders were transformed into a world of divine. These are earliest styles of temples in South India. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas from 4th to 9th century. Huen Tsang visited this city and wrote it a glorious city. Here, Buddhaghosa lived in 6th century.



25 | P a g e

Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram Kailasanathar Temple is best building created during the reign of Pallava King Narsimhamvaraman. This temple is one of the most beautiful temples in India which has well balanced sculptures like a jewel box. This temple is important for historic point of view because: This temple inspired Rajraja Chola I to built another great beauty Brihadeshwar Temple at Tanjore. The direct & close intervention of the rulers started after creation of this temple. Thus, the Kailasanathar temple began a new tradition in India where the kings took deep interest in building the temples with great structural design and antiquity. This temple has the Lion Sculptors everywhere. Lion was the insignia of the Pallavas.

Vaikuntha Perumal temple, Kanchipuram Vaikuntha Perumal temple is located at Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was built by Nandivarman. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams (108 holiest Shrines of Vishnu). The temple was named "Parameshwara Vishnugriham" after the original name Parmeshwara of Nandivarman.

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram Shore Temple is a granite made temple at Mahabalipuram built during the rein of Narsimhavarman. This group of temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is oldest strucutral temple (in contrast with rock cut temples) in India. Its a beautiful 5 storyed temple, which is a combined complex of 3 shrines; 2 dedicated to Shiva and one to Vishnu.

Importance of Shore Temple: The Shore Temple marks the culmination of the architectural efforts that began with the cave temples and monolithic rathas.

The mystery of 7 Pagodas 7 Pagodas is a term associated with the Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram. It is said that 6 more temples were associated with it, all now submerged in water. The legend is that prior to Narsimhamvaraman, the construction of the cave temples had started in the time of Mahendravarman. But later the order for free standing structures was given and seven rathas (free standing temples) were created. After the 2004 Tsunami, the sand deposits of around 500 meters from the Shore temples were gulped by the sea and a clear arrangement of manmade structures was seen (TOI, February 26, 2005). The ASI started the excavations and it was said that sonar system indicated man made structures under the sea.

(Images and Maps in this document were sourced from wikimedia commons)



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-7: Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-7: Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. The North West India at the time of Arab Invasions ............................................. 3

Kashmir ............................................................................................................................... 3 Kabul Shahi & Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Afghanistan ............................................................ 3 Sindh ................................................................................................................................... 4 The Theories of origin of Rajputs ......................................................................................... 4 The Gurjar Pratiharas .......................................................................................................... 5 The Chauhans of Ajmer........................................................................................................ 5 Chandelas of Jejakabhukti of Bundelkhand ......................................................................... 6 The Kalachuris ..................................................................................................................... 6 Parmaras of Malwa ............................................................................................................. 7 Solankis of Gujarat .............................................................................................................. 7 Pala Empire ......................................................................................................................... 8 The Sena Dynasty ................................................................................................................ 9

Chapter 2. Mahamud Ghaznavi & Mohammed Ghori ............................................................. 9 Mahmud Ghaznavi and Rajput Confederacy ............................................................... 9 Mohammad Ghori ..................................................................................................... 10

Chapter 3. Delhi Sultanate ................................................................................................... 11 Mamluk dynasty (1206–90) ...................................................................................... 12

Qutb-ud-din Aibak ............................................................................................................ 12 Iltutmish: (1211-1236) ...................................................................................................... 12 Razia Sultan (1236-1240) ................................................................................................. 13 Balban (1266-1287) .......................................................................................................... 13

Chapter 4. The Khilji Dynasty ................................................................................................ 15 Jalal-ud din Firuz Khilji (1290-1296 AD).................................................................. 15 Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) .................................................................................... 15

Chapter 5. Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413) ............................................................................ 17 Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq 1321-1325 .......................................................................... 17 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351 ....................................................................... 17 Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD) ........................................................................ 19

Chapter 6. The Sayyid Dynasty ............................................................................................. 21 Chapter 7. Lodi Dynasty ....................................................................................................... 21

Bahlol Lodi 1451 – 1489 ................................................................................................... 21 Sikandar Lodi 1489-1517 .................................................................................................. 21 Ibrahim Lodi: 1517-1526 .................................................................................................. 22

Chapter 8. The Mughal Empire ............................................................................................. 22 Babur 1526-1530..................................................................................................... 22 Humayun .................................................................................................................. 23

Confrontation with Sher Shah Suri 1540-1545 ................................................................. 23 Akbar 1556-1605 ..................................................................................................... 25

Akbar and Bairam Khan .................................................................................................... 25 Maham Anaga ................................................................................................................... 26 Wives and Harem .............................................................................................................. 26 Akbar and Mewar .............................................................................................................. 27 Extent of Empire & Political Foresight ............................................................................... 28 Raja Todar Mal & Land Revenue System ........................................................................... 28 Mal Kharaj ......................................................................................................................... 29 Karori System .................................................................................................................... 29



3 | P a g e

Dahsala System ................................................................................................................. 29 Military Administration: Mansabdari System ..................................................................... 30 Bureaucracy ....................................................................................................................... 31 Religious Policy .................................................................................................................. 31 Fatehpur Sikri .................................................................................................................... 33 Navratnas .......................................................................................................................... 34

Jahangir 1605-1627 ................................................................................................ 34 Shah Jahan 1627-1658 ............................................................................................ 35 Aurangzeb 1658-1707 ............................................................................................. 36 Later Mughals .......................................................................................................... 36

Chapter 1. The North West India at the time of Arab Invasions Kashmir

The Kashmir Valley was under Asoka during the Mauryan Empire. It remained under the Kushana dominion under Kanishka and Huvishka. It was not directly under Harsha but it is said that the king of this region was compelled by Harsha to pay tributes. The authentic history of Kashmir begins with Karkota Dynasty, which was founded by one Durlabhvardhana during the lifetime of Harshavardhana. The most notable king of this Karkota dynasty was grandson of Durlabahaka named Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-760 AD). Lalitaditya created a vast Karkota empire based on Kashmir and covering most of Northern India and Central Asia including most parts of Pakistan. The Martand complex of temples in the Anantnag district of Today's Kashmir perpetuate the memory of King Lalitaditya Muktapida.

Kabul Shahi & Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Afghanistan Shahi as a title was used by the Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, Bactirans etc... The Kushana used "Shao" and Mihirkula- the Huna tyrant used the word Saha. The Kushana also used the title Shaonano Shao (Shah-in-Shah). By Kabulshahi, we refer to the Kingdoms at Kabul which followed the decline of the Kushana Empire in the portions of Modern Afghanistan. This Kabul Shahi was later overthrown by a Brahmin called Lalliya, who founded the "Hindu Shahi" dynasty (or Brahman Shahi) in Afghanistan. Its capital was Hund near Modern Peshwar in Pakistan. Lalliya, Kamala Toramana, Bhimadeva, Jaipala, Anandapala, Trilochanpala, Bhimapala were the kings of this dynasty. These Kings kept fighting with the invaders from Central asia. Jaypala faced frequent raids of Turkic rulers of Ghazni such as Subuktgeen, who founded the Ghaznavid Empire. In 977 AD, Subuktgeen captured Kandahar and prompted the Jayapala to launch a strike against him. Overconfident Jayapal's one lakh strong army was defeated and he was compelled to pay heavy tributes. He defaulted in the payments and was again attacked and defeated. In 1001, Subuktgeen’ son Mahamud Ghazanavi came in Power. Once more Jayapala attacked the Ghaznavid but again



4 | P a g e

defeated. Thus, repeated defeats against the Ghaznavid humiliated him and unable to tolerate these humiliations he committed suicide by burning himself in funeral pyre. Another Shahi king Anandpala stood against Mahmud Ghazanavi and is said to have entered into a peace treaty with the later, so that he could die in peace. Some historians compare Anandapala to ancient King Porus.

Sindh After changing hands from Harsha to many others, at the time of Arab invasions, Sindh was under Raja Dahir who reigned till 712 AD from his capital Brahamanabad. He was the last Hindu Ruler of Sindh and parts of Modern Punjab (Pakistan). The Arab conquest of Sindh is mentioned in the oldest Chronicle of Sindh called "Chach Nama". He was attacked, defeated and killed by Mohammad Bin Qasim, a general of the Umayyad Caliphate. Enormous wealth was looted from Brahmanabad. Qasim was sent by the Caliph Walid I to conquer India. This was time of fanatic Muslim rulers in Arab whose sole aim was to strengthen Islam and punish those who do not accept Islam. After Sindh, Qasim conquered Multan and sent Abu Hakim to win Kannauj. The Presence of Qasim was short. For the Umayyads , this was first alien land brought under their territory which was inhabitated by the non-Muslims. The Arab rule continued for 3 centuries in Sindh. It was later under the Ghaznavid Empire and finally came under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals. In 1747, Sindh became a vassal state of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. In 1839, British occupied Sindh.

The Theories of origin of Rajputs The term Rajput starts coming in use from the 6th Century AD. They rose to prominence from the 6th century until 12th century and kept ruling in different parts of the country from Sultanate to Mughal Era; and as rulers of the princely states until the departure of British from the country in 1947. Several theories exist about the origin of the Rajputs. They important theories are as follows: Foreign origin Theory of Origin of Rajputs: Rajputs are descendents of the races like Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas etc. Col. James Todd put this theory forward. Col. James Todd was the celebrated author of Annals and Antiques of Rajasthan.He has detailed the history of Rajputana and Central India.The main argument of James Todd behind the foreign origin of the Rajputs was that these people worshipped Fire and Fire was the main deity of the Sakas and Hunas. Rajputs were Kshatriya Heroes: This theory says that the Rajputs are NOT from the foreign origin and they are descendents of the mythological Aryan Heroes like Rama. They worship fire as the Aryans did and worship of fire was not the tradition of the Foreigners only. Rajputs were of Mixed Origin: This theory as put forward by V A Smith says that Rajput is a mixed race. Some of them were descendents of the Aryans while some of them were from the foreign races such as Hunas, Sakas etc.



5 | P a g e

Agnikula Legend of Rajput Origin: This theory comes from the Prithvirajraso of Chandarbardai. The Rajputs descended from Agni. The theory is based upon the Agnikula Legend of Bhavishyapurana which says that the forefathers of the Rajputs were born at Mount Abu. The four Rajput clans from Agnikunda are Chauhans, Chalukyas, Parmaras and Pratiharas.

The Gurjar Pratiharas The Gurjar Pratiharas ruled much parts of the Northern India from the sixth to 11th Century AD. They find their origin from one Harichandra of Ujjain or Mandsaur. The successors of Harichandra established Marwar in Rajasthan and built the Temple city of Osean, near Jodhpur. India was saved from Arab Invasions from 7th to 11th century from the Arabas mainly due to prowess of the Gurjar Pratiharas. The notable kings among the Gurjar Pratiharas were Nagabhatta-I, Nagabhatta-II and Mihirbhoja. The territories of Nagabhatta-I (730-756 AD) ranged from Mandore (Jodhpur) to Malwa, Gwalior and Bharuch. His capital was Avanti in Malwa. During times of Nagabhatta-I, another Arab commander Junaid invaded India. Nagabhatta-I along with his feudatories such as Chauhans and Guhilots defended the western frontiers but the Arabs were capable of doing a lot of damage to their western Frontiers. Junaid was defeated and his successor Tamin was compelled to run back to Arab defeated and wounded. This is known as Battle of Rajasthan. The Gurjar Pratiharas kept fighting with the Palas and Rastrakutas among others. Vatsaraja, the successor of Nagabhatta-I is known to have defeated Dharmapala and got defeated by Rastrakuta King Dhruva. Nagabhatta II, who succeeded Vatsaraja, was able to capture Kannauj from the Rastrakutas. Nagabhatta II is best known for rebuilding the Somnath Temple in 815 AD, which was destroyed by Arab invaders in 725AD. This was a large structure of Red Sandstone; again destroyed in 1024AD by Mahamud of Ghazni. Mihirbhoja who ruled until 885 AD, was one of the great empire builders, who after some initial defeats conquered the territories of modern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The Teli Mandir at the Gwalior fort perpetuates his memory. The beginning of the 10th century brought weakness in the Gurjar Pratiharas. The king of this dynasty was overthrown by Palas and the feudatories took the advantage and declared their independence. The major feudatories Guhilots captured Chittor and founded the Mewar Kingdom, Chauhans established the Chauhans Kingdom in Ajmer.

The Chauhans of Ajmer These were the feudatories of the Gurjar-Pratiharas; assisted Nagabhatta I in the battle of Rajasthan to protect the borders from the Arab Invasions. But in the 10th century, when Gurjara Pratiharas got weakened, the feudatories asserted their independence.



6 | P a g e

The Chauhan king of Sakambhari - Ajayaraj Chauhan established a City Ajayameru, which was later known as Ajmer. His successor Vigraharaj captured Dhillika (Delhi) from the Tomar Kings and extended the empire from Ajmer to Delhi, including most parts of Today's Haryana. The most important successor of Ajayaraj Chauhan was Prithvi Raj Chauhan III who is known as “Chauhan King of Delhi” or "Rai Pithora". He was a chivalrous lover and doughty champion who united Ajmer and Delhi. The daring abduction of Sanyogita, the not-unwilling daughter of Jaichand, the Gaharwal King of Kannauj well places him as a daring lover. His conquest against the Solankis of Gujarat and king of Mahoba established himself as a great warrior. He was able to resist the Mohammedans invasions in the beginning, until he was defeated and sent to hell by Mohammad of Ghor.

Chandelas of Jejakabhukti of Bundelkhand Bundelkhand was known as Jejakabhukti, which roughly corresponds to the old Mahajanapadas of Chedi. In medieval period, these countries had two dynasties named Chandelas and Kalachuris. Both of them had marital relations and were constantly in touch with each other as foes or friends. In the ninth century, one Chandela called Nanuka overthrew the Parihara Chieftain and established the dynasty of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. The notable kings were Dhanga, Ganda and Parmal. Out of them, Dhanga had joined the Rajput Confederacy against Subuktgeen and shared the disastrous defeat in Peshawar. His son Ganda joined a new confederacy organized by Anangpala of Lahore against Mahmud Ghaznavi and shared another defeat. One more notable king was Paradidev or Parmadi who fought with Prithviraj Chauhan III in 1182. In due course of time, the king of Kannauj made terms with Mahmud. Ganda attacked Kannauj and killed the king, and was in turn compelled to surrender to Mahmud. Ganda surrendered the fort of Kalinjar to Mahmud. The last notable King of this dynasty was Paradidev (Parmal) who fought Prithviraj Chauhan-III in 1182 AD in the Battle of Mahoba. This battle is the subject matter of the Alha Khand (c. 12th Century) is an early poetic work in Hindi which consists of a number of ballads describing the brave acts of two Rajput heroes, Alha and Udal. Alha and Udal were great fighters, still sung in the folk songs of Bundelkhand. The legacy of the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti lies in the building of famous Khajuraho temples. The first king who started construction in Khajuraho was Harsha who built the 64 Yogini Temples. The most notable prince of this dynasty was King Dhanga whose time is known for building the most beautiful Khaujraho Temples of Parsvanath and Vishwavanath. His grandson Vidyadhara built the Kandariya Mahadev Temple.

The Kalachuris The name Kalachuri is used for two dynasties. One of them ruled in Central India in Madhya Pradesh and Parts of Rajathan and other ruled in Karnataka. The one that ruled in North India were called "Northern Kalachuris" or “Kalachuris of Chedi”.



7 | P a g e

The important ruler of this dynasty named Gangeya Deva (1015-1040) was contemporary of the Chandela king Ganda. He tried to establish the paramount power in Northern India. His suzerainty was accepted up to Tirhut. His son Karnadeva (1040-1070AD) joined Bhima, the King of Gujarat to crush Bhoja, the Paramara King of Malwa in 1053 AD. The Chandelas lingered as local chiefs up until the 16th century but none of them has a general importance. The Kalachuris of Chedi disappeared by the end of 12th century.

Parmaras of Malwa The Parmaras, one of the four agnikula rajputs, ruled from Dhar in Malwa from 9th century till Malwa was usurped by the Khilji Tyrrant Alauddin in 1305. This dynasty must be noted for its "Raja Bhoj of Dhar", the philosopher king and a polymath of the Central India. He ascended the throne of Dhar in around 1000 AD and reigned gloriously for more than 45 years. Though his path was similar to other Rajas, indulging in wasteful struggles with the neighbours but still he is noted for contribution in literature as well his strength. It is said that after plundering the Somnath, Mahamud Ghaznavi returned via Thar Desert instead of the central India route due to the fear of Bhoja's organized army. He was defeated and destroyed by a tripartite alliance of Chalukyas, Rastrakutas and Kachhchawahas. After his death Parmaras were reduced to a local power, until they were wiped out by Akbar in 1569. Many works on astronomy, architecture, poetry, mathematics etc. are attributed to Bhoja. Many scholars compare Bhoja with Samudragupta. Some important works of Bhoja are as follows: Saraswatikantabharna: A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar Rajmartanda: a major commentary on Patanjali's yoga sutra Samarangana Sutradhara : a Treatise on Civil Engineering TattvaPrakasha: A treatise on Tantras Rasarajamriganka: A treatise on chemistry (ores) and drugs. The Bhojeshwar temple at Bhojpur near Bhopal was started by him but it remained incomplete. The Bhojpur Lake, a beautiful water body neat Bhopal was built during his time by massive embankment closing the outlets in a circle of mountains was one of the greatest work of Raja Bhoj. The dam was later destroyed by Hoshang Shah.

Solankis of Gujarat Solankis ruled from Anhilwara (Modern Sidhpur Patan). They were patrons of the Somnath Temple. One chief named Mularaja who reigned from 942 to 996 AD established the dynasty. The Mularaja period is known as beginning of the Gujarati Culture, language and script. Raja Bhoj of Dhar overshadowed the successors of Mularaja and they were reduced to vassals of the Malwa Kingdom. One important ruler of this dynasty was Bhimdev I who reigned from 1022-1063 AD. He was a vassal of the Malwa King Bhoj. When Mahamud Ghaznavi attacked Somnath, he fled and took



8 | P a g e

shelter in Kutch. It was Raja Bhoj that chased Mahmud and Mahamud returned via the Thar Deserts. When Raja Bhoj died, Bhimdev declared himself independent. Karnadeva succeeded Bhimdev. All other successors were less important. The Solanki dynasty lost control over Gujarat in 1243 and in 1297; the Delhi Sultanate conquered Gujarat.

Pala Empire Palas were most important empire builders in eastern India in early medieval India. These people were pious Buddhists. The founder of this dynasty was Gopala who incidentally was also the "First Buddhist King" of Bengal. He was able to subdue Bengal and most parts of Bihar. He constructed a monastery at the Odantapuri in Bihar. Gopala's son Dharamapala (770-810 AD) became the most dominant power in the Northern and Eastern India. He altogether fought with Gurjar Pratiharas, Rastrakutas and Chalukyas. After an initial career full of defeats, including a humiliating defeat in the hands of Nagabhatta II, he was able to win the entire Bihar and Bengal. The Kings of Kannauj, Madra, Kamboja, parts of Rajputana were his Vassals. Dharamapala was a pious Buddhist King and is best known for establishing the Vikramshila University. The Vikramshila University is located at Kahalgaon near Bhagalpur in Bihar. Dharampala had also built a Vihara at Somapuri, another at Paharpur and yet another Vihara at Odantapuri. The five places viz. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapuri, Paharpur and Odantapuri are called Five Mahaviharas. Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed the Vikramshila University in 1200 AD. Somapura Mahavihara is now located in Bangladesh. It is one of the best known Mahaviharas of Buddhism in Indian subcontinent and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Atiśa Dipankara was a Buddhist Scholar during the Pala dynasty and was a scholar at the Vikramshila University. He established the Sarma lineages of the Buddhism with Konchog Gyalpo and Marpa Lotsawa. The most important work of Atisa is Bodhipathapradīpa. Apart from this around 79 extant compositions on Buddhism are ascribed to Atisa. Charyapada is a collection of Buddhist poems composed most probably during the Pala Dynasty (However, there are various controversies on the origin). These mystic poems are from the tantric tradtion. The writers of Charyapada are called Mahasiddhas and they were from Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Charyapada is the earliest example of the Bengal Poetry and Bengali literature. The successor of Dharmapala was Devapala, who conquered the Kamarupa, Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Utlkal (Orissa). There are evidences that Devapala procured Horses from the Kamboja / Kabul for his army. During his time, Pala Empire emerged as one of the greatest empire. But his successors were inefficient and lost many territories. The last notable Pala king was Mahipala, who was 9th in order from Gopala. He is second founder of the Pala Dynasty, able to recover the lost territories of his predecessors. Mahipala 50 year reign



9 | P a g e

was peaceful except some defeats from Cholas. In the evening of his life he turned religious and did some excellent social works. None of the successors of Mahipala was a significant ruler, the Pala empire got disintegrated and finally swept away by the torrents of the Mohammedans invasions. Sandhyakar Nandi was the composer of the great epic poem in Sanskrit named Ramacharitam during the Pala Empire.

The Sena Dynasty Around the time of Mahipala's death in around 1043 AD, a vassal of the Palas named Hemanta Sen founded the Sena Dynasty. Vijayasena (1097-1160) is called as real founder of the Sena Dynasty. He was able to snatch away parts of Rarh region of Bengal from the Palas and some parts of Gauda Kingdom from the Assam regions. His son Ballala Sena (1160-1178) introduced the social reforms in Bengal known as Kulinism.

Chapter 2. Mahamud Ghaznavi & Mohammed Ghori Mahmud Ghaznavi and Rajput Confederacy

Subuktgeen founded the Ghaznavid Empire, a strategic empire located between Kabul and Kandhar in Modern Afghanistan. In 977 AD Subuktgeen captured Kandahar and prompted the Shahi King Jayapala to launch a strike against the rising Ghaznavid Empire, who was defeated. In 1001, Subuktgeen son Mahamud came in Power and once more, Jayapala attacked the Ghaznavid but defeated. Thus, repeated defeats against the Ghaznavid humiliated him and unable to tolerate these humiliations he committed suicide by burning himself in funeral pyre. After Jayapala committed suicide, his son Anandpala prepared an alliance with six rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer). This was known as Rajput Confederacy. The combined army of the Rajput Confederacy met in 1008 near Peshawar. The Rajput army was initially victorious but an elephant of Anandapala began to run away from the battlefield. There was a stampede in the Rajput army and Mahamud won this fierce battle. He was now undisputed ruler of Punjab, Multan and Sindh. After that, Mahmud raided Nagarkot in 1009, Thaneshwar in 1011, Kannauj, Meerut and Mathura in 1017. In 1021 the Mahmud attacked the last Shahi King Trilochanpala. The defeated Hindu king fled to Ajmer. Mahmud appointed first Muslim Governor in the east of Indus River. His own people later assassinated Trilochanpala in 1023 AD. In 1024 Mahamud once again raided Ajmer, Kalinjar, Gwalior and Finally Somnath. The temple was destroyed. The Lingam was hammered and destroyed and its pieces were carted back to Ghazni where a Jama Masjid was built. He returned via Thar Desert to avoid the armies of Raja Bhoj, though the Jats confronted him en route. During his last invasion, he got Malaria and died in 1030 AD.



10 | P a g e

Objective of Invasions of Mahamud:The main objective of Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasions was the wealth of the Indians. However, being an ardent Sunni Muslim, he was called the "Idol Breaker" and eagerly destroyed the temples of Jwalamukhi, Kangra, Mathura, Somnath etc. Each time he returned with enormous wealth but it is clear that there was no permanent impact of his attacks on India. Reasons of Failure of Rajputs: The Rajputs, though patriotic, courageous and zealous were suffering from the political myopia and could not estimate the dangers coming their way. They adopted and followed the epic era rules and customs of war such as not attacking the fleeing enemy, not attacking the enemy with no arms etc. The invaders took advantages of this lack of political foresight of the Rajputs and the result was that within a century, all the Hindu dynasties of the country were swept away by the torrent of the Muslims.

Mohammad Ghori In 1161, Ghiyasuddin Ghori became chief of Ghor and with his accession, the Afghan highlanders entered into a new phase of activity. He recovered Ghazni and placed his brother Muhammad Ghori on the ruined throne of Mahmud. Muhammad Ghori led a series of the campaigns in India which recalled the days of Mahmud Ghaznavi , 200 years back. The important battles were as follows: The first battle was with the muslim ruler of Multan in 1175. Mohammad was winner. Second Battle was with Raja Bhimdev II (Solanki) of Gujarat in 1178, This was called Battle of Kayadara near Mount Abu. Raja Bhimdev II was a young men and real regent was his mother Naikidevi. Naikidevi inflicted such a major defeat to Muhammad Ghori that this invasion became Muhammad's first and last attack on India from the Gujarat side. He never turned to Gujarat later on. Third battle was in 1179 with Khusrau Malik of Peshawar. Khsurau mailk was the last successor of Mahmud, who was a weak , gentle king , who submitted to Ghori easily and gave his son as a Slave to him. Fourth notable battle was the First Battle of Tarain 1191. He lost one of his teeth but saved his life. A Turkic retainer mounted on the horse behind him carried him off the field. Fifth battle was the Second Battle of Tarain 1192 in which proud army of Rajput chiefs was slaughtered. Prithviraj mounted himself on a horse and fled but was captured and taken to Ghazni. The cities of Ajmer, Hansi, Saraswati, Samana etc. faced a ruthless slaughter; there was a general destruction of temples and idols. The throne of Ajmer was left to Gola, a son of the late Raja as a vassal of Sultan, on the condition of regular tributes. Delhi was soon captured. Under his general Qutub-ud-din, his armies sacked Ayodhya in 1193 and in 1204 he defeated Lakshaman Sena of Sena dynasty in Bengal, but Bengal was not conquered. What happened to Prithviraj Chauhan after the second battle of Tarain, is a mystery. Some sources say that Muhammad Ghori executed Chauhan soon, while other says that it was Prithviraj Chauhan who first assassinated Mohammad Ghori and then was killed by his men. Today, on the outskirts of



11 | P a g e

Ghazni are two domed tombs. The larger was of Ghori and few meters away were a second smaller tomb of Prithviraj Chauhan. “In the centre of the second tomb was a bare patch of earth where the actual grave should have been. Hanging over this spot from the top of the dome is a long, thick rope ending in a knot at shoulder height. Local visitors would grab hold of this knot in one hand and stamp vigorously and repeatedly with one foot on the bare patch in the centre of the tomb,” It is said that by doing so the locals vent their anger for killing Muhammad Ghori, 900 years ago. Other sources say that in 1206, there was a rebellion in Punjab. Mohammad returned from Ghazni and crushed the rebels, but when he was returning, the Khokhars killed him at Jhelum.

Chapter 3. Delhi Sultanate Delhi's name is associated with a Tomar King named Anangpal, who founded the Red Fort (Lal Kot) in the middle of the 11th century. The Lal Kot is the place where Qutub Mosque stands now. The name of Anangpal is inscribed in the Iron Pillar of Delhi. This celebrated pillar of Chandragupta Vikramaditya was removed by Anangpal from its original position (probably Mathura) and set up in 1052 AD as adjunct to some temples in Delhi, which were later destroyed and the Mohammedans constructed a great mosque. Anangpal was a ruler from Kannauj. His reign was from Agra to Hansi (Haryana) and Ajmer to Ganges. His dynasty lasted until 1151 when Chauhan King Bisal Deo of Ajmer overthrew it. The first reference to the name of Dilli as Dhilli comes from the work of an Apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar. After Mohammad Ghori, his Turkic slaves distributed the empire among themselves. In 1206, before death Muhammad had appointed his slave Qutub-ud-din as Naib us Sultanate (Viceroy) of his empire in India and bestowed him the title of Aibak (The axis of faith). Thus, Qutb-ud-din Aibak became the first of the 34 Muslim Kings who ruled between 1206 to 1526. These 34 Kings belonged to five dynasties and are collectively called "Delhi Sultanate". Meanwhile Bakhtiyar Khilji who was one more slave of Muhammad Ghori raided the oldest universities of the world i.e. Nalanda and Vikramshila in 1193. At Nalanda, he is said to have committed mass execution of the Buddhist monks and many of the monks were burnt alive and beheaded. Bengal's ruler Lakshaman Sen was defeated and Bakhtiyar made Lakhnauti his capital. The five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate are

• Mamluk Dynasty also known as Slave Dynasty. Turkish Origin • Khilji dynasty (1290–1320) : Turkish Origin • Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413): Turkish Origin

The continuance of the three Turkish origin dynasties was disturbed by the invasion of Timur in 1398, which put an end to the Tughlaqs and the Kingdom of Delhi was broken up in pieces. It was taken over by the Sayyid Dynasty which were actually nobles and claimed Arabian descent from the dynasty of Hazarat Muhammad.

• Sayyid dynasty (1414–51) : Disputed / Arabian Origin



12 | P a g e

• Lodi dynasty (1451–1526) : Afghan Origin Mamluk dynasty (1206–90)

Qutb-ud-din Aibak His chief exploits were achieved in his viceroyalty only, his reign was a short one of 4 years. In 1210, when he was playing Chaugan, fell from Horse and died at Lahore. Qutb-ud-din Aibak was known as Lakha Baksh Sultan after his generosity. He laid the foundation of the Qutub Minar and named it not after his own name but after the name of a Sufi saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Iltutmish later finished Qutub Minar. He commissioned the Quwwat Al Islam mosque. His tomb is located in Anarkali Bajar at Lahore. His successor Iltutmish was his son in law.

Iltutmish: (1211-1236) This former slave and later son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, was from the Ilabari tribe of the Turks and that is why some scholars call the slave dynasty has Ilabari dynasty. The Ilabari tribe used to have administrative & military elite called "Chahalgani" or "Chalisa" or the "Corp of Forty". Immediately after Qutb-ud-din died, the Chahalgani appointed one Aram Shah as its successor. However, Aaram Shah was ill qualified and very soon through a conspiracy appointed "Iltutmish" as Sultan of Delhi. Iltutmish was Governor of Badaun at that time. There was a war with Aaram Shah at Jud (Delhi). Aaram shah was defeated easily and after that what happened to him, nobody knows. Iltutmish rule of two and half decades was full of many experiments in Indian administration. He died in 1236. He is buried at Qutub Complex in New Delhi. During the times of Iltutmish, the Mongols attacked under Chengez Khan. The Mongols were able to conquer the area around Indus River and crossed to invade Punjab. However, fortunately, their eyes were set at the west and they returned quickly from the Punjab towards Sind, Multan & Qabacha. Chengez Khan died in 1227. Once relieved from Mongols, Iltutmish attacked on Western territories won by Mongols and placed Lahore and Multan under Delhi Sultanate. After that, he campaigned against the Rajput territories viz. Ranathambore, Mandsaur, Bayana, Ajmer, Sambhar, Nagaur, Gwalior etc. In 1235, Iltutmish sacked Ujjain and destroyed the Mahakal Temple. Iltutmish should be noted for the following:

Hauz Shamsi Iltutmish is known to have built the Hauz-i-Shamshi near Mahrauli in Delhi. On the edge of this reservoir, the Lodhi Rulers built the Jahaz Mahal. His eldest son when died he built the First Islamic Mausoleum Sultan Garhi in Delhi.



13 | P a g e

Qutub Minaar The Qutub Minar was a complex of temples built by Tomaras and Chauhans. However, it was turned into a Minar of victory by Qutb-ud-din who used the same material to build the Minar. The first storey was built by Qutub-ud-din and Iltutmish completed rest of the work.

Iqta System The Iqta system was a practice of grant of revenue from a territory in lieu of salary. This grant was not hereditary during the times of Iltutmish and was subject to passing from officer to officer. Iqta system linked the farthest part of the Sultanate linked to the Central Government.

Centrally recruited Army Iltutmish organized the army of the sultanate and made it the "King's army" which was centrally recruited and centrally paid.

Tanka and Jital - The coins of Iltutmish Iltutmish introduced Silver Tanka and Copper Jital, the two coins of the Delhi Sultanate. The coins prior to Iltutmish were introduced by the invaders, which bear the Sanskrit characters and even Bull and Shivalinga. For example, Muhammad Ghori is known to have adopted the seated goddess Lakshmi type of the coins of Gahadavalas for circulation in the Gahadavala territories. Iltutmish was the first to introduce a "Pure Arabic Coin" in India. The Coins were engraved with "The Mighty Sultan, Sun of the Empire and the Faith, Conquest-laden, Il-tutmish," after he received an investiture of Sovereign Sultan of Delhi from the Caliph of Baghdad. The Silver Tanka issued by Iltutmish was weighing 175 grains. Balban later issued gold Tanka of the same weight.

Razia Sultan (1236-1240) Sons of Iltutmish either died prematurely or were inefficient so Raziya , his military trained daughter was declared heir apparent. She could not do all that she could do because the Chahalagani had become very strong and they did never want that a woman sit above them. She sat on the throne of Delhi in 1236 and reigned for only three and half years until 1240. The wise politician in Raziya was able to keep the Turkish Nobles in check but her preference for the Abyssinian Yakut, though seems innocent, roused the jealousy of the dominant Turks. After the four year tryst with the 13th century throne of Delhi, Rajiya lost her life to Jats of modern Haryana.

Balban (1266-1287) Balban was a purchased slave of Iltutmish, he worked as a Bhisti (water bearer) initially but was fir for other better jobs. The feeble successors of Iltutmish invited frequent rebels among the Hindus and Balban had dedicated his energy in leading his troops through Doab, Ranthambore, Malwa, Kalinjar etc. He was the de facto ruler of Delhi serving under sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud for 20 years. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was a religious person. He lived a life of Darvesh, spending his time in copying the Holy Koran, and had no female servants, mistresses etc. He was actually not worthy of



14 | P a g e

becoming the 13th century Sultan of India, but it was Balban who could fill his space and care for the Government. Balban first became the top Sardar of the nobles and became Sultan following the death of his master Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. The first thing he did was to take over the power of Chalisa. Once became Sultan, he mercilessly executed the Chahalgani. Subdued Mewatis by clearing forests and killing Lakhs of Mewatis. Subdued the dacoits of Doab. He refused to entrust any authority to Hindus. There was a rebel by Tughril Khan in Bengal, Balban subdued that also. Balban, who ruled for 20 years was first king who understood the conditions and requirements of being a Sultan of Delhi and fulfilled them practically. He is known as one of the severest kings of India. He introduced "Zaminbosi" of "Practice of Sijda”, the people would Kneel down and touch the ground with their head to greet the Sultan. He forwarded the Iranian Theory of Divine Rights, that Sultan is the representative of God on Earth. To counter the Mongols, he organized his military. For this he made some changes like abolition of the post of the Naik and creating a new department of military affairs known as Diwan-i-arz. The in-charge of Diwan-i-arz was Ariz-i-Mumalik. He kept Hindus away from army or other authorities. He instructed the Ulemas to confine themselves to the religious affairs only. Balban's eldest son died prematurely. Second son Bughra Khan was governor of Bengal and loved to be in Bengal than to come at Delhi. So, Balban left the throne to his deceased son's son named Kaikubad, a young lad of 17 years as his heir apparent. Kaikubad, the young chap was carefully brought up under his grandfather. He was never allowed to see the young girls and enjoy the wine. This young man had been taught of all the good things and none of the bad things. All of a sudden, he found himself as master of India and now everything his youth desired was available to him. The result was that he indulged in so much of drinking and debauchery, that he found himself struck with paralysis.

Story of the Old Man Jalaluddin The power that swept away the Slave Dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji aka Malik Firuz. Kaikubad appointed Malik Firuz in the army at Baran. When Kaikubad debauched himself to paralysis, Firuz marched to Delhi. Meanwhile, Kaikubad was killed and the nobles placed the three year old son of Kaikubad on the throne. The men (Brothers, sons and nephews) of Firuz dashed in Delhi, captured the 3 year old Sultan of India, defeated the forces and compelled the nobles to surrender, killed the infant king and threw his body in Yamuna. On 13 July 1290, the dynasty at Delhi had changed and now a new Dynasty that is Khilji Dynasty was there to rule the country and decide its fate. When Jalaluddin set at the throne of Delhi, he was an old man of 70 years and he deputed his brothers, sons and nephews at various "strategic" posts in the government. The old man was not ready to shed more blood, and when Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban marched with an army to dethrone the new Sultan of Delhi, he was defeated, captured but freed and posted at Manikpur. Jalauuddin was obsessed with mercy. He pardoned all kinds of criminals alike thugs, traitors, conspirators etc. etc. In his time, Mongols attacked once more but this time (under Halaku), negotiations caused the "partial" retreat of the Mongols and not the open war. The next invasion of Mongols was under Ulugh Khan. Ulugh Khan accepted Islam and the old Sultan gave his daughter to him in marriage. He started staying near Delhi and later created sorts of troubles for the kith and kin of Sultan. This behaviour of the King, who was probably preparing himself for the next world, was incomprehensible and exasperating for the companions. His wit, learning, way of life and way of ruling was not appreciated by anybody. The sedition grew quickly and then all of a sudden we find his nephew Alauddin, who was his son-in-law too, plot a conspiracy. He trapped his uncle unarmed and unguarded at Kara where he was posted, and when actually the uncle was fondling this traitor nephew, one of the meanest murder of the history of India was accomplished. The old Sultan of India, Jalaluddin Khalji was stabbed, beheaded and thrown down at the feet of his nephew, he had ever trusted, perhaps more than anyone else had.



15 | P a g e

When a mercenarily was sent to kill him, he was found in his bedroom in a lovely Sheesh Mahal (palace of mirrors) at Kilughari, a few miles from Delhi at the Bank of River Yamuna and was sent to hell without much hassle.

Chapter 4. The Khilji Dynasty Jalal-ud din Firuz Khilji (1290-1296 AD)

Notable Observations: The Khilji clan was from the Afghan village of Khalj was of most probably Turkish origin but had become Afghan in character. Khilji and the Turkish slaves were partners in many successful campaigns in India. Under Muhammad Ghori, Bengal was won by Bakhtiyar Khalji, who ruled there. They were in many high level posts in the Ghor army and successive armies in India. Jalaluddin Khilji was a merciful oldman who paid the price of loving his kith and kin too much. During his times, Mongols attacked under Halaku and Ulugh Khan. The later accepted Islam and the happy Sultan gave his daughter to this convert Mongol.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) Alauddin Khilji aka Ali Gurshap killed his uncle at Kara near Allahabad, marched from Kara to Delhi, entered with his uncle's head on a spear and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Delhi, and ruled for next 20 years. Eliminated the sons of his Uncle. Also eliminated those who helped him to kill his uncle. Thus, he taught a lesson to all traitors. Prior to him, no Muslim invader had been able to cross the Vindyas, Satpuras and Narmada River and conquer the Deccan plateau. The way to Deccan was made open by his people and was never closed for him as well as future generations of the Mohammedans rulers. Throughout his life, he struggled with the swarms of Mongols, first under Duwa Khan, second under Saldi. Saldi was given a major defeat and 2000 Mongols were made prisoner and were paraded before the Sultan. This was the worst defeat; the Mongols had faced in India. Third attack was under Kutlugh Khwaja. Fourth attack was under Targhi, fifth and further attacks were from Tartaq, Kebek, Iqbalmand Khan. But Sultan deterred the Mongols every time. He built Siri his capital mainly to deter the Mongols. One important result of these repeated invasions of Mongols in Delhi was that hoards of these nomadic people established themselves near Delhi and accepted Islam. They were called "New Muslims" lived in poverty and misery. Alauddin discovered a conspiracy among them and ordered that all the New Muslims must be eliminated in one day. The order was followed and around 40 thousand Mongols were killed inhumanly leaving the women and child, who were made prisoners and thrown into slavery. Sultan also sent his powerful army to Kandhar, Ghazni and Kabul to teach a lesson to Mongols. These campaigns crippled the Mongols and they could not gather courage to invade India again till next invasion took place only under Timur during the Tughlaq Dynasty.



16 | P a g e

Alauddin was absolutely illiterate, not even able to read his name. The military successes took him to a fool’s paradise and he thought that he is another Hazarat Mohammad, so he should establish a new religion. Then he also dreamt of becoming second Alexander to subdue the earth, ordered the Muslims to take his name in the Namaz and ordered to engrave his name as “Second Alexander” in his coins. However, there were some wise people around who advised him to leave the job of establishing new religions to the prophets and rather than subduing the whole of earth, subdue the parts of India, which were under the infidel Hindus such as the Rajputs of Rajasthan, and rulers of Malwa, Dhar, Ujjain etc. Thus, he was shown the right path by the wise people around him. Once shown the right path, he found out that just Ranathambore was enough to make his lose all his energy. His army besieged the fort of Ranathambore in 1299 to teach a lesson to Raja Hammir, who dared to give shelter to one of the rebels of the Sultan, named Muhammad Shah. The fort was besieged by the Sultan's army in 1299 and returned in 1301 exhausted. Only a conspiracy could help him to capture the fort of Ranathambore that too with the help of a Rajput traitor Ranmal. Hammir Dev as well as Muhammad shah was killed and Ranathambore was given to Ulugh Khan. Sultan Returned to Delhi. Then, one foolish pariah told Alauddin about the beauty of Rani Padmini, the wife of Rawal Ratan Singh. In 1303, the marauding army of Alauddin Khilji, who had coveted Padmani, besieged Chittor. The siege was followed by "Jauhar" wherein Rani Padmani, led the ladies of the fort into death by self-immolation, "to find security from dishonor in the devouring element” as says James Tod. The next morning, the men folk of Chittor rode out to face certain death on the field of honor. Meanwhile Daughter of Raja Karndev, the ruler of Gujarat was taken to Delhi and was married to Khijra Khan, son of Alauddin Khalji. Khijra Khan was made governor of Chittor and its name was changed to Khijrabad. To subdue Deccan, Sultan sent an army under Malik Kafur , a handsome castrato (male castrated before puberty) from Gujarat who was Hindu by birth and converted to Islam, fascinated the Sultan and allegedly had (homo) sexual relations with him. Alauddin had so much faith on Malik Kafur that he became the most important person after Sultan in due course of time. The Raja of Devagiri was captured and taken as prisoners. Malik brought the Raja and his son to Delhi. The Sultan treated them with all honor, gave him a royal canopy and a title of "Rai Rayan" (King of Kings) and returned him to Devagiri to rule as a vassal of the Delhi Sultanate. In the following years he proceeded to Warangal and was able to get the famous (infamous rather) Kohinoor diamond from the King Prataprudradev of the Kakatiya dynasty. The next campaign was against Veera Ballala III , the great Hoyasala , who was able to repulse the armies of Delhi Sultanate, but Kafur returned with a great Booty.

Reforms of Allauddin Khilji • Alauddin introduced the reforms in the army and started the system of branding the horses

“Dagh” and biometric information about the soldiers “Chehra”. He introduced regular



17 | P a g e

muster for army. He organized and introduced a countrywide spy system. He was the First Sultan who set up a “permanent Standing Army” of the sultanate.

• Alauddin Khilji abolished the system of small Iqtas with a stroke of pen and brought them under the central Government. At the same time, Alauddin made some harshest hike in tax part. Half of the produce was to be liable to be paid to the Government, which was disastrous to the peasants. This scale of agrarian tax at 50% was the highest under Khilji among all other sultans. Not only that, Khilji made the Khuts and Muqaddams to pay arrears into a new arrear department called Diwan-i-Mustkharaj. This Mustkharaj reduced these people to beggars literally. As soon as Alauddin died, the system lost into oblivion.

• He confiscated the lands granted to nobles and checked free grants of lands. He forbade them to marry among each other’s families and hold celebrations.

• He is known to have established separate markets for food grains, cloths etc. He also created new posts of Diwan-i-riyasat and Shahna-i-mandi to control the markets.

Succession of Alauddin Alauddin died in 1316. None of his successors was able to fit in his shoes. Malik Kafur enthroned the 6-year-old child prince Shihabuddin as Sultan of Delhi and became his protector. Malik Kafur sent two of Sultan's elder sons to the next world mercilessly. This reprobate was plotting a mass murder of the Nobles, when one night he himself was killed by the soldiers in his bedroom. Another son of Alauddin, Mubarak Shah became the acting regent over his younger brother. Soon, he blinded that child and sent him to jail. What happened to the ill-fated child, nobody knows. As soon as he became Sultan, to gather cheap publicity, he released 17 thousands of prisoners and abolished all the taxes and penalties his father had imposed. Mubarak, the young chap of 17 years was a slave of his own desires and orgies. He paid the army 6 months advance salary and distributed the grants indiscriminately. The result was that wine started flowing in Delhi, which was banned by his father. The markets went wrong, commodities became costly. All the market reforms introduced by his father tottered like a building and there was a general corruption in Delhi. Like his father, Mubarak also had a beautiful Hindu pariah from Gujarat whom, he had styled Khusru Khan. He openly started calling the dancing girls and prostitutes took him to the height to indecency and debauchery. Mubarak had flayed alive late Raja of Devagiri. The haunting shades of past gave him the fate he deserved. One night his favourite Khusru Khan murdered him. Khusru Khan mounted the throne as Sultan Nasiruddin. He ordered mass killing in the Harem of the Sultan and everybody alive was killed. Khusru, a Hindu convert, took the revenge of his forceful covert by eliminating the whole of the Khalji dynasty and this was the end of another dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate in 1320 AD.

Chapter 5. Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413) Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq 1321-1325

After eliminating Khusru, Ghazi Malik , a Governor of Alauddin became the Sultan of Delhi with the name Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq in 1321. He reintroduced the food market laws which were earlier implemented by his master. He tried to revive all the reforms which were necessary and were earlier implemented. Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq successfully attempted to bring the peace and prosperity. Under his elder son Fakhr Malik or Jauna or Ulugh Khan, Deccan Provinces were recovered. A campaign was launched against Bengal, which had never subject to Delhi since demise of Balban. This gallant old Sultan met his end in 1325 when a roof fell and crushed him beneath its ruins. His son Fakhr Malik ascended the throne in 1325 as Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and reigned for 26 years until 1351.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351



18 | P a g e

This "Man of Ideas" was a trained intellectual, a keen student of Persian poetry and a philosopher, lover of science and mathematics. He is known for the idea of a Central Capital and experiments with a nominal token Currency. These ideas were all good, but he was in hurry and impatient of the slow adoption of his measures. All those who could not keep pace with his imagination, became victim of his wrath and were punished severely. The result was that Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, as a sultan proved himself a complete failure before the history of forces toppled him. Foolish Donor Muhammad Bin Tughlaq generously scattered almost incredible wealth among the foreign visitors, learned men, poets, officials, beggars, diseased and so on. He impoverished the treasury. Project Khurasan His project to conquer Persia (Khurasan Expedition), his dream to keep a huge standing army and his plans to invade China (Quarachil Expedition) finished his finances. His idea of invading China met with a disastrous in the passes of Himalayas where men and money got split like water. Horrible Tax Reforms The empty treasures needed fresh taxations. He wanted 5-10% more revenue from the Doab region which was the fertile land of his reign. The oppressive taxes reduced the farmers to beggars. They stopped tilling the lands, lost confidence and burnt their stacks. The cattle were turned loose and moved to Jungles. The Tax reforms of Sultan got failed. Miffed Sultan hounded the wretched Hindu subjects and massacred them. Every man captured was slaughtered like sheep. This was followed by a famine and the unfortunate subjects were left in deplorable conditions for many years to come. Transfer of Capital The inconvenience to rule the wealthy Deccan induced the Sultan to take step and transfer the seat of the government to Daulatabad (near Pune). The idea might have been practical and reasonable if he had ever thought of shifting the official court of Delhi. But, he wanted to transport the whole population of Delhi to the new capital. The inhabitants of Delhi were made to leave their homes and were forced to march 700 miles down south with their women, children and all such belongings they could carry. Many were killed on the way in this forty days journey and few could survive. Daulatabad became the burial ground of the Sultan’s exiled subjects. Sultan got enough wisdom to realize his failure and ordered the people back to Delhi; result was only few could survive to return. Delhi's houses were deserted now. Sultan “imported” learned men, traders and landholders to repopulate the deserted Delhi, but they could not flourish. Diwan-i-Kohi Sultan also got enough wisdom to understand the distress caused by the Famine and the result of the excessive taxation. In 1341, he abolished all the taxes and started sitting twice a week to hear

We know about the period of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq from the material of Ziauddin Barni. Barni's main works are Twarikh-i-Firuzshahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari. Then another important work is left by Ibn Battuta. Ibn Battuta has discussed his travels and incursions in contemporary Islamic world and documented them in Rihla. He was appointed as Qazi by Muhammad Tughlaq and was also appointed ambassador to China. Ibn Battuta gives details about the later part of his rule. Portrait of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in Batutta’s words, "his gateway is never free from a beggar whom he has relived and never free from a corpse, he has slain"



19 | P a g e

the complaints of the oppressed. He started distributing daily food to the people of Delhi. He also established a loan system to the peasants. He created a department of Agriculture named as “Diwan-i-Kohi”. He established a “Famine Code” to relive the victims of Famine. Experiments with Token Currency The heavy drains of the treasury led him to do another disastrous experiment of a token currency. The Idea of token currency was probably borrowed from Paper Money issued by his near contemporary Kublai Khan in China. He introduced the Copper/ brass coins, which were to pass at the value of the contemporary Silver Tanka.

• The silver coin introduced by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was called Adl. • The Gold coin, which was finely engraved was called “Dinar”

He did not foresee the consequences of this monetary experiment. He was aware that the value of the token money depends upon the credit of the treasury (which was full with Gold after his Deccan conquests) but forgot that none other than the state should issue the tokens. Any skilled Hindu engraver could copy the inscriptions and strike the copper tokens of the values of the Tankas. The result was that "house of every Hindu turned into a mint and the Hindus produced coins in tens of millions". They paid their tribute, purchased horses, arms, cloths and all the other things with this forged currency. The local Rajas and village headmen became rich but the government became poor. The value of these coins fell so low that they became worth pebbles. This forced Sultan to repeal the edict and he gave order to bring the copper coins to the treasury and exchange them with old coins of silver / gold. Thousands of men from all corners flocked with these copper coins to the capital and exchanged them with Gold and Silver Tankas. So much of copper coins were brought to the treasury that heaps of them raised like mountains. The experiment got its disastrous end. Death and Succession The innovations of the Sultan exasperated the people and Sultan became unpopular. There was widespread discontent and rebellion. Bit by bit the empire disintegrated, one province after another revolted. Sultan could suppress the rebels at one point but could not be everywhere. Amid chaos and confusion, in 1351 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq died. He had no sons but his cousin Firoz Shah ascended the throne.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD) Once becoming Sultan, Firoz reversed every order of his predecessor. He was a half Muslim, his mother was Hindu. So he got a religious temperament, probably to prove himself equal to the Pure Muslims. He started seeking advice of the Ulemas and ruled as per the Shariat. He abandoned all the taxes, which were unlawful as per Shariat.

• He abolished Chungi (Octroi). He ordered that the Muslim women should not come out of their houses and visit the tombs.



20 | P a g e

• The Brahmins were NOT exempted from the Jaziya tax levied on their pilgrimages but abolished Jaziya for those who accepted Islam. He publicly burnt a Brahmin for daring to preach the Muslims.

• A lot of Hindu temples were destroyed and mosques were erected. He imposed water tax on the agriculture land which was irrigated by the waters of the canals dug by the state. He acquired numerous slaves and employed them in the royal workshops.

The cities established by him are Firuzshah Kotla (in Delhi) , Jaunpur in Bengal in memory of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, Fatahabad in the name of his newborn son. Second Firozabad on the banks of Yamuna River near Delhi. Here he established one of the Asokan Pillars which he had removed from its original places. One more city was Hissar-i-Firoza in the modern Haryana which is now the town of Hisar. To support the newly founded city of Hissar-i-Firoza, in 1355 he constructed a Double System of Canals from Yamuna to Sutlej. They are referred to as rajwahas in the Indo-Persian historical texts. This Yamuna canal was repaired for irrigation purposes during the time of Akbar. The Firoz shah's regime was utmost gentle towards the peasantry. His predecessor Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had introduced a system of government loans for the peasants. The peasants were not able to repay these loans. By the advice of one of his vazirs named Makbul, he destroyed all the records in his presence, ceremoniously and gave clean chit to the peasants. This was one of the remarkable decisions taken by Firoz Shah Tughlaq which brought general peace and prosperity in the sultanate. In 32 years rule there were almost no rebels in India under Firoz and this might be one of the reasons. According to Farishta, a later historian, not less than 845 public works were done during the times of Firoz Shah Tughlaq which included canals, dams, reservoirs, bridges, baths, forts, mosques, schools, monasteries, and inns for pilgrims and travelers. He also repaired the Qutub Minar (1368) which had got damaged previously in an earthquake and many of the tombs of Delhi. Succession of Firoz He died in 1388 amid sorrow and gloominess because his sons were now departed souls. His grandson, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II, a young and foolish lad addicted to wine and licentiousness sat on the throne and was killed within 5 months. Next followed Abu Bakr, Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah III, one "Alexander” who was slaughtered after just hanging around for 4 weeks. In the meantime, Timur attacked India in 1398. Timur left Delhi in December 1398 and marched on Meerut. Then he attacked Haridwar and overran the city in 1399. At Bhokarhedi, he faced stiff resistance from the Hindus. In 1399, he returned his capital with numerous slaves and 90 captured elephants laden with precious stones and gold looted from India. He returned to his capital Amu Darya and built a mosque at Samarkand. This mosque named Bibi-Khanym Mosque is located in Samarkand, Uzbekistan was built by Timur and is named after wife of Timur.



21 | P a g e

Chapter 6. The Sayyid Dynasty The impact of the Invasion of Timur was that Delhi was not able to get her old ascendency. After a series of successions the Tughlaq dynasty had ended. In 1414, Khizra Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, who claimed his descent from the Arabian Prophet, took control as a deputy of Timur in India. Four Kings of the Sayyid dynasty indulged in perpetual struggle to retain some sort of control. Khizra Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Khan after his death on May 20, 1421. However, he was murdered soon. Last ruler of this dynasty was Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah, who voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi sultanate in favor of Bahlol Khan Lodi on April 19, 1451 and left for Badaun, where he died chanting names of Allah. India was once again disintegrated in smaller independent states and petty rulers ruled the territories, some of which were as small as 20-30 miles. In South India first independent Islamic Kingdom in South Bahamni Kingdom had already formed by a vassal of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. In Karnataka the Vijayanagar empire was on its climax.

Chapter 7. Lodi Dynasty The entire 15th century saw the power of Delhi vanished, following the collapse of the Tughlaq Dynasty, after the invasion of Timur. The Sayyid utterly failed. The Lodi Afghans showed some energy and wisdom but could not regain the old power and pomp. Bahlol Lodi supplanted the last feeble Sayyid in 1451.

Bahlol Lodi 1451 – 1489 Bahlol Lodi was a good soldier and governor of Sirhind. After taking some minor principalities near Delhi, he was able to recover Jaunpur and surrounding territories expanding the territories as far as Bihar. He had married a Hindu Goldsmith of Sirhind and the offspring of this matrimony was Sikandar Lodi, who succeeded him after his death in 1489.

Sikandar Lodi 1489-1517 Sikandar Lodi was the second son of Bahlol, so naturally there was a power struggle between him and his elder brother Barbak Shah, who was then viceroy of Jaunpur. However, since, his father nominated Sikandar as heir apparent, there was no bloodshed and Barbak Shah kept ruling Jaunpur. Sikandar ascended the throne in 1489 AD. The campaigns of Sikandar Lodi began to recall the earlier supremacy of Delhi. He was able to subdue the rajas of Bihar, Bengal, Dholpur, Chanderi, Gwalior, Awadh, Tirhut, Bundelkhand etc. In 1503 he established the city of Agra and in 1506, transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra. Sikandar, like Firoz Tughlaq was harsh to Hindus and is known to have burnt alive a Hindu Brahmin who preached "Islam and Hindu are both ways acceptable to God”. He razed temples such as Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. He imposed Jaziya on Hindus and did all what he could do to prove the supremacy of Islam. The dream of conquering the Gwalior fort could never come true in his life. He attacked five times to win this mighty fort but each time he was defeated by raja Mansingh of



22 | P a g e

Gwalior. He died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi, who was the last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.

Ibrahim Lodi: 1517-1526 Ibrahim Lodi was obsessed with the Royal prerogative. He made the Afghan chiefs on whose swords his dominion rested, stand motionless in his presence with folded hands and they got so much vexed with his petty rules that discontent rose among them. Ibrahim tried to subdue the inferno with the blood of some of the elite and result of this bloodshed was that Afghans rose in arms. There was a rebel in all of his sides. The chiefs of Oudh, Jaunpur and Bihar chose Darya Khan as their leader. In Punjab there was a revolt under Daulat Khan. The rule of Ibrahim became so intolerant that one of his uncles Aalam Khan fled to Kabul and invited Babur to invade India. In Mewar, a new power under Rana Sanga was on its zenith. Under these circumstances Babur attacked India and closed the chapter of Delhi Sultanate.

Chapter 8. The Mughal Empire Babur 1526-1530

Babur has written his biography i.e. Baburnama which is also known as Tuzk-e Babri. Babur and Jahangir are the only two emperors of Mughal Empire who wrote their own biographies. Baburnama is also known to be the first true autobiography in the Islamic literature. Baburnama was written in Chagatai Turkic, which was Babur's mother tongue. In contrast Jahangirnama or Tuzk-i-Jahangiri was written in Persian. Babur, a descendent of Timur through his father and descendant of Changez Khan through his mother had the blood of Mongols and Turks in his veins. The first attack of Babur in India was on Bajaur in 1519 with 2000 equestrians. Gun Powder was used for the first time during his expedition to Bajaur. In successive expeditions, he used Gun powder and Canons which were perhaps new to the Indians. Prior to take on Ibrahim Lodi, Babur had led 4 expeditions. In one of these expeditions, he was able to defeat Daulat Khan Lodi, the Governor of Punjab. The discontent at Delhi led Aalam Khan , one of the uncles of Ibrahim Lodi and a claimant to the throne of Delhi flee to Kabul and appeal him for "action", which was already "granted". First his troops routed the Lahore and then Dipalpur. Alam Khan was appointed at Dipalpur and a Mongol was also left to watch this coat changer. His fifth and final expedition was in November 1525, which ended in 1526 with victory at Delhi. After Delhi, he moved to Agra where his sodires wanted to return but his moral suassion held them back. The next battle was with the Old Rajput Hero Rana Sanga who counted 80 wounds on his body and lost one arm and one eye in the battle field. Rana Sanga commanded a Rajput confederacy with 120 chieftains leading 80 thousand war horses and 500 war elephants. Prior to Babur, he had fought “Battle of Gagron" in 1519, with Sultan Mahmood of Malwa and “Battle of Khatoli and Bari” in which Ibrahim Lodi’s forces were defeated. This enmity kept Rana



23 | P a g e

Sanga neutral in the Battle of Khanwa, otherwise Babur could be defeated. In the battle of Khanwa in 1527, Mughal artillery wreaked havoc in the Rajputs closed ranks. The Canons did the fearful execution. The great Rajput army soon disintegrated into the disordered crowd and their gallantry was turned into massacre. In 1529, Babur defeated Muhammad Lodi, brother of Ibrahim, who was the last Lodi claimant of the Delhi Throne, in the Battle of Ghaghra. At the age of 47, on December 26, 1530 Babur died in his garden palace in Agra of an unknown disease. Now, he is buried at Kabul, a city he had always loved, and chosen himself, surrounded by the people he loved, the fragrance of flowers. In Uzbekistan & Kyrgyzstan he is a National Hero.

Humayun Humayun was portrayed in his biography "Humayunnama" written by his sister Gulbadan Begum. When he ascended the throne of Delhi, in North west, it his brother Kamran had a problem for him, in east Afghans were roaring and in south, Bahadur Shah the king of Gujarat and Malwa was a formidable king. e Rajputs were also sitting at a striking distance from Agra. After initial expeditions, when he laid siege Chunar in 1532 to defeat the Afghans under Shershah, he accepted a peace treaty because he got the news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was planning a conquest of Delhi. So, Afghans got some time to mature plans. In 1534, when Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah had attacked Chittor in 1534, the Rani Karmavati (she was princess of Bundi) was sent to Bundi for safety. At the time of attack by Bahadur Shah, Karmavati sent "Rakhi" the "holy thread” to Humayun and requested for help. However, Humayun did not “reply” in time. Chittor was in siege by Bahadur Shah and Karvavati performed Jauhar. The timely interference of Humayun at Chittor could win him the inestimable friendship of the Rajputs, something which was the need of the hour. But, he decided to standby till the quarrel was fought out. This was an unusual incident where Humayun, despite his capability, did not attack Bahadur Shah, probably because his Muslim enemy was waging a "Holy war" against the "Infidel Hindus". After the Chittor fell, Humayun became active and cut the supplies of the soldier camps of the Bahadur shah so that he soldiers started starving. In the dead of the night, Bahadur shah fled the scene and his army immediately dispersed in all directions. Humayun, all of a sudden found himself in undisputed possession of the camp. Bahadur Shah was chased to Mandu but was neither killed nor arrested. From here, Bahadur shah fled to Champaner, then Ahmadabad, then Cambay and finally Diu, where his life was ultimately taken by the Portuguese. The almost entire region of Malwa and Gujarat now belonged to Humayun.

Confrontation with Sher Shah Suri 1540-1545 Sher Shah aka Farid descended from the Royal house of Sur, the kings of Ghor, and in early career, rose from the rank of a small time administrator (jagirdar) to be the prime minister of one of the Lohani Afghans. He initially worked under Baharkhan and later in 1527, he joined the military of Babur. When Babur invaded Bihar, Sher Khan guided his troops and as a prize, got his Jagir



24 | P a g e

restored. His very presence in the Mughal army itself was enough for him to learn about the weakness and strength of the Mughal army and administration. His first confrontation with Humayun was in 1532, when Humayun had laid siege on the Chunar Fort which lasted for 4 months and ended in a submission. But this submission did not let him abandon his dream to become the sovereign. When Humayun was busy in south, he conquered Gaur, the capital of Bengal. In the battlefield of Chausa, in 1539, the imperial army was checked by Sher shah. The two forces camped opposite each other, but none of the two warranted an attack for two months. In these two months the Mughal forces suffered the scarcity of food and supply, leading death of cattle and horses. In the desperate situation, Humayun opened the negotiations and arrangement for a treaty was made. As per this treaty, Sher Shah was to retain Bengal and parts of Bihar. In return, he would give recognition to emperor and accept his suzerainty. The men from two armies on the point of this possible settlement started coming on friendly terms and all of a sudden there was a blast. One fine day, on the break of the dawn the Afghans struck the unsuspecting Mughals from all sides. Many of the Mughal soldiers were slain in sleep, few killed mounted on horses. Humayun was saved by a Bhisti, who supported him on his water skin across the river Ganga. Most of the army was drawn in Ganga or captured or killed and the luckless emperor of India came almost alone to Agra in 1539. In May 1540, the armies met once again opposite Kannauj and the Mughal Empire was put to an end for a while. At Kannauj, the Afghans were able to scatter the Mughal army, which mere by panic, fled in confusion. Humayun again escaped from the battle field and from that day , for next 15 years he lived like a wanderer. Via the deserts of Thar, he reached Sind where he lived for 3 years. Here, he fell in love with Hamida, a 15 year old girl, who was daughter of a sheikh of his brother. In 1542, on October 15, Hamida gave birth to Akbar, who would become the most adorable emperor of India, only after Asoka.

Administration of Sher Shah In Sher Shah, we find a benevolent autocrat. He introduced many reforms which are greatly appreciated. The first five year of Sher Shah's administration were used in setting up a new template for civil administration in India. He divided the entire Kingdom in 47 divisions and called them "Sarkars". These Sarkars were divided into Parganas. Every Pargana was under a Shikqdar, who looked into the law and order of his Pargana. At Pargana Level:

• Munsifs were appointed to collect the revenue. • Amir was to hear the Civil Cases • Qazi or Mir-i-adal was to hear the criminal cases. • Muqqadams were to chase and arrest the culprits, and if they failed to do so, were liable to get punished.

Rupia The first Rupee (Silver coin) was introduced by Sher Shah and was called "Rupia" which remained in use throughout the Mughal rule. He issued copper coins which were called Dam, Half Dam and quarter Dam as per the denomination. Todal Mal Todar Mal Khatri, prior to become a celebrity under the reigns of Akbar as Raja Todar Mal was groomed in Sher Shah's administration. Whether, he did any finance and revenue related works with Sher Shah is not clear, but it is believed that he acquired considerable experience in revenue affairs. The land was



25 | P a g e

measured and for this measurement Sikandari Gaj was used which was equivalent to 39 inches. The Sikandari Gaj was introduced by Sikandar Lodi. Kabuliyat and Patta System The Kabuliyat and Patta system was introduced during the reign of Sher Shah, where the area sown, types of crops cultivated and revenue share was written on a Paper. He introduced direct remittances of the taxes to the Central Government so that the taxpayers are saved from any exploitation by the middle officers. Jagir system was discouraged and a new arrangement Qabuliyat was introduced. Qabuliyat was a deed of agreement between the peasant and government. The survey charge was fixed at 2.5% that was called Jaribana and the collection charge was fixed at 5% that was known as Muhasilans. Grand Trunk Road A major road running across the Gangetic plain was built by Sher Shah for administrative and military reasons. This "Sadak-i-Azam" was the precursor of the Grand Trunk Rood. This Road was initially built by Sher Shah to connect Agra to Sasaram, that was his home town. It was extended to Multan in west and Sonargaon in West. (Sonargaon is now in Bagladesh). This road is one of the greatest legacies of Shershah. During the Mughal era, this Sadak-i-Azam extended till Kabul. The same road was improved by the British and renamed as Grand Trunk Road that ran between Calcutta to Peshawar.

Successors of Shershah The reign of Sher Shah was just 5 years from 1540-45 though, one of the most impressive reigns. In May 1545, when he was campaigning against the Chandel Rajputs in Bundelkhand (Kalinjer), a gunpowder explosion fatally wounded him and thus this Afghan Tiger lost his life in Bundelkhand, laying wounded in his tent and worrying about the future of his wise schemes. Sher Shah was succeeded by Jalal Khan, his son who ascended the throne with title Islam Shah Suri. Islam shah is best known for "Codifying the Laws" for the first time. Thus, in justice and judiciary, he was one step ahead of his father Sher Shah. His reign was of 9 years till 1554, when he died of some disease. His successor was his son Firoz Shah, a 12 year child, got soon assassinated by Muhammad Adil Shah. Adil Shah was a debauched brute who left the real power in his trusted Hindu Vazir Hemu. There was a struggle among all the Suri cousins such as Sikandar Shah and Ibrahim Shah. Now the Suri Empire was divided into four Suris, none of them was important. In 1555, Humayun descended from Kabul with some 15000 horses and routed Sikandar Suri in Punjab. He proceeded further and took easy possession of Delhi and Agra. His son Akbar was sent to pursue the fugitive Afghans. Humayun was now back in power. He had enjoyed the Throne of Delhi merely for 6 months that one day he slipped down the polished stairs of his palace and died at the age of 49. Humayun tumbled throughout his life and so easily tumbled out of it.

Akbar 1556-1605 Akbar and Bairam Khan

When Humayun died of the fatal accident, Akbar was mere 13. The territories under him were Punjab and Delhi only. When his father died, he was in midst of a war with Sikandar Shah at Sirhind. At Kalanaur in Punjab, this 13 year old boy was enthroned by Bairam Khan in January 1556 and was proclaimed Shahanshah. Bairam Khan became his protector and co-regent till he comes of his age. The politics of palace changed Akbar's mind against this old tutor, who had not yet realized



26 | P a g e

that his young student was no more a child. Akbar's wet nurse named Maham Anaga, who was also known as his foster mother wished to use her power to undermine the esteem of Bairam and was successful in that. Akbar publicly announced that he has taken the reign in his hand, deposed Bairam Khan and sent orders for him to go for Haj - the temporary banishment. Bairam left for Gujarat to take a boat for the pilgrimage in Arabia but was instigated by some of the foolish Muslim counselors to revolt against Akbar. He followed their advice and got defeated by the Mughal army and was brought to Akbar, who pardoned him. Now, once more he left for Mecca but before he could reach Gujarat, he was assassinated by the Afghans in revenge.

Maham Anaga The "petticoat government" under Maham Anaga did triumph for a moment. She acted almost as prime minister for a while as her devotion to her foster son Akbar made her invaluable to him. But, her hopes were wrapped up in her own son Adham Khan, who was pushed forward by her to the high command. Adham Khan was filled with more pride than loyalty. He was sent to invade Malwa in 1561 along with Pir Muhammad Khan, another general. Baz Bahadur, the sultan of Malwa was defeated in the battle of Sarangpur and Adham Khan tried to get his lover Rani Roopmati, who after taking some time to invite him inside her chamber , poisoned herself to death. Only a part of the booty was sent to Akbar and rest he kept with himself. Miffed Akbar marched to Sarangpur and seized the spoils. His cup was full when, out of envy, he killed Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Ataga Khan, Akbar's one of the favorite generals and then also stood on the gate of Akbar’s harem looking inside as if he was standing in a sanctuary . He was thrown twice from the roof of the Palace, and dispatched to the heaven. The news of his death was given by Akbar to his mother, thus broken her heart. She survived but only for 40 days. Akbar got rid of both the mother and son.

Wives and Harem Salima Sultan, widow of his trusted general and tutor became the queen of Akbar after he was sent for the pilgrimage and died midway. Prior to her, Akbar had a childless Ruqaiyya Begum as her first wife. The third chief wife of Akbar - Hira Kunwari, recorded in Muslim books as Mariyam Zamani Begum and popular now as "Jodha", was daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber with whom he married in 1562. Akbar's union with the Rajput princes marked a new policy. Her father Bharmal was decorated with the highest rank of the official aristocracy, 5000 Mansabdari, the general of 5000 horsemen. The bride was allowed to freely exercise the rites of her own faith Hinduism, marking the religious toleration of Akbar. Later he took other women Hindus, Iranians, Persians, Muslim, Armenian etc. etc. in his harem, till the number rose to 5000, looks like he wanted to make a parliament of religions .



27 | P a g e

The immediate result with alliance with the Rajput princes was that in 1562 Jazia, the tax, which the victorious followers of prophet charged upon the infidels, was abolished. Next in line was abolition of the tax on Hindu Pilgrims, on the base that there should be no obstacles in the way of Man's service to the God. The detested Jazia and the pilgrim tax thus abolished during the time of Akbar were reemployed only during the times of Aurangzeb, uprooting the judicious system imposed by his great grandfather. But Akbar did not hesitate in interfering in the Hindu practices that offended the sense of humanity - such as Child marriage, animal sacrifice, permission to widows to remarry etc. He was against the burning of widows, though, abolishing sati wholly was beyond his power.

Akbar and Mewar Rana Sanga had died in 1528. His eldest surviving son, Rana Ratan Singh, succeeded him was got assassinated in 1531. His brother Rana Vikramaditya Singh succeeded Ratan Singh. During Vikramaditya Singh's reign, Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah attacked Chittor in 1534. In 1537, Banbir killed Vikramaditya and usurped the throne. Udai Singh was the youngest and posthumous son of Rana Sanga. Banvir tried to kill Udai Singh also, but Udai's nurse Panna Dhai sacrificed her own son to save him from his uncle Banbir and took him to Kumbhalgarh. Udai Singh lived in secret in Kumbhalgarh for two years, disguised as a nephew of the governor Asha Shah. He defeated Banvir at Mavli. In 1540, the nobles of Mewar crowned him in Kumbhalgarh. His eldest son Rana Pratap was born in the same year 1540. Shakti Singh, Jagmal and Viramdeo were his other sons. In 1562, Udai Singh gave refuse to Baz Bahadur, the king of Malwa who was defeated by the Mughal army of Akbar. Rani Rupmati was a Hindu Rajput singer of Malwa and lover of Sultan Baz Bahadur. The Mughals captured Rupamati and she poisoned herself, ending an eternal love story. The refuge to Baz Bahadur was a costly affair for Udai Singh. Akbar attacked and sacked Mewar in 1567. Udai Singh, left Chittor and went to Gogunda. Chittor was left in hands of his loyal chieftains Jaimal & Patta, who died in the Mughal campaign. Rajput ladies performed third Jauhar at this time. Udaipur had been already founded in 1559 and now Udaisingh could take refuge over there. Akbar Captured Chittor in 1568. Udai Singh died in Gogunda in 1572. He nominated his son Jagmal, but the nobles placed Rana Pratap on throne. The fall of Chittor was followed by two other famous forts of Ranthambore and Kalinjer, which secured allegiance of Akbar. Akbar cemented the feel good factor by marrying other princess, the daughter of Raja of Bikaner – Kalyanmal, who along with his son Ram Singh entered into the service of Akbar. But Rana Pratap never accepted Akbar as ruler of India, and fought Akbar all his life. Akbar first tried diplomacy to win over Maharana Pratap but nothing worked. Pratap maintained that he had no intention to fight with Akbar but he could not bow down to Akbar and accept him as the ruler. Pratap stopped the marriage etiquette of Rajputs who had been giving their daughters to Mughals. Chittor was under Mughal and Pratap was a king without capital.



28 | P a g e

Almost all of Pratap's fellow Rajput chiefs had entered into the allegiance with Mughals. Pratap's brothers, Shakti Singh and Sagar Singh, were also serving Akbar. Many Rajput chiefs, such as Raja Man Singh of Amber were serving as army commanders in Akbar's armies and members of his council. Akbar sent a total of six diplomatic missions to Pratap, seeking to negotiate the same sort of peaceful alliance that he had concluded with the other Rajput chiefs. Pratap roundly rebuffed every such attempt displaying his self-respect and honor. This culminated in Battle of Haldi Ghati on June 21, 1576. It was a decisive victory for Akbar’s chieftain Man Singh. Col. Todd called Battle of Haldighati as Battle of Thermopylae of Rajasthan. Abul Fazal called this war as “Battle of Khamnaur” Badayuni called this war as “Battle of Gogunda”. After this battle, Rana Pratap continued Guerilla warfare against Akbar. His Son Amar Singh fought 17 wars with the Mughals but he conditionally accepted them as rulers in 1615. This was the terminating end of Freedom of Mewar.

Extent of Empire & Political Foresight From 1572 to 1573, Akbar could win Gujarat. In 1574-75 he won Bengal. In 1581, he marched towards Afghanistan to suppress a revolt. By 1595, he had taken Kashmir, Sind, Orissa and Kandahar. In the Deccan, only Khandesh, Berar and parts of Ahamednagar were annexed. Buland Darwaja at Fatehpur Sikri was erected by him to commemorate the victory over Gujarat. When its climax, the empire of Akbar reached from Bay of Bengal to Kandahar rubbing soldiers with Persia and Kashmir to Narmada, touching the formidable Deccan Kingdoms. The empire was almost equal in area with that of Alauddin, but expansion its foundations were utterly stronger than that of the Khalji tyrant. It was not subdued with sword but was done with the utterly help of the wiling Hindu chiefs. Another major difference was that this expansion of Akbar's empire went hand-in-hand with the nifty administration. The central government did not interfere so long as revenue did not suffer. The assimilation of Hindu chiefs was one of the most striking features of his reign. Akbar allowed no oppression by his officers. Large number of Hindus employed under Akbar.

Raja Todar Mal & Land Revenue System Raja Todar Mal, a Khatri Rajput had served his youth under the administration of Sher Shah Suri and had gained priceless experience in management of Land and revenues. He assisted Akbar's chancellor of exchequer Muzafar Khan first and then took part in suppression of Ali Kuli in 1566.Raja Todar Mal was the First Hindu which was sent to lead the Mughal Army. This was particularly because of Akbar’s suspicion that a Muslim may act in collusion with the rebel enemy. After that Raja Todar Mal was employed settling the revenue system of Gujarat and then again given the military command to win Bengal. He became the finance officer (Mushrif-i-Diwan) of Akbar in 1575 and Diwan-i-kul (Chief Finance Minister) in 1582 and introduced the reforms also known as Todar Mal's rentroll, the book of land records in Mughal Empire. He died in 1587.



29 | P a g e

Mal Kharaj The Agrarian tax was called Mal or Kharaj. Mal essentially represented a claim on behalf of the state to a share of the actual crop. Akbar first adopted Sher Shah’s System in which cultivated area was measured and a central schedule was drawn up fixing the dues of peasants crop wise on the basis of the productivity of the land. The state’s share was one-third of the produce’ the produce under the schedule being valued at prices fixed by the emperor. In fixing the prices, the rates current in the vicinity of Delhi were probably taken as the basis. This arrangement created difficulties, because one uniform scheduled of prices of crops could not reasonably be applied to the whole empire. Prices were lower in rural areas which were far away from the urban centres and the cultivators found it difficult to pay in cash at the official rate. In the tenth year of Akbar’s reign, prices of crops prevailing in different regions were substituted for the uniform schedule and the emperor reverted to a system of annual assessment.

Karori System In 1573, Akbar did a third change via which he gave up the annual assessment and appointed the “karoris” all over north India. These Karoris were to collect a crore of dams as revenue and to check the facts and figures supplied by the Kanungos regarding the actual produce, state of cultivation , local prices etc.

Dahsala System Then, in 1580, the Karori System was given up and Raja Todarmal introduced a new Dahsala System or Zabti System. This remained a standard system of revenue assessment during the greater part of the Mughal empire.In the Dahsala system, the land was classified in four categories viz.

• Polaj (land which was cultivated every year and never left fallow); • Parati or parauti (land which had to be left fallow for a time to enable it to recover fertility); • Chachar (land which had to be left fallow for three or four years); and • Banjar (land which remained uncultivated for five years or more_.

Polaj and parauti lands were classified into three categories- good, middle and bad- and the average produce per bigha of these three categories was taken as the normal produce of a bigha. Parauti land, when cultivated , paid the same revenue as polaj land. The chachar and banjar lands were charged a concessional rate which was progressively increased to full or polaj rate (i.e. one-third of the produce) by the fifth or the eighth year. Under the Dahsala system an attempt was made to work out the revenue rates. The state demand was given in maunds; but for the conversion of the state demand from kind to cash, a separate schedule of cash revenue rates (dastura amals) for various crops was fixed. For a period of the previous ten years, 1570 to 1580 information yields, prices, and area cultivated was collected for each locality.



30 | P a g e

On the basis of the average prices of different crops in each locality over the past ten years the state demand was fixed in rupees per bigha. Each revenue circle had a separate schedule of cash revenue rates (dastur-i-amal) for various crops. Thus the peasant was required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices. Please note that Dahsala was neither a ten-year nor a permanent settlement, and the state had the right to modify it. Since this system was associated with raja Todarmal, it is also known as Todarmal bandobust. This system prevailed from Lahore to Allahabad and in the provinces of Malwa and Gujarat. During Shahjahan’s era, it was introduced in the Deccan by Murshid Quli khan. Other Systems of Mughal Era During the reign of akbar and his successors three more systems of revenue assessment were prevalent viz. batai or Gallabakshi System, Kankut System and Nasaq System.

• Batai or Galla-bakhshi was a very old system which continued during the Mughal period. This was a simple method of crop-sharing in which the produce was arranged into heaps and divided into three shares, one of which was taken by the state. Under this system the peasant had the choice to pay in cash or kind.

• Kankut system was also an old prevalent method in which, instead of actually dividing the grain (kan), an estimate (kut) was made on the basis of an actual inspection on the spot and one-third of the estimated produce was fixed as the state demand. So, it was a rough estimate of produce on the basis of actual inspection and past experience.

• Nasaq System was widely prevalent in the Mughal Empire, particularly in Bengal. In this system a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts of the peasants. It required no actual measurement, but the area was ascertained from the records.

Military Administration: Mansabdari System Mansabdari System was a system introduced by Akbar for military administration and territorial commands (grant and revenue) to sustain parts of army. His experiences led him to conclude that rather than relying in the Irani and Turkish nobles, he should also include the Indian Muslims (Sheikhzadas), Afghans and Rajputs in the Mughal army. The Mughal officers whether Hindus or Muslims were granted territorial commands in return for the military service. They had to bring in some fixed number of men-at-arms, horses and elephants to the field and were rated as per the numbers which was known as Zats. So they were called Mansabdars of 10, 20, 100, and 1000 and so on. Mansingh was the first Mansabdar of 7000 zats and Bhagwan Das with 5000 zats enjoyed the privileged position in the Mansabdari system of Akbar. Problems with Mansabdari System: This system was not perfect. The greed of the Mansabdars ate all the grant or revenue and no money was left for the soldiers. There was a general corruption that the Mansabdars dressed their



31 | P a g e

kith and kins, servants, dhobis and Malis as soldiers and registered them and send them back to do what they were doing earlier. The weavers and carpenters were hired to obtain a Mansab and later not a trace of the horse brought by them would be found.

Bureaucracy Office of Diwan The office of the Diwan was the office of today's minister. It got strengthened in Akbar's reign. The Chief Diwan was called Diwan-i-kul and was responsible for revenue and finance. He oversaw the imperial treasury and accounts. The Diwan had to submit a daily report to the emperor. Mir Bakshi The office of Mir Bakshi was in existence since Sultanate Era. He was to give appointments and salary letters to the Mansabs. The branding of the horses named Dagh was under his supervision. He was assisted by other subordinate Bakshis. Mir Saman Mir Saman was the in charge of Royal workshops (Karkhanas). Sadr-us Sudur Sadr-us Sudur was to protect the laws of the Shariat. Qazi-ul-quvvat was the chief judiciary. Subedar The governor of a province (Suba) was a subedar who was directly appointed by the emperor. The usual tenure of Subedar was 3 years. Introduction of Persian in official works There was one more feature of Raja Todarmal's system that virtually unified the country. It was enactment that all the government accounts should be kept in Persian, rather than Hindi. The study of Persian became necessary and it helped Hindus to learn the Persian language and the Muslims to go hand-in-hand with the "talented" Hindus.

Religious Policy Akbar could not see the validity in the custom that the Hindus should pay more taxes than the Muslims. He also had an insatiable quest in the matters of religion and faith. He was deeply moved by the mystical doctrines of the Persian Sufis which was revealed to him by Faizi and his younger brother Abul Fazal. Abul Fazal encouraged Akbar for debates on doctrinal and philosophical enquiries. Akbar displayed a curiosity in these discussions. The debate took place in

Faizi Faizi was a Persian poet who he joined Akbar's suite during the seize of Chittor in 1568. In 1588 was given the status of Malik-ush-Shu'ara (Court Poet) of Akbar. He was one of the Navratnas of Akbar. Born in Agra to a scholar in philosophy and Islamic theology, he was educated mostly by his father. Akbar was impressed by the scholarly aptitude of Faizi and appointed him the tutor of princes Salim, Murad and Daniyal. Badayuni, the contemporary historian says that he composed over 100 poetic works in Persian. The collection of poems by Faizi was entitled Tabasir al-Subah, which includes Ghazals, Qasidas (Eulogies), Rubai's and poems. In 1580 he started working on five projects Nal o Daman , the Markaz ul-Advar, the Sulaiman o Bilqis, the Haft Kishvar and the Akbarnama, out of which only 2 first works were completed. Faizi also translated "Lilavati", the celebrated Sanskrit work in Maths by Bhaskaracharya, into Persian. His brother Abul Fazal penned the celebrated work Akbarnama.



32 | P a g e

the Ibadat Khana or Hall of Worship. The Ibadat Khana is now recognized to be the Diwan-i-Khas, which was founded in 1574 at the City of Fatehpur Sikri. It was opened for Sunni Muslims initially and was opened to all religions viz. Sufis, Shias, Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus and Jains. In the Ibadat Khana, initially there were disgusting arguments, some of which included a question over character of Hazarat Muhammad. These discussions, rather than clearing Akbar's doubts only increased the insatiable religious quest of the emperor. These heated arguments, Akbar found that were only to defend the creeds of their own doctrines. In the emperor's eyes, there was a truth in all the faiths but none of the creed had the master key of the Supreme Being. In 1579, Mahzar Nama was declared by which Akbar pounced upon the dominance of the intolerant orthodox and allowed free development of a genuine religious spirit. Mazhar Nama , which was actually an idea of the father of Abul Fazal and Faizi , set that the authority of the King was higher than that of a Mujtahid (doctor of the faith) and if there is a variance, the emperor's decision should be binding on the Muslims of India. With this edict, Akbar's judgment was set above every legal and religious authority, so it was the promulgation of the doctrine of Imperial infallibility. In 1581 the discussions at the Ibadat Khana were discontinued. But quest of Akbar culminated in the Tauhid-i-ialhi (the divine monotheism) or Din-i-Illahi, the word Din was applied decades later. In 1582, this religious doctrine which combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship was propounded by Akbar which recognized no prophets. Akbar declared himself the spiritual guide of his subjects. His religion Tauhid-i-illahi favored peace and tolerance. Tauhid-i-illahi prohibits lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues of this religion. The soul is encouraged to purify itself through yearning of God. It respects celibacy and forbade slaughter of animals. Elements of Din-i-Illahi Din-i-Illahi was an eclectic doctrine that contained elements from very diverse fields. It overthrew almost every ceremonial rule whether Islam or Muslim, but took the good ideas from the Brahmins as well as from the missionaries and adopted "Sun" as a symbol of the worship of the creator. He started a new Illahi era. The new religion proposed:

• Forbade cow eating

Abul Fazal This gentle and enthusiastic younger brother of Faizi later became a Vazir of Akbar. Abul Fazal was a man of wide culture and pure spiritual ideals. He was also one of the Navratnas in the court of Akbar. Abul Fazal was the author of Akbarnama, the official history of Akbar's reign in 3 volumes. This book gives the history of Akbar’s forefathers from Timur to Humayun and Akbar's reign till 1602. Third volume of above work is known as Ain-i-Akabari, which is the administrative report of Akbar's reign. Another important work of Abul Fazal was Ruqaʿāt, which is a collection of letters to the princes of Akbar and other contemporaries. It was later compiled by his nephew Nuruddin Muhammad. Yet another work Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl is the compilation of the letters written by Akbar to various contemporary rulers and nobles. He was also compiled by one relative of Abul Fazal.Here, please note that one more Akbarnama was written in those times by Shaikh Illahdad Faizi Sirhindi. This was a derivative work based upon Tabaqat-i-Akbari. Tabaqat-i-Akbari was written by Nizamuddin Ahmad, Mir Bakshi of Akbar.



33 | P a g e

• Indifference among all Indians • Instituted worship of Sun as creator • Incorporated the sacred fire adored by the Parsis • Encouraged the Havana (hom sacrifice) of the Hindus.

A small band of the courtiers of Akbar including Faizi, Abul Fazal, Birbal and a few others immediately professed the new cult. But the rest remained indifferent if not hostile. This hotchpotch of philosophy, mysticism and nature worship of Akbar's divine faith practically died with him, but left footprints which partially contributed in creation of a nation, that was never a united nation before.

Fatehpur Sikri Akbar was a devout visitor to the holy places and tombs of Muslim saints. One of his prime objects was to secure an heir to the throne. Up to the 14th year of reign, none of his children could survive and he was told to visit a holy man dwelling at Sikri village near Agra. This holy man Salim Chisti, who was one of the descendents of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of Ajmer promised & blessed Akbar a son. Akbar placed his wife Hura Kunwari or Jodha under the care of this saint. The Sikri, due to frequent visits of the emperor became a cradle of development activities and numerous palaces were erected. Salim Chisti set up a new noble Mosque in Sikri and the emperor's people built their palaces near this place. The Sikri village became the town of Fatehpur Sikri. It was blessing of this holy saint Salim Chisti, that Akbar’s first son was safely ushered in this world. Akbar named this child as Salim, with due respect to the holy man. This offspring of the Great Mughal and a Rajput Princess later became Emperor Jahangir. The result of this auspicious event in Fatehpur Sikri was that Akbar showered all the taste and art of the age upon the adornment of this blessed town. Thus, Fatehpur Sikri became the first planned city of the Mughals. It is also the place demonstrating the first heritage of the Mughal architecture, an amalgamation of the Persian, Hindu and Islamic architecture. It was virtually the capital of Akbar from 1571 to 1585. However, later it was abandoned mostly because of the problem of drinking water supply. Today, this beautiful city, though a great tourist destination, is a deserted. It was abandoned and ever since has remained the desolate and abandoned city. A few years back, some Jain & Hindu idols were found which were dated 1010 AD near the Birbal ka Tila site which have rise to a hot debate that this beautiful city was actually a great Hindu site, that was vandalized by the great Mughal. Whatever may be the truth, but palaces, tombs, mosques, baths, lake and everything at Fatehpur Sikri is a great Indian Heritage through which we recognize the grandeur and pomp of Akbar, greatest of Indian emperors.



34 | P a g e

Navratnas Abul Fazal Abul Fazl was the chronicler of Akbarnama in three volumes over seven years, the third volume is known as the Ain-i-Akbari. Faizi Faizi was Abul Fazl’s brother, the poet laureat of Akbar. The name of father of Abul Fazal and Faizi was Mubarak Nagori, a scholar in the philosophy and literature of Greece as well as in Islamic theology. Miyan Tansen Miyan Tansen was born as Tanna Mishra, in 1520. He was a disciple of Swami Haridas and later became disciple of Hazrat Muhammad Ghaus (Gwalior ). He was a court musician with the prince of Mewar and later was recruited by Akbar as his court musician. Raja Birbal Raja Birbal, a poor Hindu Brahmin Maheshdas was appointed to the court of Akbar for his intelligence, and became the court jester. The name Raja Birbal was given by the Emperor. Birbal's duties in Akbar's court were mostly military and administrative. He was also a poet and his collections under the pen name "Brahma” are preserved in Bharatpur Museum. Raja Birbal died in battle, in an attempt to subdue unrest amongst Afghani tribes in Northwest India. Raja Todar Mal Raja Todar Mal, a Hindu Khatri was Akbar’s finance minister, who from 1560 onwards overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. Raja Man Singh Raja Man Singh, the prince of Amber was a trusted general in Akbar's army and was the grandson of Akbar’s father-in-law Bharmal. Raja Man Singh was the foremost (7000 Mansabdari) and ablest among Akbar's military commanders and assisted Akbar in many fronts including holding off advancing Hakim (Akbar’s half-brother) in Lahore. He was also the Mughal viceroy of Afghanistan, led campaigns in Bihar, Orissa, Deccan and was also the viceroy of Bengal. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, son of Akbar’s trusted general and tutor. Best known for his Hindi couplets. Fakir Aziao-Din Fakir Aziao-Din was a sufi mystic, and an advisor. Mullah Do Piaza Mullah Do Piaza, an intelligence advisor to Akbar.

Jahangir 1605-1627 Jahangir aka Salim was an indolent, self indulgent and indifferent personality. When he ascended the throne, he was a man of 37 years and had become "mature". He should be noted for:

• Regulations such as forbidding sale of wine and even tobacco.



35 | P a g e

• Restoration of Mohammaden Faith. Used Hijra Chronology on coins, something his father had abandoned. But he was equally tolerant towards the Christians and Hindus.

He was active in redressing the grievance of the people and had a Justice chain and bell attached to the gate of his palace in Agra, so that all who wished to appeal to him could ring him up. However, it is not clear, who was eligible to ring the emperor up. Jahangir is known for his pompous display of the Justice. He enacted 12 regulations that show his liberalism and judiciousness. He is known for prohibition of some extortion type of cesses such as Tamga and controlling the merchants by an enactment which forbade them not to open bales without permission from the government.

Shah Jahan 1627-1658 Shahjahan aka Khurram was the son of a great Mughal and a Rajput Princess, the daughter of Rana of Marwar (Jodhpur) had more Indian Blood in his veins that his forefathers. This haughty, introvert man was wrapped in political connives and was indifferent to the race of his mother. He became the most "celebrated" among the Mughal emperors but not popular among the Hindus. He was a perfect orthodox Muslim who was more intolerant than his father. With Arjumand Bano Beghum, Khurram married at the age of 15 years and gave her the title Mumtaj Mahal. Mumtaj Mahal, the “lady of the palace” was a mother of his 14 children and died on the death of their 14th child. The exquisite monument Taj Mahal is a witness to her husband's devotion. Through out of the his life, Shah Jahan kept struggling with revolts. The first big revolt was in Bundelkhand in 1636 under Jujhar Singh. The revolt was suppressed and Jujhar Singh was eliminated. Another was under the Lodi remnant Khan Jahan Lodi. This revolt was also suppressed. During Shahjahan's times, the Portuguese had established a factory at Hugli in Bengal. Portuguese had a very constringe religious policy. It was learnt that the Portuguese often lifted the orphaned children and converted them to Christianity. This was something objectionable under the rule of a Mughal, who was a devout Muslim. During the reign of Jahangir the Portuguese lifted two slave girls that belong to Mumtaj Mahal and they were not released even after it was known to the Portuguese. In 1631, Qasim Khan was appointed as Governor of Bengal and was given authority to teach a lesson to the Portuguese. The Portuguese were attacked, massacred and Hugli was in siege for 3 months. The Portuguese surrendered only after a huge loss of ten thousand lives. Four thousand were made prisoners, who were given an option to either convert to Islam or face lifelong imprisonment. Thus Shah Jahan gave the Portuguese a death blow in Bengal. Later life of Shah Jahan was marred by the war of succession. He was imprisioned and later died in obscurity.



36 | P a g e

Aurangzeb 1658-1707 This Bigot Mohammedan created a lot of troubles for himself and lost both energy and resources in dealing with the rebellions of Jats, Satnamis, Bundelas, Sikhs and finally the formidable Marathas. He stopped engraving Kalma on coins. Forbade the Parsis to celebrate their festival Navaroz. Released an order to ban the music everywhere and arrest those who listen to the music. His drink was plain water and he used to sleep on ground, something that made him a Zinda Fakir. Aurangzeb had claimed the throne as the Champion of the Orthodox Islam against the heretical practices of his brother Dara. When he was told that in Banaras, the Brahmins have got habitual of teaching their "wicked science" to the Muslims, an order from his majesty was given to demolish all the temples. The orders were carried out and the temple of Vishnu at Banaras and a splendid shrine at Mathura were broken to make room for a mosque. The idols were brought to Agra and buried under the steps of the Mosque. His Rajput policy was also filled with the religious fanaticism, when he asked Raja Jaswant Singh to send his sons to Delhi so that they can be taught under his "supervision", leading their conversion. All the Rajputs except raja of Amber were in a state of rebellion. He ended the Mughal pomp of Jharokha Darshan, use of almanacs, the Mughal custom of weighing the emperor in gems -distributing the wealth to the poors, on coronation anniversaries. He reintroduced Jazia. In summary he did all that was never done by his great grandfather, grandfather and father. This was enough to shake the foundation of the Mughal Empire which was based upon religious tolerance. Aurangzeb was the last important Mughal ruler and after him the Mughal empire rapidly decayed and was finally put to an end by the British. This King reigned for half a century and died in 1707 leaving behind a war of succession. He now lays in peace at Khuldabad, near Aurangabad.

Later Mughals Bahadur Shah I ( 1707-1712) Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Muazzam, who ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I in 1707. His reign was just 5 years till 1712, and during this time he tried to get rid of the strict edicts of his father. He was not able to eliminate Jazia but supported music, now people could hear the songs again. He tried to establish peace with the Sikhs and Marathas. He died in 1712, when he was overseeing the repair works at Shalimar Gardens at Lahore. He was followed by his son Jahandar Shah. Jahandar Shah 1712-1713 After his father Bahadur Shah I died, he ascended the throne after eliminating his brother Azim-us-Shan. He had married to a dancing girl who became the queen consort. His nephew Farrukhsiyar attacked him and defeated him. He was arrested and Jailed by Farrukhsiyar, who later executed him.



37 | P a g e

Farrukhsiyar 1713-1719 Farrukhsiyar was a despicable poltroon who suffered similar fate 6 years later in 1719. He sat the throne with the help of two Vazirs of the Mughals Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha and Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha known as Sayyid Brothers. In 1717, the British East India Company purchased duty free trade rights in all of Bengal for peanuts worth Rupees 3000 per year from this so called emperor. He lolled the throne as a puppet in the hands of the Sayyid Brothers, and when there was an enmity with these two King makers, they deposed him, imprisoned him, starved him, blinded him and finally finished him. The Sayyid brothers placed his cousin Rafi ud-Darajat on the throne in 1719. Rafi ud-Darajat 1719 Rafi ud-Darajat, the 11th Mughal emperor was proclaimed by the Sayyid Brothers in 1719, who could survive only for 4 months and died of some mysterious disease. He was succeeded by Muhammad Shah Rangile or Rangila. Muhammad Shah Rangile 1719-1748 Mohammad Shah Rangila was able to keep the throne for around 29 years partially because the first thing he did was to eliminate the Sayyid Brothers. During his time Nadir Shah attacked and looted Delhi and took the Peacock Throne with himself. The invasion of Nadir Shah fastened the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. During his time, the states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh were established as independent Kingdoms.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-8: Arrival & Struggle of European Powers

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations History-8: Arrival & Struggle of European Powers


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. The Portuguese Empire of India ............................................................................ 2

Vasco da Gama ................................................................................................................... 3 Pedro Álvares Cabral ........................................................................................................... 3 Return of Vasco ................................................................................................................... 3 Francisco de Almeida .......................................................................................................... 4 Afonso de Albuquerque ....................................................................................................... 4 Soares de Albergaria ........................................................................................................... 4 Nuno da Cunha & Treaty of Bassein .................................................................................... 4 End of the Portuguese ......................................................................................................... 5

Dutch East India Company ......................................................................................... 5 Chapter 2. British East India Company ................................................................................... 6

The Initial British Ambassadors .................................................................................. 6 John Mildenhall ................................................................................................................... 6 John Company ..................................................................................................................... 7 William Hawkins .................................................................................................................. 7 Captain Middleton and the First English Factory at Surat (1611) ........................................ 8 Sir Thomas Roe .................................................................................................................... 8

Dutch, Portuguese and British Rivalary in 17th Century .............................................. 8 Jan Huyghen van Linschoten ............................................................................................... 9 Cornelis de Houtman ........................................................................................................... 9 Amboyna Tragedy ............................................................................................................... 9 Elimination of Portuguese ................................................................................................. 10 Downfall of Dutch ............................................................................................................. 10

Initial Ventures of East India Company .................................................................... 10 The French East India Company ............................................................................... 12 The Carnatic Wars .................................................................................................... 13

First Carnatic War 1744 ..................................................................................................... 13 Second Carnatic War 1749-54 .......................................................................................... 14 Third Carnatic War 1757-63.............................................................................................. 14

The Lord Clive Era..................................................................................................... 15 The Nawabs of Bengal ....................................................................................................... 15 Black Hole of Calcutta 1756 .............................................................................................. 16 Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757) ....................................................................................... 16 Battle of Chinsura 1759..................................................................................................... 17 Clive’s Jagir ........................................................................................................................ 17 Mir Kasim ........................................................................................................................... 17

The Affairs of Awadh ................................................................................................ 18 Battle of Buxar October 22, 1764...................................................................................... 18 Dual System of Government .............................................................................................. 19 The Corruption in East India Company and its fall outs .................................................... 19 Clive Fund .......................................................................................................................... 20 First Anglo Mysore War ..................................................................................................... 20 Death of Clive .................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 1. The Portuguese Empire of India Due to the availability of the pepper and various kinds of spices, the ports of Malabar coasts were the heavens for the merchants from all over the word in the ancient as well as medieval times. In this region Cochin and Calicut had occupied the most important position in the international Trade. Calicut was usually flocked by the Muslim and Arab merchants from Aden, Turkey, Persia, Ethiopia, Egypt etc. Even Chinese maintained a factory in Calicut which was called Chinakotta. Among the Indians the Gujarati merchants were prominent. Similarly, the trading centers of the South East



3 | P a g e

Asia were flooded with the merchants from all over the world. The ancient trade routes were in the hands of the Arab Muslim merchants and the used to ship their goods by the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and so overland to Syria and Egyptian Ports.

Vasco da Gama The fleet of Vasco Da Gama had arrived in India on 20 May 1498 at Kappad near Calicut. The local King of Calicut-styled Zamorin with traditional Indian hospitality received him. This welcome had Zamorin's own reasons that the Europeans must have brought some gifts for him. The gifts such as hats, cloths, honey, oil etc. were not up to the expectation of the Zamorin. The result was - Vasco had to return without any concrete result. Further, the Arabs instigated the Zamorin that he was not a Royal ambassador but only a small time pirate. Thus, the first mission of Vasco Da Gamma was an utter failure to the extent that it could not produce any tangible results for the Portuguese. But it was a great leap of the Portuguese, as a new route was found which was safe from the rival Arabs.

Pedro Álvares Cabral Two years later in September 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India, who had done a wonder by discovering Brazil on the way. Pedro established the first Portuguese factory at Calicut. He was able to make some advantageous treaties with the rulers of Cochin and Cannanore , but at Calicut, his venture precipitated matters with the Arabs. Matters worsened when Cabral notoriously captured several vessels at the port and massacred the crew; the locals and Arabs retaliated by burning down the factory and butchering several Portuguese. This is known as Battle of Calicut in which Cabral was defeated by the Arabs and locals. Cabral started on the return voyage on 16 January 1501. He arrived in Portugal with only 4 of 13 ships on 23 June 1501, defeated and humiliated.

Return of Vasco In 1502 Vasco returned India but this time the rulers of Kannur, Cochin and Quilon were sympathetic to him for various reasons. Therefore, Vasco Da Gamma decided to lodge among them. Vasco placed a demand that all the Muslims should be expelled from the area, but this demand was turned down. This started some serious naval fights in the region. Vasco Da Gama was known for his severe cruelty upon the competing traders and inhabitants. He, in India behaved worse than today's Somalia pirates by intercepting a ship of Muslim pilgrims at Madayi, which was on its journey to the Arabia and looted the 400 pilgrims and burnt them to death. This Portuguese pioneer died of Malaria in 1524 in Cochin, when he was in India for a short term under the pompous title of Viceroy.



4 | P a g e

Francisco de Almeida In 1503 Francisco de Almeida was appointed the First Governor and Viceroy of the Portuguese India. He was able to erect some fortresses at Cochin, Cannanore, Kilwa and Anjadiva. The fierce competition for dominance in trade culminated in a battle of the Portuguese with the confederacy of the Egypt, Turkey and Gujarat and in this battle with the Muslims his son's life was at the Harbour of Chaul in India in 1508. He was able to defeat the trio a year later, but before could do any more wonders here, died in 1510

Afonso de Albuquerque Afonso de Albuquerque was the second governor of the Portuguese India and is known as founder of Portuguese colonial empire in India. Goa was the first part of India that was colonized by the Europeans but was eventually the last part of India to be liberated from the Europeans. Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa in 1510. The ruler of Goa was the Sultan of Bijapur Ismail Adil Shah. Adil Shah was initially able to repeal him but three months later, Afonso de Albuquerque returned and there was a fierce battle in the streets of Goa, claiming the lives of the thousands of Muslim defenders. Thus Afonso de Albuquerque was able to take possession of Goa in December 1510. The battle was known as Battle of Goa (1510) Afonso de Albuquerque is to be noted for the following:

• Starting first Portuguese Mint in the east. He was able to issue the Gold, Silver and bronze coins which were based upon the local designs but were engraved with the badge of the Portuguese kings. After Goa, more mints were established at Malacca (Today a city of Malaysia).

• Suppression of the Arab merchandise in Malaysia by winning Malacca in 1511. • Portuguese Cultural Ambassador: The Portuguese, when established themselves in Goa,

started marrying the local ladies and thus from the times of Albuquerque, mixed marriages started in Goa, combining the culture of the east with west.

• Abolishing the Practice of Sati in Goa: Albuquerque is also known to have abolished the practice of Sati in Goa.

Soares de Albergaria Soares de Albergaria was the third Governor of Portuguese India, who superseded Governor Afonso de Albuquerque in 1515. He continued the Portuguese war against the Arabs and Africans in India and was able to capture Ceylon.

Nuno da Cunha & Treaty of Bassein The next important Portuguese governor was Nuno da Cunha. Nuno da Cunha was able to bring Mombasa and Mozambique under the Portuguese circle. During his time, the ruler of Gujarat was Bahadur Shah. In 1529, Nuno was able to sack Daman and Diu (Damao), which were territories of Bahadur Shah. Later in 1534, he was able to compel Bahadur Shah to sign the treaty of Bassein. On the basis of treaty of Bassein, Bahadur shah gave Bassein (modern Vasai and Nallasopara in



5 | P a g e

Mumbai Suburbs) to the Portuguese. But a year later, the Mughals captured Gujarat and Bahadur Shah, in order to purchase the support of the Portuguese, gave them Mumbai and surrounding areas. Thus by 1534, modern Mumbai, Vasai, Virar, Daman & Diu, Surat and entire Goa had gone in the hands of the Portuguese. The defeated Bahadur Shah was killed by his Portuguese friends on a ship and his body was thrown in the Arabian Sea. In 1538, there was another fierce battle with the men of Ottoman Empire and this is known as Seige of Diu. Portugal was victorious in this battle.

End of the Portuguese The Portuguese arrived in India first, but the aspirations to control such as large country was something not their cup of tea. They important areas under the Portuguese in India were Goa, Mumbai, Vasai, Virar, Surat, Hugli, Daman and Diu etc.

• In 1612, they lost Surat to British, thanks to the efforts of William Hawkins and sir Thomas Roe.

• In 1631, Hugli was lost Mughals. • Bombay was given by the Portuguese to Prince Charles II of England in Dowry in 1661. • Bassein was captured by the Marathas in 1739. • Finally, Portuguese were confined in the Goa, Daman and Diu only. They retained it till 1961,

when the armies of Independent India forced them out. The age of the heroes for the Portuguese India had passed away with the end of Afonso De Albuquerque who had the same spirit as Dupleix or Lord Clive. But his policy was not continued and the Portuguese empire on Indian soil was abandoned in favor of the other Europeans. The Spanish gave them a death blow in 1580 and the corruption of the nobles led the Portuguese bury themselves in Old Goa. In 1597, the Dutch appeared in the Indies.

Dutch East India Company Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC in Dutch) is considered to be the First Multinational Corporation of the World. It was also the first company to issue stock. It was the first company which was given power to engage itself in colonial activities including waging a war and execute the convicts, mint the coins and establish the colonies This company did wonders in India and Indonesia for 2 centuries but later the pompous acronym of VOC became Vergaan Onder Corruptie meaning “marred by the Corruption”. The Dutch East India Company was created in 1602 as "United East India Company" and its first permanent trading post was in Indonesia. In India, they established the first factory in Masulipattanam in 1605, followed by Pulicat in 1610, Surat in 1616, Bimilipatam in 1641 and Chinsura in 1653. In Bengal they established a factory in Pipli, but it was abandoned. The main objective of the Dutch remained aggressive in eliminating the Portuguese and British merchandise powers from India and South East Asia, and they were successful in abandoning the Portuguese as most dominant power in the European Trade.



6 | P a g e

When the established a factory in Pulicat, in 1610, it became their main center of activities. It was later known as Fort Geldria. While the Portuguese suffered because of the bad successors of Albuquerque and their severity and intolerance, the Dutch failed due to the rising English and French powers and their corruption. The Government of Netherlands also interfered a lot which ultimately caused the Dutch to get extinct from India. From 1638-1658, the Dutch were able to expel the Portuguese from the Ceylon. In 1641, they occupied Malacca. In 1652, they were able to capture the Cape of Good Hope. The climax of the Dutch East India Company was in 1669, when it was the richest private company of the world with 150 merchant ships, 40 warships and 50 thousand employees and an army of 10 thousand soldiers. In India, the most important event was the Battle of Colachel in 1741, which was fought between the Dutch East India Company and State of Travancore army. This was a major defeat of a European power in India and marked beginning of the end of the Dutch Influence. Following the corruption and bankruptcy, the Dutch East India Company was formally dissolved in 1800. The Dutch influence from India had finished long ago but they were dominant in Indonesia. The government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony later which was more or less the within the boundaries of the modern Indonesia.

Chapter 2. British East India Company The Initial British Ambassadors

John Mildenhall In 1599, the first British John Mildenhall came to India via land route and styled himself as the ambassador of the East India Company. But he was actually sent by the company to sell its goods in the eastern Mediterranean. He deceived his hirers and fled to Persia; and from there he came to India where he was later arrested with the help of the Ajmer Governors, handed over to company people but later released. He again came to India later, reached the court of Mughal Emperor Akbar, and had discussions with him. However, since John Mildenhall was not sponsored by the east India Company, his achievement is considered low profile. William Hawkins later came in the court of Jahangir and declared all his dealings null and void.

East India Companies The first East India Company was the British East India Company that was founded in 1600. The term East India Company refers to the following entities.

• British East India Company, founded in 1600 • Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602 • Danish East India Company, founded in 1616 • Portuguese East India Company, founded in 1628 • French East India Company, founded in 1664 • Swedish East India Company, founded in 1731

The voyages at that time involved higher investments, huge risks of piracy and shipwreck and there was a large fluctuation in not only the supply (of spices) but also demand (due to competition). Therefore, in Europe, even a single voyage was preceded by formation of a company, which was liquidated when the voyage was over and the shareholders shared the profits or losses as the case was. For the first time, British East India Company was formed by bundling all the forces into monopoly enterprises. The Netherlands government took was a step ahead of their British Counterparts and gave all the powers to the company which were required to rule a colony just like a sovereign country.



7 | P a g e

John Mildenhall is the first Englishman whose burial is recorded in India at Agra. John Mildenhall was able to interview with the Mughal emperor Akbar.

John Company British East India Company is the oldest among all the similarly formed European East India Companies. It was granted an English Royal Charter, under the name "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies" by Queen Elizabeth-I on 31 December 1600. The original company had only 125 shareholders, and a capital of 68,373 Sterling, which was raised to 429,000 sterling when voyages were undertaken on the first joint-stock account. Thomas Smith was the first governor of the newly founded East India Company. James Lancaster was the commander of the first Voyage of the East India Company which sailed from Torbay towards the end of April 1601. The name of the Ship was Red Dragon. The early voyages of the Company from 1600 to 1612 were the “separate voyages," twelve in number. In these voyages the subscribers individually bore the expenses of each voyage, and reaped the whole profits. After 1612, the voyages were conducted on the joint-stock account. It was a joint stock company and was known as John Company. The name "Company Bahadur” in India echoed its authority. When the company was founded the cradle of commercial activities had already been removed from Mediterranean to Atlantics by Vasco Da Gama et al. 1603, Elizabeth I died and James I succeeded this last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland. During his time, William Hawkins was sent to the Court of Great Mughal Jahangir. Thus, William Hawkins became the first Englishman ever received by the Emperor of India as the official representative of the King of England. William Hawkins obtained first distinct acknowledgement of the rights of British Commerce in India.

William Hawkins In 1607, William Hawkins commanded the ship "Hector" for East India Company on a voyage to Surat and Aden loaded with letters & presents from King of England James I. He arrived in Surat in August 1608. As soon as Hector sailed in, it was captured by the Portuguese. William Hawkins was told that all the ports belong to the "King of Portugal" and none ought to come here without his license. However, he was later let leave and receive a pass for his journey to Agra. The Viceroy of the Burhanpur midway helped him and after much labor, toil and many dangers; he was able to reach Agra on April 16, 1609. Akbar who was contemporary of queen Elizabeth-I was little known in England, but when Hawkins arrived, there was a different personality sitting on the throne who was not at all known in England. This new emperor Jahangir with all Indian hospitality and warmth received Captain Hawkins. His letter was read in the court with the help of a Portuguese Jesuit. Then he was taken to the private audience chamber and they had a conversation for some 3 hours. Hawkins was well versed in Turkish and Jahangir and some of his ministers also knew Turkish, the native tongue of Babur. Therefore, the discussions took place in Turkish. Hawkins was able to



8 | P a g e

acquire a footing in the court of Jahangir and in due course of time, he got so intimacy with the "talented drunkard" emperor that no Europeans had ever afterwards. Jahangir called him "English Khan". This English Khan was able to persuade the emperor to grant a commission for an English factory at Surat but under the Pressure of the Portuguese Viceroy, the grant was withdrawn. Hawkins lived in the court of Mughal emperor till 1611, tried to reverse the orders, but the Portuguese influence over the King was impregnable. He returned in disgust on November 2, 1611. He died a couple of years later.

Captain Middleton and the First English Factory at Surat (1611) When Henry Middleton entered India, there was an opposition from the Portuguese, but the British defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Bombay in 1611. But he was able to get a permission from the local Mughal governors to open a factory in India, so in 1611 the first English Factory was established in Surat.

Sir Thomas Roe In January 1615, Sir Thomas Roe presented his credentials to the emperor Jahangir as the Ambassador of the King of England. This experienced, firm, courageous, combined with management skills and clever person, who lived as a resident of Agra till 1619; was able to swipe out the Portuguese Influence from the Mughals despite of some opposition from Prince Khurram and Nur Jahan. Roe tried in vain to obtain a general "treaty" enshrining the articles from the King, but it was not appropriate time as the great Mughals were too ignorant for any such comparisons between Hindustan and any of the country of rest of the world. There could not be any terms of equality, but what he could go for the "Firmans" or Royal orders to the local authorities sanctioning the English Trade at Surat at reasonable terms. The English factory at Surat was set on a permanent basis with the Firman, officially recognized by the Emperor as well as the Prince-Governor Khurram. Now, the factory was set forth with a higher degree of reputation. Some subordinate factories were started. This was the beginning of the British stronghold in India. We know about the Mughal Empire as seen by Sir Thomas Roe, from his work- titled as “Journal of the mission to the Mogul Empire”. It is a valuable contribution to the history of India in the early 17th century.

Dutch, Portuguese and British Rivalary in 17th Century The Netherlands is considered the first European nation, which broke through the Portuguese monopoly in the east. The Dutch got independence on 26 July 1581 through the Eighty Years' War from the Spanish Empire. This Dutch war for independence closed the ports of Spain to the Dutch, and forced them into the direct trade with East Indies. The war with Spain and the closing of Lisbon and Antwerp ports also compelled the English to enter directly into the Indian trade. During the entire 16th century, the ports of Bruges, Antwerp,



9 | P a g e

and Amsterdam became successively the great emporiums where Indian produce, imported by the Portuguese, was sold to Germany and even to England. In the beginning both Dutch and English, attempted to find their way to India by sailing around the northern coast of Europe and Asia.

Jan Huyghen van Linschoten Jan Huyghen van Linschoten was a Dutch merchant and traveler. He dwelt at Goa from 1583 to 1589 in the train of the Portuguese archbishop and copied the top secret Portuguese nautical maps and published them in 1595-1596. This narrative enabled the passage of the elusive East Indies to be opened to the English and the Dutch. This valuable guide was translated into English in 1598 and later in other languages. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten is credited for enabling the British East India Company as well as the Dutch East India company to break the 16th century monopoly of the Portuguese in trade with the East Indies.

Cornelis de Houtman Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to double the Cape of Good Hope and discover a new sea route from Europe to Indonesia. He reached Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. In 1602 the private companies for trade with the East were all amalgamated by the Dutch Government into the Dutch East India Company. Within half century, the Dutch were able to establish factories on the continent, in Ceylon, in Sumatra, in the Persian Gulf, and in the Red Sea. The first Dutch settlement in India was at Masulipattanam in 1605, followed by Pulicat, in 1610 about 20 miles north of Madras. The Dutch settled at Surat in 1616. In 1619, they laid the foundation of the city of Batavia, in Java, as the seat of the supreme government of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, which had previously been at Amboyna in the Malaccas. At about the same time the Dutch discovered the coast of Australia (1606-1644); while in North America they founded the city of New Amsterdam in 1613-1626, which is known as New York now.

Amboyna Tragedy In February, 1605 Steven van der Hagen, admiral of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), conquered the Portuguese fortress of Victoria at Amboyna, (present-day Maluku, Indonesia). The Dutch started taking over all the foreign trading interests at Victoria. They tried to obtain a local monopsony in the spice trade and tried to keep the other European factors out by use of force. This was strife for the British East India Company. The bitterness of the trading companies was turned into the bitterness between the James I of England and the Dutch States-General. The two governments had signed a Treaty of Defense in London in 1619 which enshrined the cooperation between the two companies in East Indies. Accordingly the market of spices was divided between the two in fixed proportions. Despite this treaty, the relations between the two companies remained tense. In 1623 one of the soldiers of British (who was Japanese) was caught spying which led to arrest of the British, their torture and a massacre by the officials of the Dutch East India Company. Out of the 20 men killed 10 were the servants of the British East India Company.



10 | P a g e

The result of this massacre was that British were forced to retire from the eastern archipelago and focus on continent of India. This massacre changed the fate of India as well Indonesia. In Indonesia, Dutch remained a power for long but in India, the event indirectly led to the foundation of British Empire. In Indonesia, the Dutch ruled without a rival, and expelled the Portuguese from almost all their territorial possessions. Only relics of the Portuguese empire were left in Island of Timor.

Elimination of Portuguese In the 17th century, the Dutch also expelled the Portuguese from most parts of India. By 1647, they started trading on the Coromandel Coast. In 1652 they founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope and in the same year built a factory at Palakollu. In 1658 they captured Jaffnapatam, which was the last stronghold of the Portuguese in Ceylon. Between 1661 and 1664 the Dutch wrested from the Portuguese all their earlier settlements south of Goa on the pepper-bearing coast of Malabar. In 1669 they expelled the Portuguese from St. Thome in Madras.

Downfall of Dutch Despite of the outstanding progress in the Indies, the Dutch colonial empire fell shortly because of the short-sighted commercial policy which was deliberately based upon a monopoly of the trade in spices. The Dutch were given a death blow by Robert Clive when in 1759 he attacked the Dutch both by land and water at Chinsura on the Hugli River, near Kolkata (discussed in this document as Battle of Chinsura)

Initial Ventures of East India Company After the first factory at Surat in 1612, they established its branch factory in Masulipattanam. The Amboyna Tragedy had driven them out of the eastern archipelago and now British were almost cut off from the lucrative spice trade of the Indonesia. In 1625-1626 they established a factory at Armagaon near Madras on the Coromandal coast, subordinate to Masulipattanam. In 1628 Masulipattanam was, in consequence of the oppressions of the native governors, for a while abandoned in favour of Armagaon. In 1632 under a grant, the “golden firman," from the king of Golconda, the British obtained rights to trade in Golconda. In 1633, they establish a branch factory at Hariharpur, near Balasore in Orissa. In 1634, by a firman dated February 2, the Company obtained from the Great Mogul, they got liberty to trade in Bengal, but their ships were to resort only to Pipli in Orissa. Around the same time, the Portuguese were expelled for a time from Bengal. In 1638 the British abandoned the Armagaon as unsuited for commerce and next year i.e. in 1639 they founded Fort Saint George, or Madraspatnam or Chennapatam. The fort was completed on April 23, coinciding with St. George's Day, celebrated in honour of St. George, the patron saint of England. The inhabitated area around it was called St. George Town. Meanwhile in 1633-24 they had been able to create new establishment in Bantam in Java. The Saint Fort George was made subordinate to the Bantam establishment until 1653, when it was raised to



11 | P a g e

the rank of a presidency. This site was purchased from the raja of Chandragiri, a descendant of the Vijayanagar dynasty and is known as first territorial possession of the English in India. Thus Madras became the first presidency of East India Company. The English factory at Hugli in Bengal was established in 1650. Due to the services provided by one Gabriel Boughton, surgeon of the Hopewell to the Mughal Governor, the company got some better terms to trade such as payment of fixed terms. In 1655 the east India Company established a factory at Kasimbazar adjacent to Murshidabad. The establishments in Bengal were made subordinate to Fort Saint George or Madras. In 1661, Bombay was given to the British crown as part of the dowry of Catharine Braganza to Prince Charles II of England. However it was not delivered till 1665. In 1664 when Surat was raided by the Maratha swarms under Shivaji, George Oxenden defended the English factory. The Mughals granted them exemption from the customs for 1 year for this "brave act". In 1665, Bombay was transferred to East India Company for an annual payment of 10 Pounds to the government. In 1667 Mughal Emperor gave them a Firman to carry out trade in Bengal. In the same year 1687, the headquarters of the British East India Company was replaced from Surat to Bombay. Till 1681, the Company's commercial interests in Bengal were managed from Fort St George in Madras, more than 800 miles down the coast. For a number of reasons, this arrangement was proving inadequate. Business in Bengal was expanding steadily, but at the same time the Company's interests were increasingly under threat from native rulers and rival companies. There were rumblings against the management in Madras and accusations of dishonesty against the Company's own officials. In 1681, Sir William Hedges came to Hughli as agent and governor of the Company's affairs in the Bay of Bengal," and of the factories subordinate to it, at Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Maldah, and Dhaka. He separated the Company's affairs in Bengal from Madras. But in 1684, the tenure of Hedges ended and Bengal reverted to the control of Madras until 1700, when it finally became an independent presidency. In 1686, the factory at Kasim Bazar and some other factories were confiscated by the Nawab Shaista Khan who presumed upon his relationships with the Mughals to act as a sovereign. The agent of the company was forced to quit Hugli and retire to Sutnati, which was the site of Kolkata. The company had to abandon the factories in Bengal. The officers sailed down to Balasore on Orissa coast. 4 years later the company made terms with the Mughals and secured an imperial firman renewing all their rights of trade. However, this time, instead of Hugli, they established Company's "Capital" at Sutnati, where he had tarried in 1686, and on August 24, 1690, Job Charnock, an administrator with the Company founded the City of Calcutta as new capital of the English in Bengal. Job Charnock, after a labor and toil of two more years died but his work of foundation of India's largest Metro was done. Job Charnock placed the English interests upon a secure foundation and prospered continuously from that time onwards.



12 | P a g e

Now the foundation of Calcutta as a fortified factory of the Company gave the British an opportunity to closely study the political, social and economic condition of the country. They could make out from the wars of the Aurangzeb in Deccan and frequent raids of Marathas that the disintegration of the Mughal Empire is close. To guard against the "Political Risks" of the business, the East India Company had to take measures to consolidate its interests in places, which could be fortified to advantage, and which should be fully accessible to the Company's ships at all times. The first right decision was the determination of location of Calcutta and second was already done, the foundation of Madras. However, the growing powers of Marathas became a headache for the company. Surat was open to constant raids by the Marathas and was beyond the protection of the guns of the Company's ships, and the other factories were no better placed, while Bombay was not safe from Mogul and Maratha fleets. Sir George Oxenden, who had been president at Surat since 1662 and defended the factory from the Maratha raids became the First Governor of Bombay on its acquisition by the Company in 1668 with power to nominate a deputy-governor to reside on the island, but he was placed under the control of the president and council of Surat. English officers and privates were invited to enter the company's service, and thus the first military establishment of the East India Company at Bombay was created. On 14 July 1669 Oxenden died at Surat and he was succeeded by Gerald Aungier, the second Governor of Bombay. Gerald Aungier laid the foundations of Bombay's importance. He took possession of Colaba and Old Woman's Island from the Portuguese and thus completing the transfer of power to the British. In his time, the first mint was started at Bombay and also first printing press was set up in Bombay which was imported. He died in 1677 and was followed by John Child, who assumed the duties of governor and general in October 1681. However, John Child never had the official title of governor-general.

The French East India Company Among the Dutch, Danish, Portuguese and French, the French East India Company was the last to be formed. Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded the French East India Company in 1664. The initial attempts of the company to found a successful colony on Madagascar, got failed. In 1667, under Francis Caron, the company established first factory at Surat and second factory was established at Masulipattanam a year later. In 1674, the François Martin of French East India Company established a trading center at Pondicherry, which eventually became the chief French settlement in India. The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693 but returned it to France later. The French acquired Mahe in the 1720s, Yanam in 1731, and Karaikal in 1738. They also established a factory at Chandranagar in Bengal. A new factory in 1688 was established at Chinsura but want of support from France brought the



13 | P a g e

Company's affairs in India to low ebb and the French East India Company felt obliged to cede its right of monopoly to some enterprising merchants of Saint-Malo. In February, 1701, Pondicherry was made the capital of the French settlements in India, and François Martin was appointed president of the superior council and director general of French affairs in India. Martin died December 30, 1706 and this followed a series of the successors. Till 1720, the factories at Surat, Masulipattanam and Bantam had to be abandoned because of the adverse conditions back at home. In 1741, Joseph François Dupleix began to cherish the ambition of a French Empire in India but could not sell the idea to his superiors. The series of skirmishes began in India when the conflict of the British and French started. In 1744 Robert Clive arrived in India. This devil British Officer ruined the hopes of Dupleix to create a French Colonial India. In 1761, Pondicherry was captured by the British and since then the French colonies in India have been unimportant.

The Carnatic Wars The political history of the British in India begins with the Carnatic Wars. The first and third Carnatic wars were just the Indian theatres of the larger France and British rivalry in rest parts of the World. Reasons of Wars

• Commercial and maritime quarrels in the initial decades of the 18th century gradually drew the France and England into open hostilities.

• The whole of south was divided into small parts, and numerous nawabs and rajas claimed their own sovereignty. So British and French could support rivals.

First Carnatic War 1744 In 1744, a war was declared between France and England. The First Carnatic war was the Indian theatre of War of the Austrian Succession that was fought between the Kingdom of Prussia, Spain, France, and Bavaria, Sweden etc. on one side and Habsburg Monarchy, England, Dutch Republic, Russia on the other side. This war continued from 1740 to 1748 and finally ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). The First Carnatic war in India began with the appearing of a British Fleet on the Coromandel Coast. in 1745. The Judicious French Governor Dupleix induced the Nawab of Arcot for intervention but the Nawab opted for an impartial policy. British initially captured a few French ships, the French called for backup from Mauritius. In 1746 a French squadron arrived. In September 1746, the French captured the Madras almost without any opposition and the British were made prisoners of war. Clive was also one of those Prisoners. The Nawab of Arcot had adopted the impartial policy but to drive the British out of Madras, marched with 10,000 soldiers to the St Fort George but was defeated. The negotiations about the



14 | P a g e

fate of Madras started but these negotiations took too much time to let Clive escape from the Fort St. George to Fort St David, some twenty miles to the south. In 1748 an English fleet arrived under Admiral Boscawen, and attempted the siege of Pondicherry. At the same time the Land Force of the company was led by Major Stringer Lawrence.Major Stringer Lawrence successfully foiled an attempted French surprise at Cuddalore, but subsequently was captured by a French cavalry patrol at Ariancopang (Ariankuppam) near Pondicherry and kept prisoner till the peace Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Major Stringer Lawrence was the first Commander-in-Chief, India, of the East India Company. Some people also call him the "Father of Indian Army". In October 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restored the peace between France and England and this also brought an end to the First Carnatic War. Madras was restored to the English for some territories (Louisburg) in North America.

Second Carnatic War 1749-54 In 1748, the Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah I died and there was a civil war for succession broke out. This Civil war of succession is known as Second Carnatic War. In 1751, Robert Clive led British troops to capture Arcot. This is famous as Siege of Arcot. In this Clive was successful and English protégé, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah, was recognized as Nawab of Arcot. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754. Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah was recognized as the Nawab of Arcot. The Siege of Arcot (1751) was a heroic feat, more important than the Battle of Plessey. The Siege of Arcot had made Clive a national hero in England. The Prime Minister Pitt, the elder described him as the “heaven-born general. The end of the second Carnatic war brought a disaster for Dupleix. The French Government recalled him and Dupleix was compelled to embark for France on 12 October 1754. He had not saved any money and the government did not support him. His wife died 2 years later and the ruined Dupleix died in 1763 in utter poverty and obscurity. His successors failed in cherishing the dream of a French Empire in India.

Third Carnatic War 1757-63 The conflict between the France and England got renewed in 1756 in Europe, in the form of Seven Years War, which is coterminous with the Third Carnatic War. The Third Carnatic war was a local version of the Seven Years war in Europe The Third Carnatic War put an end to the French ambitions to create a colonial empire in India. The British Forces were able to capture the French Settlements at Chandranagar in 1757. The French forces in south were led by Comte De Lally. The British forces under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated the French in the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 and besieged Pondicherry. After Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761. When the Seven Years war ended with the war concluded with the signing of the 1763 Treaty of Paris .



15 | P a g e

As per parts of this treaty, the Chandranagar and Pondicherry was returned to France. The French were now allowed to have trading posts in India but forbade French traders from administering them. The Government of France also agreed to support British client governments. This was the last nail in the coffin of the French ambitions of an Indian Empire. British were now the dominant power in India.

The Lord Clive Era Due to the weak Mughals, the Viceroys and nobles as expected rose and the prominent provinces of the Mughals became independent. Three of them are important.

• Oudh became independent under Saadat Ali Khan • Bengal & Orissa became independent under Murshid Quli Khan • Deccan (Hyderabad) became independent under Asaf Jah-I. He was the first to declare

himself independent. The later Mughals were practically dependent upon these nobles and to purchase their loyalty; compromised on the conditions they were ruling their respective territories.

The Nawabs of Bengal When Farrukhsiyar was Mughal Emperor at Delhi, the name of Makhsusabad was changed to Murshidabad and Nawab Murshid Quli Khan became the de-facto ruler of Bengal and Orissa, however, he kept on working "for" decrepit Mughals. Murshid Quli Khan was the First Nawab of Bengal whose reign in this capacity was from 1717 to 1727. As soon as Farrukhsiyar acknowledged his changing the name of Makhsusabad to Murshidabad he released Zurbe Murshedabad coin, in his own new mint. He kept on sending annual tributes to the Mughals but was the real ruler of Bengal. He died in 1727. Before he died, he had appointed his maternal grandson Sarfaraz Khan as heir apparent, who abdicated the seat for his father Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan, who became the second Nawab of Bengal. Murshid Quli Khan was a Brahmin by birth and was brought up as a slave in Persia. He became a fanatic muslim and destroyed some temples. From 1727 till 1740, Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan remained the Nawab. His tenure is known for reorganization of the Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In 1733, he had merged Bihar in Bengal and divided the entire region into 4 administrative regions viz. Central Division, Dhaka Division, Bihar Division and Orissa Division. During his time a noble Jagat Seth, who was a baker in Calcutta rose to prominence. After he died in 1739, he was followed by his son Sarfaraz Khan, who within a year was defeated by one Alivardi Khan and killed in a bloody battle at Giria. From 1740 to 1756, Ali Vardi Khan remained the Nawab of Bengal as Mahabat Jung. In 1756, when Alivardi died he was succeeded by Siraj ud-Daulah. Siraj ud-Daulah was the last sovereign Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.



16 | P a g e

Black Hole of Calcutta 1756 The young Nawab Siraj was wary of the growing intervention of the British in the affairs of the province. The ungovernable temper of Siraj led to a rupture with the English within two months after his accession. He marched upon Calcutta with a large army and laid the siege of the site of the Fort William. Many British fled down the river in their ships and the remainder 146 people were compelled to surrender. These people were stuffed for a night in a room of 18 square feet, with only two windows and 123 people (Including natives) got suffocated to death. This is called the Black Hole of Calcutta (1756), which is still doubtful on account of the number of the perished. This news reached Madras, when Clive had already come from England. He led the troops and arrived in Bengal. After a small skirmish, the peace was restored. Soon afterwards, Clive breached the neutrality and captured the French settlement of Chandranagar. Acting on the tactics which Clive had learnt in South from Dupleix, he contacted Mir Jafar and other people in the court of Nawab and offered him the throne if he deceives Siraj-Ud-Daulah. In May 1757, the British Calcutta Council made a secret treaty with Mir Jafar, promising to place him on the throne of Bengal. William Watts, the chief of the British factory at Kasimbazar plotted this conspiracy.

Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757) British marched out to the grove of Plassey, about 100 Kilometers north of Calcutta, at the head of 1000 Europeans and 2000 sepoys, with 8 pieces of artillery. The Bengal viceroy's army numbered 35,000 foot and 15,000 horse, with 50 cannon. On 23 June 1757, the Battle of Plassey was fought between the forces of Siraj Ud Daulah, and his French support troops and the troops of the British East India Company, led by Robert Clive. This event was also a part of the Seven Years War. In the battle of Plassey the forces of

The Traitors of Plassey The faithful commanders of Nawab were Mir Madan and Mohan Lal. The right arm of the army was commanded by Rai Durlabh, Center by Yar Lutuf Khan and Left close to British by Mir Jafar, all traitors. The Nawab's army had attacked vigorously in the beginning but Clive kept his ammunitions in reserve and soldiers safe under a groove / embankment. There was a rainfall, which led the ammunition and powder of Nawab drenched while the British used tarpaulins to protect their ammunition. When the Nawab's army realized that the British ammunition is rendered ineffective Mir Madan asked the cavalry to take charge but the next moment a shot from British claimed his life. Nawab tried to reconcile with Mir Jafar, but he did not turn up. The traitors of Battle of Plassey were as follows:

• Mir Jafar: He became the first titular Nawab of Bengal paving the way for British Empire in India.

• Jagat Set : A Marwari Banker. After 9 years of the Battle of Plassey, the entire family of Jagat Seth was beheaded by Mir Kasim.

• Omi Chand or Amir Chand : He tried to get 5% from the treasure after Mir Jafar becomes Nawab but was deceived by the British by fake treaty and this shock was enough to plunge him into mental retardation. He survived for some 10 years and died anonymously.

• Manik Chand: This was an officer in Calcutta • Rai Durlab: He was the treasurer of Nawab. • Ghaseti Beghum: The rich maternal aunt of Nawab.



17 | P a g e

Nawab were defeated and Nawab fled the scene on a Camel along with his 2000 horsemen. He went first to Murshidabad and then to Patna by boat, but was eventually pursued by Mir Jafar's soldiers. On 2 July 1757, Siraj-Ud-Daulah was executed under orders from Mir Miran, son of Mir Jafar. Post Battle, Mir Jafar was placed as a titular Nawab of Bengal in 1757. The British extracted enormous sums from Mir Jafar as the price of his elevation. Mir Zafar paid 1 Crore 77 Lakh Rupees as compensation for the attack on Calcutta to the company and the traders of the city. The East India Company claimed 1.5 Crore. Clive was promised 280,000 Rupees. The long cherished dream of becoming Nawab of Bengal of Mir Jafar was achieved. But he could not bear the extortionist policies of the British for long. When he realized that British expectations were limitless he tried to wriggle out of their grip. For this he took the help of the Dutch.

Battle of Chinsura 1759 Mir Jafar opened secret negotiations with the representatives of the Dutch East India Company to bring troops against the British. The Dutch, seeing an opportunity to enhance the influence sent a force at Chinsurah, but they were defeated by the British army. The battle was fought both in sea and land. The Victories British overthrew the titular Nawab Mir Jafar and his placed his son in law Mir Kasim as Nawab of Bengal

Clive’s Jagir Mir Jafar had made a grant to the Company of the Zamindari over an extensive tract around the Calcutta which is now known as 24 Pargana. This Twenty-Four Parganas included the country immediately surrounding Calcutta, except city. In 1757, the East India Company obtained the Zamindari rights over this territory so now it could collect the cultivator's rent, subject to tax paid to the Nawab as the representative of the Mughal Emperor. In 1759 the land tax was granted by the emperor in favor of Clive, who thus became the landlord of his own boss i.e. the East India Company. It was known as Clive's Jagir. The Clive's Jagir became a matter of inquiry in England. The Clive's claim to the property as feudal suzerain over the Company was contested by the company in 1764. In 1765, a new deed was issued, which confirmed this Jagir for 10 years. This Jagir received the sanction of the Mughal Emperor in 1765 and it gave the absolute validity to the original Jagir. However, it was transferred to the company as a perpetual property. Annual grant of around 2.22 Lakh Rupees was paid to Clive from 1765 till 1774, when he shot himself to death. After that whole proprietary rights were reverted to the company. This was the climax of Clive's career. In 1758 he was appointed by the court of directors as the first governor of all the company's settlements in Bengal.

Mir Kasim After the Battle of Chinsura, the British deposed Mir Jafar and placed his son-in-law Mir Kasim as Nawab of Bengal. Mir Kasim, soon began to show a will of his own, and to cherish dreams of independence. He eventually shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar where he raised an independent army.



18 | P a g e

The problem was the free trade. It was during Farrukhsiyar reign, in 1717, that the British East India Company purchased duty-free trading rights in all of Bengal for a mere three thousand rupees a year. Mir Kasim opposed that the imperial Dastak was discriminatory. The British could trade without paying taxes but the other local merchants with dastaks were required to pay up to 40% of their revenue as tax. In a reaction, Mir Kasim abolished all taxes on the local traders as well. This upset the British and hostility was renewed. The forces of Mir Kasim overran the Company offices in Patna in 1763, killing several Europeans including the resident. In the initial skirmishes, Mir Kasim was successful but his forces were defeated in two battles by Major Adams at Gheria and Udhunala. He had to fled and take refuge to Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula.

The Affairs of Awadh Saadat Ali Khan I was the Subedar Nawab (Governor) of the Mughals in Awadh from 1722 to 1739. He was son of a merchant of Khurasan. When Nadir Shah attacked in 1739, he was in the battle from Mughal side. He died just after this attack and was succeeded by Safdarjung, who as soon as sat on the throne, paid Nadir Shah 2 Crore Rupees. Safdarjung was succeeded by Shuja-ud-Daula in 1753. When Mir Kasim took shelter from Shuja-ud-Daula, British asked him to deliver him to them. The Nawab refused to do so. In Delhi Shah Alam or Ali Gauhar succeeded his father Alamgir II. On October 23, 1764, there was a decisive battle at Buxar.

Battle of Buxar October 22, 1764 On October 22-23, 1764, the decisive Battle of Buxar was fought. The belligerents were the East India Company on one side and combined forces of Mir Kasim, Shah Aalam II and Shuja-ud-Daula. The combined forces had 40000 soldiers and the British Forces had 18000 forces. The three separate allies could not coordinate in a better way and got defeated.The British won this Battle of Buxar under the command of Major Hector Munro. After this battle, Shah Aalam II submitted to the British. Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula fled from the scene and took refuse to Rohilla. Mir Kasim also fled and died a few years later in extreme obscurity. Clive was in England when Battle of Buxar was fought and won by the British in his absence. In 1765, Clive returned styled Lord Clive as Governor General of Bengal for the second time. By this time, the British had shown their military supremacy in India for, the Battle of Buxar was tough contested bout, than the Battle of Plassey, which was won by deceit.

Problems with Farman of 1717 In the Farman of 1717, there was one confusing provision which became the reason of main contention between the company and Nawab of Bengal. It was, whether the private trade of the company servants was under the Farman or not. This is very much similar to what happened recently in 2G case. Some people obtained license in peanuts and sold them in huge amounts. It happened that time that the company servants used the farman for their own personal trade and some of them even sold the dastaks to Indians on high rates. This was the main issue between the nawabs and British.



19 | P a g e

The important outcome of the Battle of Buxar was the Treaty of Allahabad which was signed between Lord Clive and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, who had submitted to the British in the battle. As per this treaty:

• Mughal Emperor granted Fiscal Rights (Diwani) or right to administer the territory and collect taxes to the East India Company at Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thus, the British became the masters of fate of the people of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa and now they would collect the revenue.

• In lieu of this Right, the Company gave an annual tribute of 26 Lakh Rupees to the Mughals • The districts of Kora and Allahabad were returned to Mughal Emperor. • Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah but Allahabad and Kora was taken from him. • The Nawab of Awadh paid 53 Lakhs rupees of war indemnity to the British. • Thus, Clive, in person settled the fate of almost half of the Northern India. • The fiscal administration of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa and the territorial jurisdiction of the

Northern Circars is called the Dual System of Government.

Dual System of Government Under this system, the company carried out the Diwani (Fiscal) jurisdiction so Company was Diwan. These decrepit Indians carried out the Nizamat (territorial) jurisdiction so they were Nizam. This system of separate Diwan and Nizam is called Dual Administration. However, the real authority was East India Company in the Nizamat also. The biggest fall out of this system was that the Indian Merchants were reduced to beggars. On the one side, British kept enjoying the duty free trade; the Indian merchants were to pay around 40% of the revenue. The peasants were now under the British revenue collection. The British left no stone unturned to extract each penny. There was zero activity in the name of development so Peasants started turning beggars. The new confusing administrative machinery, which was not properly set up, created chaos. The Officials of the British East India Company such as Lord Clive became extremely rich due to the clandestine private trade. This was the beginning of the Economic loot from India, which made England the wealthiest country in the world in the 19th and 20th century. The consequence of this steady drain upon the production of the country soon began to be felt.

The Corruption in East India Company and its fall outs After winning the Battle of Plassey, the 35 year young man Clive returned to England in 1760 with a fortune of 3 Lakh Pounds and a rent of 27 thousand Pounds per year. Further, the treasure of Nawab Sirajuddaula was looted in such a way that 20% was appropriated to the Zamindars and the corrupt company officials. In 1770, there was a catastrophic famine in Bengal. This famine was so ruinous that every 1 out of 3 people in Bengal (Plus Bihar & Orissa) died and the population of 30 million was reduced to 10 million.



20 | P a g e

The immediate reason of this famine was that the rains were no good and the company, which was now Diwan of the region, increased the land tax by 10% in April 1770. One partial reason was that Opium cultivation was something the corrupt British wanted from the peasants of India, which could maximize their trade profits. The Indians and the British were collectively responsible for this disaster.

Clive Fund After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, Clive arrived in May 1765. Mir Jafar was dead before his arrival and his son Kasim Ali succeeded him. The overlords of the company in Britain wanted to introduce some reforms, which could "curb" the corruption in the East India Company. The Salaries of the servants was increased and acceptance of Gifts from the Indians had been forbidden. However, Clive himself was a corrupt, so there was no much positive achievement in the purification of the Company's service, by prohibiting illicit gains, and guaranteeing a reasonable salary from honest sources only. Mir Jafar, before dying, had bequeathed a large sum to Lord Clive. But he was unable to accept this money honourably as under the new orders forbade the Company's officials to accept presents from natives. With this money Clive established the Clive Fund for the disabled officers and men of the Company's army. This was known as Clive's Fund. The Fund was reverted to his heirs when the East India Company was dissolved.

First Anglo Mysore War From 1734 to 1766, Mysore was under Krishnaraja Wodeyar II. His commander in chiefs dominated his reign and among them; Hyder Ali came to prominence from 1760 onwards. When Krishnaraja died, Hyder Ali became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1763, though Nanjaraja was placed on the throne of Mysore as nominal head. The Mysore had territorial threats from both the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad. In 1758, Hyder Ali was able to successfully drive out Marathas from Bangalore where they had laid a siege. But the Marathas were dominant and kept raiding Mysore territories at their will. But before Hyder could become a ruler of Mysore, he had to overcome a conspiracy by Queen Mother of Mysore and one Khanderao. He cleverly overcame this conspiracy and captured and imprisoned Khanderao and took over Shrirangpatnam. After that he tried to overrun the territories of Marathas but got defeated. In 1761, in the Battle of Panipat, the Marathas got defeated and due to this they drew their forces from Mysore. Hyder Ali was able to increase his influence after this battle. The British were conscious of rising power of Hyder Ali but they had no immediate reasons to become enemy of Hyder. They immediate reason of the rivalry was the access to the Northern Circars, which was a series of coastal territories held by French. The Hyderabad Nizam was a French Protégé, who rejected the



21 | P a g e

demand of Robert Clive for access to this area. But, Robert Clive took his application to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II who in 1765 issued a decree granting the rights of that territory to Clive. Now after getting a Firman from the Boss, British began occupying the Northern Circars, the Nizam objected. But the Nizam was too poor to fight a battle with the British. He sent letters to the Madras Presidency for a settlement.

• As per terms of this settlement, he gave the company 4 of the 5 Circars for a payment of Rs. 7 Lakh in Nizams endeavors.

• The British also provided Nizam, two battalions of the troops. Now Nizam was getting ready to get Mysore from Hyder Ali. The Marathas also joined the Nizam in this alliance against Hyder Ali.

The war started when Marathas attacked Mysore in 1766. But Hyder Ali made peace with Marathas paying them 35 Lakh Rupees. Half amount was paid immediately and for rest Kolar was kept with Marathas for security. Now after Marathas returned, Nizam attacked Mysore with the assistance of British. But even before the war could be concluded, the Nizam changed the side and came towards Hyder Ali. The English forces could not retaliate and retreated to Trichinopoly under col. Smith. Later Col. Wood joined the British army and amid confusion, Hyder Ali retreated from the battle. Now the British threatened to attack Hyderabad. This brought the Nizam to thier knees and sign a treaty in 1768. As per the terms of this treaty:

• Nizam agreed to abide by the treaty signed with British in context with the Northern Circars. • Hyder Ali was regarded as usurper and refused to acknowledge him as ruler of Mysore • Nizam agreed to help the British to punish Hyder Ali.

The important aspect of this treaty was that Nizam agreed to give the British Diwani Rights of Mysore when Hyder Ali was ousted and Mysore is won by him. Hyder Ali was left with no allies, but he was brave due to his solid Financial Position, partially. An English Force was sent to punish Hyder Ali, but it got defeated by this brave commander. The result was the Treaty of Madras. This Treaty of Madras was signed in April 1769 and it maintained the status quo. As per the Treaty of Madras:

• Both the Parties returned the areas won by each other. • The District of Arcot was given to Nawab of Arcot • British & Hyder Ali Promised that they would support each other if there is any foreign

invasion. • Hyder Ali believed that as per the terms of this treaty, British would come to help in if there

is a conflict with the Marathas. So, he started demanding tributes from the smaller states on the border of Maratha and Mysore. The Marathas responded this in 1770 with a force of over 30 thousand. Hyder Ali requested the British to help, but British did not turn up. The result was that all the territories of Hyder were confiscated by the Marathas.



22 | P a g e

Hyder again begged the British for the help, but the British placed some conditions which were not acceptable to him. The result was that Hyder requested for peace with Marathas. In return for the peace, he paid 36 Lakh Rupees to Marathas and 14 Lakh Rupee as annual Tribute. After this event, Hyder Ali remained an enemy of the British throughout his life. Later, he came to know that his nominal ruler Nanjaraja was having a secret communication with the Marathas. So he executed him and placed Chamraraja as nominal head. However, soon after that the Marathas came under mutual dissention and this gave Hyder an opportunity to claim back all he had lost.

Death of Clive Clive left India in 1767, but the Evening of his life was not peaceful. There were numerous voices in Britain about his through corruption in India and his "conduct" was cross examined in the British Parliament. He was vindicated, but despite that, he stabbed himself to death with a pen Knife on 22 November 1774. The suicide was partially attributed to his Opium addiction.



Examinations 2014

Indian History Module-9: Political Events during 1773 to 1823

www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer







General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations

Module-8: Political Events during 1773 to 1857


2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Warren Hastings Era................................................................................ 3

Conditions before arrival of Warren Hastings ...................................................................... 4 Reasons for Regulating Act 1773 ........................................................................................ 4

Regulating Act 1773: Salient Features ....................................................................... 5 Changes Enacted by Regulating Act .................................................................................... 5

Reforms of Warren Hastings ....................................................................................... 6 The Maratha State of Affairs After Shivaji .................................................................. 7

Balaji Vishwanath: The First Peshva .................................................................................... 7 Baji Rao I ............................................................................................................................. 8 Balaji Baji Rao ..................................................................................................................... 8 Rise of Afghans .................................................................................................................... 8 Third Battle of Panipat 1761 ............................................................................................... 8 Treaty of Surat 1775 ........................................................................................................... 9 First Anglo Maratha War 1779 ............................................................................................ 9 England French Rivalry in North America .......................................................................... 10 Second Anglo-Mysore War 1780-1784 ............................................................................. 11 Foundation of Madarasa Aaliya 1781 and Asiatic Society 1784 ....................................... 12 Return of Warren Hastings and Impeachment ................................................................... 12

Edmund Burke Bill 1783 ........................................................................................... 12 Pitts India Act 1784 .................................................................................................. 13

Chapter 2. Lord Cornwallis Era ............................................................................... 14 Arrival of Lord Cornwallis 1786......................................................................................... 14 Permanent Settlement of the land revenue of Bengal ...................................................... 15 Reforms in the East India Company ................................................................................... 16

Judiciary Reforms of Cornwallis ............................................................................... 17 Police Reforms of Cornwallis .................................................................................... 18

Mysore Maratha War 1785-1787 ...................................................................................... 18 Third Anglo Mysore war 1790-92 ...................................................................................... 19

Chapter 3. Lord Wellesley Era ................................................................................ 19 Retirement of Cornwallis 1793 to arrival of Lord Wellesley 1798..................................... 19 Charter Act of 1793 ........................................................................................................... 20

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte .................................................................................... 20 Correspondence of Napoleon with Tipu Sultan ................................................................. 21 Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1798-99 ................................................................................... 21 Position in the Indian Ocean .............................................................................................. 22

Subsidiary Alliance System....................................................................................... 22 Beginning of Press and the Censorship Act 1799 ...................................................... 23 Fort William College 1800 ....................................................................................... 24 The Maratha Affairs 1773-1802 .............................................................................. 25

The Battle of Poona 1802 .................................................................................................. 25 Second Anglo Maratha war 1803-1805 ................................................................... 26

Successors of Lord Wellesley 1805-1807 .......................................................................... 26 Chapter 4. Lord Minto Era ....................................................................................... 27

Mutiny of Vellore 1806 ............................................................................................. 27 Arrival of Lord Minto 1807 ................................................................................................ 27

Rise of Misals in Punjab ............................................................................................ 27 Rise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh ............................................................................................ 28 Minto-Metcalfe Treaty 1809.............................................................................................. 28 Lord Minto & Relations with Punjab and Persia ................................................................. 28

Charter Act of 1813 .................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 5. Lord Hastings Era .................................................................................. 29

Developments in Persia & Afghanistan .............................................................................. 29 Arrival of Lord Hastings 1813 ............................................................................................ 30 Gurkha war 1814-16 ......................................................................................................... 30 Third Anglo Maratha War 1817-19 ................................................................................... 30 Abolition of Censorship by Lord Hastings .......................................................................... 31




3 | P a g e

Impact on Industries of India ............................................................................................. 32 Retirement of Lord Hastings and succession ..................................................................... 34

Introduction: Three Generations of British Power in India The years from 1757 to 1782 mark the rise of the modern British Empire. England’s ally, Fredrick the Great of Prussia won the Battle of Rossbach in 1757 during the 7 years war and humbled the France. In 1759, James Wolfe of England took Quebec in the Battle of Quebec and by 1763; whole of Canada was won from the French. Clive won the battle of Plassey in 1757 and Eyere Coote crushed the remnants of French Power in India in 1761. These 5 years assured the greatness of England and France was humbled in America, Asia and Europe. The 80 years from the Battle of Plassey 1757 to Accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 was the period of steady rise and expansion of the British Power India. The three generations of the British consolidated the power of Britain in India and the consistent economic drain from the country assured its place among the poorest of the poor regions in the world.

• The First Generation was the age of Clive and Warren Hastings, which was closed by the Pitts India Act of 1784.

• The Second Generation was of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Wellesley and Lord Hastings which saw the final wars with Mysore and Marathas. It ended with the annexation of province of Bombay in 1817 and capture of last of the Peshwas.

• The Third Generation was of peace and administrative reforms in India which saw Lord Munro, Lord Elphinstone, Lord Bentinck, the names which are still cherished in India. Third generation ended with arrival of Lord Auckland in 1836 and accession of Queen Victoria in 1837.

Chapter 1. Warren Hastings Era Warren Hastings, the experienced worker of East India Company who had joined the company in 1750 as a Clerk took 23 years to reach the top post of the time. Prior to that, he had served as a Resident of the East India Company in Murshidabad. In 1761, he was in the British Council of Calcutta, so was well versed with the affairs of India. He had also served as the member of British Council of Madras. In 1773, he was appointed the Governor General of Fort Williams, commonly called as Governor General of India. From 1772, Warren Hastings had come to Calcutta as Governor of the Bengal Presidency and the regulating act was passed after his arrival. When he left in 1785, the whole course and character of the British Indian History was bearing his impression and his name.




4 | P a g e

Conditions before arrival of Warren Hastings 3 Years after Clive left India, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa came under the grip of the Bengal Famine of 1770, which swept away one third of the population. The Dual System of the Government proved to be an utter failure. The divided responsibility between the English Diwans and Indian Nizams made it impossible to find out who was to blame. The court of directors at England discerned about, what changes required to handle this.

• The Administration of the East India Company, back home was managed by a body of directors who were 24 in number. These were called "Court of Directors".

• The Court of Directors was elected by an annual election in which the shareholders took participation. The collective body of the Shareholders was called "Court of Proprietors".

• The Court of Directors created the committees which used to carry out the day to day functioning.

Before arrival of Warren Hastings, the East India Company was on brink of financial bankruptcy in 1770 onwards. This was a result of corruption by the company officials and immediately afterwards, the Famine reduced the revenue of the company. In August 1772, the East India Company applied for a Loan of One Million Pounds to the British Government. This gave the parliament an opportunity to cross examine Clive and affairs of the company and then vote for regulation of the company. The result was the Regulating Act of 1773.

Reasons for Regulating Act 1773 Apart from the reasons mentioned above, there were a few more important factors that led to the Regulating Act of 1773.

• There were three Presidencies viz. Bombay, Madras and Bengal, under which the territories (modern Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh). was independently under the control of a Governor General in Council of the respective presidency. This Governor General in Council was appointed by the Committee of the Company. All powers were lodged in the Governor and the Council jointly and the presidencies were independent of each other. Each had its own government, independent from the others.

• The mismanaged Finances made the company almost insolvent and the company was forced to apply to the British Government for a loan of One Million Pound Sterling.

• The Prime Minister of England at the time of Regulating Act of 1773 was Lord North. His government decided to undertake a legislation to meet the situation and provide some form of legal government for the Indian possessions of the East India Company. The company was important for the revenues of the British Government because, it was a monopoly trading company and many influential people had invested in its shares at England.




5 | P a g e

• To maintain the monopoly, the East India Company paid 4 Lakh Pounds to the British Government every year.

• The other influential business houses of England were so far not allowed to enter India , but now the company was been unable to meet its commitments.

• The East India Company had lost its monopoly of selling tea in North America in 1768. This was because the Dutch were able to enter the American Markets.

Regulating Act 1773: Salient Features The Regulating Act of 1773 was to

• Address the problem of management of company in India. • Address the problem of dual system of governance instituted by Lord Clive • To control the company, this was so far a business entity but now a semi-sovereign political

entity in India. • There was nothing in the act which could address the people of India, who were paying

revenue to the company but now were dying in starvation in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. • The Regulating Act of 1773 is called the First step of Government Control in India. • Since the Government in Britain regulated the company and did not take it over, it was

termed "Regulating Act". • Regulating Act of 1773 is known to be the first step of the British government to regulate the

affairs of the East India Company.

Changes Enacted by Regulating Act • The Regulating Act made the presidencies of Bombay and Madras as subordinate to the

Presidency of Calcutta. • The Governor of Bengal was designated the Governor of the Presidency of Fort William

and he was to serve as Governor General of all British Territories in India. • The Governor of the Presidency of Fort William had to be assisted by an executive council

which had 4 members. Now, the Governor General of India and his council of 4 members got a legal status. As per the act, Office of the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William was created in 1773, and on 20 October 1773, Warren Hastings became the first Governor General of India. Meaning of Governor General & Viceroy Please note that commonly we call Warren Hastings as First Governor General of India. But the official title of Warren Hastings was the Governor of the Presidency of Fort William. This office became Governor General of India in 1833 from the times of Lord William Bentinck and in 1858, when India was taken over by England; it remained Viceroy and Governor-General of India till 1947. Members of the Council The members of the council were




6 | P a g e

• Lt. General John Clavering • George Monson • Richard Barwell • Philip Francis.

India’s First Supreme Court The same act established India's first Supreme Court, Fort William, Calcutta. This Supreme Court consisted a Chief Justice and three other regular judges or Puisne Judges. Sir Elijah Imphey was the first Chief Justice. The Supreme Court was the supreme judiciary over all British subjects including the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Broad Impact of Regulating Act 1773 The Regulating Act of 1773 unequivocally established the supremacy of the Presidency of Bengal over the others. In matters of foreign policy, the Regulating Act of 1773 made the presidencies of Bombay and Madras, subordinate to the Governor General and his council. Now, no other presidency could give orders for commencing hostilities with the Indian Princes, declare a war or negotiate a treaty. The act forbade the servants of the company to accept presents and bribes, to curb the corruption. It established a supreme court at Fort William, Calcutta and India's modern Constitutional History began. Position of the Supreme Court Calcutta There was nothing comprehensible in the Regulating Act of 1773 with regard to the relation of the Supreme Court with the Government of Bengal. The Supreme Court subjected the company to the control of British Government. Later an amendment in this act was made (The amending act of 1881), in which the actions of the public servants in the company in their official capacity were exempted from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was also made to consider and respect the religious and social customs of the Indians. Appeals could be taken from the provincial courts to the Governor-General-in-Council and that was the final court of appeal. The rules and regulations made by the Governor General-in-Council were not to be registered with the Supreme Court. So, with this act the British Judges started "delivering" justice to the Indians. From 1773 onwards, the executive and judicial administration of the country was placed on a regular, though imperfect, footing by parliamentary act.

Reforms of Warren Hastings The first thing Warren Hastings did was to end the Dual System put forth by his predecessor Clive. When he abolished the system, he cut down the Nawab of Bengal's Pension to one-half. One more reason behind this was that the Nawab who was now a pensioner and a titular head was not rendering even a nominal service in respect of the enormous income. This allowance to the Nawab kept fluctuating from the times of Clive to Warren Hastings and it was basically depending upon the personal character.




7 | P a g e

Next step he took was to stop the payments of Tributes to the Delhi Emperor. This was because, the emperor was only a name, and his territories were sacked by Marathas. He said that since the Mughal was now not independent, paying tribute to Mughal would be like paying to the Marathas. The next step Warren Hastings did was to shift the Treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta, thus making it safe in a fortified place. Since the Marathas had raided the provinces of Kora and Allahabad, Warren Hastings held that now the emperor has no right on these places, and resold them to the Nawab of Oudh. He strengthened the Nawab of Oudh and closed his frontier against the Maratha Invasions. By these measures which were purely of financial nature, he was able to better the financial position of the company. He also compelled Raja Chait Singh of Banaras and Beghum of the Nawab to pay contributions. Chait Singh rebelled but was crushed and his nephew was placed at Raja for an increased ransom.

The Maratha State of Affairs After Shivaji After death of Shivaji, Aurangzeb took the command in his hands and in 1681, arrived at Burhanpur. He sent prince Muazzam, who after running over Konkan moved to Bijapur. Aurangzeb pushed forward to Ahamednagar. Both of them were annexed to Mughal Empire. As soon as the Mughals turned their back, Sambhaji swiftly led his cavalry, crossed Khandesh and burnt Burhanpur and set the whole country ablaze. Before Mughals could retreat, they safely returned to their heavens. The Mughal emperor now turned his attention only on to crushing the Marathas. The revenue of the Marathas was cut as Bijapur and Ahamednagar was now firmly annexed to the Mughal Kingdom. In 1689, Sambhaji was captured and executed. His infant son Sahuji was taken captive. Rajaram, brother of Sambhaji sought refuge at Jingee in the Konkan and in 1700 his son Shivaji III under the regency of his mother Tarabai took the Maratha Command. But the Mughals released Sahuji and now the Marathas were in two rival camps. There was a civil war between Sahuji and Tarabai, in which Sahuji got victorious, with the help of Balaji Vishwanath. Balaji Vishwanath was made Peshwa in 1713 and thus he founded the line of the Peshwas. Tarabai set up a rival camp at Kolhapur.

Balaji Vishwanath: The First Peshva Balaji Vishwanath, a Brahmin was the first in the line of the hereditary Peshwas or Prime Ministers. In 18th century the Peshwas became the holders of the Maratha Power. Balaji was instrumental in the release of Shahuji’s family from Mughals and took his side in the civil war with Tarabai. He became the first Peshwa in 1713. Aurangzeb had already died in 1707 and the power in Delhi was Farrukhsiyar, who was placed on the throne by Sayyid Brothers. Later Farrukhsiyar was replaced with Rafi ul Darjat in 1719. This time, Balaji Vishwanath supplied a 15000 army to Mughals and in return got the right to extract autonomy to Marathas and right to levy Chauth from 6 Deccan Provinces. In 1720 Balaji Vishwanath died. Sahuji appointed his son Baji Rao I as Peshwa at the age of 20 years.




8 | P a g e

Baji Rao I Baji Rao-I is the most popular among the 9 Peshwas of Marathas and the Maratha power was on its zenith during his time. It was Baji Rao I who instead of Deccan focused the Maratha attention to North. He can be said the first Indian, who could sniff the weakness of the Mughals and decaying Mughal empire. He was aware of the weakness of the Mughal puppets at Delhi. The famous saying “Attock to Cuttack", refers to the Maratha Kingdom as visualized by Baji Rao-I, who wanted to plant the Saffron Flag on the walls of Attock. Baji Rao-I fought 41 battles and lost none. This able prime Minister of Marathas was able to create a confederacy of the Marathas who had dispersed after the death of Shivaji. This confederacy included the Kingdoms of Scindias under Ranoji Shinde of Gwalior, Holkars under Malharrao of Indore, Gaekwads under Pilaji of Baroda, and Pawars under Udaiji of Dhar. He was able to get 1/3rd of the Bundelkhand after death of Maharaja Chhattrasal. From Bundelkhand he had a half Muslim lover Mastani who was never accepted in the Maratha society. Baji Rao I transferred the seat of administration of the Marathas from Satara to Pune. Baji Rao-I died in 1740 of some disease and was followed by his son Balaji Baji Rao.

Balaji Baji Rao Balaji Bajirao is better known with the name of Nanasaheb Peshwa. During his time, Pune became the cradle of Maratha Power. When Sahuji died in 1749, he had no sons and thus made the Peshwas as rulers of the Maratha Power. So Marathas became the real rulers of the Marathas since the times of Balaji Baji Rao. The Mughals signed Ahamadiya Treaty with the Marathas when Balaji Bajirao was Peshwa. As per this treaty, Mughals were restricted to Delhi and the northern India was controlled by Marathas from Pune.

Rise of Afghans In June 1747 Ahamad Shah Durrani or Ahamad Shah Abdali rose to power and established the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan. He crossed Indus river in 1748 and annexed Lahore. In 1749, the Mughal Empire lost Sindh and Punjab. In 1757 there was another attack and he sacked Delhi, Agra, Mathura, Vrandavan etc. The Mughals accepted this formidable Afghans’ suzerainty. He installed Alamgir II on the throne of Delhi. The East India Company also accepted his suzerainty. But the Marathas did not accept them. Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunath Rao to counter the Afghans. Raghunath Rao was able to throw out Timur Shah (son of Ahamad Shah Abdali and Governor of Lahore, Multan and Kashmir) and brought the Lahore, Multan and Kashmir under the Marathas. The rise of this new Hindu Kingdom was not acceptable to the Mughals and Afghans. The afghan hero raised a Holy war against the Infidels and warriors from Pashtun & other tribes answered his call. This culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat which paved the way for British Rule in India.

Third Battle of Panipat 1761 Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. This was the largest war of the 18th century. The Marathas were led by Sadashivrao Bhau. The battle followed a two months seige and skirmishes.




9 | P a g e

The Marathas were badly defeated in the war suffering a life of around 60-70 thousand warriors. They lost their ablest commanders. Balaji Baji Rao could not absorb this shock and died soon afterwards. When Warren Hastings took office, the Power of the Marathas, which has accumulated for over a century now had made them dominant from the Sutlej River in North to Kanyakumari in South. However, the shattering overthrow they suffered in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 by the forces of Ahamad Shah Durrani, they were expelled from Punjab. But still, in Western India & Konkan they were supreme. In Rajputana and Central India they kept raiding. Immediately after the Third Battle of Panipat, Balaji Bajirao, the Third Peshwa of Marathas had died. He was succeeded by his son Madhavrao-I. This 16 years youth was to be assisted by his Uncle Raghunath Rao in the administrative affairs. In 1762, they sat out for a raid in Karnataka. But before that raid was carried out, there was a conflict between Madhavrao I and his uncle Raghunath Rao. Raghunath Rao abandoned the troop midway and raided the villages nearby. The discord increased and there was a war or sort between the two relatives. Madhavrao I died shortly afterwards of Tuberculosis. His brother Narayanrao became the next Peshwa who was murdered by Raghunathrao in 1773. Thus, Raghunathrao became the Peshwa, though he was not legitimate heir.

Treaty of Surat 1775 Late Narayanrao's widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a posthumous son, who was legal heir to the throne. The newborn infant was named Sawai Madhavrao. Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis, one of the ministers of the late Narayanrao conspired to make the infant as the new Peshwa and rule under him as regents. Since Nana Phadnavis was assisted by 11 more ministers and this conspiracy is called "Barabhai Conspiracy" or the Conspiracy of the Twelve. But Raghunath Rao approached British to purchase their support. He signed the Treaty of Surat in March 1775. As per this treaty, Raghunath Rao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the British, so that the British restore him to Poona. But this treaty created confusion. The Regulating Act was in place; the Governor General in Council at Calcutta did not approve this treaty and held it invalid. They sent one representative Colonel Upton to Pune to annul this treaty and make a new treaty with the Governor General in Council at Calcutta. Raghunath Rao made another treaty but that treaty was not accepted by Nana Phadnavis and he granted a port to French. The British retaliated this with sending troops to Poona. This triggered the First Anglo Maratha War.

First Anglo Maratha War 1779 The Maratha force was joined by Mahadji Shinde, the "most celebrated & Brave Maratha" after Shivaji. The combined Maratha forces fought with the forces of the British and Raghunath Rao at Wadgaon. Mahadji Shinde and Tukojirao Holkar commanded the Maratha army.




10 | P a g e

In this battle the British were badly defeated. The British Forces surrendered at Wadgaon in 1779, on January 12. 4 days later on January 16, the British signed a Treaty of Wadgaon as dictated by Marathas. As per this treaty, the British relinquished all the territories acquired by the East India Company in Western India since 1773 and promised to pay ` 41000/- (Fourty One Thousand) as indemnity to Mahadji Scindia. Raghunathrao was captured and imprisoned. But again, this Treaty of Wadgaon was held invalid by Warren Hastings, who quoted that the Presidency of Bombay had no legal power to sign such treaty. The Calcutta Presidency sent another force. This force harassed Mahadji at Sipri and thus Mahadji was compelled to sign a new treaty, which had some less favourable articles (to Marathas). This new treaty called "Treaty of Salbai" was signed between the British and the Marathas. Treaty of Salbai (May 17, 1782) Treaty of Salbai was signed between the Marathas and the British East India Company. As per this treaty:

• British acknowledged Madhavrao Narayan as Peshwa of the Maratha Empire • British Recognized the Territorial claims of Madhav Rao Scindia in west of Yamuna River. • Raghunath Rao was freed and a pension was fixed for them. • British East India Company got the control of the Salsette.

British promised to support Marathas in case they attack Hyder Ali of Mysore and retake the territories of Carnatic. In summary, the Treaty of Salbai which was the outcome of the First Anglo Maratha war maintained the status quo. Gujarat was restored to the Marathas; and only Salsette, with Elephanta and two other small islands in Bombay harbor was retained by the English. The first three Carnatic wars assured elimination of all the competitive powers from India. In the First Carnatic War, the French had an advantage, but in the Third Carnatic war, Lally, the Patriotic but impulsive leader of France, got defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash and paved the way for British supremacy. By 1763, there was no rival power in India which could hold the British in place. In the first Anglo Maratha war, the British troops distinguished themselves by capturing Ahmadabad and Gwalior, but the mission of the British got failed. The ally of the British Raghunath Rao retired on pension but the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 added the Islands of Salsette and some other such as Bassein to the British possessions. In the First Anglo Mysore war, the British felt the weight of arms of Hyder Ali, the most capable military commander that India produced in those times. Hyder Ali devastated the Carnatic and the British, struck with panic made peace (Treaty of Madras) with this terrible commander in 1769.

England French Rivalry in North America In 1775, American Revolutionary war started in which France assisted the victory of Americans seeking independence from Britain. This was preceded with the Boston Tea Party in 1773 in America in which the natives refused to accept the British Government given monopoly of the failing East India Company over the tea sold in North America, resulted in throwing large quantities




11 | P a g e

of tea overboard into the Boston Harbor. This was followed by an open war between England and France and it got its own version in India. At home, Hyder Ali had become a French ally. The French-British hostility in Europe gave rise to the renewed hostility between the Mysore and British East India Company. Hyder Ali had become number 1 enemy of the British due to their non compliance of the terms of treaty in the previous war with Marathas. The British too had resolved to drive the French out of India. The local version of the French declaration of war upon England in 1778 was a raid upon the Pondicherry by the British East India Company in 1778, capturing the French outposts. In 1779, the British captured Mahe. Mahe, the strategic port was under Hyder Ali. The capturing of the Mahe led Hyder Ali declare a war against British which is called the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Second Anglo-Mysore War 1780-1784 Prior to this war, Hyder Ali had again made a treaty with the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad, but both of them were convinced to not to take arms again British and Hyder Ali ended fighting the war on his own. But the army of Hyder was one of the largest armies in India. In 1780, his army carefully swept down the Eastern Ghats and burnt the villages. The British could not make out due to failure of intelligence and Hyder laid the siege of Arcot. He sent his son Karim to Porto Novo. When the British Forces left Madras under the command of Hector Munro to throw out the siege, Hyder lift the siege but moved to confront them. But then, Hyder came to know that new forces are coming from Guntur under Colonel William Baillie, so he sent a detachment under his son Tipu to intercept them. Hyder himself also led his forces to intercept Col. Braithwaite. At Pollilur, Colonel William Baillie was surrounded and was compelled to surrender. The defeat in Battle of Pollilur was the worst defeat of English in India in which the British were massacred. The siege of Arcot was renewed. The news of the British defeat shook Warren Hastings but he sent a new force under General Eyre Coote from Bengal to take charge of British forces opposing Hyder. Eyre Coote arrived Madras take command from Munro. He marched into the Carnatic and occupied Cuddalore. At Porto Novo, the armies met and the victory was in British side. Then again new reinforcements were sent from Bengal, which Hyder tried in vain to stop. There was a fight again in Pollilur, but Hyder got defeated but the battle remained indecisive. In summary, the second Anglo Mysore war was a prolonged war which took 4 years to conclude without victory of any side. Hyder was humbled in 4 engagements by Eyre Coote, but every time he succeeded in safely withdrawing the troops from each of the battle field. He was also able to surround the two British detachments under Col. Baille and Col. Braithwaite and destroyed them. This prolonged war was hotly contested, for the aged Sir Eyre Coote had lost his energy, and the Mysore army was not only well disciplined and equipped, but skillfully handled by Hyder and his son Tipu. All of a sudden, Hyder died in 1782, the battle remained indecisive and peace was finally




12 | P a g e

concluded with Tipu on 28 June 1784, on the basis of a mutual restitution of all conquests. This is called the "Treaty of Mangalore".

Foundation of Madarasa Aaliya 1781 and Asiatic Society 1784 The First chief Justice of Supreme Court of Calcutta was Elijah Impey. Sir Robert Chambers was appointed second judge under Sir Elijah Impey as chief justice, with a promise that if the Chief Justice's post became vacant, it would be offered to him. In 1784, Sir Robert Chambers was the Chief Justice at the Supreme Court of Calcutta. This year is special for development of the Indology. Sir William Jones, one of the outstanding Oriental Researcher had correspondence with Warren Hastings regarding the research of the Sanskrit Language. Warren Hastings had considerable respect of the ancient Indian Law. No English person understood the Sanskrit, and not much work was done except translation of some Puranas such as Skandpurana and some other books such as Surya Siddhanta. In 1781, Warren Hastings founded the Madarasa Aliya or Calcutta Madarasa. Warren Hastings supported the establishment of AsiatiK society, (which later became Asiatic Society) in 1784 by Sir William Jones under the chairmanship of Sir Robert Chambers. Both of them exist till date flourishing. It’s worth note that Madarsa Aaliya was run for quite some time by Warren Hastings only through his own pocket, but a year later he was paid by the Bengal Government. In 2007, this Madarasa Aaliya became the Aliah University by Aliah University Act 2007.

Return of Warren Hastings and Impeachment In 1785 Warren Hastings returned to England. On his return to England he was impeached by the House of Commons for alleged acts of oppression and corruption. Some of them were:

• He was accused for oppression in the Rohilla war. • The oppression and deposing Chait Singh of Banaras and accepting bribes. • General corruption in the company

Warren Hastings was solemnly tried by the House of Commons, and the proceedings prolonged for seven years (1788-1795). The Impeachment of Warren Hastings is one of the most celebrated state trials in English history. It ended with exoneration of all charges on Warren Hastings. But these 7 years of defending himself made him near bankrupt.

Edmund Burke Bill 1783 Though the Regulating Act of 1773 had made the two presidencies of Bombay and Madras subordinate to the Presidency of Fort William, yet there was an absence of power in the Governor General in Council of Fort Williams to control them and even override his council.

• Warren Hastings, practically worked as a 5th member of the Council. • There Supreme Court of Calcutta was established but there was not clear jurisdiction.




13 | P a g e

The Regulating Act was a failure. In the first Anglo-Mysore war and First Anglo Maratha war its failure was seen in the confusion of treaties and these flaws were taken up by William Pitt, the younger. He introduced the Pitts Bill in 1784 with an objective to provide better regulation and management of the company as well as British Possessions in India. It also had an objective to establish a court of Judicature in India, which could provide speedy trial and justice. But the bill was not passed. Prior to Pitts India Act, Jame Fox had introduced an Edmund Burke's bill to reform East India Company. But this bill failed in the house of Lords. In the subsequent election, William Pitt obtained a majority and got the bill passed in August 1784, which was known to be Pitt’s India Act 1784.

Pitts India Act 1784 The Pitts India Act of 1784 somewhat amended at various times, established the system of dual control of India by the government of Great Britain and the British East India Company. These changes continued till 1858.The first major regulation in this act was the relationship of the company to the British government. With the Pitts India Act of 1784, East India Company's political functions were differentiated from its commercial activities.

• Board of Control: In political matters, the company which was till now working as somewhat sovereign was made directly subordinate to the British government. To enable this, a Board of Commissioners was created, which was called Board of Control. Six people viz. the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary of State, and four Privy Councilors, nominated by the King were the members of this Board of Control. The Secretary of the State was entitled as the President of the Board of Control. This Board of control was empowered to control all matters of civil or military government or revenues. The board was given full access to the company's records. It had the powers to send Governors to India and full authority to alter them.

• Result of Creation of Board of Control: The Pitts India Act 1734 actually provided for a joint government of the company and British crown in India. So now, the fate of India People would decide the company and the British Government (indirectly). The Company was to be represented by the Court of Directors and the Crown was represented by the Board of Control.

• Impact on Governor General-in Council: The Governor General's council was now reduced to 3 members, one of whom was to be the commander-in-chief of the King's army in India. The Governor General was given the right of casting vote, in case the members present in a meeting of the council shall any time be equally divided in opinion. The Governors of Presidencies of Bombay and Madras were deprived of their independent powers and Calcutta was given greater powers in matters of war, revenue, and diplomacy, thus Calcutta becoming in effect, the capital of Company possessions in India. The Governor




14 | P a g e

General Council was now under indirect control of the British Government through the Board of Control. There was also a secret committee of the 3 directors, which had to transmit the orders of the Board to India. This Secret Committee was to work as a link between the Board of control and the Court of Directors.

• Disclosing of Property: All civil and military officers of the East India Company were ordered to provide the Court of Directors a full inventory of their property in India and in Britain within two months of their joining their posts. Severe punishment was provisioned for corrupt officials.

Why Pitts India Act 1784 failed? The act was deemed a failure. This was because; very soon it became apparent that the boundaries between government control and the company's powers were nebulous and highly subjective. The British Government felt obliged to respond to humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples in British-occupied territories. The Board of control was alleged for nepotism. The act was a naive one, it divided the responsibility between the Board of Control, Court of Directors and the Governor General in Council but again , no boundaries could be fixed as they matter was subjective and not objective.

Chapter 2. Lord Cornwallis Era Warren Hastings had resigned from the Company before he went to England. Before arrival of Lord Cornwallis, at Calcutta Sir John Macpherson took the office of Governor General for a short period of around 20 months. John Macpherson had earlier come to India in 1767 and was a corrupt officer who had been charged for taking bribery from the Nawab of Arcot. He was expelled from the Madras Council. He appealed in front of the Court of Directors against his dismissal and the Court of Directors reinstated him finding no proof. Before he could again go to Madras, Lord North sent him to Calcutta where he kept pitching against Warren Hastings. When Warren Hastings resigned and went to London, John Macpherson became the Governor General of the Fort Williams. In his time, Mahadji Scindia, who was now well recognized face of the Great Marathas asked the British to pay the sum of 4 Crore Rupees, as arrears to the tribute promised by them in 1765 (@26 Lakh Per year). John Macpherson answered immediately disapproved this claim. Now he was fearful of Scindia, and to check the Maratha, he posted one envoy at Pune. In 1786, there was a war between the Marathas and Tipu Sultan. Before the war could conclude, John Macpherson returned to England. He was superseded by Lord Cornwallis in September 1786.

Arrival of Lord Cornwallis 1786 Lord Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis arrived in India in 1786. This was the First English Nobleman to come to India to undertake the office of the Governor General. Prior to that he had served in America and commanded the British generals in the American War of Independence. He was made to surrender by the combined forces of America and




15 | P a g e

French in the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, after which the British government hastened to restore peace and that paved the way for America's independence in 1783. Lord Cornwallis twice held the high post of governor general. His first tenure lasted from 1786 to 1793. For second time, he came to India in 1805, but died before he could do any wonders again. Lord Cornwallis, the first of the new dynasty of the Parliamentary Governors General of India came to India with a high reputation as a soldier and as a diplomat. He was having the support of the strongest ministry that had ever governed England. He was invested with the well defined supreme authority for; he was the Governor General of all the three Presidencies and was also appointed the Commander in Chief of the British Forces in India.

• The accession of Lord Cornwallis set a new era, transformed from the chartered commercial company to a senatorial proconsul.

• The first object was to set in order the chaos in Bengal misgovernment. • Lord Cornwallis is chiefly remembered in India for the administrative achievement

Permanent Settlement of the land revenue of Bengal.

Permanent Settlement of the land revenue of Bengal We should know that the British overhauled the revenue administration system introduced by the Mughals. We have read about the Dahsala System and now lets look at some erstwhile systems:

• Iqta System: Iqta system was a practice of Tax farming that was introduced by Iltutmish in Delhi Sultanate. It was basically grant of revenue from a territory in lieu of salary. This grant was not hereditary and was subject to passing from officer to officer. Iqta system linked the farthest part of the Sultanate linked to the Central Government.

• Zabti System : Zabti system of land regulation was introduced during Akbar's reign. Akbar started the Zabti system in Bihar, Agra, Allahabad, Multan, Awadh, Malwa, Delhi, Lahore, Ajmer and Gujarat. Akbar aimed to abolish the Jagir system and establish the direct relations of cultivator with Government. Jahangir tried to follow the footprints of his father but was not disciplined so the system became undisciplined. However, it was Shah Jahan who cut the roots of this system.

• Gallabaksha System: Gallabakhsh was a system of assessment prevalent in Medieval India , in which the crop produce was divided after it was cut. It was prevalent in most parts of North West Boundaries of India i.e. modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of POK.

Izaredari System • The predecessor to the Permanent Settlement, the brainchild of Lord Cornwallis was the

Izaredari system. o Izaredari system was introduced in 1773 by Warren Hastings. o Izaredari system was coterminous with the farming system in which right of

collecting revenue of a particular area was auctioned to the Highest Bidder.




16 | P a g e

o This means that the Peasants, shopkeepers and merchants had to pay their taxes to the Izaredar who eventually was also the Highest Bidder to the company. We can easily make out what would have happened to the poor people of India under this system.

o The Izaredar squeezed the poor peasants and then paid to the company saving his profit.

In England, the Court of Directors of the company had expressed their disapprobation of the system, not because it exploited the peasants, but because there was a frequent change in the revenue system. The questions were raised about the Izaredars who had no permanent interest in the welfare of the peasants. These "Thekedars" consistently endeavored to raise the land tax, considerably putting down the poor peasants. Thus, as expected, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. Please note that Izaredari system was introduced in Bengal only. In Zamindari system Bengal, Banaras, Bihar, Carnatic (Today’s North Karnataka) and Orissa came. As per this system, the Zamindars who formerly collected revenues were "recognized" as Land Lords and the ownership of the Land was made hereditary. This means that now onwards there would be no auctioning. The son of Zamindar would be a Zamindar. The idea was that Zamindars would have a "permanent interest" in the welfare of the Peasants. But the result was that cultivators were reduced to tenants, deprived of all kinds of rights on the land. The Zamindar could kick a cultivator any time, without giving any reason. In the same system in 1799, the Zamindars were given rights to confiscate the land and kick out the tenant cultivators. So the system was as follows:

• Zamindar was the real owner of the Land and “representative” of the Government. • Peasants were now "tenants" of the Zamindars • Peasants could be kicked out any time by the Zamindar • The Zamindar was like a servant to the Government. He used to keep 11% of the revenue

with him for "serving as agent of the Government" and 89% he had to pay to the Government.

• Thus the revenue started coming to the British on 10/11 ratio. • The Permanent Settlement fixed the revenue of the land on a 10 year basis.

The economic drain from India was set at a faster pace by Lord Cornwallis by putting in place the Zamindari or Permanent settlement system. The system remained in placed but later a new Mahalwari system was placed during the times of Sir Thomas Munroe in certain areas of India.

Reforms in the East India Company To "curb" the corruption in the company, Cornwallis was given sufficient powers and authorities. He put in place the rules and regulations for the servants of the company. As per the new rules




17 | P a g e

• Only qualified people would enter into the service of the company. • No recommendation from England would be given weightage for appointments in the

company's service. • The private trade of all the company servants was abolished. • Company servants were now to sign a bond which included that they won't accept any gifts

from Indians and will not indulge in private trade. • Top posts were only for Europeans, Indians were given posts which were lowest such as

peons. • The revenue collectors were deprived of the Judicial powers.

Judiciary Reforms of Cornwallis The next important change Cornwallis did was to set up courts in the states, districts and provinces. The Supreme Court of Calcutta was the final court of appeal. The system of Civil Judiciary was as follows:

• Lowest Court was the Amin Court or Munsif Court. The Munsifs could decide the case where the value was less than Rs. 50.

• The higher court was the District court or "Diwani Adalat". The Judge was called "Session Judge". This session Judge was essentially an Englishman, who used to deliver justice to "only Indians" and not the Europeans. He was assisted by assessors.

• The higher than Diwani Adalat was the Provincial Court of Appeal. Four provincial Courts of appeal were set up at Dhaka, Calcutta, Murshidabad and Patna. These courts heard appeals from the districts except the English.

• After provincial court, the Highest Court of Appeal was set up which was called "Sadar Diwani Adalat". The headquarters of Sadar Diwani Adalat was at Calcutta and it was the Highest Court of Appeal. Its judge was supported by a Head Qazi, two Muftis and Two Pandits.

• The appeals from the “Sadar Diwani Adalat” were submitted to the King in England. The King of England only entertained those cases whose value was more than 5000 rupees.

The above system was in the Civil Judiciary. In Criminal Judiciary, Cornwallis introduced the following structure:

• At Taluka / Tahsil level there was a Darogh-i-Adalat. Its Judge was "Darogha" who was "An Indian". This was the lowest level.

• The appeals from a Darogha could be taken to "District Criminal Courts”. The judge of this court was a Session Judge, an English.

• To hear the criminal appeals from District courts, 4 Circuit Courts at Murshidabad, Dhaka, Calcutta and Patna were established.

• The Highest court of Criminal appeal was in "Sadar Diwani Adalat" at Calcutta which used to sit once in a week. It was supervised by Governor General in council.




18 | P a g e

Other Judicial Reforms included the following: • Court fees were abolished by Cornwallis. • Lawyers were to prescribe their fees. • Ordinary people could sue the Government servants (Indians) if they committed mistakes. • Inhuman punishments such as cutting limbs, cutting nose and ears were abolished.

Cornwallis Era and Too much Litigation The Cornwallis era is known for a very steep increase in litigation in India. The administrative reforms of Cornwallis were based upon the permanent settlement of revenue. Here we see that there was a separation of the revenue administration and the judicature. Further, the Europeans were employed at higher offices, which were given the job of complex system of regulations. The excellent plan came with simultaneous reforms in the judiciary which included the setting up courts in the states, districts and provinces, Abortion of court fee, rules for lawyers to prescribe the fee etc. The actual motive of recourse to the courts for zamindars proved to be a weak motive and due to all these reasons, the permanent settlement worked very badly in the beginning. Courts were choked by the litigations. The litigation kept flooding the courts, until the Zamindars were given coercive powers in 1795 and 1799.

Police Reforms of Cornwallis So far Police was under the Zamindars. It was taken away from Zamindars and handed over to the Superintendent of the Police at District level. The Police was Europeanized. They were now paid salary and given unlimited powers to arrest the suspected persons. So now Thanas were there in India to maintain "peace and order". Zamindars had still a great influence on these Thanas, but legally there were detached from the Police functionary. In 1789 Lord Cornwallis made a proclamation that "anyone who is found associated with Slavery would be prosecuted in the Supreme Court". This step he had taken to curb the menace of slavery prevalent in India since Sultanate Era but the immediate reason was that the Children were collected by the Indians and sold to "French".

Mysore Maratha War 1785-1787 When Lord Cornwallis was busy in making administrative reforms in the English dominions, the Indian Great Marathas and Tipu Sultan were engaged in bloody quarrels. After second Anglo Mysore war, Tipu Sultan was the sovereign King of Mysore. The Marathas established a military alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad to recover the territories that were lost to Mysore. Tipu Sultan resolved to teach them a lesson and attacked. Marathas tried to include Lord Cornwallis in the war which commenced with marches, counter marches and skirmished from 1785 onwards. Cornwallis stick to the policy of neutrality and did not participated in the war game. Finally, exhausted, Marathas and Tipu Sultan signed the Treaty of Gajednragarh in 1787 and maintained peace.




19 | P a g e

Third Anglo Mysore war 1790-92 Tipu Sultan was hostile towards the British since the beginning. Mangalore Treaty of 1784, which was signed on the end of the Second Anglo Maratha war had an article regarding transfer of the Prisoners. Tipu did not honor this and kept the British prisoners with him. This was one of the reasons of the hostility. In the same treaty, the British had promised to not to enter into agreements with the Marathas and Nizam, but Cornwallis informally convinced them to not support if there was a war. The immediate reason of the war which commenced in 1789 was that the local Dharamaraja of Travancore made some fortifications into the territories which were claimed by Tipu. In Cochin he purchased two forts from the Dutch, but Cochin was paying tribute to Tipu. Travancore was an ally of the British. So when Tipu attacked Travancore, the British attacked Tipu. The Diplomacy of Cornwallis kept Tipu aloof from the Marathas , Coorg and Nizams. Lord Cornwallis led the British army in person, with pomp and a magnificence of supply which recalled the campaigns of Aurangzeb. The result was Tipu's defeat. The peace was restored by the Treaty of Shrirangpatnam which was signed in 1792. The terms of the Treaty were dictated by the British. As per this treaty:

1. Half of the territories of Tipu were snatched away from Tipu and divided into Marathas, British and Nizam

2. Tipu had to pay Rs. 3.30 Crore as war indemnity. 3. The Raja of Coorg got independences from Tipu. 4. Two sons of Tipu were delivered as Hostages.

This war eventually crippled the great Sultan, who once thought of making India free of the British. He fulfilled the conditions of the treaty but ever afterwards he burnt in the fire of revenge upon his British victors.

Chapter 3. Lord Wellesley Era Retirement of Cornwallis 1793 to arrival of Lord Wellesley 1798

Lord Cornwallis retired in 1793, and was succeeded by Sir John Shore. The Tenure of Sir John Shore's rule as Governor General from 1793 to 1798 was politically uneventful in India but in Europe, a new sun Napoleon Bonaparte had risen. When Shore left India in 1798 Sir Alfred Clarke, as senior member of council, became acting Governor General. In 1798, 1st Earl of Mornington, better known as the Marquis Wellesley or Lord Wellesley arrived in India. He was another British Aristocrat close to the Prime Minister Pitt, the younger, who had appointed him a Lord of the Treasury earlier. Meanwhile some new changes were introduced in the management of the company as well as Indian Judiciary via the Charter Act of 1793




20 | P a g e

Charter Act of 1793 By 1793, when the company's charter timed out the British parliament passed a new charter which authorized the company to carry on trade with the East Indies for next 20 years.

• The company was allowed to increase its dividend to 10%. The Act recognized the Company's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right."

• A provision in the Charter act of 1793 was made that the company, after paying the necessary expenses, interest, dividend, salaries, etc from the Indian Revenues will pay 5 Lakh British pounds annually out of the surplus revenue to the British Government. However, the act also had a provision, that Crown could order the application of the whole of the revenue for the purpose of defense if the circumstances posed such demands.

• Expenses, interest, dividend, salaries, etc were to be borne by the Indian Exchequer. In this act, the Governor General was empowered to disregard the majority in the Council in special circumstances. Thus more powers were entrusted in him. The Governor General and respective governors of the other presidencies could now override the respective councils, and the commander in chief was not now the member of Governor General's council, unless he was specially appointed to be a member by the Court of Directors.

• If a high official departed from India without permission, it was to be treated as resignation. This act reorganized the courts and redefined their jurisdictions. The revenue administration was divorced from the judiciary functions and this led to disappearing of the Maal Adalats. The Charter act of 1773 was followed by the Act of 1797 which reduced the number of Judges of the Supreme court at Calcutta from 4 to 3 (One chief Justice and 2 other judges). Lord Cornwallis retired in 1793, and was succeeded by Sir John Shore. The Tenure of Sir John Shore's rule as Governor General from 1793 to 1798 was politically uneventful in India but in Europe, a new sun Napoleon Bonaparte had risen.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte was the military and political leader of France who changed the course of European Politics by his conquests.

• He was born in 1769 and remained emperor of France from 1804 to 1814. While the Judicial reforms in India carried out by Lord Cornwallis are called Cornwallis Code, Napoleon established Napoleonic code, which laid the administrative and judicial foundations for much of Western Europe. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified.

• His career began in 1785, when he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the French artillery. In next 3 years he polished his warfare skills with a French army regiment.

• In 1789 the crowds of French Peasants stormed the French prison known as Bastille on July 14, the event which marked the beginning of the French revolution and is celebrated in




21 | P a g e

France now as Bastille Day, a national holiday. In 1793, Napoleon distinguished himself in a Battle between the Revolutionaries and royalists (Battle of Toulon), in south France. He was promoted from Captain to Brigadier General. On January 21 French King Louis XVI was beheaded.

• In 1795, the new French leaders (Directory) asked Napoleon to put down people's revolt. • In 1796, Napoleon led the French army against a coalition of nations including Austria,

Prussia and Great Britain, in the military campaigns in Italy. He was able to expand territory of France.

• In 1797, Napoleon and his army marched into Austria. Much of the Austrian land came under France control with the Treaty of Campo Formio. In 1798 his troops sailed to Egypt and defeated the Mamluk rulers in Egypt in the Battle of the Pyramids. He returned France, overthrew the Directory of new leaders and became leader of France in 1798-99.

Correspondence of Napoleon with Tipu Sultan The outbreak of war between Britain and France in 1793 led the renewal of French attempts to drive the British out of India with the help of the native rulers. Pondicherry was the principal possession of France in India. Hyder Ali was an enemy of British and his son Tipu was a step ahead of his father in this enmity. Tipu was a French ally. Tipu professed unbounded enthusiasm for the French revolution and applauded the Frenchman Napoleon. Tipu was somewhat in contact with the Directory in Paris, which expected great things from Tipu in connection with Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. After Egypt was conquered, Bonaparte had a "communication" with Tipu Sultan and if possible would dispatch his forces by land or Sea to India, to drive out the British. But this plan was not executed however, till the end of 1798 Tipu was in touch with Napoleon Bonaparte. Meanwhile the inactive Governor General John Shore was replaced by Lord Wellesley. Lord Wellesley resolved to crush Tipu, without waiting for any further developments. Before Wellesley attacked Tipu, he diplomatically persuaded the French protégé Nizam of Hyderabad to abandon the French alliance and dismiss the French soldiers. When Bonaparte was campaigning in Syria in 1799, the British attacked Tipu and this was the final of the Anglo Mysore war , known as Fourth Anglo Mysore War.

Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1798-99 The French plan of sending troops to India was crushed by Nelson of British in Battle of Nile. Three British armies marched into Mysore and siege Shrirangpatnam. One of the commanders of Tipu, Mir Sadiq was bought by the British, he deceived Tipu and the result was that Tipu, amid the English advantageous position, was shot and killed. Tipu had used the iron cased rockets in the Third and Fourth Mysore wars.




22 | P a g e

It led the British to develop their own versions of the Rockets. The Woodyar dynasty was restored on the throne of the Mysore and Mysore came indirectly under the British. Thus, with the end of Fourth Mysore war, Mysore became a princely state with suzerainty of the East India Company.

Position in the Indian Ocean French had the "Islands of France" in the Indian Ocean which are now Mauritius, and Island of Bourbon, which us now called Reunion. Both of them played an important role in halfway rendezvous for French intrigue and for the assembling of a hostile expedition, but the Battle of Nile changed the course of history and none of the French plan was carried out. Tipu had also allowed the Directory to plant a "tree of liberty" in Shrirangpatnam. These islands were the cradle of French activity in India throughout the 18th century, but from 1810 onwards Mauritius has been in English possession. However, Reunion is still French. In 1795, the Dutch territory Ceylon was annexed to the Madras presidency, but a few years later it was made a crown colony by the Treaty of Amiens. Later around in 1801, Tsar Paul of Russia was actually planning, with a bit of connivance of Bonaparte, for an overland invasion of India, but before anything could be done, Tsar Paul was assassinated.

Subsidiary Alliance System The French assistance to Tipu Sultan in 1798 was the last instance of active intervention of any other European power in India. To counter the intrigues of Napoleon and any further development in French Power in India, Wellesley, who was extremely influenced with the imperial thoughts, came up with the scheme of eliminating the French Power from India for ever. He placed the British on the head of the great Indian confederacy. The Fourth Anglo Mysore war had placed England on the Military supremacy in India and now Wellesley used the Subsidiary Alliance System aggressively.

• It was a Treaty, between the company and the Indian native rulers. In return for a payment or subsidy, the company would place garrison troops in that ruler's territory to fight against their rivals.

The credit for placing the subsidiary alliance in India goes to Lord Wellesley. But he was NOT the inventor of it.

• Pioneer of the Subsidiary Alliance System was the French Governor Dupleix. He used to lent his army on "rent" to the native Indian Rulers.

The same policy was copied by Lord Clive who had made the Oudh to sign such treaty in 1765 (The Treaty of Allahabad) and promised to protect the territory of Oudh from invasions of any foes such as Marathas. He lent his expensive troops to be placed with Nawab and also an English resident was placed in the Court of Nawab, all at the expense of the Nawab. After the third Anglo Mysore war, Cornwallis had tried to provide for Peace in south by inducing the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad to join him in a treaty guaranteeing against Tipu the territories that each of them possessed at the close of the war.




23 | P a g e

Nizam had agreed, because he was much afraid of the Marathas. But Marathas declined because they were contemplating to attack Nizam. The Awadh and Hyderabad both were weak in terms of their proportion of territory and revenue. However, Cornwallis largely remained noninternevtional and so did his immediate successor John Shore. But it was Wellesley who effectively reverted the policy of "non intervention". He made the Nawab and Nizams subsidiary allies by signing almost 100 such treaties. Initially Wellesley compelled the friendly rulers to accept this alliance.

• The First victim of the policy of subsidiary alliance of Wellesley was the Nizam of Hyderabad. Wellesley neutralized the Nizam by getting him to sign the Subsidiary alliance to replace his French detachments. He also forbade Nizam to correspond with the Marathas without British consent. As the Nawab was a French protégé, he had appointed many Frenchmen at his court, but after this treaty, he was forced to dismiss the French employees and maintained six expensive British Battalions. Marathas in Deccan had not entered into any kind of treaty, but still they were neutralized by Wellesley by a promise of share in the spoils of Tipu. After that only Wellesley demanded submission of Tipu and followed an invasion. In summary, the system of Subsidiary Alliance could be any of the following:

• The company lent its army in lieu of the Cash • Company kept the armies near the border of the Protectorate and collected cash. • Company kept the army inside the border for protection and collected cash. • Company kept its army inside the border of army and got some territories.

The last among the above given 4 types was dangerous. It was Nawab of Oudh that entered into this kind of arrangement in 1801 (Treaty of Lucknow) and ceded half of Awadh to the British East India Company and also agreed to disband his troops in favor of a hugely expensive, British-run army. After this , the British were able to use Oudh's vast treasuries, repeatedly digging into them for loans at reduced rates. They also got revenues from running Oudh's armed forces. Last, but not least, the subsidiary alliance made Oudh a "buffer state", which gave strategic advantage to the British.

Beginning of Press and the Censorship Act 1799 We know that in 1684, British had established a printing Press in Bombay. However, even before that we have traces of Press in India.

• In 1550, the Portuguese had brought a Press Machine with them and the Jesuit of Goa published the first book in 1557.

Since 1684, no newspaper was published in India in the company's territories for; it could awake either its subjects or their bosses sitting in England.

• Not all officers and servants of a company like East India Company were happy. There were some disgruntled servants who wished to "publish" and "expose" the malpractices in the




24 | P a g e

company and its territories like "wikileaks" is doing today by letting out the diplomatic cables.

A fruitless attempt was made by one of those discontents named William Bolts in 1776, who after censured by the company's court of Directors for "private trade" expressed intentions to "publish" a newspaper. It was in 1780, when James Augustus Hickey published the first newspaper in India titled "Bengal Gazette" or "Calcutta General Advertiser" in 1780. But he was too outspoken and the result was that his press was seized in 1782. Later, some more newspapers were published which were:

• The Calcutta Gazette 1784 • The Bengal Journal 1785 • The Oriental Magazine of Calcutta 1785 • The Calcutta Chronicle 1786 • The Madras Courier 1788 • The Bombay Herald 1789

But almost all of them did not choose the "blasphemy" of the company and thus avoided clash like James Augustus Hickey did. But, in 1799, Lord Wellesley brought the Censorship of Press Act, 1799. The idea was to stop the French from publishing anything which could harm British in any way. This act brought all the newspapers under the Government scrutiny before their publication. This act was later extended in 1807 and covered all kinds of Press Publications newspapers, magazine, books and Pamphlets. The rules were relaxed when Lord Hastings came into power.

Fort William College 1800 Civil Service to the East India Company was the backbone of the East India Company. Initial steps were taken by Clive to improve the terms and conditions but Clive as well as Warren Hastings was unable to put an end in the corruption for; they themselves found hooked. The initial attempt to train the Civil Servants locally was done by Lord Wellesley. Within the campus of the Fort William, he founded Fort Williams College on 10 July 1800. The idea was to teach the British rookies understand the Oriental culture, tradition, law and administration to better coordinate in the "governance". The result was the thousands of works in Indian languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, Bengali, Hindi and Urdu were translated in English. Now Calcutta was home to

• Calcutta Madarasa 1781 • Asiatic Society 1784 • Fort William College 1800

This was the first stage of development of Calcutta as India's most respected Intellectual centers in the 19th century. Bengal Renaissance started from Calcutta only after this phase was over.




25 | P a g e

The Maratha Affairs 1773-1802 The First Anglo-Maratha war ended in 1782 and for the next two decades there was no important war between the British and the Marathas. While the next 20 years were put in good use by the British in making Indian rulers crippled one by one, it was Maratha confederacy which despite of being the most formidable power in Deccan and Central India decayed itself to extinction because of the internal dissensions. In these 20 years the most dangerous enemy of British, Tipu Sultan had been eliminated and British were teaming with vigor and energy, both morally and financially. The last signed treaty of importance between British and Marathas was Treaty of Salbai (1782) which left the British Protégé Raghunath Rao retire on a pension. The British got Salsette and Elephana and Mahad Ji Scindia got the land which was west of Yamuna River, making a border between the British and Marathas. The Marathas were still rocking from Attock (now in Pakistan) to Cuttack (Cuttack was under Bhosle). These twenty years mark the rise and fall of Nana Fadnavis. Nana Fadnavis, one of the 12 conspirators (12 Bhai) was present in the Third Battle of Panipat but he escaped death and fled from there. Under his leadership the Barabhai opposed the Raghunathrao and forestalled Narayanrao's posthumous son Madhav Rao Narayan as Peshwa in 1774. He became the chief minister of this Peshva and ran the affairs of Marathas practically. But his position was opposed by Mahad Ji Scindia. In 1794 Mahad Ji Scindia died and thus Nana’s most formidable opponent was now no more. He then administered Maratha affairs with undisputed authority. The young Peshva Madhav Rao Narayan got impatient of the control of Nana Fadnavis and committed suicide. In 1796, Baji Rao II, who was son of the retired British Protégé Raghunath Rao, was made next Peshva by Nana Fadnavis et al. But he was hostile to Nana Fadnavis since beginning. Neither Baji Rao II nor Nana Fadnavis had any military skills but the contest for power was developed between the two. In 1800 Nana Fadnavis died and the Maratha Confederacy came on the brink of defunctness. The remaining Maratha veterans were Yashwant Rao Holkar of Indore and Daulat Rao Scindia of Gwalior, who was grandson of Mahadji Scindia's brother, as Mahadji left no heir. These veterans contested for power and their rivalry made the British come alive. The result was that the Maratha veterans fought with each other in the Battle of Poona.

The Battle of Poona 1802 The Battle of Poona started when the Forces of Yashwant Rao Holkar attacked the forces of Scindia and Peshwa Bajirao II. The combined armies of Scindia and Peshwa were defeated by the Holkar at Hadspar. This defeat led Peshwa flee from Pune.




26 | P a g e

The British were now to play their game. Baji Rao II was invited to Bassein and British enticed him to sign the "Subsidiary Alliance". To get the throne of Poona, Bajirao-II signed this treaty and surrendered his sovereignty in lieu of the "carrot" of Poona's throne. This was called Treaty of Bassein, which was signed at the English possessions of Bassein in 1802. As per Treaty of Bassein, the British promised to place a force of around 6000 troops to be permanently stationed with Peshwa. In return the British got the territorial districts that would yield the revenue of 26 Lakh rupees. Baji Rao II was also required to :

• Not to enter into any treaty without consulting British • Not to declare war without consulting the British • Not to claim over Surat and Baroda.

So, British repeated the history again. This time, Poona was under Holkar and the protégé was Baji Rao II , in like Raghunath Rao, his late father. The war was now inevitable. The Marathas took it as surrender to National Honor. The war was fought between the broken Maratha Confederacy and British and it was the second Anglo Maratha war.

Second Anglo Maratha war 1803-1805 The war started when deposed Peshwa Baji Rao II, entered Poona with the British Forces in May 1803. British attacked from North under General Lake and from South under Arthur Wellesley, brother of the Governor General. The fighting started from Gujarat, Bundelkhand, Orissa engaging all Maratha chiefs in their homes but not let them "reunite". The war prolonged two years and several treaties were signed by the Maratha rulers with the Peshwa and the British. The result of these different treaties was that the "Divided Marathas" paid the price to the "United" British. The result of this war was as follows:

• In 1803, Aurangabad and Gwalior was taken by British • Bhosle lost Cuttack, Balasore and west of Wardha river • Scindia lost Jaipur, Jodhpur, Gohad, Ahamad Nagar, Bharuch, Ajanta • Both of Scindia and Bhosle accepted the Treaty of Bassein and gave their sovereignty to

British Now the powerful Holkar was left. He was a step ahead and approached Delhi to capture it. But he was defeated by British at Deeg, near Bharatpur, Rajasthan. At last he also signed a treaty and lost the places north of Chambal River, Bundelkhand. Poona was sure not in his claim now. Thus with the second Anglo Maratha war, Maratha lost their independence. India was now bound in chains. The Marathas made a last attempt in 1817, unsuccessfully, to get Mother India freedom from the colonist power.

Successors of Lord Wellesley 1805-1807 The adventures of Lord Wellesley were good, but they were costly. The continuous wars with Mysore and Marathas, his policy of launching educational projects in India caused the financial




27 | P a g e

strain which made the Court of Directors impatient. He was recalled in July 1805 and once again Lord Cornwallis was sent to India. He was advised by his peers to bring peace in the British dominions which were under the threats with the wounded lions such as Holkars and Scindias. He came in the rainy season and the bad weather of India claimed his life. He was succeeded by Sir George Barlow, an intimate adviser of John Shore and Lord Wellesley. His term was till 1807 when there was a mutiny at Vellore in 1806.

Chapter 4. Lord Minto Era Mutiny of Vellore 1806

When Lord Wellesley was justifying himself in England for his ventures in India, there was a more important event which had lasting importance than any other thing in the history and which began the earliest sign of a great mutiny coming up half century later. At Vellore, some foolish orders were passed by Sir John Cradock and Lord Howdon, the commander in Chief in Madras to regulate the dress of the Sepoys. They must change the turban of the Indians so that it looks more like the Helmet and the why the Hindu Brahmin Sepoys put caste marks on their foreheads? The Muslims must get rid of their beards and should be clean shaved. It appeared to the innocent Sepoys that they were going to be "Christianized”. The result was that on the midnight of 10 July 1806, the crowd got collected, sepoys mixed with them led by one of Tipu's son, massacred the Europeans and hoisted the Flag of the Mysore Sultanate out there. The mutiny was subdued by dawn, but it sent ripples of fear among the British overlords, as first sign of losing an empire. But the empire was established. It was now turn to look at the foreign countries and establish diplomatic relations with them. In 1807 Lord Minto came to India as Governor General.

Arrival of Lord Minto 1807 Lord Minto was more active in Java, Sumatra and Malacca. In his time the British Government of India opened relations with the set of the foreign powers. He sent embassies to Punjab (Maharaja Ranjit Singh) and Shah of Persia.

Rise of Misals in Punjab 10th Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the last Human Sikh Guru was born in Patna and he became Guru at the age of 9 years. Guru Govind Singh's life was one of the greatest landmarks in the history of Sikhs. He established Khalsa and fought around 20 battles with the Mughals. He declared in 1708, that Guru Granth Sahib will be the holy scripture of Sikkhism and will be the permanent Guru of Sikhs. Establishing the Khalsa Panth was the beginning of the Sikh religion. The five K’s of Sikhs was a pledge of a Sikh’s dedication to Khalsa of Guru. Sikhs became a strong political Force in the Punjab Region with next 50 years and with the decline of Mughal Power in Delhi, many Sikh sardars became owners of large parts of land which they called Misals. The lords or leaders of these Misals were called Misaldars.




28 | P a g e

The repeated invasions and exposure to the western adventurers had made the people of Punjab acquire martial skills for their survival. The Misaldars were very strong, each of them with great military skills. When the Mughals were decaying, India was invaded by Nadir Shah and Ahamad Shah Durrani. Nadir Shah when going back was assaulted by these Misaldars. Though, defeating Ahamad Shah Durrani was out of their power, yet they tried their hand and got killed in thousands. The Misals were not a consolidated power. The 12 Misals varied in size, power as well as importance. But they were "equal" as far as matter of Sikkhism is concerned. The Misals were as follows:

1. The Bhangi Misal 2. The Ahluwalia Misal 3. The Ramgarhia Misal 4. The Nakai Misal 5. The Kanhia Misal 6. The Dallewalia Misal

7. The Nishanwalia Misal 8. The Singhpuria Misal 9. The Karora Singh Misal 10. The Shahid and Nishang Misal 11. The Phulikian Misal 12. The Shukarchakia Misal

The Misaldars often used to fight with each other. It was Maharaja Ranjit Singh who consolidated the Sikh Misals and laid the foundation of Sikh Empire, which lasted for half century.

Rise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh 12 Misaldars were welded into a Khalsa State by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who captured Lahore in 1799 and annexed the provinces of Multan, Peshawar and Kashmir. In 1805, he captured the Amritsar Sahib from Bhangi Misal and took over Kashmir.

Minto-Metcalfe Treaty 1809 Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, who later served as Governor General of India was sent as envoy to the Sikh court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Lahore. The British Government signed the treaty of "Mutual Friendship", which is also called Minto-Metcalfe Treaty with Maharaja Ranjit Singh on 30 May 1809. This Friendship was based upon the British fear of attack from Napoleon or Russia from the Northern frontiers of the British Empire in India.

Lord Minto & Relations with Punjab and Persia The tenure of Lord Minto was known for establishment of the diplomatic relations with Persia and Punjab by the British Government of India. Lord Minto sent envoys to Persia and Punjab and signed the “treaties of friendship” with them. Meanwhile, in 1813, the charter of the company ran out. So a new Charter Act of 1813 was in place.

Charter Act of 1813 Napoleon Bonaparte had put in place the Berlin decree of 1806 & Milan Decree of 1807 forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and installed the Continental System in Europe.




29 | P a g e

These circumstances posed hardships to British traders, and they demanded entry to the ports of Asia and dissolve the monopoly of the East India Company. But the East India Company clamored that its political authority and commercial privileges cannot be separated. The controversy was later resolved by allowing all the British merchants to trade with India under a strict license system.

• Thus the Charter act of 1813 ended the monopoly of the East India Company in India, however the company's monopoly in trade with china and trade in tea was remained intact.

• The charter act of 1813, for the first time explicitly defined the constitutional position of the British territories in India.

• This act also made provisions to grant permission to the persons who wished to go to India for promoting moral and religious improvements. (Christian Missionaries)

• This act regulated the company’s territorial revenues and commercial profits. • The company debt was to be reduced and dividend was fixed @10.5% per annum. • There was also a provision that Company should invest Rs. 1 Lakh every year on the

education of Indians. • This act also empowered the local governments to impose taxes on the persons subject to

the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Lord Minto retired in 1813. He was succeeded by Lord Hastings also known as Lord Moira.

Chapter 5. Lord Hastings Era Developments in Persia & Afghanistan

To understand the important events related to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, we need to see towards India’s Western Borders. We should note that during the Mughal Era, Nadir Shah who is called the Napoleon of Persia had attacked South West of Afghanistan in 1736 and captured it. In next year, he captured Kandahar and in 1739, he defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of Karnal. Apart from being responsible for killing of 20-30 thousand innocent people he was also took the Peacock Throne & Koh-I-Noor and Darya-ye Noor diamonds. Nadir shah got assassinated in 1747. After the assassination of Nader Shah, Afghan again rose and under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali, (also known as Ahamad Shah Durrani) who was founder of Durrani Empire, modern Afghanistan was founded. Ahamad Shah Abdali is called by the Pushtuns as Ahmad Shah Baba. He consolidated and enlarged Afghanistan. Defeated Mughals in the west of Indus and pushed southeast towards the Punjab in Mughal India. He was succeeded by Timur Shah Durrani, who was the eldest son & successor of Ahamad Shah Durrani. He was married to the daughter of Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. He died in 1793. After his death a war of succession took place among his sons. This was the era of rising of Barakzai Sardars and later two brothers Fateh Khan and Dost Mohammed Khan played the role of the King maker in Afghanistan.




30 | P a g e

The war of succession was basically among the three sons Zaman Shah, Mahmud Shah and Shah Shuja. Timur Shah Durrani was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani in 1793 when he died and later Zaman Shah Durani was forced out by Mahmud Shah Durrani in 1801. Another son of Timur Shah Durrani, Shuja Shah Durrani forced out Mahmud Shah Durrani in 1803. Shuja Shah ruled from 1803 to 1809 and aligned with British in 1809. But later, just after signing this treaty in 1809, he was ousted again by his Brother Mahmud Shah Durrani. Shuja Shah fled to India, but later was arrested by Jahandad Khan Bamizai and imprisoned at Attock. However, he took the shelter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and lived in Lahore. In return of his freedom, he gave Kohinoor Diamond to Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Arrival of Lord Hastings 1813 Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings or Lord Moira remained the Governor General of India from 1813 to 1823, a long 10 years term. His tenure is known for two important wars. One was the Gurkha War and another was Third Anglo Maratha war, the last of the Maratha struggle against the British.

Gurkha war 1814-16 Gurkhas were ruling in Nepal and from 1767 onwards they extended their power over the hills and valleys of Nepal. They were ruling on Feudal basis and soon became powerful. They marched into the Kumaun and Gangetic Plains and raided in the British Territories. The British had recently acquired the lands of Nawab of Oudh and Gorakhpur, Sikkim were on the front. The dispute was because of no fixed boundary. The war ended in a defeat of Gurkhas. The British army marched from Patna to Kathmandu and finally dictated the terms of Treaty of Segauli, which defined the English relations with Nepal. Gurkhas lost Sikkim, the territories of Kumaon and Garhwal, and most of the lands of the Tarai; the British East India Company promised to pay 200,000 rupees annually to compensate for the loss of income from the Tarai region. This remained the definition of India-Nepal relations for a long time.

Third Anglo Maratha War 1817-19 The Third Anglo Maratha war consisted of skirmished such as Pindari war , Battle of Sitalbaldi, Battle of Mahidpur and Battle of Khadki. The Pinadris were many castes and classes who worked like mercenaries under the Maratha Chiefs. When the Maratha chiefs became weak, they started raiding the territories of the British. The companies accused Marathas of giving shelter to Pinadris. Pinadris, opposed to the Marathas, who were bound by traditions of confederate government, were merely freebooters or plundering bands. They were a mix of Hindus, Muslims, Afghans, Jats and Marathas, better called as a "debris of the Mughal Empire" broken and not incorporated into any of the regimes. The Pinadris were crushed in 1817. But in the same year three great Maratha powers at Poona, Nagpur, and Indore rose separately against the British.




31 | P a g e

Peshwa Baji Rao was chafed under the terms & circumstances imposed by the Treaty of Bassein in 1802. In June 1817, a new Treaty of Poona was signed which freed the Gaekwar from his control and ceded fresh districts to the British for the pay of the subsidiary force. The Marathas attacked the British at Khadki near Poona, and same plot was enacted at Nagpur at Sitabaldi. The Maratha armies of Indore (Holkar) rose in Mihidpur in the following month. The result was a general defeat of the Marathas. The outcome of this war was as follows:

• Dominions of the Peshwa Baji Rao were annexed to the Bombay presidency. • The Peshwa surrendered, and was permitted to reside at Bithur, near Cawnpore (Now

Kanpur) , on a pension of 8 Lakh Rupees per year. His adopted son Nana Sahib later led the Mutiny of 1857.

• The Peshwa’s place was filled as traditional head of the Maratha confederacy and a descendant of Shivaji was brought forth from obscurity, placed upon the throne of Satara.

• An infant was recognized at heir of Holkar, another child was proclaimed Raja of Nagpur under the Guardianship of British.

• The Rajas of Rajputana accepted the position of feudatories of the paramount British Power in India. They remained the Princely states till India got independence.

This was the last big battle won by the British. India was now theirs. The Map which was drawn by Lord Hastings remained same till Lord Dalhousie came in 1848 and imposed the infamous "Doctrine of Lapse". The next few years were of general peace but there was a development on the foreign front. Third Anglo Maratha War 1817-19 was the last big battle won by the British. India was now theirs. The Map which was drawn by Lord Hastings remained same till Lord Dalhousie came in 1848 and imposed the infamous "Doctrine of Lapse". The next few years were of general peace but there was a development on the foreign front.

Abolition of Censorship by Lord Hastings One of the important events during the tenure of Lord Hastings was abolition of Censorship. This was basically because of his dislike towards "unnecessary" imposition of restrictions on Press. But as a precaution, he issued some guidelines prohibiting company's policies in the newspapers. The result was that many fresh newspapers came up. India's first Vernacular newspapers Samachar Darpan was started in 1818. However, some

scholars note that "Bengal Gazetti" was published even prior to this Vernacular magazine by Ganga Kishore Bhattacharya.

Then in 1818 only “Calcutta Journal" was started by J S Buckingham. 3 years later Raja Ram Mohun Roy started national press in India. He published "Sambad

Kaumudi" in 1821. This was one of the pre-reformist publications that had actively campaigned for "Abolition of Sati".




32 | P a g e

There was a growing public outcry for Sati and it "inspired" Lord William Bentinck to abolish “Practice of Sati” in 1829.

However, this liberal policy of Lord Hastings could not continue further. The successors of Lord Hastings took harsh actions against the press people.

Impact on Industries of India The Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764. The economic loot started from 1757 ended only in 1947 when India was free. From the third quarter of the 18th century, Industrial Revolution in England started and this brought the age of spinning genny, power looms and steam engine. The most important initial developments were as follows: Textile Richard Arkwright developed water frame. James Hargreaves developed Spinning Jenny Samuel Crompton developed Spinning Mule

These were developed in the initial decades of the 18th century. The last of above three i.e. Spinning Mule was patented in 1769, but the patent ended in 1783. As soon as this patent ended there was a rapid growth of cotton mills in England. Steam Power In 1775 James watt patented the improved Steam Engine which was apart from pumping out

machines; it was used in the power machines. This enabled the development of the semi automated factories.

Iron Industry: In Iron making, Coke was finally applied to all stages of Iron smelting, replacing the Charcoal.

It improved the production as well as efficiency. But, the economic loot in India provided the profits to the Great Britain in these years that no other investment had ever provided. For almost half a century, England was standing without a competitor. Great Britain kept on maturing the manufacturing and industrial revolution and in India; it kept changing the objectives and methods of control towards a more centralized colony. The first state of economic loot from India started when East India Company was given a status of Monopoly Company. So far, the company carried Indian goods such as Silk, Saltpeter, Muslin, spices to the European markets. Till its charter was renewed for second time in 1813 and its monopoly was ended, it kept working on the basis of the 17th century Buccaneering capitalism in which , using the power of the gun and politics, it kept dictating its terms to the weavers in Bengal.




33 | P a g e

The cost of production had nothing to do with the prices fixed by the company in European Markets. The political advancements from 1757 till 1813 gave the company squeeze out enormous wealth from Indian Rajas, Nawabs and Nizams. The money was put to the best use in England's infrastructure, Industrial development and financial strength. After the Charter Act of 1813 ended the monopoly of company in India, the process was reversed. Now the loot was guided by the needs of the British Industry. The Charter Act of 1813 closed the British Markets for Industrial Goods produced in India. But this act allowed one way duty free trade for the British Mercantile Capitalists, who made India a dumping ground for cheap and machine made imports. The result was the Indian Industry which was based upon the handloom and cottage based production for thousands of years, lost foreign markets as well as Indian markets. The machines of England devoured Indian raw products such as raw cotton, jute, Silk, Oilseeds, Indigo, Wheat, Tea etc. and imported the British made products. If Indians wanted to export, there was a heavy duty imposed over there for entry in the market. The acts and legislations excluded the Indian Goods from British markets and other foreign markets. In India also the movement of the goods was subject to various kinds of duties. The Indian Industries such as silk and textiles collapsed. The new manufacturing methods replaced the old manufacturing methods in ship building, metal works, glass works, paper and many other crafts. In summary, after losing the industries, Indians were confined with the only industry-- that was agriculture. But the agrarian economy also produced raw materials for England's machines. The large population of India was a large market for Britain. Destruction of Industries

rendered large scale unemployment. People started running from the Industrial hubs to villages to become cultivators, the pressure on land increased.

The Zamindari system made it sure that agriculture keeps the rural peasants indebted always, generation to generation.

The Hotchpotch of currency in 18th Century In the later half of 18th century various currencies circulated in Bengal, whose values widely fluctuated. The British insisted on payment of revenue in their own currency. But the most important fall out of this hotch potch was that native currency was accepted at a rebate and this created a lot of problems to Indian traders and peasants as Tax Payers

The Zamindari, The Military structure, the Judiciary and administration, all were meticulously designed by the British to keep Indian Land and its vast resources under their control. The mercantile exploitation remained till 1860. From 1860 till 1947 India remained a victim of Britain's Finance Capitalism.




34 | P a g e

In Finance Capitalism, the Capital which was actually of India was rerouted by the British to create infrastructure that was under the "Guaranteed returns to the British Investors".

Retirement of Lord Hastings and succession The tenure of Lord Hastings ended in 1823 and he was succeeded by John Adams, the senior member of the Governor General's council, who served as acting Governor General. In the same year 1823, Lord Amherst came to India as next Governor General. His tenure was from August 1823 to February 1828.



Examinations 2014


www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer










2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Lord Amherst Era .................................................................................................. 3

Arrival of Lord Amherst 1823 .............................................................................................. 3 First Anglo Burmese War 1824-26 ...................................................................................... 3 Treaty of Yandabu 1826 ...................................................................................................... 4 Treaty of Yandabu & Annexation of Assam ......................................................................... 4 Barrackpur mutiny of 1824 .................................................................................................. 5

Chapter 2. Lord William Bentinck Era ..................................................................................... 6 Return of Lord Amherst and arrival of Lord William Bentinck 1828 .................................... 6 Lord William Bentinck 1828-1835 ....................................................................................... 6 Condition of Finances of the Company ................................................................................ 6 Abolition of Sati : 1829 ........................................................................................................ 6 Suppression of Thugs ........................................................................................................... 7 Charter act of 1833 ............................................................................................................. 8 Direct Control of Mysore .................................................................................................... 10 Coorg War 1834 ................................................................................................................ 10 Judicial Reforms of William Bentinck ................................................................................. 10 Lord Macaulay 1834-1838 ................................................................................................ 11 Presidency of Agra 1834-36 .............................................................................................. 12

Introduction to Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1772-1833 .................................................... 12 Atmiya Sabha .................................................................................................................... 13 Hindu College .................................................................................................................... 13 Sambad Kaumudi and Mirat ul Akbar ............................................................................... 13 His title “Raja” ................................................................................................................... 13 Death and legacy of Raja Rammohan Roy ........................................................................ 14

Chapter 3. Lord Auckland Era .............................................................................................. 14 Lord Metcalfe 1835-36 ..................................................................................................... 14 Arrival of Lord Auckland 1836........................................................................................... 14 Rise of Dost Mohammad Khan in Afghanistan ................................................................... 14 The Great Game ................................................................................................................. 15 Treaty of Lahore ................................................................................................................ 15 The First Anglo Afghan War: 1838-1842 ........................................................................... 15 Tripartite Treaty 1838: ...................................................................................................... 16 Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh: 1839 ............................................................................... 16 The Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar 1837 ........................................................ 17

Chapter 4. Lord Ellenborough Era ........................................................................................ 17 Arrival of Lord Ellenborough 1842 .................................................................................... 17 Annexation of Sind 1843 ................................................................................................... 17 Succession of Lord Ellenborough and arrival of Sir Henry Hardinge 1844 ......................... 17 Successors of Maharaja Ranjit Singh ................................................................................. 18 First Anglo Sikh War 1845-46 ........................................................................................... 18

Chapter 5. Lord Dalhousie Era .............................................................................................. 19 Arrival of Lord Dalhousie 1848 .......................................................................................... 19 Second Anglo-Sikh war and Annexation of Punjab 1849 .................................................. 19 Second Anglo-Burmese War 1852-53 .............................................................................. 19 Indian Railway Begins Journey 1853 ................................................................................. 20 Telegraph begins in India 1854.......................................................................................... 20

Charter Act of 1853 .................................................................................................. 21 About Lord Dalhousie ........................................................................................................ 22 Satara and the Doctrine of Lapse 1848 ............................................................................. 23 Annexation of Jhansi 1854 ................................................................................................ 24 Annexation of Oudh 1856 .................................................................................................. 25 Other notes about Lord Dalhousie .................................................................................... 25 Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 ................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 6. Lord Canning Era and Revolt of 1857 ................................................................. 26 Arrival of Lord Canning 1856............................................................................................. 26

Causes of Revolt of 1857 .......................................................................................... 26 Santhal rebellion 1855-56 ................................................................................................ 28




3 | P a g e

The cause of Nana Sahib 1854-55 ................................................................................... 28 Azimullah Khan - The envoy to England ........................................................................... 28 Tantya Tope – The rescuer of Laxmibai ............................................................................. 28

Major Events in 1857 Revolt ..................................................................................... 28 January 1857: Introduction of Pattern 1853 Enfield Musket ............................................. 28 March 1857: Refusal to accept greased cartridge ............................................................. 29 29 March 1857 - Mutiny at Barrackpur - Mangal Pandey ................................................ 29 Mutiny at Meerut - 10 May 1857 ..................................................................................... 29 The Mutiny Spreads - May 1857 ........................................................................................ 30 The siege of Cawnpore ....................................................................................................... 30 Mutiny at Lucknow : Begum Hazrat Mahal ........................................................................ 30 Mutiny at Gwalior : Tantya Tope ....................................................................................... 30 Mutiny at Jhansi – Rani Laxmi Bai ..................................................................................... 31 Mutiny in Arrah - Kunwar Singh ........................................................................................ 31 Recapturing ....................................................................................................................... 31 Role of Princely states ....................................................................................................... 31 Leaders of Revolt: .............................................................................................................. 31 Those who helped British ................................................................................................... 32

Who said what about this mutiny? ........................................................................... 32

Chapter 1. Lord Amherst Era Arrival of Lord Amherst 1823

Lord Amherst had served as British commander in America from 1758 to 1763. He went as envoy to China in 1816. By this time, the Maratha war had concluded and India was generally peaceful. He faced the foes which were beyond the sea. In 1824, there was Conflict between British India and Burma called the First Anglo Burmese War.

First Anglo Burmese War 1824-26 The first Anglo Burmese war was the first in the series of wars that were fought between British India and Burma from 1824 till 1885. The Burmese kingdoms declined from this time and finally all of Burma came under the British control in 1886. Burma was ruled as a part of India within the British Empire. Burma was under the Konbaung Dynasty from 1752 to 1885. This dynasty tried in vain to attack and annex Siam (Ayutthaya Kingdom) in modern Thailand during 1765-1769. The ruling dynasty of China was Qing Dynasty which had some friendly relations with the British. The Ayutthaya Kingdom approached China and Qing Dynasty waged a war against the expansionist Burmese rulers. Now the focus of the expansionist Burmese dynasty King Bodawpaya turned westward towards Arakan. The Arakan was the eastern frontier of Bengal and it was somewhat independent since the Mughal era. The Burmese forces entered Arakan and captured modern Manipur in 1813, Assam in 1817-19. The result was that they were now on the border of the Bengal. Meanwhile King Bodawpaya died and his son and successor King Bagyidaw tried to put down British instigated rebellions in Manipur in 1819 and Assam in 1821–1822. There were cross border encroachments from both the sides. The British tried to avoid clash with some peaceful proposals with scorn. At last Lord Amherst declared war in 1824. British attacked from 3 sides:




4 | P a g e

The British forces marched from Bengal up to Brahmaputra into Assam. Another expedition by land went through Chittagong into Arakan. This was because the

Bengal Sepoys refused to go by sea. There was another, the strongest force of the British army sailed from Madras directly to the

mouth of Irawadi. The prolonged war ended with a decisive victory of the British. However, they lost 20000 men from the Anglo-Indian army. In 1826, Burma signed the famous "Treaty of Yandabu"

Treaty of Yandabu 1826 The Treaty of Yandabu or Yandabu Accord brought peace after the First Anglo Burmese War. It was signed on February 24, 1826. Treaty was signed between East India Company and King of Ava (Ava was capital of Burma from 1364-1841). As per this treaty: Assam, Manipur, Arakan, Taninthai were ceded to British. The Burmese had to cease interference in Chachar Kingdom and Jaintia Hills. Burmese agreed to pay an indemnity of One million Pounds sterling to British. Burmese agreed to allow diplomatic representatives from British. Burmese also agreed to sign a commercial treaty in due course of time.

The first among the above 5 conditions was very important, which led to Annexation of Assam.

Treaty of Yandabu & Annexation of Assam It’s worth note that Assam was ruled by Ahom kingdom from 1228 to 1826 and it was sovereign even in the Mughal era. But in 1817, it was attacked by the Burmese and thus Ahom Kingdom went into the control of Burmese till 1826. The Assamese call this 7 year period as Manor din and the Manipuris call it Chai Taret

Khuntakpa which means 7 years of devastation. The independent and powerful Ahom dynasty ended with the Burmese invasion. But, after the First Anglo Burmese War, the Burmese lost control over Assam in 1826 by Treaty of Yandabu. Lower Assam was now a part of British India. Later Cachar Kingdom was annexed in 1832 and in 1833 Upper Assam came under British Protection. By 1838-39, whole of today's Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram was annexed by the British. The immediate impact on British annexation of Assam was that its Tea manufacturing

flourished. In 1839 Assam Company was established but it lost in obscurity soon. At that time, the

wasteland rules did not allow tea cultivation but in 1854, there was a rush when these rules were relaxed.

The result was that British people started "importing" labor for tea plantations from China and central India.




5 | P a g e

The people from central India were virtually 'captured' and exported to Assam to work in these plantations.

The transportation of these people was so dreadful that only 1 out of 10 people survived. This was the height of a new kind of slavery in North East India sponsored by the British The result was rebellions. But all rebellions were cruelly subdued.

Lord Amherst abandoned all claim of Burma to Assam, and ceded to the British the provinces of Arakan. Now British Empire was touching Rangoon, but during this war, there was another mutiny in the British armed forces known as Barrackpur mutiny.

Barrackpur mutiny of 1824 During the first Anglo Burmese war, there was a dress rehearsal of the Mutiny of 1857 at Barrackpur in 1824. It’s worth note that Barrackpur is best known for two mutinies; one in 1824 and another in

1857 in which India got its one of the most cherished heroes of war of independence Mangal Pandey.

But 3 decades earlier, the First mutiny in Barrackpur occurred on Novermber 1-2, 1824. The reasons were the same. Indians were made to feel by the British as inferior and their demands were handled in insensitive manner. As per the records, the 26th, 47th and 62th battalions of the Native Infantry of the Bengal army were ordered to March to Chittagong and from there to board the ships to reach Rangoon to participate in the First Anglo Burmese War in October 1824. In those days the higher caste Indian Sepoys had taboo of going by sea, which was called

"Kaala Paani". But, even till Chittagong, to take their belongings there were no bullocks. The complaints of the sepoys was not conspired. The result was that the soldiers forbade going on the march unless the emoluments are increased and provided means to carry their belongings. In the Barrackpur cantonment, which was set up in 1765, the British refused these demands. The sepoys revolted and drove away the British Officers. For 2 days the cantonment was under the sepoys which were led by one hero - Binda. The British approached and asked the Sepoys to surrender on a condition that their reasonable demands would be considered later. But they rejected. The European troops launched a full scale assault on the Indian sepoys and they were overpowered. 200 Indian Sepoys were killed. Binda and other leaders were captured and executed. Binda was killed and his body was tied in chains and hung on a papal tree, his dead body

allowed to rot for two days The chilling message was sent to the Sepoys, who had ever thought of rebellion.




6 | P a g e

Binda was a hero but now not many people know about his martyrdom. There is a temple in Barrackpur on that site, where his body was hung , known as Binda Baba Temple. The deity of this temple is Lord Hanuman.

Chapter 2. Lord William Bentinck Era Return of Lord Amherst and arrival of Lord William Bentinck 1828

Lord Amherst departed from India in 1828 and his place was taken by acting Governor General William Butterworth Bayley for some time in 1828. He was succeeded by Lord William Bentinck whose term was from 1828 to 1835. 20 years back Lord William Bentinck was Governor of Madras and had seen the Mutiny of Vellore.

Lord William Bentinck 1828-1835 The 7 years tenure of Lord Bentinck was not marked by any war adventures & extension of the territories. But this 7 years period forms an epoch in the administrative reforms in India. It started a process by which the Indian population, which is furious of sudden changes, was made to obey the British rulers and administration slowly. Partially this period can be said as of "benevolent administrators".

There is an inscription on his statue at Calcutta which was penned by Lord Macaulay. He writes: He abolished cruel rites; he effaced humiliating distinctions; he gave liberty to the expression of public opinion; his constant study was to elevate the intellectual and moral character of the nations committed to his charge.

Condition of Finances of the Company The Finances of the East India Company were tottering due to the prologed Anglo Burmese War. There was a general dissatisfaction among the masses who had heard the story of the Mutiny of Barrackpur. The first step Lord William Bentinck took was to restore the equilibrium in the East India Company’s finances. He took the following steps: He reduced the permanent expenditures of the company amounting to 15 Lakh Sterling

every year. He incorporated the revenue from the lands which had escaped the earlier assessments. He imposed duty on Opium cultivated in Malwa. He widened the door, though which the natives could enter the services of the company.

Abolition of Sati : 1829 The Practice of Sati was first banned in Goa in 1515 by the Portuguese, but it was not that

much prevalent there. This evil practice was banned by the Dutch and French also in Chinsura and Pondicherry

respectively. The British permitted it initially but the practice of Sati was first formally banned in city of

Calcutta in 1798, but it continued in the surrounding areas.




7 | P a g e

The Bengal Presidency started collecting facts and figures on the practice of Sati in 1813. The data showed that in 1817 only, 700 widows were burnt alive in Bengal alone.

From 1812 onwards, it was Raja Rammohan Roy, who started his own campaign against the Sati practice.

His own sister-in-law had been forced to commit Sati. Raja Rammohan Roy used to visit the Calcutta cremation grounds to persuade widows not to

so die. He also formed the watch groups. In Sambad Kaumudi he wrote articles and showed that it was not written in any Veda or epics to commit this crime.

It was on 4 December 1829, when the practice was formally banned in all the lands under Bengal Presidency by Lord William Bentinck.

By this regulation, the people who abetted sati were declared guilty of “culpable homicide." The ban was challenged in the courts. The matter went to the Privy Council in London. The Privy Council upheld the ban in 1832. After that other territories also started following banning, but it remained legal in princely states, particularly in the Rajputana where it was very common. Under the British control, Jaipur banned the practice in 1846.

Suppression of Thugs The name of Lord William Bentinck is still cherished in India for suppression of the Thugs. Thugs were the hereditary assassins whose profession was to deceive people and strangle them to death with their Pugree or handkerchief. They used to travel in Gangs, disguised as merchants or pilgrims. They were bound together by an oath on the rites of their deity goddess Kali.

The word "Thug" is derived from "Sthag" of Sanskrit, which means "sly".

Rather than ordinary thieves, they were the bands of the people who were first recorded by Barni, when he mentions that Firoz Shah Tughlaq captured the Thugs. But none of them was killed and Sultan put them in boats and sent them to Lakhnauti where they were set free, so that they don't trouble the "Delhites".

In suppression of Thugs, along with William Bentinck, one more name is cherished. This able officer was William Henry Sleeman. Initially he was a soldier and later became the administrator.

In 1835, the 'Thuggee and Dacoity Dept' was created by William Bentinck and William Henry Sleeman was made its superintendent. He was later promoted as its Commissioner in 1839.

The rigorous operations under Sleeman led to capture of 1400 Thugs who were hanged by the government or transported for life. A special prison was established at Jabalpur for Thugs.




8 | P a g e

The reason of this success was the awareness creation by the Government. The department started disseminating information about the Thugee and at every Police Station or Thana, the information about the new techniques by the Thugs would be sent. The travelers were warned. Since, Thugs could be recognized only by evidence, the department started "King's

Evidence Programme". In this programme the Thugs, who turned evidences of the and provided into about the Gang members & peers would be provided protection and incentives.

This was used by the government to break the code of silence, which kept the members of the gang silent.

Charter act of 1833 The 20 years renewal of the charter in 1813 ran out in 1833. This was the time for the government to do a careful assessment of the functioning of the company in India. The charter was renewed for another 20 years, but the company was asked to close its commercial business. Thus, this time the charter was renewed on the condition that Company should abandon its trade entirely, alike with India and China, and permit Europeans to settle freely in India. The company lost its monopoly in China and also the trade of tea which it enjoyed with Charter act of 1813. India as a British Colony The charter act of 1813 legalized the British colonization of India and the territorial possessions of the company were allowed to remain under its government, but were held "in trust for his majesty, his heirs and successors” for the service of Government of India.

This act made the Governor General of Bengal the Governor General of British India and all financial and administrative powers were centralized in the hands of Governor General-in-Council.

Thus with Charter Act of 1833, Lord William Bentinck became the “First Governor General of British India”.

The number of the members of the Governor General's council was again fixed to 4, which had been reduced by the Pitt's India act. However, certain limits were imposed on the functioning of the 4th member.

The 4th member was NOT entitled to act as a member of the council except for legislative purposes.

First fourth person to be appointed as the member of the Council was Lord Macaulay. Split in Bengal Presidency The Charter Act of 1833 provided for splitting the Presidency of Bengal, into two presidencies which were to be known as

Presidency of Fort William Presidency of Agra.




9 | P a g e

But this provision never came into effect, and was suspended later. Enhanced Power of Governor General of India Charter act of 1833 distinctly spelt out the powers of the Governor-General-in-Council. He could repeal, amend or alter any laws or regulations including all persons (whether British or native or foreigners), all places and things in every part of British territory in India, for all servants of the company, and articles of war. However, the Court of Directors acting under the Board of control could veto any laws made by the Governor-General-in-Council. \Codifying the Laws:

The charter act of 1833 is considered to be an attempt to codify all the Indian Laws. The British parliament as a supreme body, retained the right to legislate for the British territories in India and repeal the acts.

The act of 1833 provided that all laws made in India were to be laid before the parliament and were to be known as Acts.

In a step towards codifying the laws, the Governor-General-in-Council was directed under the Charter act of 1833, to set up an Indian law Commission.

First Indian Law Commission So the first law commission was set up by the Charter act of 1833 and Lord Macaulay was its

most important member and Chairman. The other members of this commission were English barrister Cameron, Macleod of Madras

service, William Anderson of Bombay Service and Sir William McNaughton of the Calcutta Service. Sir William McNaughton did not accept the appointment.

The objectives of the law commission was to inquire into the Jurisdiction, powers and rules of the courts of justice police establishments, existing forms of judicial procedure, nature and operation of all kinds of laws. It was directed that the law Commission shall submit its report to the Governor General-in-council and this report was to be placed in the British parliament.

Indians in the Government service: The section 87 of the Charter Act of 1833, declared that "Normative of the British Territories in India, NOR any natural Boon subject of "His majesty" therein, shall by any reason only by his religion, place of birth, descent, color or any of them be disabled from holding any place, office or employment under the company" This policy was not seen in any other previous acts. So the Charter act of 1833 was the first act which provisioned to freely admit the natives of India to share an administration in the country. Mitigation of Slavery: This act also directed the Governor General-in-Council to adopt measures to mitigate the state of slavery, persisting in India since sultanate Era.




10 | P a g e

The Governor General-in-Council was also directed to pay attention to laws of marriage, rights and authorities of the heads of the families, while drafting any laws. More Bishops: The number of British residents was increasing in India. The charter act of 1833 laid down regulation of establishment of Christian establishments in India and the number of Bishops was made 3.

Direct Control of Mysore After the Fourth Anglo Mysore war, a young Raja of Mysore of Wodeyar dynasty was placed on the throne of Mysore. For a few years, the relations between British and Mysore remained cordial. But in Late 1820s, there was a civil insurrection in Mysore. This was either due to the financial oppressions of the British Resident or due to misgovemment and oppressive taxation of the maharaja. These developments led to the British to take direct control over the Mysore in 1831. This arrangement continued till 1881, when Mysore was restored to native government, and the lawful heir enthroned.

Coorg War 1834 In 1834, British East India Company and the Raja of Coorg in 1834 entered into a conflict which was a short but bloody war. The Raja was defeated was permitted to retire to Benares. Coorg was annexed to British Empire. The annexation of the Coorg was the only annexation effected by Lord William Bentinck.

Judicial Reforms of William Bentinck We have studied in previous modules that at the time of Lord Cornwallis, the provinces of Bihar, Bengal & Orissa were divided into 4 divisions. In each of these divisions a Circuit court was established. Besides there were 4 Provincial Courts of appeal at Calcutta, Murshidabad, Dhaka and Patna. Judiciary required reforms because of the following reasons:

The new territories acquired in last 3 decades expanded the territorial jurisdiction of the Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta, but it was now too far away from them.

The Provincial Courts of appeal were thought to be worthless and a burden on the administration.

The people who were in prison had to be kept for months before a Circuit Court met at district headquarters and disposed the cases. So, the under trials suffered badly under the Police oppression.

The entire system was considered too expensive. The language of the courts was Persian and it was not easy for the litigants to fight in this

language. Following reforms were introduced by Lord William Bentinck:




11 | P a g e

The first reform done was to abolish the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit Courts altogether. This was done by a regulation passed in 1829.

In place of the Provincial courts of appeal and Circuit, the Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit were appointed to do this job.

For this purpose, the Bengal Presidency was divided into 20 divisions and each division was placed under a separate commissioner.

For revenue cases these commissioners worked directly under the Board of Revenue and for Criminal cases they worked under Sadar Nizamat Adalat.

Separate Diwani and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were opened at Allahabad. In 1831, another regulation was passed by which the "Respectable Indians” were to be

appointed in the Zilla or City Courts. They were called "Munsifs". Munsifs were to be appointed on a salary and they could decide the cases worth less than Three Hundred Rupees.

Then, in a separate regulation, it was decided the Governor General in Council would appoint respectable Indians to the post of Sadar Amins. The Sadar Amins would hear appeals from the Zilla and city courts.

Sadar Amin was now the highest Judicial Indian authority. However, neither Munsifs nor Sadar Amins could trial the Europeans.

In 1832, a sort of Jury was introduced in Bengal, which was like Indian Jury (Panchayat) that could help the European Judges.

Results: The abolition of the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit reduced the expenditure of the

company Government. The appointment of the Commissioners introduced individual responsibility. Police was now less oppressive as the Commissioners would dispose the cases. The Jury system in Bengal (Panchayat) made possible the use of local knowledge and

opinion. To some extent, Indians were now to enter into the administration. It was not tangible at

that time, but at least it was a ray of hope for the Indians.

Lord Macaulay 1834-1838 The passing of Charter Act of 1833, was led by appointment of Lord Macaulay as India's First Law member of the Governor General in Council. He served from 1834 to 1838, and ensured that English flourishes in India. General Committee of Public Instruction A decade before Lord Macaulay arrived in India, the General Committee of Public Instruction was formed in 1823, which was to guide the company on the matter of education. This was the precursor of the Union Public Service Commission.




12 | P a g e

However, please note that the first Public Service Commission was set up on 1 October 1926 in response to the demands of Indian politicians that the superior Civil Services be indianized.

The General Committee of Public Instruction had two groups viz. Orientalists and Anglicists on the issue of the Development of Education of India. The Orientalists group was led by H T Princep, who promoted the teaching of the "Oriental Subjects" in India’s vernacular Languages. In 1828, English was first introduced in the college of Delhi.

Since, the General Committee of Public Instruction has equal number of the Orientalists as well as Anglicists the issue was taken to the Governor General in Council. This led him to refer the matter to Lord Macaulay. In 1835, the education policy of Lord Macaulay was published titled "Minute on Indian

Education" in which he advocated educating Indians through English and also enrich Indian Languages' so that they become the vehicles of European scientific, historical and literary expression.

English was introduced as a medium of instruction from class VI onwards. Lord Macaulay expressed that it was impossible for the British East India Company, through its limited means to attempt to educate masses. His idea was to form a class who may be interpreters between British and the millions whom British Ruled. It was a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. His idea was to delegate that class to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.

Presidency of Agra 1834-36 On 14 November 1834, as per the provisions of the Charter Act of 1833, the Presidency of Agra was founded. It was actually renaming of the "Ceded and Conquered Provinces" and its Governor was C T Metcalfe. However, in 1836, it ceased to exist.

Introduction to Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1772-1833 In year 1828, Lord Amherst departed from India and his place was taken by acting Governor General William Butterworth Bayley for some time in 1828. He was succeeded by Lord William Bentinck whose term was from 1828 to 1835. Year 1828 is very special in the history of India. This was the year when a reformist Governor General of Fort Williams came to India who is still cherished for his many reforms. However, year 1828 is also auspicious for the intellectual renaissance of India as in this year Brahmo Samaj was established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Here is a brief intro about him: Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in 1772 and died in 1833. He along with Dwarkanath Tagore founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which later became

Brahmo Samaj.




13 | P a g e

It was the influential socio-religious reform movement which influenced the contemporary politics, public administration, education and religion of India. The efforts Brahmo Sabha led the Regulation XVII, via which Lord William Bentinck

abolished Sati practice in India. When Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a Brahmin from Bengal was a young man of 20 years, he came in touch with William Carey, an English follower and propagator of Jesus Christ, who wished to translate the Bible into Indian Languages and then propagate the Christianity in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was interested in the English Language. He, William Carey and one

more friend Hariharananda Vidyabagish, who was a tantric, published a work on Trantrism known as "Maha Nirvana Tantra" in 1897.

This work tried to portray the "One God" of ancient religious texts, wished to link the "Brahma" with "Jesus Christ" but the work could not impress the British who termed it a forgery. In any case, it was a great attempt to revitalize the ancient Hindu law, which was used by the East India Company to work out some disputes in Zamindari. Later, Raja Ram Mohan Roy joined as a "Writer" in the East India Company and worked as

"Munshi" of Registrar of the Appellate Court at Murshidabad.

Atmiya Sabha In 1815, Raja Ram Mohan Roy established the "Atmiya Sabha" a precursor in the socio-religious reforms in Bengal. With this, he was known as a campaigners for the rights of women. He started opposing the Sati system and Polygamy in Hindus. Later he left from East India Company due to some alleged corruption charges which were never proved.

Hindu College In 1817, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Mahapathshala (Hindu College) at Kolkata along with some other personalities such as Raja Radhakanta Deb, Maharaja Tejchandra Ray of Burdwan, David Hare, Justice Sir Edward Hyde East, Prasanna Coomar Tagore and Babu Buddinath Mukherjee. This was later renamed as Presidency College in 1855. In 2010, this college has been upgraded to the status of a full university by the Presidency University Act, 2010 passed in the West Bengal Legislative Assembly.

Sambad Kaumudi and Mirat ul Akbar In 1821, he established Sambad Kaumudi. In the very next year, he also published a Persian newsmagazine named "Mirat-ul-Akbar ". In Sambad Kaumudi, he touched the subjects like freedom of press, induction of Indians into

High Ranks and separation of executive and Judiciary.

His title “Raja” The decade of 1820-30 was very important as many religious texts of Hindus were translated in English.




14 | P a g e

In 1828, when Brahmo Sabha was launched he was a well known figure in India. In 1829 he went to England to plead the cause of the Mughal emperor Akbar II, with an

ambassador of the emperor. The title "Raja" was given to him by Mughal emperor Akbar II to convince the British

Government for the "welfare" of the Indian Public and ensure that the Regulation XVII is not overturned.

An exposition of the Revenue and Judicial Systems in India In a pamphlet titled “An exposition of the Revenue and Judicial Systems in India" , Raja Ram Mohun Roy raised some very important questions on the administration system of those times and also urged the Government to separate the legislative and judicial powers. Please note that it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy was suggested 22 years as minimum qualification age for the appointment to the Civil Services. He advocated the Jury system also.

Death and legacy of Raja Rammohan Roy Raja Rammohan Roy died of meningitis in England in 1833. Thus was our one of the earliest reformers whose legacy is Brahmo Samaj. Raja Ram Mohan Roy demanded "property inheritance" rights for women and fought the social evils of the Bengali Society. Sati, Caste rigidity, polygamy, child marriages etc. were targeted and his led this reform movement personally.

Chapter 3. Lord Auckland Era Lord Metcalfe 1835-36

In 1835 Sir Charles Metcalfe succeeded Lord William Bentinck, being senior member of council. His short term of office is memorable for the measure which his predecessor had initiated, but which he carried into execution. This was giving entire liberty to the press. It was the Public opinion in India, but there were people at home as well as India who opposed this policy. "Lord Metcalfe" is called Liberator of India Press but soon he became a victim of party politics in England and was asked to get back to pavilion. He was succeeded by Lord Auckland in 1836.

Arrival of Lord Auckland 1836 Lord Auckland was born in 1784 and was president of the board of trade from 1830 to 1834. His term as Governor General of India was from 1836 to 1842.The last 20 years of general peace were over and now began a new era of wars and conquests. He is best known for his follies in the Afghan wars.

Rise of Dost Mohammad Khan in Afghanistan The Durrani Empire which was founded by Ahmad Shah Abdali ended in 1823 and Dost Mohammad Khan became the Emir of Afghanistan usurping the throne and occupying Kabul & Ghazani. But by that time Peshawar had gone into the hands of Sikhs. Sikhs under the forces of Maharaja Ranjit Singh occupied and Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son Mohammad Akbar Khan in 1836 defeated the Sikhs at Jamrud, yet could not retake Peshawar.




15 | P a g e

Dost Mohammed contacted Lord Auckland, the Governor General of British India and this was the first indication of British Intervention in Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan surrounded by the Sikhs and Persians had tried to win friendship from the British to win back Peshawar from Sikhs. However, British were aware and fearful of the Russian intervention in Persia. There was a fear among the British that Russia could attack India through Persia and Afghanistan. There was a series of 4 Russo-Persian wars in 1722-23, 1796, 1804, 1826-28 and all of them Russia was victorious. Persia had surrendered the territories around the Caspian Sea to Russia and Russia had a dominant position.

The Great Game Afghanistan which was between the Russia and British India was a cradle of the Great Game, the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia.

The fear of Russian attack, dominant position of Russia made the British try to increase their interference in Afghanistan.

However, Dost Muhammad Khan wanted to take Peshawar Back from Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a friend of British.

Treaty of Lahore This Anglo-Sikh Friendship was basically based upon the fact that “Enemy’s enemy is Friend”. There was fear on French attack by a coalition led by Napoleon and Zamanshah. In this treaty both the parties (British and Sikhs) basically agreed to not shelter to each other’s enemy and not interfere with each other’s affairs. This friendship had lasted till death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. The dilemma of Lord Auckland was that he could not afford the friendship of Dost Mohammad khan at the cost of Ranjit Singh. So he had two options. 1. One was to defer all the plans for Afghanistan 2. Other was to attack Afghanistan and force Dost Mohammad Khan out and impose a puppet government in Afghanistan which could hold Russians and Persians Back.

Lord Auckland chose the second option.

The First Anglo Afghan War: 1838-1842 The Great Game involved Britain's repeated attempts to impose a puppet government in Kabul. The British wanted Dost Mohammad to break all contact with the Iranians and Russians. This puppet was Shuja Shah. In 1838 Shuja Shah gained the support of the British and Maharaja Ranjit Singh for wresting power from Dost Mohammad Khan. This was the Tripartite Treaty which was signed in June 1838.




16 | P a g e

Tripartite Treaty 1838: A tripartite treaty was signed between Ranjit Singh, Shah Shuja and Lord Auckland in June 1838. This tripartite treaty was basically to help each other in the time of need. The terms of this treaty were as follows: 1. Shah Shuja will be reinstated on the Throne 2. Sikh armies will provide army to Shah Shuja 3. Shah Shuja will determine the Foreign Policy with the advice of the British. 4. Ranjit Singh’s claim on the right bank of Indus was recognized by Shah Shuja. 5. Shah Shuja gave up claims on Sind. 6. British would remain in the background.

The above hotchpotch of Shah Shuja, British and Maharaja Ranjit Singh triggered First Anglo Afghan War. The outcome of the war was as follows: 1. After some resistance Dost Mohammed Khan surrendered to the British and Shuja was restored to the throne by the British on August 7, 1839. 2. Dost Mohammad Khan was deported as a prisoner to Calcutta.

But Shah Shuja was a traitor. The Afghanis took Shah Shuja as a betrayer and could not accept Shah Shuja as their ruler. So, Shuja ud-Daula, leading the Afghan awam, sent Shah Shuja to hell on April 5, 1842. The killing of Shah Shuja also burst the balloon of the British Success, which seemed to be an extraordinary initially. The Afghanis rose in rebellion and the victims of their wrath wre the British Political Agents who were cut into pieces. Many British soldiers were killed in adverse cold. Thus the final outcome of this war was that a humiliating treaty was signed by the British and the British were forced to recognize Dost Mohammad as Emir of Afghanistan. Thus, the First Anglo Afghan War was a stupe project of Lord Auckland which resulted in the death of thousands of British (Indian) soldiers and waste of Crores of Rupees.

The names of the English Commanders murdered during this period were Alexander Burns, Charles Burns, Sir William Macnaughten & General Elpinstone. The Afghan Policy of Lord Auckland was criticized and he was replaced by Lord Ellenborough in 1842. Lord Ellenborough was a lover of military pomp and to seek an avenge, he ruined Kabul and evacuated Afghanistan. Mohammad Akbar, son of Dost Mohammad secured local control.

Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh: 1839 During the First Anglo Afghan war, the pillar of the Sikh Empire Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839, after a rule of around 45 years. He left 7 sons with 7 different queens and immediately after his death the Sikhs started disintegrating. This led death of his successors one by one, which is dealt in brief in the later passages of this module.




17 | P a g e

The Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar 1837 On 28 September 1837 , the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar who used to write Ghazals and Shayari with his pen name "Zafar" sat on the throne of the Mughal Empire which was now limited to Red Fort of Delhi. He was son of Akbar II.

Chapter 4. Lord Ellenborough Era Arrival of Lord Ellenborough 1842

The stupefied Afghan projects of Lord Auckland forced the superiors sitting in England to recall him back to pavilion. He was succeeded by Lord Ellenborough in 1842. Lord Ellenborough remained Governor General of India for 2 and half years till 1844. This pompous military general type of Governor, who was sent to "restore peace in Asia” ; had actually devastated Kabul on arrival and later conquered Sind for Britain. So Lord Ellenborough is best known for Conquest of Sind.

Annexation of Sind 1843 Since 18th century, Sind was being ruled by some Baluchi chiefs collectively known as "Amirs of Sind". The East India Company, because of the strategic positions of the Ports of Sind had tried its hand as early as 1775 to open a factory out there. But they abandoned it in 1792. In 1809, during the times of Lord Minto, an embassy was sent to these Amirs which resulted in the "Treaty of Eternal friendship" of 1809. Once becoming the friends of English, the Amirs stopped allowing French to the Ports of Sind. The British were able to renew this treaty in 1820 and now the foolish Amirs excluded the Americans also from Sind. The story of winning Sind starts from a dispatch of Charles James Napier to Sind. Charles James Napier, a 60 year old British lion was appointed as Major General in the command of the army of the Bombay Presidency. By this time, Lord Auckland had been recalled and Lord Ellenborough, who loved military pomp, had his tastes gratified by sending him to "cure" the Muslim insurrections in this region. The loosely governed Sind, which was repeatedly targeted by the Sikhs in past, fell in the Battle of Miani & Battle of Dobo, wherein in which 3000 British troops defeated 12,000 Baluchis in 1843 under Charles Napier. The Amirs of Sind, their kith and kin were taken prisoners, and then these broken-hearted and miserable men were sent to Burma in exile. Whole of Sind was annexed to British Empire in 1843. Napier's sent a one word telegram which was a pun after this battle. The message in the telegram was a Latin word “peccavi” means “I have sinned”. The meaning of this wordplay was “I have Sind”

Succession of Lord Ellenborough and arrival of Sir Henry Hardinge 1844 In 1844 Lord Ellenborough was recalled by the court of directors. Actually, the Court of Directors differed from him on points of administration, and distrusted his erratic genius. He was succeeded by William Bird in 1844, who remained for a temporary time.




18 | P a g e

Finally in 1844 only a veteran soldier, Sir Henry Hardinge, who had entered the army in 1799, was sent to India as next Governor General of India. This brave soldier had served England in the Peninsular War and the Waterloo campaign, and was knighted in 1815. It was felt in England that after overcoming all kinds of power in the region, the fall of a Great Sikh nation was near.

Successors of Maharaja Ranjit Singh Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839 and after that Sikhs started disintegrating. Lahore was torn by dissensions between rival princes, generals, ministers, and queens. These foolish successors ousted the skillful European generals, inducted by late Maharaja, from their commands in the Sikh army. The supreme military power of the time got vested in the Panchayats. Maharaja was succeeded by his Son Kharak Singh, who was deposed within months of remaining in power. He was later poisoned to death and was replaced by his son Nihal Singh, who was also sent to hell by his close relatives, under mysterious circumstances. Now the Panchayats had to play their roles. The Hindu Dogras and Sikh Sindhanwalias tried to place their own representatives on the throne. Thus one Raja Sher Singh came to power. But within months, he was murdered by his own cousin and the Dogras placed Jind Kaur, one of the widows of late Maharaja on the throne. But Jind Kaur ruled as a regent for his son Maharaja Duleep Singh, a young lad of 8-9 years, placed on the Throne of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Sikh Empire was very near to its end.

First Anglo Sikh War 1845-46 Meanwhile, the Sind was annexed and British were teaming with energy. They established a cantt. at Ferozpur. Amid accusations and mutual demands, the British Army invaded Punjab. The war was fought and victory was in the British side. The outcome of this war was a peace pact called Treaty of Lahore signed on March 9, 1846. Treaty of Lahore, March 9, 1846 As per the treaty of Lahore signed on March 9, 1846 between Lord Hardinge and 7 year old Maharaja Duleep Singh plus 7 members of the Lahore Durbar: - 1. Sikhs lost Jammu, Kashmir, Hazara and some territories in Jalandhar Doab. 2. Thus all claims south of Sutlej River were lost by Maharaja Duleep Singh. 3. Rs. 1.5 Crore was paid to the British as war indemnity. 4. The armies of the Punjab were now to be not more than 20000 horses. 5. King agreed that he would not appoint any European in service without the consent of the British. 6. The following people were recognized as masters of Punjab:

1. Maharaja Duleep Singh as King 2. Rani Jind Kaur as Regent 3. Lal Singh as Wazir.

7. A British resident was also kept at Lahore (Major Henry Lawrence).




19 | P a g e

Chapter 5. Lord Dalhousie Era Arrival of Lord Dalhousie 1848

In 1848, Lord Hardinge returned to England. He was succeeded by Lord Dalhousie, who was the youngest to hold the office of the Governor General of India, at the age of 36. Lord Dalhousie remained in power for 8 years from 1848 till 1856 and was one of the greatest proconsuls to leave footprints in India's history since Lord Clive. This was an imperialistic minded statesman who embarked upon the policy of annexation by "Doctrine of Lapse". His campaigns in the Punjab and in Burma ended in large acquisitions of territory; while Nagpur, Oudh, and several minor states also came under British rule. But he could sniff a great mutiny coming ahead and for this he was scolded till his death.

Second Anglo-Sikh war and Annexation of Punjab 1849 The first major conflict during the early period of Lord Dalhousie was the Second Anglo Sikh war in 1848-49, which ended with annexation of Punjab and end of Sikh Kingdom. After the Treaty of Lahore, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed at the Lahore Darbar to control the policies. He left England due to some disease, and in his place a lawyer named Sir Frederick Currie was appointed at the Lahore Durbar. Sir Frederick Currie, was a legalist and a puritan, who asked the somewhat independent Governor of Multan, Diwan Mulraj to pay arrears of the taxes. When the British officers were sent at the Mulraj's fortress, he revolted, attacked and wounded them. These wounded officers were saved by some people but the angry mob killed them the next day. But the small army of Mul Raj was defeated, but again there was a rebellion. The war prolonged for months and Sikhs were defeated. The whole of Punjab was annexed on 29 March 1849. Rani Jind Kaur was imprisoned and the 11 year old Maharaja Duleep Singh was "abducted" by the British. The "bloody" Kohinoor diamond was taken from him. A few years later , he was later sent to England and was retired on "pension"

Now Punjab was under the British. This was a major success under Lord Dalhousie, who not only subdued the rebellions in the region, but also annexed a large territory to the British India. In next few years he had problems with the eastern neighbor Burma.

Second Anglo-Burmese War 1852-53 After the First Anglo-Burmese war, the Treaty of Yandabu was signed between Burma and East India Company on February 24, 1826. For next 20 years the relations were normal, but the Burma Kings were chaffed of the English merchants who started flocking in the country and got settled over there. In 1851, these merchants complained their overlords sitting in Calcutta about the oppression of the Burmese officials at Rangoon. The issue was taken seriously by the East India Company and the




20 | P a g e

Lord Dalhousie asked Burma for compensation. No reply was sent from the other end. The idea was to made it a reason for an imposed war on Burma. Apart from that there were minor bilateral issues regarding the Treaty of Yandabu. However, exactly under which circumstances, this war was fought was not made public. The war started in April 5, 1852 and as soon as the war started the port of Martaban was taken on the same day. On 12th April Rangoon was annexed and in June Pegu was taken. In January 1853, a proclamation of annexation was read out and thus this war ended without any treaty signed. The outcome of this war was that Pegu was annexed to the British Empire and it was renamed Lower Burma. British dominion now was from Chittagong to Singapore in the East.

Indian Railway Begins Journey 1853 The first proposals for railways in India were being debated in Great Britain in the 1840s and the people out there started entering into lobbying in support of these proposals by banks, traders, shipping companies etc. The businessmen of England had a strong interest in seeing railways be formed in India. But they wanted the British Parliament to create a Guarantee System. In the Guarantee System, any company that constructed railways in India was guaranteed a

certain rate of interest on its capital investment. This guarantee was to honored by the East India Company which then controlled large parts

of India. The railways which were made on this arrangement were called Guaranteed Railways. The guarantee was for a return of 5% annually, and the right for the railway company to pull

out of the venture and get compensation from the government at any time. Thus Indian Railways started on a Guarantee System. It was during Lord Dalhousie's time that on April 16, 1853 at 3:35pm a train with 14

railway carriages and 400 guests left Bombay's Bori Bunder for Thane, with a 21-gun salute. The three locomotives were Sindh, Sultan, and Sahib. This 75 minutes journey was the first

Journey of Indian Railway that embarked an era of development thereafter. But this was a passenger service. Prior to that there is a trace of Railway in India. In 1851, a steam loco, Thomason, was used for transporting construction material in

Roorkee for the Solani viaduct, which was a part of the construction in the Salony Valley. The locomotive Thomason was assembled on the spot from parts transported from

Calcutta. Second locomotive to arrive in India was Falkland (named for a governor of Bombay), used by the contractors of the GIPR for shunting operations on the first line out of Bombay that was being built.

Telegraph begins in India 1854 The first director general of telegraphs in India was William Brooke O'Shaughnessy. Lord Dalhousie had authorized him to construct an experimental line and in 1852 he was appointed




21 | P a g e

director general of telegraphs and authorized to construct an extensive system. The 800-mile line from Calcutta to Agra was opened in March, 1854, and two years later 4000 miles were in operation, including lines to Bombay and Madras. It was "telegraph" the saved India in mutiny of 1857. Telegraph communication between India and England was opened in 1865 by the Persian Gulf line.

Charter Act of 1853 In 1853, the charter of 1833 was to time out and had to be renewed. It was renewed but no substantial changes were made. However, this was for the first time, that this charter act, unlike other charter acts, did not fix any limit for the continuance of the administration of the company in India. The act provided that the Indian territories will remain under the Governance of the company, until the parliament otherwise directed. Reduction in Number of Directors In England, Charter Act of 1853 reduced the number of Directors of the Company from 24 to 18. Out of these 18, six were to be appointed by the crown.

Separate Governor for Presidency of Bengal The Charter act of 1853 provided for appointment of a separate Governor for the Presidency of Bengal, distinct from the Governor General. However, the court of Directors and the Board of Control were authorized to appoint a lieutenant governor, till the appointment of a Governor was made. Please note that the Lieutenant governor was appointed in 1854, but no Governor was appointed for Bengal till 1912.

Power to constitute a new Presidency This act also empowered the Court of Directors either to constitute a new Presidency (In lines of Presidency of Madras or Bombay) or appoint a Lieutenant Governor. Here it’s worth that No new presidency was constituted but in 1859, a new Lieutenant governor was appointed for Punjab.

Expansion of Governor General’s Office Charter Act of 1853 marks the expansion of the Council of the Governor General for legislative purposes. The fourth member (Lord Macaulay) was placed at an equal status with other members. The council of legislative purposes which had 6 members now was expanded to 12 members. These 12 members were : 1. The Governor General =1 2. The commander in Chief =1 3. Members of the Governor General's Council=4 4. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (Calcutta)=1 5. A regular judge of the Supreme court Calcutta=1 6. Representative members drawn from the company's servants with 10 years minimum tenure and appointed by the local governments of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and North Western provinces=4




22 | P a g e

Total =12 Genesis of Indian Civil Service: The previous charter act of 1833 had laid down that the Court of Directors should nominate annually 4 times as many candidates as there were vacancies, from whom one should be selected by competitive examination. The charter act of 1833 also provided the Haileybury college of London should make quota to admit the future civil servants. However, this system of an open competition was never effectively operated. A The Committee under the chairmanship of Lord Macaulay had prepared the regulations in this context. The report said that Haileybury should cease to be maintained as higher education college for the ICS There should be a broad general education rather than specialized education for the ICS

recruits The recruitment should be based upon an open competitive examination to bring out the

best candidates and not through mere superficial knowledge The appointments should be subject to a period of probation.

Charter Act of 1853 deprived the Court of Directors of its right of Patronage to Indian appointments and now it was to be exercised under the regulations. This was the Birth of Civil Services which was thrown in 1854 for open competition. New provinces: By that time, the administrative situation got hard due to annexation of new territories to the company’s possession in India. The Charter Act of 1853 empowered the Governor General of India-in Council to take over by proclamation under his immediate authority and management of the territories for the time being. He was authorized to issue necessary orders and directions for its administrations or provide for its administration. This resulted in creation of Assam, the central provinces, and Burma.

About Lord Dalhousie Lord Dalhousie was able to change the map of British India considerably. It was, he who waged a war against Burma (Second Anglo-Burmese War) without any considerable reasons other than his desire to exclude all other European powers from Burma and expand the territory of the British Empire. The second Anglo Sikh war ended in the annexation of Punjab. Both of these annexations were made by Proclamations and not by any treaty. Lord Dalhousie reduced the Punjab and planted British standard at Peshawar, and then he became involved with the government of Burma which had always been obstinate and foolhardy in dealings with the foreigners such as Chinese and British. The Burmese could not guess in the war of 1826 (First Anglo Burmese War) that they were practically at the mercy of a very strong maritime power in the Bay of Bengal, which could occupy the whole of their seaboard and penetrate up to the Irawadi River. The over intelligent rulers of Burma could understand the military supremacy of Britain only after the second Anglo Burmese




23 | P a g e

War, which ended with the official proclamation of annexation of Lower Burma (Pegu) on December 20, 1852. This conquest made the British Possessions continuous along the Eastern Shores of the Bay of Bengal, from Chittagong to as far as Singapore. The British settlement in Calcutta led to the conquest of Burma and the first step was to set up Rangoon as capital of British Possessions at the bank of River Irawadi.

Satara and the Doctrine of Lapse 1848 After the victory in the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818-19, the British Empire annexed most of the Maratha territory to Bombay Presidency. However, as we have read in the previous modules, a descendent of Shivaji was brought forward from obscurity and was restored as the titular Raja of Satara by the British. This titular Raja Pratap Singh, ruled in the principality of Satara which was of the same size as of today's Satara District of Maharashtra. He remained as an obedient British vassal till 1839, when the political intrigues caused him to be deposed. His brother Shahji Raja or Appa Sahib was placed on the throne. In 1848, this prince, died without male heirs in April 1848. Now a question arose for the British. If no direct male heir of the body having been left by the deceased, should a son by adoption, or a collateral member of the family, be permitted to succeed him, or whether the rights and titles of the principality be declared to be extinct? The Governor of the Presidency of Bombay was Sir George Clerk. He looked at the Treaty of 1819 in which the following lines were enshrined: "the British Government agreed to cede in perpetual sovereignty to the Rajah of Satarah, his heirs and

successors" The members of the Council of the Governor of Presidency of Bombay considered it the duty of the British Government to decide what should be done next? When the matter reached the Governor General of India Lord Dalhousie who had just arrived (he

arrived in 1848), he did not hesitate in a practical expression of the policy of annexation, the "Doctrine of Lapse". I am reproducing the paragraph written by Lord Dalhousie on 30 April 1848. The Government is bound in duty, as well as policy, to act on every such occasion with the purest integrity, and in the most scrupulous observance of good faith. Where even a shadow of doubt can be shown, the claim should at once be abandoned. But where the right to territory by lapse is clear, the Government is bound to take that which is justly and legally its due, and to extend to that territory the benefits of our sovereignty, present and prospective. In like manner, while I would not seek to lay down any inflexible rule with respect to adoption, I hold that, on all occasions, where heirs natural shall fail, the territory should be made to lapse, and adoption should not be permitted, excepting in those cases in which some strong political reason may render it expedient to depart from this general rule. There may be conflict of opinion as to the advantage or the propriety of extending our already vast possessions beyond their present limits. No man can more sincerely deprecate than I do any extension of the frontiers of our territory which can be avoided, or which may not become indispensably necessary from considerations of our own safety, and of the maintenance of the tranquility of our provinces. But I cannot conceive it possible for anyone to dispute the policy of taking advantage of every just opportunity which presents itself for consolidating the territories that already belong to us, by taking possession of States that may lapse in the midst of them ; for thus getting rid of these petty intervening principalities, which may be made a means of annoyance, but which can never, I venture to think,




24 | P a g e

be a source of strength, for adding to the resources of the public Treasury, and for extending the uniform application of our system of government to those whose best interests we sincerely believe will be promoted thereby. Such is the general principle that, in our humble opinion, ought to guide the conduct of the British Government in its disposal of independent States, where there has been a total failure of heirs whatsoever, or where permission is asked to continue by adoption a succession which fails in the natural line."

The Council of the Governor General accepted at once this doctrine which best favorable to the British advantages.

The result was that Satara was annexed in 1848. In the next year 1849- Sambalpur were annexed to the British Empire. Next followed Karauli in 1852. There were people who protested against this measure as an act of unrighteous usurpation, but it was not until 1857, when this protest took a shape of a fire –The Great Mutiny.

Soon, another great Maratha chief at Nagpur Raghojo Bhosla died. This Raja who died at the age of 47 years succumbed to a number of complications and disorders including debauchery and obstinacy. He had no son and a posthumous son was impossibility. He also had not adopted an heir. The result was that the British Paramount pronounced a fatal sentence of Lapse. Nagpur was annexed in 1854.

Annexation of Jhansi 1854 The above unjust usurpation based upon the alleged right of the British Government to resume, in default of the direct heirs, in favor of the Paramount was again asserted around the same time, but with some diversity of application. In Bundelkhand, the state of Jhansi was held by a Maratha chief who was actually a vassal of the Peshwa. In 1806, the state was promised "British protection" to the Maratha Chief. But in 1817, the Peshwa in Poona ceded all his rights over Bundelkhand to the British East India Company. The Raja of Jhansi was Gangadhar Rao, who married to the daughter of Moropant Tambe, a Brahmin , who worked at the court of Peshwa at Bithur. Name of this jovial, beautiful and brave daughter of Moropant was Manu who was married to Gangadhar Rao at the age of 13 years. She was given the name of Rani Laxmi Bai after marriage. She was largely gifted, possessed great energy and was taught self defense, archery, horse riding and all other things a brave soldier is taught. In 1853 the Raja of Jhansi Gangadhar died childless and the hand of the despoiler had lashed Laxmibai into a fury which was not to be governed. Under Hindu law she possessed the right to adopt an heir to her husband when he died childless in 1854. But Lord Dalhousie refused to her the exercise of that right, and declared that Jhansi had lapsed to the paramount power.

In vain did the Rani dwell upon the services which in olden days the rulers of Jhansi had rendered to the British Government, and quote the warm acknowledgments made by that Government. Lord Dalhousie was not to be moved. He had faith in his legions. With a stroke of his pen he deprived this




25 | P a g e

high-spirited woman of the rights which she believed, and which all the people of India believed, to be hereditary. That stroke of the pen converted the lady, of so high a character and so much respected, into a veritable tigress so far as the English were concerned. For them, thereafter, Laxmibai would have no mercy. There is reason to believe that she entered into negotiations conspirators of the explosion that had to take place in 1857.

Annexation of Oudh 1856 The Punjab and Pegu were the conquests of war. The states of Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Sambhalpur had fallen in by the "Doctrine of Lapse". The Kingdom of Oudh was the only great Indian state whose ruler Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dispossessed on the ground of "intolerable misgovernment".

The British alleged that the Nawab who had made a treaty with Lord Wellesley to establish such a system of administration as would be conducive to the "prosperity of the subjects" were entirely and continuously neglected and the whole of Awadh had fallen into the constantly increasing confusion, violent disorders, tumults, brigandage and widespread oppression of the people. Awadh was annexed finally in February 1856 via a proclamation and before the end of this month, the tenure of Lord Dalhousie ended and he was replaced with the Governor Generalship of Lord Canning.

Other notes about Lord Dalhousie During the times of Lord Dalhousie, a separate Lieutenant Governor was appointed for the

Presidency of Bengal so that it could immediately relive the Governor General of India from the pressure of local administration. In April 1854. Fredrick J Halliday was appointed the First Lieutenant Governor General of Bengal under the provisions of Charter act of 1853

The cool hill town of Shimla was made the summer capital of the British Empire. The Artillery headquarters of the army was moved from Calcutta to Meerut. The army

headquarter was shifted to Shimla. It was during Lord Dalhousie’s time that Gurkha regiments came into force. The Postal system was improved and all important towns were linked by the Telegraph

lines. The important reform during this period was Wood’s Dispatch of 1854.

Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 Charles Wood was a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1846 to 1852. Later he became the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company. In 1854 he sent the "Wood's despatch" to the Governor General Lord Dalhousie. As per this despatch:

An education department was to be set in every province.




26 | P a g e

Universities on the model of the London University be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.

At least one government school be opened in every district. Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid. The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.

Wood’s Despatch is called Magnacarta of English Education in India. In accordance with Wood's despatch, Education Departments were established in every province and universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 on the model of the London University. Later more universities were opened in Punjab in 1882 and at Allahabad 1887.

Chapter 6. Lord Canning Era and Revolt of 1857 Arrival of Lord Canning 1856

Lord Canning sailed to India to fill the vacancy created by return of Lord Dalhousie. Canning had earlier served in the Royal Commission on the British Museum and was known to have good general administrative ability. He entered his office in India at the close of February 1856. Lord Canning was the last Governor General of East India Company.

Causes of Revolt of 1857 The successive Governor generals appointed by the crown and based at Calcutta expanded the domains of British India over the period of time up the time of Lord Dalhousie, whose conquests against Punjab and Burma pushed the frontiers of the British India against Afghanistan and Burma. By this time, the East India Company had evolved from a commercial organization to a Civil and Military administration mammoth handling much parts of the Indian Subcontinent. By this time, the positive things happened to the Indian society were the general peace, rule of law, better roads, introduction of telegraph and an early stage of Railways, but all of them were actually planned and implemented for the better coordination in the British governance. The unwelcome attitudes and institutions also entered the society which made the British resented and loathed. Pathetic Socioeconomic Condition Not a shilling was spent from the British treasury on the defense of the India. The sever famines which devoured millions of people remained issues, that were never addressed. The tenure of Dalhousie was pathetic as far as concerns of the Indian natives are concerned. The feelings of the unrest that was growing among the Indians finally got manifested in the form of revolt of 1857. The Indian public which does not like sudden changes was applied with the new laws and customs which were anathema to the Indian society. Some of them were allowing the widows to remarry, abolishing practice of Sati (which was considered revered at that time) , establishing the land revenue systems which never existed before.




27 | P a g e

Widows Remarriage Act was introduced by Lord Dalhousie, but it was approved by Lord Canning in 1856. The Hindus saw it as a sequel to the Abolition of Sati (Regulation XVII) and took it as a threat to Hinduism.

Problems of Land Revenue The Ryotwari and Mahalwari system demanded the revenue which was exorbitant and methods of collecting the revenue were cruel. In 1852, the Inam commission was established which recommended the takeover of the Jagirs on which the revenue was not paid. The result was that twenty thousand Jagirs had been confiscated. Destruction of Economy The Economic drain also destroyed the Indian Industry, disintegrating the traditional fabric of the country. The Industrial revolution of England made the machines devourers of Indian Raw material and destroyed the Foreign Trade of the country. India was reduced to a mere exporter of the raw materials. Low position in Administration: Indians were debarred from the important and high posts in their own country. The notorious signboards ‘Dogs and Indians not allowed' were common in the British places of activities in India. Doctrine of Lapse: The annexation of Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Sambhalpur, Karauli, Udaipur, Baghat etc. by the notorious Doctrine of Lapse caused the general hateful sentiments among the Indian public. In Nagpur, there was an open auction of the Royal belongings. Ill-treatment with Bahadur Shah Zafar The name of Bahadur Shah Zafar was removed from the coins during the times of Lord Ellenborough. He was ordered by Lord Dalhousie to vacate the Red Fort and shift to the Mahrauli area outside Delhi. By this time the people of India had become nostalgic about the Mughal rule and wanted to see Bahadur Shah Emperor of India. Lord Canning announced that after Bahadur Shah, the Mughal successors would not be called emperor and their status would be reduced to Prince. Annexation of Oudh: The annexation of the so far loyal state of Oudh created general panic and disaffection contrary to the British belief that it was done for removing the "misrule and administration irregularities". Police and Judiciary: The Judiciary was biased. The British officers were hated and considered aliens in the land of Hindus and Muslims. The people were loathful of the oppressive loot of the officers, including British appointed Indian Daroghas. Christian Missionaries: The increased activities of the Christian missionaries were seen with suspicion and mistrust. The tried their best to convert as many people they could and indulged in the false propaganda against the faiths and religions of Hindus and Muslims. The Padris were appointed in the army to "teach" the sepoys about Christianity.




28 | P a g e

Education: The education policy was not taken positively in Indian public. They thought that the new schools opened by the British and where the "English" is taught will convert their sons to "Christians". Discrimination with Sepoys: The Indian sepoys were victims of discrimination. They were paid low wages and faced constant verbal and physical abuses from their bosses. The annexation of Oudh in 1856 created discontent in the Bengal army. The Indian sepoys were chaffed of the new customs which forbade them putting caste marks on their foreheads, keeping beards and wearing turbans.

Santhal rebellion 1855-56 The Santhal rebellion predates 1857. It was a rebellion of Santhal people led by 4 Murmu Brothers named Sindhu, Kanhu , Chand and Bhairav, in modern Jharkhand (then Bengal Presidency) against the oppressive Zamindari system. The initially launched Guerilla warfare in the Jungles of Jharkhand. The British trapped these outstanding archers and killed them in a battle. The Santhal villages were plundered and the rebellion was brutally subdued.

The cause of Nana Sahib 1854-55 Nana Sahib was the adopted son of Last Peshwa Baji Rao II who had been retired to Bithoor, after the Third Anglo Maratha War. Baji Rao was receiving the pension of Rupees 8 Lakh per annum from the British. When he died, Nana Sahib was to get this pension as heir-presumptive to the throne. But the company stopped the pension on the ground that he was not a natural born heir. Nana Sahib sent his friend and envoy Azimullah Khan to England in 1853 to plead his cause but the British were not convinced. The result was that he conspired against the British and led the revolt at Kanpur.

Azimullah Khan - The envoy to England So far, Azimullah Khan, who was prime minister to Nana Sahib, was an English lover. But at England, he could not plead the cause of Nana Sahib and while returning from England, he got an opportunity to visit Constantinople, in the Ottoman Empire. He visited the sites of the Crimean war and was able to look at the exhausted British soldiers returning. He also tried to get in touch with the Turkish and Russian spies.

Tantya Tope – The rescuer of Laxmibai His name was Ramachandra Pandurang Tope and he was friend of Nana Sahib. After the Kanpur was preoccupied by the British, he went to Gwalior, where he rescued Laxmibai. But the forces of British defeated him and executed him at Shivpuri.

Major Events in 1857 Revolt January 1857: Introduction of Pattern 1853 Enfield Musket

On the New Year day of 1857, a new Enfield (P 1853) rifle was issued in India to the 60th Queen's Royal Rifles in Meerut. The cartridges of this rifle had a paper cover that had to be bitten off before




29 | P a g e

loading in the rifle. It was accepted by some British officials that the papers and the grease inside is composed of the beef and pig fat. This was taken as destroying their religion. On 22 January 1857, at the Dum Dum arsenal near Calcutta the natives expressed concern regarding the use of the greased cartridge required by the new rifle and a consequent threat to Hindu and Muslim religions. The military drills of the time needed the sepoys to bite off the cartridge, pour the gunpowder from within to down the barrel, then ram the cartridge, which included the bullet, then remove the ram-rod, then bring the rifle to the ready and set the sights and fire. The "user guide" said: “Whenever the grease around the bullet appears to be melted away, or otherwise removed from the cartridge, the sides of the bullet should be wetted in the mouth before putting it into the barrel; the saliva will serve the purpose of grease for the time being"

From January to May, the wave of dissatisfaction touched various British Cantonments. The most awful sentiments were in the cantonments of Meerut, Barrackpur and Ambala. Use of Chapattis All of a sudden, the English officials could see passing of the Chapattis, usually by the village chaukidars and watchmen throughout the north India. The first report was issued in February 1857 by Magistrate of Gurgaon that these Chapattis may be a portent of a general disturbance coming up and signify the joining of the people. The magistrate was true in his interpretation, but it was realized later only.

March 1857: Refusal to accept greased cartridge By 9 March 1857, the Sepoys of the 19th Bengal Native Infantry at Behrampur refused to accept the greased cartridges. A court martial was done and the regiment was disarmed. On 23 March General Greg Anson, Commander in Chief, India, issued an order suspending the use and firing of the greased cartridges throughout India until a special report is received from Meerut.

29 March 1857 - Mutiny at Barrackpur - Mangal Pandey At Barrackpur, Mangal Pandey of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry went on a rampage wounding the British Officers. The mutiny was basically a "One Man Show". Mangal Pandey was hanged on 8 April 1857, thus becoming one of the first martyrs of mother India’s liberation war that extended 90 years afterwards. One more officer Issurl Pandey was hanged on 11 April for not helping the British during the rampage. One Paltu Khan was promoted for his active duty towards stopping Mangal Pandey creates more havoc.

Mutiny at Meerut - 10 May 1857 85 Sepoys of the 20th and 11th Bengal Infantry regiments and 3rd Indian Light Cavalry mutinied. The broke out in open rebellion, shouted "Delhi Chalo", proceeded to Delhi, over threw the British Rule, massacred any European that came their way, Proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of India. Col. Ripley was killed at Delhi. The public welcomed the soldiers and supported the revolt.




30 | P a g e

The son of Bahadur Shah Zafar, Mirza Zahiruddin was declared commander in chief, despite no military experience. Later the command at Delhi was taken by Bakht Khan, the nominal commander chief of the rebels at Delhi who later died in the battle in 1859.

The Mutiny Spreads - May 1857 On 12 May 1857, a company of the 81st infantry captured the fort of Govindgarh near Amritsar. The mutiny spread to Lahore where Mian Mir fought the mutineers and saved the Lahore from falling to the Mutineers. On 14 May 1857, Lord Canning issued orders for the 43rd Queen Regiment and 1st Madras Fusiliers to embark immediately to Calcutta.

Lord Canning telegraphed Lord Elphinstone, the Governor of Bombay to send British Forces immediately. He also sent transport to bring the British forces back from Pegu in Burma. On 16 May 1857, 50 Europeans rounded up in Delhi were massacred by the crowd. On 16 May, Lord Canning sent a letter to Lord Elgin at Singapore to send troops at Calcutta. The rebellion spread to Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareili, Banaras, and Jhansi very soon.

The siege of Cawnpore Siege of Cawnpore is also known as “Bibighar Massacre or "Satichaura Ghat massacre". Before this event the British had approached Nana Sahib and 'convinced' him to support in case there is a mutiny at Kanpur. By June 1857, the number of the rebellions got 3000. The place was mistaken as safe by the British, European families began to drift into the entrenchment as the news of rebellion in the nearby areas reached them. The entrenchment was fortified. Nana Sahib entered as a friend of the British inside and declared that he was with the rebels. he proceeded with the soldiers to capture Cawnpore. He made the British officers surrender on a promise of safe passage to Allahabad. Cawnpore was in siege till 15 July 1857 and 200 Europeans including women and children were massacred. On 16 July the British Forces arrived and Cawnpore was recaptured. Nana Sahib disappeared and then fled to Nepal in 1859.

Mutiny at Lucknow : Begum Hazrat Mahal Begum Hazrat Mahal was the first wife of recently deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. She led the rebels at Lucknow and was able to siege Lucknow. Her son Birjis Qadra was declared King of Awadh. But when the British were able to destroy the rebels, she fled to Nepal, where she took asylum and died in obscurity in 1879.

Mutiny at Gwalior : Tantya Tope With the aid of the rebels at Gwalior he was able to compel General Windham hard at Cawnpore on the 27th and 28th of November 1857. But later was defeated by Sir Colin Campbell on the 6th of December. Together with the Rani of Jhansi he was besieged by Sir Hugh Rose in the Jhansi fort, but




31 | P a g e

escaped and collected a force of 20,000 men which Sir Hugh defeated without relaxing the siege. After this he sought refuge in the jungles of Bundelkhand, and later captured and executed in 1859.

Mutiny at Jhansi – Rani Laxmi Bai Jhansi was relatively calm in 1857, but British troops arrived under Hugh Rose and laid siege to Jhansi on 23 March 1858 and asked Laxmi Bai to surrender. She did not surrender and the fight began which continued for 2 weeks. Later her army was joined by Tantya Tope's troops, but the British were able to capture Jhansi by 31 March. Laxmi Bai escaped over the wall at night and fled from her city, surrounded by her guards. Along with her young adopted son Anand Rao, she decamped to Kalpi. Both Nana and Laxmibai moved on to Gwalior and occupied the fort of Gwalior. But on 17 June, 1858, she died in the battle. The British captured Gwalior three days later. Her father, Moropant Tambey, was captured and hanged a few days after the fall of Jhansi. Anand Rao, was given a pension by the British Raj.

Mutiny in Arrah - Kunwar Singh A band of rebels was led by Kunwar Singh at Arrah in Bihar. Despite his old age (near 80) he had a good fight and harried British forces for nearly one year and remained invincible till the end. But he was defeated by William Taylor and Eyre and died in the battle.

Recapturing Bahadur Shah was arrested. British general Hudson shot dead his two sons, threw

them in open near Khooni Darwaja in Delhi and the old Moghul was exported to Rangoon where he died 1862.

The imam of Bauli Kalandar led the revolt in Panipat. He was captured and hanged. General Hewitt commanded the Forces at Meerut. Delhi was recaptured by Sir John Nicholson. Colin Campbell recaptured Kanpur. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib.

Role of Princely states The princely states did not participate in the mutiny and as per Lord Canning, the princely rulers proved to be a barrier to stop this hurricane.

Leaders of Revolt: Delhi : Bahadur Shah Zafar and Bakht Khan Jhansi : Rani Laxmi Bai Bihar : Kunwar Singh Mathura : Devi Singh Meerut : Kadam Singh Faizabad : Muhammad Ullah Kanpur: Nana sahib, Tantya Tope and Azimullah Khan




32 | P a g e

Allahabad : Liaqat Ali Gwalior : Tantya Tope Haryana : Rao Tularam Sambhalpur : Surender Sai Bareli: Khan Bahadur Khan Satara: Rango Bapuji Gupte Hyderabad : Sonaji pant Karnataka: Maulavi Sayyed Allauddin, Bhimrao Mundargi And Chhota Singh Kolhapur : Annaji Phandnavis and Tatya Mohite Madras: Ghulam Gaus and Sultan Baksh Chengalpattu: Annagirian Krishna Coiambatore: Mulbagal Swami

Those who helped British Holkar of Indore remained with the British. Man Singh at Gwalior deceived Tantya Tope and Laxmibai. Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, Sikh rulers of Patiala, Nabha and Jind also

remained loyal to British. The Sikhs detest towards the Mughals was the main reason behind their remaining against the mutineers.

Dinkar Rao of Gwalior and Salar Jang of Hyderabad were "praised" by the British for their loyalty to the Government.

Zamindars, Land Lords, Money lenders, Big Traders remained loyal to the East India Company. The elite "educated" class of Indians remained indifferent.

Railways, Telegraph and Postal services, which were initiated by Lord Dalhousie saved India for British from the hands of Indians.

Who said what about this mutiny? Charles Raikes: Merely a mutiny of the soldiers , which took the shape of revolt of the

people in certain areas. Sir J.W. Kaye : A battle of Blacks against the Whites T R Holmes: A conflict between civilization and barbarism V D Savarkar : India’s planned war of Independence. Karl Marx: Struggle of soldiers, peasants and democratic combine against the foreign and

feudal bondage. Rees: a war of Fanatic religionists against the Christians R C Mazumadar: Neither first, nor national not war of independence. Hutchinson: It began as a mutiny and became a popular rebellion. J L Nehru: a feudal outburst headed by feudal chiefs and their followers aided by

widespread anti-foreign sentiments.




33 | P a g e

S N Sen: began with a fight for religion, ended with a war for independence. After the Mutiny of 1857, Peace was restored in a period of more than one year and the most

important outcome was that the Government of India passed from the Company to the Crown.



Examinations 2014


www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer










2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. India comes under British Crown ........................................................................... 4

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation ................................................................................... 4 The Government of India act 1858 ............................................................................. 4

Departure of East India Company ........................................................................................ 5 The First Secretary of State of India .................................................................................... 5 Centralization of Administration ......................................................................................... 5 First Viceroy of India - Lord Canning 1858-1862 ................................................................ 5

Indian Civil Services Act 1861 ..................................................................................... 6 Indian Councils Act 1861 ............................................................................................ 6 Indian High Courts Act 1861 ....................................................................................... 7

Composition of the High Court’s: ......................................................................................... 7 Indian Penal Code 1862 ............................................................................................. 8 Lord Elgin & Lord John Lawrence ............................................................................... 8

Lord Elgin 1861-1863 ......................................................................................................... 8 Lord John Lawrence 1864-1869 .......................................................................................... 8 Bhutan War 1864-65 .......................................................................................................... 9 Orissa Famine 1866 ............................................................................................................. 9 Policy Towards Afghanistan: The Policy of masterly inactivity ............................................ 9 Other events during Lord Lawrence’s time .......................................................................... 9

Chapter 2. Lord Mayo 1869-72 ............................................................................................ 10 Mayo College ..................................................................................................................... 10 India’s First Census ............................................................................................................ 10 The other important works done under Lord Mayo were as follows: ................................ 10 Indian Evidence Act 1872 ................................................................................................... 10 Assassination of Lord Mayo ............................................................................................... 11

Chapter 3. The Tribal Uprisings ............................................................................................ 11 Sanyasi Uprising ................................................................................................................ 11 Chuar rebellion 1799 ......................................................................................................... 12 Birsa Movement ................................................................................................................. 12 Santhal rebellion 1855-56 ................................................................................................ 12 Ahom’s Revolt 1828........................................................................................................... 13 Khonds Uprising 1846, 1855 .............................................................................................. 13 Khasi Uprising 1833 ........................................................................................................... 13 Pagal Panthi Revolt 1825-1850 ........................................................................................ 13 Paiks Rebellion 1803-1806 ............................................................................................... 13 Singhpos Revolt 1830 ........................................................................................................ 13 Kachnagas Revolt 1882 ..................................................................................................... 13 Faraizis Revolt 1838-1857 ................................................................................................ 13 Indigo Revolt 1856-57 ...................................................................................................... 14 Bhil Uprising 1817-19 ....................................................................................................... 14 Koli Uprising 1829, 1839 ................................................................................................... 14 Kutch Rebellion 1819 ......................................................................................................... 14 Other Revolts of West India ............................................................................................... 14 Revolt under Vasudev Balwant Phadke ............................................................................. 14 Uprisings in Karnataka....................................................................................................... 15 Rebel by Velu Thampi Dalawa 1806 ................................................................................. 15 Rampa Rebellion1879 ....................................................................................................... 15

Chapter 4. Lord Northbrook 1872-1876 .............................................................................. 15 Deposition of Gaekwad of Baroda 1875 ............................................................................ 15 Kuka Movement 1872 ........................................................................................................ 16 Prince of Wales Visit to India 1876 .................................................................................... 16 Orissa Famine of 1872 ....................................................................................................... 16 Indian Meteorological Department 1875 ........................................................................... 17

Chapter 5. Lord Lytton 1876-1880 ...................................................................................... 17 Royal Titles Act 1876 ......................................................................................................... 17 Delhi Darbar 1877 ............................................................................................................. 17 Great Famine of 1876 ........................................................................................................ 17




3 | P a g e

Vernacular Press Act 1878 ................................................................................................ 17 Second Anglo Afghan War 1878-80......................................................................... 18

Treaty of Peshawar............................................................................................................ 18 Treaty of Gandamak .......................................................................................................... 18 Attempt to Murder and Resignation of Lord Lytton ........................................................... 19

Chapter 6. Lord Ripon 1880-84 ............................................................................................ 19 The Afghan Affairs ............................................................................................................. 19 Local Self Government (Resolution of 1882) ...................................................................... 20 First Factory Act 1881 ....................................................................................................... 20 Hunter Education Commission 1882-83 ............................................................................ 20

Ilbert Bill 1884 ......................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 7. Pre Congress Organizations ................................................................................ 21

British India Society 1839-43 ............................................................................................ 21 British Indian Association 1851.......................................................................................... 22 Bombay Association (1852) & Madras Native Association (1852) ...................................... 22 East Indian Association 1867 ............................................................................................. 22 National Indian Association 1870 (Mary Carpenter) .......................................................... 23 Indian National Association 1876 (Surendra Nath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose) ...... 23

Chapter 8. Lord Dufferin ....................................................................................................... 23 Birth of Durand Line 1884 - 1893 ..................................................................................... 23 Third Anglo-Burmese War and Annexation of Burma ....................................................... 24

Birth of Congress 1885 ............................................................................................. 24 Safety Valve Theory ........................................................................................................... 25 Second Session of Indian National Congress ..................................................................... 26 Early Years of Congress: the Demands .............................................................................. 26 Early Congress and British ................................................................................................. 27

Chapter 9. Lord Lansdowne .................................................................................................. 27 Indian Councils Act 1892 .......................................................................................... 28

Chapter 10. Lord Elgin ........................................................................................................ 29 Opium Commission 1893 ................................................................................................... 29 Bubonic Plague of Bombay Presidency 1896-97 ............................................................... 29 Chhappania Akal 1899-1900 ............................................................................................ 31

Chapter 11. Lord Curzon ..................................................................................................... 31 Inauguration of North West Frontier Provinces 1901 ......................................................... 32 Irrigation Commission 1901 ............................................................................................... 32 Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900 ...................................................................................... 32 Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904 .............................................................................. 33

Partition of Bengal 1905 .......................................................................................... 34 Swadeshi and Boycott ....................................................................................................... 36

Rise of Extremists ..................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 12. Lord Minto ....................................................................................................... 37

Calcutta session 1906 and Resolution of Swaraj ............................................................... 37 Surat session and Split in Congress 1907 .......................................................................... 38 Suppression of Extremists .................................................................................................. 38 Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley Minto reforms) & Communal Representation ................ 39 MacDonnell Commission 1901 ........................................................................................... 40 Police Intelligence Reforms, Introduction of CID 1902-03 ................................................. 41 Educational Reforms – Raleigh Commission ...................................................................... 41

Indian Universities Act 1904 ..................................................................................... 42 Hunter Commission vs. Raleigh Commission ..................................................................... 42 Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904 ....................................................................... 42 Imperial Cadet Corps 1904 ................................................................................................ 42 Impact of the Swadeshi Movement .................................................................................... 42 India House ........................................................................................................................ 43 Sacrifice of Madan Lal Dhingra 1909 ................................................................................. 43 Anushilan Samiti 1902-1908 ............................................................................................ 43 Alipore Bomb Case 1908 ................................................................................................... 43 Nasik Conspiracy Case 1909 .............................................................................................. 44




4 | P a g e

Chapter 1. India comes under British Crown

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation On November 1, 1858, a grand Darbar was held at Allahabad. Here Lord Canning sent forth the royal proclamation which announced that the queen had assumed the government of India. This proclamation declared the future policy of the British Rule in India. The proclamation read: We hereby announce to the Native Princes of India that all treaties, engagements made with them by or under the authority of the Honorable East India

Company are by us accepted, and will be scrupulously maintained, and We look for a like observance on their part. We desire no extensions of Our

present territorial possessions ; and while We will permit no aggression upon Our dominions or Our Rights to be attempted with impunity, We shall

sanction no encroachment on those of others, We shall respect the rights, dignity, and honor of Native Princes as Our own ; and we desire that they—

as well as our own subjects—should enjoy prosperity, and that social advancement, which can only be secured by internal peace and good government.

We hold ourselves bound to the Natives of Our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty, which bind us to all Our other subjects, and those obligations by the Blessing of God, we shall faithfully and conscientiously fulfil…..

……And it is our further will that, so far as may be, our subjects, of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our

service, the duties of which they may be qualified, by their education, ability, and integrity, duly to discharge….

The document was called "Magnacarta of the People of India" and was declared in eloquent words the principles of justice and religious toleration as the guiding policy of the queen’s rule. The document also granted amnesty to all except those who had directly taken part in the murder of British subjects. Peace was proclaimed throughout India on July 8, 1859. The armies of the East India Company ceased to exist and the forces in India were incorporated as an integral part of the British army. The most important result was the now onwards the Indian Sepoys were enlisted in the regular service in the British Army and participated in the world wars in the next century.

• As per Queen Victoria's proclamation of November, 1 1858, all treaties and agreements made with the Indian native princes under the authority of the East India company did not cease to exist but were there to stay and accepted by the crown.

• The declaration expressed faith and the rights, dignity and status of the native princes. The Indian public was given an assurance that there would be no extension of the current territorial possessions.

The Government of India act 1858 The British prime Minister, Palmerstone had introduced a Bill in 1858 in the parliament for the transfer of Government of India to The crown. However, before this bill was to be passed, Palmerstone was forced to resign on another issue. Later Lord Stanley introduced another bill which was originally titled as “An Act for the Better Government of India” and it was passed on August 2, 1858. This act provided that India was to be governed directly and in the name of the crown. This act abolished the company rule, abolished the Court of directors and abolished the Board of control.




5 | P a g e

The act provided the Crown will govern India directly through a Secretary of State for India, who was to exercise the powers which were being enjoyed by the Court of Directors and Board of control.

Departure of East India Company On September 1, 1858, the court of directors held its last solemn assembly and the East India Company issued its last instructions to the servants in the East; and offered to its sovereign an empire in these words: " let her Majesty appreciate the gift-let her the vast country and teeming millions of India under her direct control, but let her not forget the great corporation from which she has received them, nor the lessons to be learnt from its success"

The First Secretary of State of India The first Secretary of state was Lord Stanley, who prior to 2 August 1858, served as President of the Board of Control. The Secretary of State was now the political head of the India.

Centralization of Administration The right of appointment to important offices in India was vested either in the crown or in the Secretary Of State of India-in-Council. This act abolished the Dual Government introduced by the Pitt’s India act. The administration of the country was now highly centralized. All civil, military and executive powers vested in the Governor in council, who was now the Viceroy of India. The Governor General was now responsible to Secretary of State. There was a provision of creation of an Indian Civil Service under the control of the Secretary of State.

First Viceroy of India - Lord Canning 1858-1862 With the Act of 1858, the Governor-General of India became the "Viceroy and Governor-General of India" and was to be the head of the British administration in India. The office of Governors-General and Viceroys of India remained from 1858 till 1947. Lord Canning was the first Governor-General and Viceroys of India and Lord Mountbatten was the last Governors-General and Viceroys of India. The same office was called Governor-General of the Union of India, 1947–1950, and C Rajgopalachari became the last Governor-General of the Union of India. Thus the office ceased to exist from January 26, 1950, when Dr. Rajendra Prasad took the oath of India's first President. However, in Pakistan, in 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the First Governor General of Pakistan. The office remained existing till 1956, and the last Governor General of Pakistan was Iskander Mirza, one of the direct descendants of Mir Zafar, the Gaddar-i-abrar.

In 1935, the Government of India Act 1935 provided a new Burma Office, in preparation for the establishment of Burma as a separate colony, but the same Secretary of State headed both Departments and was styled the Secretary of State for India and Burma. The first secretary of state for India and Burma was Lord Dundas. The India Office of the Secretary of State for India and Burma came to an end in 1947, when we got independence and now the Secretary of state of India and Burma was left to be Secretary of Burma. Viscount Ennismore was the first and last Secretary of Burma, as Burma got independence in 1948.




6 | P a g e

Indian Civil Services Act 1861 A competitive examination was organized in 1853, but the Indians could not seek entry. However, the system of reserving principal posts for the members of the covenanted service (means British) was introduced in 1858. The Indian Civil Services Act, 1861, validated a number of irregular appointments which were made in India to meet the exigencies in disregard of the restriction that all offices in the civil cadre of the company's service in India were reserved to the civil services of the Presidency.

• The recruitment in the civil services was scheduled which also included the number of appointments to be filled "only by the members of the covenanted Civil Service in Future".

• Thus, the Principal posts were reserved for British. The civil services act 1861 laid down that any person, whether Indian or European could be appointed to any of the offices (specified in the schedule annexed), provided that he had resided for minimum of 7 years in India. The person had to pass an exam in vernacular language of the district, in which he was employed. The appointment was also made a subject to departmental tests or other qualifications. All appointments were now to be reported to the Secretary of State and unless Secretary of State approves within twelve months, were declared void. The Indian Civil Services Act could not fulfill the

demand of by the educated Indians to secure employment in the Covenanted Civil Service. Further reforms were made later.

Indian Councils Act 1861 The Governments of Madras and Bombay were deprived of their power of legislation by Charter act of 1833. The Indian Councils Act 1861 restored this power to them. This act is known to have made notable changes in the composition of the Governor General's council for executive & legislative Purposes. The council of the Governor General of India performed dual functions of executive and legislature. For executive functions the notable change was that Council of the Governor General was expanded and a fifth member was added. For the purpose of Legislation, the Governor General's Council was restructured. Now the additional new NOT less than 6 and NOT more than 12 members were now to be nominated by the Governor General and they were to hold the office for two years. Out of these, not less than half were required to be Non-Official. This was a beginning towards the establishment of legislative system by adding legislative non official members to the Council of the Governor General.

• However, the functions were limited to the legislation and it had not to do any other function except the consideration or enactment of legislative measures.

• It was laid down that without the assent of the Governor General a bill relating to the public revenue or debt, religion, military, naval or foreign relations cannot be passed. However, any such act might be dissolved by the crown acting through the secretary of State of India.




7 | P a g e

The Indian Councils Act 1861 restored the power of legislation to the governor-in-councils of Madras and Bombay in respective matters. The act also laid down the provision for the formation of legislative councils in other provinces. With the Indian Councils Act for the first time Portfolio system started. Each member of the Council of the Governor General was allocated portfolio of a particular department. Lord Canning was the First to start a Portfolio system. The Governor General was authorized to exercise a veto and issue ordinances in a situation of emergency.

Indian High Courts Act 1861 By Indian High Courts Act 1861, the Supreme & Sadar Diwani Adalat were amalgamated. The ‘Indian High Court Act' of 1861, vested in Queen of England to issue letters patent to erect and establish High Courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. The High Courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established by Indian High Courts Act 1861. Indian High Courts Act, 1861 did not by itself create and establish the High Courts in India. The objective of this act was to effect a fusion of the Supreme Courts and the Sadar Adalats in the three Presidencies and this was to be consummated by issuing Letter Patent. The jurisdiction and powers exercised by these courts was to be assumed by the High Courts.

Composition of the High Court’s: The Indian High Courts Act 1861 had also spelled the composition of the High Court.

• Each High Court was to consist of a Chief Justice and NOT more than 15 regular judges. • The chief Justice and minimum of one third regular judges had to be barristers and

minimum one third regular judges were to be from the “covenanted Civil Service”. • All Judges were the be in the office on the pleasure of the Crown. • The High Courts had an Original as well as an Appellate Jurisdiction the former derived from

the Supreme Court, and the latter from the Sadar Diwani and Sadar Foujdari Adalats, which were merged in the High Court.

• The Charter of High Court of Calcutta was issued on 14th May, 1862 and Madras and Bombay was issued on June 26, 1862.

• So, the Calcutta High Court has the distinction of being the first High Court and one of the three Chartered High Courts to be set up in India, along with the High Courts of Bombay, Madras.

• High Court at Calcutta which was formerly known as High Court of Judicature at Fort William was established on July 1, 1862. Sir Barnes Peacock was its first Chief Justice.

• On 2nd February, 1863, Justice Shamboo Nath Pandit was the first Indian to assume office as a Judge of the Calcutta High Court.

• The Bombay High Court was inaugurated on 14th August ,1862. • Indian High Court Act 1861 also gave power to set up other High Courts like the High Courts

of the Presidency Towns with similar powers.




8 | P a g e

Under this power, a High Court was established in 1866 at High Court of Judicature for the North-Western Provinces at Agra on 17 March 1866 by the Indian High Courts Act of 1861 replacing the Sadr Diwani Adalat. Sir Walter Morgan, Barrister-at-Law was appointed the first Chief Justice of the High Court of North-Western Provinces. However it was shifted to Allahabad in 1869 and the name was correspondingly changed to the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad from 11 March 1919.

Indian Penal Code 1862 The initial sketch of the Indian Penal Code was drawn by Lord Macaulay in 1830s, but it was finally drafted in 1860 and came into force in 1862. Prior to that, the final draft of Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure was ready in 1861. Indian Penal code was inheritated by Pakistan after separation and was later named Pakistan Penal Code. The same was adopted by Bangladesh also. It was also adopted in almost all the British colonies of Asia such as Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Before 1860, the basis of justice was "The English Criminal Law" which was administered in the Presidency-Towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The age old penal code and its many articles have become obsolete and needs to be revised. The Malimath Committee of 2003 is related to the issue of reforms in the IPC.

Lord Elgin & Lord John Lawrence Lord Elgin 1861-1863

Lord Canning left India in March, 1862, and died within a month in England. His successor was Lord Elgin. He had already served as Governor of Jamaica from 1842 to 1847 and the Governor General of Canada from 1847 to 1854. In 1857 he was sent as envoy to China to open a trade for the British. He became viceroy and governor-general of India in 1862 but in the very next year, he died in Dharamasala of a heart attack while crossing a mountain bridge, there he lies buried. Lord Elgin is known to have abandoned the pomp of the earlier Governor Generals and travelled by train. The Wahabis, a group of turbulent and fanatical Mohammedans in the northwest were suppressed during his time. He was succeeded by Sir William Denison, the governor of Madras, who became acting governor-general under the Act of 1861. Meanwhile the viceroyalty was offered to Sir John Lawrence, who had done wonders in Punjab earlier during and after the first as well as second Anglo Sikh War.

Lord John Lawrence 1864-1869 Lord John Lawrence was not a new face in India. He had brilliantly organized the supply of the British army in Punjab during the First Anglo Sikh war of 1845-1846 and was made the commissioner of the Jalandhar. In the second Anglo Sikh War, he was appointed as the member of the Punjab Board of Administration under his elder brother Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence. Some reforms such as abolition of internal duties, establishment of a common currency and postal system, and development of Punjabi infrastructure made him popular and he was 'by some' people called "the Saviour of the Punjab". He was partially able to prevent the Sikhs enter into mutiny due to his popular image and a general Sikh detest towards the Mughals.




9 | P a g e

While appointed at Punjab, Lawrence had made an agreement with the Afghan leader Dost Muhammad Khan, but during his tenure as Viceroy, he adopted a cautious policy and avoided the conflicts with the Afghans and Persians. The most important events of his tenure are Bhutan war fought between British India and Bhutan in 1864–1865 and the Orissa Famine

Bhutan War 1864-65 The Bhutan war is also known as Duar War and this ended in the defeat of the Bhutanese army. The peace was brought by "Treaty of Sinchula" which was signed on 11 November 1865. Bhutan ceded territories in the Assam Duars and Bengal Duars, as well as around 80,000 kilometers of Dewangiri (Deothang) to British in return for an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees.

Orissa Famine 1866 The Orissa famine of 1866 followed a severe drought and destruction of the Rice Crop. The government imported rice but it reached only when millions of people starved to death. This exposed the inability of the government to deal with the famine situation in Orissa, resulted in a fearful loss of life. The famine was followed by devastating floods. The famine and floods claimed life of around 40-50 Lakh people in 2 years, mainly due to outbreak of cholera and malaria. A similar kind of famine affected Bundelkhand and Rajputana also. The government established the Famine Commission under Henery Kempbell. Emphasis was laid down for infrastructure development so that the relief reaches in time.

Policy Towards Afghanistan: The Policy of masterly inactivity Lord Lawrence was cautious in dealing with the Afghanistan and Persia. On the death of Dost Mohammed, on June 9, 1863, Sher Ali, the third son and acknowledged heir of the Dost, was recognized as Amir of Afghanistan by Lawrence, and his son, Mohammed Ali, as heir apparent. But then there was a long civil war in Afghanistan in which two older sons of the Dost, Afzal and Azum, obtained possession of most of Afghanistan, and were partially recognized as de facto rulers by Lawrence, who at the same time refused to withdraw his recognition from Sher Ali. The latter soon won his way back to power, and in 1869 was able to notify Lawrence that he was once more in complete control. Lawrence's policy had been " that we will leave the Afghans to settle their own quarrels, and that we are willing to be on terms of amity and goodwill with the nation and with their rulers de facto,'' This is known as policy of masterly inactivity.

Other events during Lord Lawrence’s time Submarine telegraphy system started in 1865 between India and Europe via Persian Gulf. The Punjab and Oudh Tenancy acts were passed in 1868. Sir John Lawrence retired in January, 1869. Lord Mayo succeeded Lord Lawrence in 1869.




10 | P a g e

Chapter 2. Lord Mayo 1869-72 Lord Mayo or Lord Naas served as 4th Viceroy of India from 12 January 1869 to 8 February 1872. He had served thrice as chief secretary for Ireland, in 1852, 1858-1859, and 1866-1868. Mayo College, Ajmer 1871

Mayo College In his relations with the feudatory states Lord Mayo insisted that the native princes should not be guilty of misgovernment. The victim of this policy was Raja of Alwar, who was compelled to accept a native council guided by the British political agents. Lord Mayo also encouraged the native rulers in enlightened government and sought to develop an esprit de corps to that end by the education of the heirs to the native principalities. The result was establishment of the Mayo College at Ajmer for the education of young Rajput princes. It was founded in 1875 and Colonel Sir Oliver St John became its first Principal.

India’s First Census In order to secure permanent improvement in the finances, Lord Mayo took the pains to secure and collect statistics regarding the population and the various conditions in each locality. This was because only exact knowledge in these matters could be helpful in both revenue and expenditure regulation. The result was that in 1871, India's first census of taken by his orders. Mayo also organized the Statistical Survey of India, which, under the direction of William Wilson Hunter, "produced a printed account of each district, town, and village, carefully compiled upon local inquiry, and disclosing the whole economic and social facts in the life of the people." This was the most exhaustive work done since the Ain-i-Akbari , during the times of the Great Mughal.

The other important works done under Lord Mayo were as follows: • Setting up of Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce • Introduction of the most improved rifle, the Snider, and of rifled guns for the artillery. • Improvement in the sanitary conditions for the troops.

Lord Mayo is known for infrastructure development in the country by which an immense extension of roads, railroads, and canals was carried out. He refused to make loans for any public works except those that would be productive. He carried out the policy of state control of public works in the promotion of the various enterprises of railroad and canal construction.

Indian Evidence Act 1872 Lord Mayo took interest in the Prison reforms, especially the convict settlements at Andaman Islands. The most important legal reform during his time was the passage of the Indian Evidence Act in 1872.




11 | P a g e

The act was drafted by the law member of council, James Fitzjames Stephen. Prior to this act, the rules of evidences were based upon the traditional legal systems of different social groups and communities. They were different for different persons depending on his or her caste, religious faith and social position. The act removed this anomaly and differentiation, and introduced a standard set of law applicable to all Indians.

Assassination of Lord Mayo The splendid vigor of Lord Mayo defied the climate and distances in the country. He anxiously studied the wants of the farthest provinces of the empire, but his life was cut short by an assassin Sher Khan, a convict at Andaman Islands, while he was inspecting the conditions in the convict settlement of the Andaman Islands in 1872.

Chapter 3. The Tribal Uprisings In the 19th century and early 20th century, the tribals in different parts of our country stood against the British Administration. These uprisings played a very significant role in the freedom struggle of the country. Apparently, these tribals lived an isolated life away from the mainstream of the modern civilization, yet they had belongingness with the common national cause of India. These revolts were sometimes against the landlords and feudal lords and at other times against the oppressive British government officials. The nature of these revolts was agrarian and forest based because, agriculture and forests was their everything. Their anger was against the exploitation by moneylenders and the petty government officials, normally over the land and forest rights. The British Administration never took positive interest to uniformly develop their standard of living. The tribal societies were influenced by the then socio-political circumstances as well. Some leaders of the tribal societies took part in creating the wave of nationality and patriotism. Most tribal movements occurred in North & North-East India and some occurred in the isolated regions of the South India. But due to the problem of non availability of the study materials, lack of interpretation, lack of combined methodology etc., the study of these tribal uprising very limited. Still, on the nature of the revolts, these uprising can be divided into reactionary, conservative and revolutionary. The reactionary movements were against the measures by the contemporary government which compelled them to give up the elements (evil elements too) of their society. The conservative were also against those measures, as an attempt to protect their socio-cultural fabric. The revolutionary movements were against all kinds of oppressions these people suffered. A further classification divides them into Ethnic movements, Agrarian movements and Political Movements. A brief detail about all those uprisings is given in the following pages.

Sanyasi Uprising • Area: Murshidabad and Baikunthupur forests of Jalpaiguri, in West Bengal • Leader : various Sanyasis




12 | P a g e

Sanyasi means Ascetics and Sadhus. In this rebellion, the Sanyasis or Fakirs including the Hindu and Muslim ascetics stood up against the oppressive tax collection post Bengal famine of 1770. The British had got the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa in 1765. Till that time, the Zamindars used to oblige these Fakirs when they visited the holy places. Once British started collecting taxes, the Fakirs were not given any alms / money and numerous restrictions were placed on them, as the British took them as looters. The result was that these Sanyasis started raiding the government treasuries. They were suppressed and this suppression included massacre of 150 Fakirs in 1771. Anandamath, written by India's first modern novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, from which the song Vande Mataram was taken and declared to be India's National Song, is the best reminder of the Sanyasi Rebellion.

Chuar rebellion 1799 • Area: Midnapore, Bakura districts of West Bengal • Important Leader : Durjan Singh

The Famine, enhanced taxes, oppressive demands and economic distress cuased the revolt in the Midnapore and Bakura district of West Bengal for several times. In 1799-1800, there was a revolt under Durjan Singh, who was a former Zamindar. His 1500 followers created a havoc. The rebellion was suppressed with utmost cruelty.

Birsa Movement • Area: Bihar and Jharkhand • Important Leader : Birsa Munda.

The Mundas were the frustrated tribal people who resorted to rebel several times in 1789, 1807, 1812, 1819 and 1832 in Bihar & modern Jharkhand. These revolts were because of the undue interference by the administration and the attitude of the landlords. This led to the emergence of Birsa movement under the leadership of Birsa Munda. The name of Birsa Munda (1875-1900) is cherished in India as one of the great freedom fighters. He raised the voice against the transformation of the tribal agrarian system into the feudal state around the Chhotanagpur area. In 1900, at the age of 25, he was captured by British and put into prison. He died most probably because of the torture in prison. Today, Birsa Munda is a venerated figure in Bihar and Jharkhand. His name decorates the airport of Ranchi and Birsa Institute of Technology, Ranchi. The followers of Birsa Munda are called Birsait.

Santhal rebellion 1855-56 The Santhal rebellion predates 1857. It was a rebellion of Santhal people led by 4 Murmu Brothers named Sindhu, Kanhu , Chand and Bhairav, in modern Jharkhand (then Bengal Presidency) against the oppressive Zamindari system. The initially launched Guerilla warfare in the Jungles of

"Aranyer Adhikar" which means "Right to the Forest" was a novel of Mahashweta Devi Published in 1977. This novel was based upon the Munda Rebellion and Mahashweta Devi got "Sahitya Akademi Award" for Bengali in 1979 for this work.




13 | P a g e

Jharkhand. The British trapped these outstanding archers and killed them in a battle. The Santhal villages were plundered and the rebellion was brutally subdued.

Ahom’s Revolt 1828 Ahom’s Revolt took place in Assam region after the First Anglo Burmese War. The rebellion was against the annexation of the territories under British Empire in 1828. The leader of this movement was Gomdhar Konvar. The revolt was suppressed by the British military.

Khonds Uprising 1846, 1855 Khond Uprising took place in Orissa in 1846 and 1855. The Khond people were led by Chakra Bisoi.

Khasi Uprising 1833 The Khasi uprising took place in 1833 in the regions between the Khasi hills and Jaintia Hills, against a planned British Road in that area. The leader of this uprising was Tirath Singh.

Pagal Panthi Revolt 1825-1850 Pagal Panthis were a mixture of the Hinduism, Sufism and Animism, which became prominent in Bengal (Now in Bangladesh). The sect was founded by Karam Shah, and his son Tipu Shah led these people to upholad the religion and rights of the peasants in Bengal. He captured Sherpur in 1825 , after standing up against oppressive taxes and laws imposed by the Zamindars and the British. The rebels kept disturbed the area for more than 2 decades. Tipu Shah died in 1852, but the resistance movement continued.

Paiks Rebellion 1803-1806 The Paiks Rebellion took place in Orissa between 1803-1806. Paikis was a militia class under the Zamindars, led by Baxi Jagbandhu.

Singhpos Revolt 1830 Singhpos revolt took place in 1830 in Assam and continued till 1839, when it was suppressed by the British.

Kachnagas Revolt 1882 Kachnagas revolt took place in Cachar region of Assam in 1882,. The leader of this revolt was Sambudhan. The revolt was crushed brutally by the British.

Faraizis Revolt 1838-1857 This sect was founded by Haji Shariatullah in Bengal. Haji Shariatullah advocated the radical changes in religious, political and social changes in Bengal, because the Islam got degraded because of the British Influence. He organized a small armed force to attack the Zamindars and tried to establish a parallel government. Even established Khalifas as Commissioners of each village, to raise funds, and settle disputes between villagers. After Haji Shariatullah, his son Dadu Mian led this




14 | P a g e

rebellion and was several times prosecuted by the British but convicted because of no evidences. The movement ended with Dadu Mian's death in 1860.

Indigo Revolt 1856-57 Indigo planting started in Bengal as early as 1777. It was first planted by one British Louis Bonard. When the British Power expanded, the Indigo planting was emphasized because of a high demand of the Blue Dye in Europe.

• The peasants were compelled to plant Indigo rather than the food Crops. • The peasants were provided loans called "dadon" for indigo planting which was at a very

high interest rate. The loan made the people indebted and resulted in a rebellion. • The leaders were Digambar and Bishnu Bishwas. • The condition was depicted in the newspaper Nil Darpan.

Bhil Uprising 1817-19 This uprising took place in Khandesh region of Maharastra under the leadership of Sewaram due to the agrarian hardships. The trouble again erupted in 1825, 1831 & 1846.

Koli Uprising 1829, 1839 Koli community is an ethnic group mostly found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh. The rose against the British rule for dismantling the forests and a new order of administration in 1829 & 1839.

Kutch Rebellion 1819 The people in Kutch rose against the British when in 1819, they deposed Rao Bharmal and placed his infant son on the throne. The masses got violent and the British had to opt for conciliation.

Other Revolts of West India • Waghera Revolt : 1820 • Ramosi Revolt : 1825-26 under Chittur Singh around Satara Area of Maharashtra • Satara Revolt : Under Dhar Rao in 1840. This was a follow up of the Ramosi revolt because

the ruler of Satara Pratap Singh was deposed by the British. • Bundela Revolt: In 1842 Under Madhukar Shah. The revolt was subdued and Madhukar

Shah was executed. • Gadkari Revolt: It took place in Kolhapur area. • Naikada Revolt: Naikada Revolt took place under Roop Singh and Joria Bhagat.

Revolt under Vasudev Balwant Phadke A revolt was led by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1877-78 in the Vashi & Panvel area of Maharashtra. Phadke is known as father of the armed struggle for India's independence. He created a group called Ramoshi, which was the group of Ramoshis, Kolis, Bhils and Dhangars communities in Maharashtra and the actually the "organized political dacoits". He was captured and imprisoned in 1879 and died in 1883.




15 | P a g e

Uprisings in Karnataka The "Doctrine of lapse" gave rise to dissent and resistance from princely states across the country. Major centers prior to 1857 were under Kittur Chennamma, Sangolli Rayanna in 1830s. The centres of uprising were Supa, Bagalkot, Shorapur, Nargund and Dandeli. These rebellions - which coincided with the 1857 war of independence - were led by Mundargi Bhimarao, Bhaskar Rao Bhave, the Halagali Bedas, Raja Venkatappa Nayaka and others.

Rebel by Velu Thampi Dalawa 1806 Dalwa means Prime Minister. Velu Thampi Dalawa was the Prime Minister of the local Raja of Travancore between 1802 and 1809. He rose in rebellion against the proposed reduction in the allowances, under the subsidiary alliance treaty with the Travancore. He raised the army known as Nair Batallion. The Rebellion was quelled with a large army of the British.

Rampa Rebellion1879 Rampa Rebellion of 1879 was a full scale rebellion against the British in the hill tracts of Vishakhapatnam against the oppressions of a Zamindar. The rebel was suppressed and a large number of people were sent to "Kala Pani". From the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the rapid disintegration of the Mughal Empire had left the country in political confusion, till the complete establishment over it by the British. In 1858, India came under the central authority of the Crown and this was the "political unification" of the country after a long period. Now there was a uniform system of administration in place and Indian were brought under the British Law. The assumption by the Queen Victoria of the direct government of India under the Crown in 1858, is the date which draws a single line as a whole between the ancient and modern India. The heat of the violent conflagration of 1857 had fused all the elements of the society and welded together the different parts of the country into a loose unity that became compact in the years to come. The 1858, accession of India marks the end of the long series of wars and that followed 50 years of tranquility. During this period, the role of the British Government was to occasionally punish the individual chiefs, and determining authoritatively on the conflicting claims to succession in the princely states.

Chapter 4. Lord Northbrook 1872-1876 In 1872, Lord Mayo was assassinated by a convict in Andaman Island while he was on a visit to the cellular jail. He was followed by an acting viceroy and Governor General John Strachey. John Strachey was followed by another acting Viceroy Lord Napier in the same year 1872. Between 1872 and 1876, India's Viceroy was Lord Northbrook.

Deposition of Gaekwad of Baroda 1875 Till 1870, Baroda was under the popular Raja "Sir" Khanderao Gaekwad. After his death, he was supposed to be succeeded by Malharrao, his brother as he had no male heirs. But after his death, his wife was due to give birth to a posthumous child. But the Child was a girl, so all speculation null and




16 | P a g e

void, Malhararao ascended the throne. But this man was a foolish and lavish spender and a gross tyrant. So, the paramount British came in action and by the orders of Lord Salisbury, he was deposed in 1875 and was exiled to Madras. Later he died in obscurity in 1882. This was one illustration of the use of paramount power in instances to punish acts of excessive or criminal misconduct committed by a chief or his ministers.

Kuka Movement 1872 Kuka Movement was another important event during the tenure of Lord Northbrook. The movement was originally started by Bhagat Jawar Mal in the 1840s. Bhagar Jawar Mal was also known as Sian Sahib and the headquarters of the Kukas was Hazro (now in Pakistan). These people used to emit cries (kooks) when chanting hymns and that is why they were called Kuka. The tenets of the Kuka Movement were as follows:

• One true guru "Guru Govind Singh". • Removal of caste disctintions in Sikhism. • Oppose the worship of idols, tombs and ascetics.

Thus the origin of this movement had its roots in the purification of the Sikhism. The movement became popular among the Namdhari Sikhs. When they rose against the British Rule in 1870s, they were termed terrorists. The movement became violent in 1872 under Ram Singh, who was captured and deported to Rangoon in 1872 itself.

Prince of Wales Visit to India 1876 The Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Victoria visited India in 1876 with a large suite. He arrived in Bombay and then travelled to Madras, Ceylon and finally Calcutta. The intent of this visit was to inspire the local princes’ loyalty to the British Empress and affirm their central role in the maintenance of the empire. Wherever he went, he was showered with valuable gifts by the "loyal" Indian feudatories. He collected so much in 6 months that one of the ships was filled with the jewels, paintings, antique weapons, live animals, embroideries brocades and all kinds of contemporary art works. He returned and the gifts went on an exhibition in England for 6 months. In return the Prince of Wales gave Indian Princes a copy of Rig-veda translated by Max Muller.

Orissa Famine of 1872 India was attacked by two great famines during the times of Lord Northbrook. One was the Bihar famine of 1873–74. Surprisingly, in this famine the British Government resorted to an extensive relief effort, organized by the Bengal government, so there was no casualty in this famine. But soon after, the 1876–78 saw another Great Famine in Southern India during Lord Lytton’s times. This famine affected Madras and Bombay, Mysore and Hyderabad. 10 million people perished and no number was recorded for the princely states.




17 | P a g e

Indian Meteorological Department 1875 IMD was established at Kolkata on 15 January 1875. After that it was shifted to Shimla, then Pune and Finally New Delhi.

Chapter 5. Lord Lytton 1876-1880 Lord Lytton, who remained the Viceroy of India from 1876-1880 used to write poems with the Pen name of "Owen Meredith".

Royal Titles Act 1876 The Royal Titles Act of 1876 was one of Disraeli's famous imperialistic measures. The act was passed with the understanding that the British imperial title should be used only in India. Thus, the Queen began to use it in her signature in 1878 and in 1893 it appeared on the British coins. The title empress of India was officially translated as Kaisar-i-Hind, was decorated on her in 1877 Delhi Durbar.

Delhi Darbar 1877 A few months after his swearing in as India's Viceroy, a Grand Darbar was organized at Delhi on January 1, 1877, in which Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India. After this the Queen conferred upon him the honor of the Grand Cross of the civil division of the Order of the Bath. Queen Victoria was proclaimed with title “Kaisar-i-Hind” at this Darbar. When the princes of Indian princely states were flocking to participate in this gorgeous scene of Delhi Darbar, the shadow of famine was darkening over southern India.

Great Famine of 1876 The monsoons of 1876 had failed to bring their due supply of rain, and the season of 1877 was little better. This long-continued drought stretched from the Deccan to Cape Comorin, and subsequently invaded northern India, causing a famine more wide-spread than any previously known in Indian history. The Poet Viceroy Lord Lytton was so uncompromising in implanting the British trading policies that was called directly responsible for the death of 10 million people in the Famine of 1876 -77 by some historians. The government is known to have spent 11 million sterling, but actually the lack of supply and efforts from the government caused the loss of life from starvation and a train of diseases that followed, taking the toll to a lamentable number.

Vernacular Press Act 1878 The latter half of the 19th century saw a remarkable growth in the Vernacular Press of the country and newspapers played a role of catalyst in the new socio-political consciousness. Earlier, the newspapers were being published in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad only but later the newspapers started getting published from smaller places also. Since, most of the newspapers published from smaller places, they all were in vernacular languages. In 1878, when this act was passed, the number of English Newspapers was 20 and Vernacular newspapers were




18 | P a g e

200. These vernacular newspapers made the people aware of the political affairs and now the people slowly started asking questions for their rights. So, in the best interest of the Government, Lord Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878. By this act, the magistrates of the districts were empowered, without the prior permission of the Government, to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a Bond, undertaking not to publish anything which might “rouse” feelings of disaffection against the government. The magistrate was also authorized to deposit a security, which could be confiscated if the printer violated the Bond. If a printer repeated the violation, his press could be seized. Thus the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 gagged the press and result was some proceedings against some vernacular press people. There was now a popular protest against this act. The act was later repealed by Lord Ripon, who followed Lord Lytton.

Second Anglo Afghan War 1878-80 In the winter of 1878, the affairs of Afghanistan again forced themselves into notice. The First Anglo Afghan war had ended in 1842, in a humiliation for the British and this failure kept haunting them for many years. The successive governments in Britain remain calm, but when Lord Disraeli became PM, he sent Lord Lytton to India to increase the influence in Afghanistan. On this side, under Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, Afghanistan once again became independent and Dost Mohammad Khan came back to power in 1843. Akbar Khan died in 1845.

Treaty of Peshawar In 1855 Treaty of Peshawar between Dost Mohammad and British reopened the diplomatic relations. After a series of incidents, Russia established a fixed boundary between Afghanistan and its territories in 1873. But within a period of 5 years the rivalry turned back. This was because of an uninvited diplomatic mission sent by the Russians to Kabul. The ruler Sher Ali Khan, son of Dost Mohammad Khan wanted to stop them, but failed. The British too wanted to send a mission, but Sher Ali refused. A diplomatic mission was ordered by Lord Lytton, the viceroy of British India, and the Mission was turned back. This triggered the Second Anglo Afghan War.

Treaty of Gandamak In the second Anglo Afghan war, much of Afghanistan was occupied by British. Sher Ali was defeated and he fled towards Turkistan. Sher Ali’s Son, Mohammad Yaqub Khan signed a treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879 to prevent British Invasion in rest of the country. However, he paid the price by relinquishing the Control of Afghan Foreign Relations to British. British Control was thus extended to much of the country. He also agreed to receive a British Resident at Kabul. The treaty of Gandamak was signed in May, 1879, but in the same year in September, the British Resident Major Cavagnari was murdered. This again triggered the war and Kabul was occupied. Yakub Khan surrendered and he was sent to Dehradun as a Prisoner.




19 | P a g e

Attempt to Murder and Resignation of Lord Lytton At this crisis of affairs, there was a general election in England, which resulted in the defeat of the Conservative Ministry of Lord Disraeli. Lord Lytton also resigned simultaneously. Prior to that in 1879 an attempt was made to assassinate him, but he happily escaped uninjured. After his resignation, Lord Ripon was sent to India. Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College) was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the leader of Muslim renaissance in Indian subcontinent, in 1875 at Aligarh during the tenuer of Lord Lytton. It later became Aligarh Muslim University.

• Lucile was a verse novel written by Lord Lytton, published in 1860. • The Indian Arms Act of 1878 was legislated during Lord Lytton's time. By this act, no Indians

could keep unlicensed arms. However, the English people could hold arms without license. • Lord Lytton also was responsible for the economic distress caused by abolishing the Tax on

the foreign cotton coming to India, to safeguard the British Traders. • The maximum age to enter in to the Civil Services Examination was reduced from 21 years

to 19 years.

Chapter 6. Lord Ripon 1880-84 Lord Ripon remained India's Viceroy from 1880-84. This liberal politician is known for many reforms in the internal administration of India. The most important events during this time were as follows:

• The Vernacular Press Act was repealed in 1882 • A Resolution in 1882 set off the institution of local self-government in India. • Hunter Commission came in 1882 for the purpose of education reforms. • The age for entry in the Civil Services was once again raised to 21 years. • The First factory Act was enacted in 1881 • Introduction of Ilbert Bill in severely compromised state. • The years 1882 and 1883 are memorable for these great measures. One important one was

the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, which was passed by his predecessor Lord Lytton in 1878.

Thus, he sat free the native journals from the last restrains on the free discussion of public questions. In 1882, he granted freedom to the Press.

The Afghan Affairs Immediately after the Second Anglo Afghan War, Abdur Rahaman, the male heir of the Dost Muhammad stock was made the Amir of Afghanistan. The British Viceroy Lord Ripon withdrew the policy of disintegrating the Afghanistan and accepted it as a Buffer state (between British and Russian/ Persian territories), which later culminated in Durand Line. However they retained the rights to handle the foreign relations of Afghanistan. In 1885, a military skirmish occurred and the Russian encroached the Merv Oasis and an Afghan territory south of the Oxus River around an oasis




20 | P a g e

at Panjdeh. (It is now in Turkmenistan). Later, possible war was averted with diplomacy of Lord Dufferin, who managed to secure a settlement. As per this settlement Russia kept the Merv Oasis, but relinquished further territories taken in their advance, and promised to respect Afghan territorial integrity in the future.

Local Self Government (Resolution of 1882) Lord Ripon is known to have granted the Indians first taste of freedom by introducing the Local Self Government in 1882. His scheme of local self government developed the Municipal institutions which had been growing up in the country ever since India was occupied by the British Crown. He led a series of enactments in which larger powers of the Local self government were given to the rural and urban bodies and the elective people received some wider rights. Lord Ripon is known as Father of Local Self Government in India. This was not enacted by any act; it was a resolution that was passed in 1882.

First Factory Act 1881 A committee was appointed in 1875 to inquire into the conditions of factory work in the country. This committee had favored some kind of legal restrictions in the form of factory laws. During Lord Ripon's time, the first Factories Act was adopted in 1881. Following this act, a Factory Commission was appointed in 1885. There was another Factories Act in 1891, and a Royal Commission on Labor was appointed in 1892. The result of these enactments was the limitation on the factory working hours. This was an answer of the Government to the pathetic conditions of the workers in the factory, wherein, only when a laborer exhausted, new laborer was to take his / her place.

Hunter Education Commission 1882-83 In 1882, Lord Ripon organized the Hunter Commission under William Wilson Hunter. William Wilson Hunter was the statistician, a compiler and a member of the Indian Civil Service, who later also became Vice President of Royal Asiatic Society. He was appointed as a Magistrate in the Bengal Presidency in 1862, and form there only he started compiling the local traditions and records. He published "The Annals of Rural Bengal" and "A Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages of India" but his best known work is "The Imperial Gazetteer of India" on which he started working in 1869. This work was delegated to him by Lord Mayo. The work appeared in 9 volumes in 1881. In 1882 as a member of the Governor General in Council he was appointed he chairman of the Commission on Education. In 1886, he was also elected as Vice Chancellor of the Calcutta University. The Hunter Commission brought out the neglect to the primary and secondary education in the country. The commission recommended that the responsibility for the Primary Education must be given to the Local Boards and Municipal Boards. The important recommendations were as follows:

• The government should take special care to extend the primary education.




21 | P a g e

• There should be literary and vocational training in secondary education. • The commission brought out inadequate facilities available for the female education in the

country. The recommendations were partially implemented and there was a slow growth in the number of the secondary schools in the country.

Ilbert Bill 1884 Ilbert Bill is named after Courtenay Peregrine Ilbert, who was appointed as legal adviser to the Council of India. The bill was introduced in 1883 by Viceroy Ripon, who actually desired to abolish the racial prejudice from the Indian Penal Code. Ripon had proposed an amendment for existing laws in the country and to allow Indian judges and magistrates the jurisdiction to try British offenders in criminal cases at the District level. It was never allowed before. So naturally, the Europeans living in India looked it as a Humiliation and the introduction of the bill led to intense opposition in Britain as well as India (by the British residents). So it was withdrawn but was reintroduced and enacted in 1884 in a severely compromised state. The amended bill had the provisions that the Europeans would be conferred on European and Indian District Magistrates and Sessions Judges alike. However, a defendant would in all cases have the right to claim trial by a jury of which at least half the members must be European. Thus, this enactment held that Europeans criminals would be heard only by the Indian Judges "helped by the European Judges". The passage of this bill opened the eyes of the Indians and deepened antagonism between the British and Indians. The result was wider nationalism and establishment of Indian National Congress in the next year. The amended Ilbert Bill was passed on 25 January 1884, as the Criminal Procedure Code Amendment Act 1884. It came into force on May 1, 1884.

Chapter 7. Pre Congress Organizations It took over 100 years to the Indians to understand the true nature of the colonist British rule as an exploitative, alien rule. The Nationalism in India certainly grew after the foundation of Indian national Congress in 1885, but prior to that there were some secular political organizations that came up with some primitive ideas about independence. The first among them was British India Society.

British India Society 1839-43 In 1831, Dwarkanath Tagore had established the “Landholders Society” along with Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen and Bhabani Charan Mitra. The Landholders society was known as the first organization of Bengal with distinct political object. It was followed by British India Society in 1839. British India Society was founded in 1839 in England with the efforts of William Adam, one of the friends of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.




22 | P a g e

William Adam had come to India and got in touch with Raja Ram Mohan Roy and when he returned England, he took up India’s cause along with George Thompson, William Ednis, and Major General Briggs. The result was organizing meetings at several places and creating awareness about the conditions in India. In 1841, this society started printing a newspaper "British Indian Advocate". In 1842, Dwarkanath Tagore went to England along with Chandramohan Chatterjee and Paramananda Maitra. He returned from England with George Thomson. With the efforts of George Thomson, Bengal British India Society was founded on 20 April 1843. The idea was to secure the welfare, and advance the interests of all classes, in pure loyalty to the government of the reigning sovereign of the British dominions.

British Indian Association 1851 British Indian Association was created after amalgamating the "Landholders Society" and "British India Society" on 31 October 1851. This was the first political organization that brought the Indian Together. The President of the first committee of this organization was Raja Radhakanta Deb, while Debendranath Tagore was its secretary. The newspaper of this society was "Hindu patriot" which adopted a strongly critical political tone. Its editor Harish Chandra Mukherjee wrote in the Hindu Patriot on 14 January 1858, the following lines: “Can a revolution in the Indian government be authorized by Parliament without consulting the wishes of vast millions of men for whose benefit it is proposed to made? The reply must be in the negative. The time has nearly come when all Indian questions must be solved by Indians"

In the wake of the upcoming charter act (of 1853) in 1852, this organization sent a delegation to England, pleading for separation of Judiciary with executive, higher posts and pays for Indians, abolition of salt duty and inclusion of Indians in the legislative councils. But all expectations were negated by the Charter Act of 1853.

Bombay Association (1852) & Madras Native Association (1852) In Bombay and Madras, there were two important first political organizations. The first political organization of the Bombay Presidency was the Bombay Association which was started on 26 August 1852, to vent public grievances to the British. The first organization in the Madras Presidency to vent for the rights of Indians was the Madras Native Association which was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in 1849. However, both of them were essentially local in character and so got disbanded in a few years.

East Indian Association 1867 The "Grand Old Man of India" Dadabhai Naoroji initiated establishment of East India Association, at London. It was one of the predecessor organizations of the Indian National Congress in 1867. The idea was to present the correct information about India to the British Public




23 | P a g e

and voice Indian Grievances. In 1869, this organization opened branches in Bombay, Kolkata and Madras. It became defunct in 1880s.

National Indian Association 1870 (Mary Carpenter) Mary Carpenter was an English educational and social reformer who came to India in 1866, to fulfill her long cherished desire to, after she met Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1833. During this visit she went to Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. She could see the pathetic condition of the female children in the country. She met Keshab Chandra Sen, the leader of Brahmo Samaj, who asked her to form an organization in Britain to improve communication between British and Indian reformers. In 1870 she established National Indian Association. It was different than the Indian National Association.

Indian National Association 1876 (Surendra Nath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose) Indian National Association was the first declared Nationalist Organization founded in British India by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose in 1876. It was originally established as Bharat Sabha and held its first annual conference in Calcutta. It merged in INC in 1885.

Chapter 8. Lord Dufferin In 1884 Lord Dufferin came to India as Next Viceroy. The main events of this period were:

• Third Anglo Burmese war that led to annexation of Upper Burma. • Tenancy acts were passed in some provinces • Congress took birth in 1885. • Lord Dufferin sought to pursue a middle path in contrast with the imperialism of Lord

Lytton and overzealous policy of internal administration reforms of Lord Ripon. But this was the time for serious problems in the foreign relations. In North West Russia was renewing its policy of aggression, in east, in the Indo-China France had started upon an aggressive policy.

Birth of Durand Line 1884 - 1893 In Afghanistan, Abdur Rahaman was made the Amir in 1880. By this time, the British had accepted the policy of disintegrating the Afghans and accepted it as a Buffer State between the two countries. The advocates of a British forward policy in Afghanistan and on the North West frontier of India regarded "Herat" as the gate of India. But British still retained the rights to handle the foreign relations of Afghanistan. In 1885, a military skirmish occurred and the Russian encroached the Merv Oasis and an Afghan territory south of the Oxus

Surendranath Banerjee Surendranath Banerjee is also known as RastraGuru. He was born in 1848 and in 1868, he competed in the Indian Civil Service Examination along with RC Dutt. He cleared the exam in 1869, but was debarred because of age dispute. Later he cleared the exam in 1871 and got appointed as Assistant magistrate in Bengal. Later he established the Indian national Association which was Pro-british. He remained the leader of the INC and in the evening of his life supported the British empire. He was knighted by the Government and also served as minister for local self-government from 1921 to 1924. He was an open critic of Mahatma Gandhi, who was then only in rising stage of his political career.




24 | P a g e

River around an oasis at Panjdeh. (It is now in Turkmenistan). Thus the occupation of Merv placed Russia in a easy striking reach of Herat. So, this was a great alarm for the Russophobes. Immediately negotiations were opened between London and St. Petersburg. A possible war was averted with diplomacy and Lord Dufferin managed to secure a settlement. As per this settlement Russia kept the Merv Oasis, but relinquished further territories taken in their advance, and promised to respect Afghan territorial integrity in the future.

• Later, in 1893 during times of Lord Lansdowne, Abdul Rahman accepted to let a mission headed by the British India Foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, demarcate the territories as joint Afghan Frontier Commission.

• This was the birth of Durand Line, which now defines the territories of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

• Durand Line is also known to have established the “Great Game" buffer zone between British and Russian interests in that region.

• The Durand line agreement carved out of a new province called North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) out of annexed areas from Afghanistan.

• They are currently part of Pakistan but Afghanistan did not recognize them. • In 1895, Afghanistan's northern Border was fixed and Guaranteed by Russia.

Third Anglo-Burmese War and Annexation of Burma On the eastern front, there was an unrest caused by the French activities in Indo-China, which led the British to poke their nose in the affairs of independent Burma. The Kind Thebau was alleged of persistent ill treatment with the British subjects. There was a succession crisis and British resident was thrown out of Burma. The result was a war in which a force under General Harry North Dalrymple Prendergast invaded upper Burma. In two weeks, the King surrendered and was sent as a prisioner to Madras. On January 1, 1886, the territories of Burma were annexed in British India and on September 25, 1886, Lower Burma was annexed as province of British India under Sir Charles Bernard as the first chief commissioner. Thus this annexation was a result of Imperialism, rather than justice. But this annexation aroused the Burmese people. They started seeking independence by protracted guerrilla warfare. The series of expensive campaigns against these Guerrilla warriors was led and they were suppressed brutally. But this annexation was not even welcome in India. This was because of the increased expenses which were now to be at the Cost of Indian Subjects. So, Indians prayed to make the Burma a crown colony as Ceylon.

Birth of Congress 1885 Back home, the need for the formation of an all-India political organization had become an objective necessity. The pre-congress organizations were limited in scope and objectives. This led to




25 | P a g e

development of some basic needs and objectives before the leaders. It was said that the Indians need to be welded together for their political advancements. It was Allan Octavian Hume, who embarked on an endeavor to start an organization of select alumni of the University of Calcutta in 1883. By May 1885, he was able to secure the Viceroy's approval to create an "Indian National Union", which would be affiliated with the government and act as a platform to voice Indian public opinion. In Britain, there was a general election in 1885. A. O. Hume et al published an "Appeal from the People of India" to the electors of Great Britain and Ireland. This appeal asked the British Voters to support the candidates who were sympathetic to the Indian public opinions. However, there was no substantial result of this appeal. The major issued raised by these people were:

• Spending Indian taxpayer's money on British Indian campaigns in Afghanistan • Legislative reforms on India for greater participation of the Indian people. • Increased pressure on India by annexation of Burma.

On 28 December 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attendance.

• Please note that the first meeting was scheduled to be held in Pune, but due to a plague outbreak there, the meeting was later shifted to Mumbai. The first Session of INC was held from 28-31 December 1885, and was attended by 72 delegates.

• A O Hume assumed office as the General Secretary. • Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee of Calcutta was elected President.

The additional British Members were William Wedderburn and Justice John Jardine. All others were the Hindus from Calcutta and Madras Presidency.

Safety Valve Theory Indian National Congress was founded by a Retired Civil Servant and not by any Indian. It was said that the INC was started by Viceroy Lord Dufferin with the help of an ex Civil Services member as a "Safety Valve" against the popular discontent. This is termed as "Safety Valve Theory". This theory says that A O Hume and other British thought that the educated Indians may become leaders of the Indian public and organize a rebellion against the government. So if the Government itself provides them a platform to raise their voice, it may be possible to stop such nuisance. A O Hume also lobbied with some other people such as Sir James Caird, Lord Ripon, John Bright etc. A large number of British in India such as Sir William Wedderburn, George Yule, Charles Bradlaugh etc, supported AO Hume.

First session of Congress & Indian Councils Act In the First session of the Congress, it adopted a resolution expressing the dissatisfaction on the current system of Governance and demanded reforms in the Councils. After this resolution, Lord Dufferin had established a committee for the reforms in the councils and this resulted in the Indian Councils Act 1892. This act introduced the principle of representation in India.




26 | P a g e

This theory has been discarded now. But still, the contribution of British cannot be disregarded in creation of first all India political front in which majority of the people were Hindus. The Muslims took congress negatively in the beginning but there were leaders such as Badruddin Taybji who were active leaders. The contribution of British in foundation of this organization was accepted and verbalized by Gopal Krishna Gokhle in 1913 as follows: "No Indian could have started the Indian National Congress...if an Indian had come forward to start such a movement embracing all Indians, the officials in India would not have allowed the movement to come into existence. If the founder of the Congress had not been an Englishman and a distinguished ex-official, such was the distrust of political agitation in those days that the authorities would have at once found some way or the other to suppress the movement"

Second Session of Indian National Congress The second session of Indian National Congress met at Calcutta in December 1886. The president was Dadabhai Naoroji. Now the number was 436 and these delegates were elected by different local organizations and groups. Most of these were the educated class of India consisting of lawyers, journalists, traders, industrialists, teachers, and some of them were landlords. The success of second INC session led the leaders decide to meet every year in December in different parts of the country. By 1889, the number of the delegates rose to 2000.

Early Years of Congress: the Demands During the early years, Congress passed the resolutions on the related to political, administrative and economic public grievances. The main political demand was the reform in the legislative councils so that the Indians get wider powers such as discussion on Budget, so that they work as representatives of the people. There was a demand of local self-government at a wider level. They wanted reforms in the Civil services and through a simultaneous ICS examination at India as well as England, so that the administration becomes more responsive to the needs of the Indian People. The other demand was separation of Judiciary with the executive. The other demands were:

• Repeal of the arms act • Higher jobs in the army for the Indians • Rising of an Indian volunteers force. • Similarly, the economic issues were based upon the drain of wealth from India to England. • It was documented and published by Dada Bhai Naoroji as "Poverty and un-British Rule in

India". • The Congress leaders wanted an inquiry into India’s growing poverty and famines, reduction

in military expenditure and home expenditures • They wanted more funds for technical education to promote Indian industries.




27 | P a g e

• Another demand was to put an end to unfair tariffs and excise duties imposed on Indian traders very discriminately.

• They wanted extension of permanent settlement to other areas.

Early Congress and British The idea behind these reasonable demands was to put a national character to the British Government of India. The methodology of the early Congress leaders was limited to pass resolutios and prepare petitions to be sent to England. The British Committee of INC was founded in 1889 and in 1890; this committee started a journal called India. Thus we see that initially the Indian National Congress wished to achieve the Indian Objectives within the British Empire. But in the due course, Congress became the focus and fulcrum of Indian Nationalist aspirations and it was in 1929, when independence was kept above all the other goals. Initially the objectives were limited and it worked with the constitutional limits. But still it was being looked with suspicion with the by the British. When Congress was formed, the secretary of state for India was Earl of Kimberley, who served in this capacity from December 1882 to 9 June 1885. But when the Congress met for the first time on 28 December 1885, the Secretary of State for India was Lord Randolph Churchill, whose tenure was from 24 June 1885 28 January 1886, just 6 months. After that Earl of Kimberley again became secretary of state for India and served in this capacity from 6 February 1886 to 20 July 1886. This question has been asked many times in examinations. The demands of the Congress were ridiculed in the British Media. But it was Earl of Kimberley, the Secretary of State for India who somewhat supported the reasonable demands. Lord Dufferin initially did not take Congress much seriously. Then, there was a blast and all of a sudden a Pamphlet appeared titled "The Rising Tide". Another pamphlet appeared titled "An Old Man's Home". These were agianst the British and Lord Dufferin took no time to react and express objection to these mischief. He initially called Congress as representative of "microscopic minority of India" but later in the fourth session of Allahabad, the Government servants were disallowed to take part in the proceedings of the Congress. Thus was the beginning of the movement of Independence in India.

Chapter 9. Lord Lansdowne The Marquis of Lansdowne (Lord Lansdowne) succeeded Lord Dufferin in 1888 and ruled India till 1894. This was the time when the North West frontier of India was strengthened and secured against the possible invasions.

• The Durand line was demarcated which served as India-Afghanistan Border. • This was the time of improving railroad communication between the frontier and the

military base in India. This time was used by the British in strengthening the select position by making strong fortifications of great cantonments. For defense of the Khaibar, Rawalpindi was selected as the base




28 | P a g e

for the defense, thus strong posts at Rawalpindi, Peshawar Attock defended the Indus. During his time, Indian Councils Act 1892 was passed.

Indian Councils Act 1892 Indian Councils Act 1892 was the beginning of the parliamentary System in India. Before this act was passed, the Indian National Congress had adopted some resolutions in its sessions in 1885 and 1889 and put its demand. The major demands placed were as follows:

• A simultaneous examination of ICS to be held in England and India • Reforms of the legislative council and adoption of the principle of election in place of

nomination • Opposition to the annexation of Upper Burma • Reduction in the Military expenditure.

The second demand mentioned above reflected the dissatisfaction of the Indian National Congress over the existing system of governance. The Indian leaders wanted admission of a considerable number of the elected members. They also wanted the creation of similar councils of North western Province and Oudh and also for Punjab. The Indian leaders also wanted a right to discussion on budget matters. Viceroy Lord Dufferin set up a committee. The committee was given the responsibility to draw a plan for the enlargement of the provincial councils and enhancement of their status. The plan was drawn, but when it was referred to the Secretary of State for India, he did not agree to introduction of the Principle of election. The Indian Councils Act 1892 gave the members right to ask questions on Budget or matters of public Interest.

• But none of them was given right to ask supplementary questions. • The act was 1892 can be said to be a First step towards the beginning of the parliamentary

system in India, where the members are authorized to ask questions. • At least, they were enabled to indulge in a criticism of the Financial Policy of the

Government. The Indian Councils act 1892 can also be said to introduce the principle of representation. This act authorized the universities, District Boards, Municipalities, Zamindars and Chambers of Commerce to send members to Provincial councils. The Indian Councils act 1892 increased the number of the additional members in case of the council of the governor general to maximum of 16. In case of Bombay and Madras 8-20 and In case of the Bengal 20 and In case of North Western province and Oudh 15. Contrary to the Congress faith in the policy of petition, prayer and protest, the Indian Councils Act did not satisfy the public demand. The congress way of demand was seen as a weakness by the British Government. This was evident from the following note by BG Tilak:




29 | P a g e

“……political rights will have to be fought for. The moderates think that these can be won by persuasion. We Think that they can only be obtained by strong Pressure…” This was the beginning of the militant nationalism in India.

Chapter 10. Lord Elgin In January, 1894, Lord Elgin succeeded Lord Lansdowne. By this time, the financial reforms and tax reductions by Lord Ripon's administration had started creating problems for the revenue. The Burma War cost Rs. 40 Lakh, the military campaigns in North West cost Rs. 20 Lakh and the increased army needed an expenditure of Rs. 15 Lakh per annum. To meet these expenses, the income tax was revived in 1886 and Salt Tax was increased in 1888 and a 5% custom duty was imposed in 1894. When Lord Elgin came, the custom duty was imposed on Cotton Goods and was extended to Manchester Cotton Cloths of finer qualities.

Opium Commission 1893 In 1893 a royal commission was issued to inquire into the results of using opium in India, and the possibility of prohibiting it. This commission examined many witnesses and finally reported in 1895. The result was as follows:

• The result of Opium use in India is much less harmful than it was supposed. • Opium rarely sends any criminal to the Jails, as Alcohol sends criminals to English Jails as a

cause of crime and death in England. It is used by the holy saints of India. • Opium is not associated to any disease and it is widely used as a remedy in Malaria and

Fever. The result was that the Government happily accepted the recommendation of this commission and shelved the idea of imposing a ban on Opium. A similar parliamentary commission was asked to inquire into the impact of Bhang, Ganja and other "desi" drugs and the commissions found that if Bhang and Ganja are prohibited, the consumption of alcohol will increase in India, and that would cause more problems for their subjects in India. At that time, Opium was cultivated by only licensed cultivators and they were required to sell all of the produce to the Government, which used to "export" it. About 90 % of this Opium was sent to China and Government earned two third of the profit. Opium was rarely smoked in India but the people of Burma were used to living in Opium Smoker's paradise. But the commission’s reports were criticized by some parliamentarians of England like Henry Joseph Wilson, who did not approve the “studies” of the commissioners.

Bubonic Plague of Bombay Presidency 1896-97 The last five years of the 19th century were disastrous for India, which brought an array of misfortune and distress. In October, 1896, the Bubonic plague, which was part of the Third Pandemic, was certified to exist in the Bombay presidency. It was endemic in some localities like Mesopotamia and some central




30 | P a g e

Asian places but from there it spread to China causing 50 thousand deaths and then in Hong Kong causing 10 thousand deaths. The Plague was studied at the Pasteur Institute in Paris and the studies were done by a Russian Bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine. Waldemar Haffkine had also developed an anti-cholera vaccine which he tried out successfully in India. He was the first microbiologist who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. He tested the vaccines on himself and was acclaimed as "a savior of humanity". The plague spread rapidly in the Bombay Presidency and people started fleeing from Mumbai, Pune and other places. In 1897, the death started dancing in Pune and the government decided to take drastic steps against the killer disease. There were riots in various locations due opposition to government policy of sanitary measures. The government had decided to take drastic action against the Plague and as per the Special Plague Committee’s recommendations 893 officers and men both British and native were placed under the command of Mr. WC Rand and Lieutenant Ayerst. The soldiers started house searching and the social taboos took it as a kind of oppression. The people got irked and Tilak also opposed this way of the Government’s suppression of the disease. He wrote inflammatory articles in "Kesari" his newspaper. The result was that these two officers were shot dead by some Pune youngsters. After this, a series of trials began and some people including Tilak were charged of sedition. Tilak was sentenced to 18 months rigorous imprison. In the court he declared:

“Swaraj ha maza janmasidha adhikar aahe ani to mi milavinach” Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.” This made Tilak a national Hero and when he returned from Jail, Mother India had found herself given birth to a true hero. The last five years of the 19th century were disastrous for India, which brought an array of misfortune and distress. In October, 1896, the Bubonic plague, which was part of the Third Pandemic, was certified to exist in the Bombay presidency. It was endemic in some localities like Mesopotamia and some central Asian places but from there it spread to China causing 50 thousand deaths and then in Hong Kong causing 10 thousand deaths. In Pune there were riots in opposition to the Government sanitary measures and the irked people shot two British officers dead. The plague also gave India’s first Swarajist Bal Gangadhar Tilak who declared that “Swaraj ha maza janmasidha adhikar aahe ani to mi milavinach” The opposition of the Government policy in the Indian Press that led to the series of sedition trials. The result was that a new Press Regulation was adopted in 1898. The Bubonic Plague spread from Bombay Presidency to other parts of the country such as Punjab, Bengal, United Provinces and in 1905 its traces were seen in even Burma. By 1901, 4 Lakh people had died; the death toll reaches over 10 Lakh by 1905. It was on its height when in the last week of




31 | P a g e

April 1905, fifty eight thousand people were reported to have killed. However, since then the number of deaths fell. But this was just a part of the misfortune for India. The same time was of severe famine attacks affecting several parts of India.

Chhappania Akal 1899-1900 In 1896, the rainfall was less than the normal rainfalls. This was an El Niño year, the years in which the monsoon rainfall was considerably less than average, because of the El Niño. In 1897 the rains were sufficient but in the next year 1897-98, the rains were profuse, but again 1899 was an El Niño year. This was the worst year in which rainfall fell to 60-65%. (Normal rain 45 Inch, this year rains 33 Inches, deficiency 11 Inches). The result of these two El Niño Years 1896 & 1899 was that in October 1897 Three Lakh square miles of the population of the Agra, Oudh, Bengal and the Central Provinces got affected. In November 1900, the Bombay Presidency, Central Provinces, Rajputana, etc. got caught in the grip of the famine. This was three and half times of the area affected previously. The famine claimed 90-100 Lakh lives, most severely affected were Bombay Presidency as per the official figures and Rajputana as per the unofficial figures. Since the famine of 1899-1900 was in the Vikrami Samvat 1956, it is known as Chhappania Akal or Chhappania Kal. The El Niño year follow by El Niño+1 year in which the normal rainfalls are higher. The result was the famine was followed by epidemic , malaria & cholera and the severity of the famine was so bad that the tribals of Rajputana, Madhya Pradesh (central Provinces) , Gujarat (Bombay Presidency), Hissar and other places died in thousands. The tragedy is still sung in the folk songs of these areas. The famine relief in the British Provinces was organized by the Government of Lord Curzon and around 25% of the affected people were relieved as per the official figures, but the native princes of Rajputana and Gujarat who were autonomous failed to curb the death toll. The Government spent Rs. 170 Lakh and Rs. 130 Lakh in the famines of 1897 and 1900. This Chhappania Akal is the most widespread recorded in Indian history. Though, it was not as acute as the Orissa famine of 1866 or as fatal as the terrible Bengal famine of 1770, yet the progress of the media, invention and spread of Photography and the means of communication made it the most popular famine of India.

Chapter 11. Lord Curzon Viceroy of this famine torn India was Lord Curzon who had come to take office in 1899. He remained India's viceroy till 1905. The British records claim that the efforts of Lord Curzon were able to feed 3-5 million people in the British Indian provinces. Lord Curzon Said: "If any man is in any doubt as to whether he should subscribe, I would gladly give him a railway Ticket to a famine district....He might go with a hard heart, but he would come back with a broken one".




32 | P a g e

But, this calculative person wanted to spend as little money as he could do. It is evident from the following statements he made : "any government which imperiled the financial position of India in the interests of prodigal philanthropy would be open to serious criticism; but any government which by indiscriminate alms-giving weakened the fibre and demoralized the self-reliance of the population, would be guilty of a public crime"

The British initiatives were inadequate grossly -- • The authorities did not do anything to do an intervention in the market to control the grain

prices. • The Famine Relief Commission received millions of Pounds of money and Grain from the

private sources but the efforts reached too late. • The Government policy was devoid of any humanitarian consideration. • India owed an enormous debt to her Colonial masters and this led Curzon to remain

stringent in his economics. Thus was the fate of the Indian subjects under the colonial power. There was another famine of such kind in 1943 too.

Inauguration of North West Frontier Provinces 1901 In 1897-98, there was a rising in the North West. After long consideration it was decided, at the close of 1901, to create a Northwest Frontier Province under a chief commissioner directly subordinate to the government of India. Thus a policy of conciliation was mingled with forceful suppression. Now, the new province contained the territories lying between the newly defined frontier of Afghanistan and the upper course of the River Indus. The military bases were connected with the frontier posts by a system of light railroads.

Irrigation Commission 1901 After the disastrous famine period of 1896-1900, there was an emphasis on pushing for more internal administration reforms with greater vigor. In this context, construction of irrigation works in accordance with the broad plans was outlined by an Irrigation Commission under Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. This commission was appointed by Lord Curzon. The most important part of these undertakings was Punjab, which comprised of 2714 miles of main canal. A project to cover all the areas was developed, which would construct smaller canals and link them with the main canal thus practically completing the possible development of irrigation in the Punjab. However, this work was later authorized in 1905 and it took more than 2 decades to get completed.

Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900 One of the most important events that had a greater impact on the people was the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900. By this act, there was a 15 years limitation was placed on all land purchases and mortgages.




33 | P a g e

Thus this bill cancelled the Zamindar's right to sell or mortgage a land. • The basic objective of this bill was to impose a check on the alienation of land from

Agriculture to nonagricultural class, thus discouraging the moneylenders. • The idea was to protect the Zamindars. These Zamindars borrowed money from the Money

Landers and then either sold or mortgaged their lands. This also stopped the Urban Professionals and traders to enter into any kind of land transaction with the peasants.

• The peasants were on the brink of the agitation due to economic oppression and the Government wanted to give some "relief" to them.

• The Bill was opposed by the Indian Leaders and the Press. They said that this bill has nothing serious measures to ameliorate the socio-economic conditions of the peasantry.

• The Indian National Congress passed a resolution against this act in 1899 Lucknow Session. This act made the moneylenders, shopkeepers, professionals and the trader class against the Government. The act was called as an intrusion to private property and the moneylenders thought that they shall be made the scapegoat. This was a point when the trader class of Punjab (Including Punjab in Pakistan) to come close to Congress.

Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904 One impact of the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900 was that the Money Landers started not giving any loans to the Agriculturalists, because now they could not keep their land as mortgage. So now there was a need to establish agriculture and rural Banks. The earliest act regarding the rural credit was the Land Improvements Loans Act of 1883. But this act had many defects in its functioning. In 1892, the Government appointed a committee under Fredrick Nicholson to advise the government on the starting of Agricultural banks and land Banks in Madras Presidency. The committee submitted its report in 1895 and 1899. The committee made strong recommendation of introduction of the rural banks on cooperative lines. Prior to that in state of Baroda, an ‘Anyonya Sahakari Mandali’ was organized in 1889, which is said to be India's first cooperative arrangement. In 1904, Cooperative Credit Societies Act, was enacted. This act gave the impetus to the Cooperative Movement in India. Soon after India's first "urban cooperative credit society" was registered in Kanjivaram in the Madras Presidency in October, 1904. The others that followed were as follows:

• Pioneer Urban Cooperative Society in Bombay (1905) • No.1 Military Accounts Mutual Help Co-operative Credit Society in Poona (1906). • Cosmos Cooperative Society Pune (1906).

The act was later amended in 1912 and in 1915, the Maclagan Committee was appointed to review their performance and suggest measures for strengthening them.




34 | P a g e

Some more important step taken by Lord Curzon were as follows: • He established a Agriculture Research Institute in Pusa (Bihar - Bengal Presidency) • He passed the ancient Monuments Protection Act and established an Archeological

department in 1901. • He also established a Police Commission under the chairmanship of Andrew Frazer in 1902. • In each province, a criminal investigation department was set up. • In 1901, Imperial Cadet Corps was launched. • A University Commission was set up under the chairmanship of Sir Thomas Raleigh. • Indian Universities Act 1904 was passed.

The most important bombshell was the partition of Bengal in 1905. Partition of Bengal 1905

Despite of the works mentioned above, Lord Curzon was unpopular. His tenure was termed "Curzonshahi" which was compared to the "Nadirshahi". The large number of Nationalists- in and outside Congress had learnt the art of protests and agitation and now the Curzon's unpopularity gave them an opportunity to initiate mass movements for the first time. The question in Bengal was of effective administrative control. In 1874, Bengal had become too large unit to be administered as a single unit. Initially some districts were set off under the Chief commissioner of Assam, but this aroused a public outcry. But the government wanted to solve the problem permanently. It was thought that Assam should be extended and it should include some eastern districts of Bengal. The question was under consideration for several months and finally on October 16, 1905, the Bengal was partitioned and the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam came officially into existence.

• Eastern Bengal and Assam • Rest of Bengal (Western Part)

The partition was opposed by Henry John Stedman Cotton, Chief Commissioner of Assam 1896-1902. The Chief Commissioner of Assam, J. B. Fuller, became lieutenant-governor of the enlarged province. But, Curzon thought as if he was dividing an American county for better administration. The Lord Curzon, who had once written to the Secretary of State for India that: "I would dig the grave of the Indian National Congress before leaving office......One of my greatest ambitions in India is to assist it (Congress) to a peaceful demise..."

The over intelligent Viceroy could not understand that Congress would cash it as a "political opportunity" and would lay the foundation of the tomb of the British Empire. The eastern part was thought to be under governed. The Government had the idea that by splitting Bengal, the eastern districts would be governed effectively, however the politico-economic motive behind this was something different which created a havoc.




35 | P a g e

The Eastern Bengal roughly comprised of Manipur, Assam, Chittagong. Dhaka, Rajshahi (Now Bangladesh) with its capital at Dhaka. The administration was left under a lieutenant-governor with a legislative council and board of revenue, but the jurisdiction was under the high court of Calcutta. The two provinces had no racial or linguistic difference but the only difference was that western part was dominated by the Hindus and Eastern Part by the Muslims. But still there was a loud outburst of Bengali patriotism against the partition of their "country". Why they must split Bengali from Bengali? Every Bengal asked…..Government have its own reasons but this was explained by the Bengali Leaders and Congress to the masses. They insisted that the main political motivation of the British was that Government wanted to deprive Calcutta of its position. Chittagong was a harbor much smaller but at almost same locational advantage as Calcutta. So now, Chittagong would prosper at the cost of Calcutta, because the trade of the eastern part would pass on to Chittagong. So, this was a golden opportunity for Congress to take the matter effectively which it did. Congress insisted that the Government could separate the Non Bengali speaking areas (Bihar or Orissa) rather than splitting the Bengali speaking area. The new Western Bengal made the Bengali people minority in their own country because now the population of Hindi and Oriya speaking people was 37 Million while the population of Bengali Speaking people was only 17 Million! The educated Indians and the Indian National Congress made an effort to create the waves at all India level and they were successful in that.

• The partition of Bengal was now dubbed a "political intrigue" of Lord Curzon to break India in pieces.

• This was the most notable manifestation of the political activity in India. Vang Bhang (Partition of Bengal) was seen as an intrigue to divide Hindus and Muslims. It was seen as dividing the Bengalis from Bengalis.

It was not acceptable. The result of this political wave was “Boycott” and "Swadeshi Movement". The agitation had started months before the Government formally announced the partition. In July 1905, the Government had shown intention of dividing Bengal. The Bengali patriots carrying flags of "United Bengal" and slogans of "Unity is strength" marched through the streets of Calcutta and they reached Town hall. On 7 August 1905, the huge meeting was organized in the Town Hall in Calcutta. In this meeting the partition was denounced as arbitrary. The resolution was passed criticizing the manner of partition. A principle of "Boycott" of the British goods was adopted. The resolution said that until the Government annuls the partition, agitation shall continue.

• The Vande Mataram, which is now our national song became the symbol of this agitation. The India was on the right path of national awakening. On the date of partition, Gurudev Rabindranath declared that it should be observed as a day of unity, people should tie threads to each other's wrists.




36 | P a g e

On that particular day, every Bengali kept a fast and took bath on the holy river of Ganges. The streets of Calcutta echoed Bande Mataram and Amar Sonar Bangla Amey Tomay Bhalobashi. The Boycott of British Goods was urged by all the newspapers.

Swadeshi and Boycott Swadeshi and Boycott are two faces of the same coin. When we say Swadeshi, it means adopting indigenous products. When we say Boycott, it means we reject foreign made products. The initial protest was as Boycott and later it became Swadeshi. It was actually a tool of political purpose for Congress to turn the wave into a popular agitation. The British Government had no problem with Swadeshi but Boycott was something which must be denounced! The tool of Boycott was first of used in 1870s when the Manchester cloth was boycotted widely. But it was made a political tool only after partition of Bengal. The Extremist Nationalism also swung up after this event. It was announced as a Boycott in August 1905 in the Town hall of Calcutta but the same thing was given a new term Swadeshi in the 1906 Banaras session of the Indian National Congress under Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The result was that the British cloth, sugar, and other goods were boycotted. Those using these things were socially boycotted. The shopkeepers who sold the imported items were picketed. Public burning of the foreign cloths started. The new blood- school and college students were proactive in this amazing movement. The boycott soon started in other parts of the country. Tilak spread the movement in Bombay presidency and Lala Lajpat Rai took it to Punjab. Syed Haidar Raza took the movement in western parts. There was an active participation of the people in Delhi, Lahore, Rawal Pindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan, Peshawar, Pune, and Bombay and all of a sudden a nationwide wave was seen in India.

Rise of Extremists The first activity of militant nationalism was seen in Pune during the Bubonic plague of Bombay presidency when the Chapekar brothers shot two officials Mr. Rand and Lt. Ayerst dead in 1897. This group of people hated the British due to their apathy, discrimination and irresponsible administration during the famine and plague. Lord Curzon, who wanted to make England’s stronghold more strong in India actually did some political blunders as follows: In 1899 the political powers of Calcutta Corporation was curtailed down.

• The University act of 1904 reduced the number of Indian elected members. • The Official secrets act 1904 tightened the security and • The police reforms increased the power and expense of the Police Force.

There was considerable unemployment in the country and these unemployed youths started getting attracted towards the anti-Government radical politics.

• These youths were aware of the Russophobia of British. • They could understand what was happening in Japan.




37 | P a g e

• They knew about the Chinese boycott of American goods. • They knew about the struggle of British in the Boer war.

These news that came from across the border was enough to boost their self confidence and slowly the inferiority complex of Indians was getting washed away. Around 1 million people were reading newspapers now. The Bengal, the Punjab and the Presidency of Bombay were ripe for rise of the militant nationalism. These youngsters did not like the congress mendicancy. They had the Atma shakti and wanted to fight for their rights. The father of this extremism was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who started Ganapati festival from 1894 and developed this religious method of mass contact into a patriotic and historic cult and a symbol of nationalism. In 1896 he started organizing Shivaji festival. For him, the congress was a frog that croaked once a year. He believed in Swaraj and not in administration reforms. He was a Lion who was able create mass unrest by writing articles in his Kesari in Marathi and Mahratta in English.

Chapter 12. Lord Minto Meanwhile Lord Curzon became sick. When he was on the sickbed, on August 12, 1905 he telegraphed his resignation to London. The news of his resignation was published in newspapers in a few days and this gave new zeal to the agitators. But the new Viceroy and Governor-General of India Lord Minto, and the new secretary of state for India, John Morley upheld Lord Curzon's measure. Bengal partition was now in operation. Lord Minto remained Viceroy till 1910. The first thing for the new Viceroy was to crackdown on the people who made the hue and cry. The victims were the school and college boys. They were asked whether they wanted grants, scholarships and affiliation or not? The students were fined, expelled, arrested, beaten and repressed. Now, one could listen the Vandemataram in every street. The government went crazy when it started pulling down the houses on which Bande mataram was written! Police was now more open to use the lathicharge to dismiss the public meetings !

Calcutta session 1906 and Resolution of Swaraj The extremists wanted to extend the boycott to all over India and refuse cooperation so that task of administration becomes impossible. The main extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Ray, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal. They were called Lal Bal Pal. They had become so popular that British got alarmed. The slogan was "Swaraj is my Birthright" They wanted to disobey the unjust laws; they wanted to kick the loyalists out of the society. They wanted all that Gandhi would take up in future minus non-violence. This was the first phase of the passive resistance. The moderates were moderates. They did not like these new techniques of struggle. They even thought of using the Boycott in only special circumstances.




38 | P a g e

The extremists were far more popular than the moderates. Before this session, the extremists would have taken over congress had they elected a leader among them. But it was not done. The moderates were politically intelligent. In 1906, the session at Calcutta was presided by Dada Bhai Naoroji. The moderates chose Dada Bhai Naoroji to preside the Congress. Dada Bhai Naoroji, the Grand Oldman of India was respected by the moderates and extremists alike. But, in this session, the congress was compelled by the extremists to adopt following resolutions which were accepted by the moderates with half heart. These were as follows:

• Resolution on Partition of Bengal • Resolution of Self Government (Swaraj) • Resolution on Swadeshi • Resolution on Boycott.

Thus in Calcutta session of 1906, under the leadership of Dadabhai Naoroji, Congress adopted Swaraj as the Goal of Indian people. But here a bit of politics was played by the Moderates. They, by no means wanted to be tagged as radical. The toned down the resolution in a compromised state and made it "self government means that obtaining the self governing British Colonies". Thus the whole meaning of Swaraj of the extremists was changed. The extremists were defeated in this politics and the difference became apparent. Congress was now bound to split.

Surat session and Split in Congress 1907 The Congress was on the brink of split. The 1907 session was to be held at Nagpur. But Nagpur was the stronghold of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The moderates were aware that the local delegates would raise the issues in favor of the extremists. So, Gopal Krishna Gokhle got the venue changed and the new venue was Surat which was a stronghold of the Congress.

• The 1907 Surat session was held at the bank of the Tapti river in Surat. • The Extremist camp was led by Lal Bal and Pal and the moderate camp was led by Gopal

Krishna Gokhle. • The president of the Surat session was presided by Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh.

The congress met in an atmosphere of anger and resentment in this session. Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh was elected but the extremists had an objection to this election. Initially the extremists dominated the session but soon they accepted Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh as president and offered to cooperate. But the session was suspended. Congress got split. By the time, the next session of Congress was held in Madras in 1908 under Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh, it was the extremist camp that was facing the Lathis and arrest by the British Government who was now in its comfortable position as Congress was divided.

Suppression of Extremists By this time (1907-08), not less than 7 acts were passed by the British Government in a hurry. The objectives of these acts are evident from their titles. Some of these were:

• Prevention of Seditious Meetings act : it was passed in 1907




39 | P a g e

• Explosive Substance Act : it was passed in 1908 • The Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act 1908: This act was passed and provided to

confiscate the press if it published anything against the Government and incited the public outrage.

The result was that the Extremists were suppressed. They were not in position to organize a strong political party in that time. Arubindo Ghosh, one of the extremists left the ground and went to Pondicherry. Bipin Chandra Pal also left the politics temporarily. Lala Lajpat Rai went to England. The idea of extremist nationalism was put down temporarily. It later rose as Militant Nationalism.

Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley Minto reforms) & Communal Representation In 1905, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman who is first man to be given official use of the title ‘Prime Minister’ became Prime Minister of England. When he formed his cabinet he appointed John Morley as Secretary of State for India. Both the Viceroy and the Secretary of State for India decided to work out some scheme to reform the Legislative councils. This culminated as Indian Councils act 1909 or Minto-Morley reforms. The idea was to give locals some more power in the legislative affairs. The act was passed in 1911. A provision was made for the expansion of legislative councils at the both the levels viz. central as well as provincial.

• It introduced separate and discriminatory electorate. This was for the first time that, electorate for returning to the representatives to the councils was decided on the basis of class & community.

• For the provincial councils a provision of three categories was made viz. general, special and chambers of commerce.

• For the central council, one more category Muslims was added. This was for the first time that, the seats in the legislative bodies were reserved on the basis of religion for Muslims. This is called Communal representation.

The Minto Morley reforms are known to envisage a separate electorate for Muslims and this had a long lasting impact on India's polity. This was for the first time that Muslim community was recognized as a completely separate section of the Indian nation and this triggered "A Cancer" in India called "Hindu-Muslim Disharmony" which later culminated in India and Pakistan. Separate constituencies were marked for the Muslims and only Muslim community members were given the right to elect their representatives.

• The number of members of the legislative councils at the center was increased from 16-60.The number of the members of the provincial legislatures was also increased and it was fixed 50 for Bengal, madras and Bombay and 30 for rest of the provinces.




40 | P a g e

Some other features: • The act empowered the members to discuss the budget and move resolutions before it was

approved finally • The members were given rights to ask supplementary questions and move resolutions to on

matters related to loans to the local bodies. • The members given right to discuss matters of the public interest but please note that the

House was not binding on the government. In The Lahore Session of Indian National Congress, 1909, strong disapproval was expressed against the separate electorate formed on the basis of religion. Now, under the separate electorates, Muslims could vote exclusively for the Muslim candidates in constituencies specially reserved for them. The idea was to establish that the political, economic and cultural interests of the Hindus and Muslims were distinct. The unity between Hindus and Muslims is a illusion and this act sowed the seeds of the Muslim Communism. The Congress which was now under moderates met once again in the Lahore Session, 1909 and expressed strong disapproval against the separate electorate formed on the basis of religion. The period for 1900 to 1916 saw three important viceroys viz. Lord Curzon, Lord Minto and Lord Hardinge. This period saw the rise of extremists and then in 1907 Surat session, the congress got split between the Moderates and Extremists. This followed a series of suppressive acts and trials; the extremists were suppressed and Congress was now dominated by the moderates. Lord Curzon, whose period was tagged as Curzonshahi tried to make India a British stronghold, but his endeavors could not do any wonders. But this seasoned politician introduced reforms in almost all departments of the Government, though most of the efforts and reforms were based upon imperialistic designs and did not afford any self rule to Indians. This was 20th century and Indians could not accept such measures, the result was that Lord Curzon became very unpopular.

MacDonnell Commission 1901 The relief work organized for the Chhappania Kal tried to relive the people in the British provinces, but the way Government organized the relief was sufficient to make him unpopular. When the people were dying out of starvation and diseases, a MacDonnell Commission was appointed by Lord Curzon in 1901 which submitted its report in the same year. This commission came out with a "Moral Strategy”, distribution of advances and loans to the peasants and setting up a Famine Commissioner in the famine affected provinces. The MacDonnell Commission was the famine commission appointed by Lord Curzon, after a long period of 20 years, when Lord Lytton had tried to formulate the general principles of dealing with such famines.




41 | P a g e

During the period of Lord Lytton, a Strachey Commission of 1880 was created to develop a general strategy and principles to deal with the famines. The Strachey Commission came out with the recommendation on whose basis a Famine Code was developed. However, in due course of time, the Famine Code was forgotten and remained defunct till the next attack of famine occurred in India. The MacDonnell Commission also stressed the better transport facility, opening of agricultural banks etc. But this was not adequate and timely measure. The Punjab Land Alienation Act made him unpopular in North India.

Police Intelligence Reforms, Introduction of CID 1902-03 In 1902-03, a Police Commission was established for the Police reforms under Sir Andrew Frazer and Lord Curzon got much success in the Police intelligence. It was the rule of Lord Curzon , in which the basic structure of Indian domestic intelligence got developed and remained so till 1947, when India Became independent. He attached Department of Criminal Intelligence to the Government of India at the Center. The result was that this DCI became the central domestic and foreign intelligence agency. At the province level, the Criminal Investigation Departments (CIDs) were established in all provinces of British India. In 1903, the "Thugee and Dakaiti Department" was abolished by the Police Commission, because it was now thought that Thugee no longer exists even in the princely states. It is claimed that the CIDs were introduced by Lord Curzon, because he could foresee the growing nationalism in India. But it is not correct to say so. Lord Curzon saw Congress as an easy target and not a serious threat. It was only after 1905, when Congress became a mammoth organization. The Congress was not even mentioned in his deliberations of the Police Commission in 1902-03. At that time, it was thought that Congress is not involved in fomenting the violent opposition of the Government. The early nationalists were loyal to the Government.

Educational Reforms – Raleigh Commission The Viceroy filled with imperialistic design was not in favor of giving any power to the Indians. He concluded the Indian Universities and the colleges were slowly becoming cradle of Propaganda against the Government. So, with an idea to bring the Universities under control, Lord Curzon appointed Raleigh Commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh. The Raleigh Commission had only one Indian member, Syed Hussain Belgrami. But when the Hindus protested about this, Justice Guru Das Banerjee was called from the High Court of Calcutta and made a member. This commission submitted its report in 1902 and this followed introduction of a Bill called Raleigh Bill. The Raleigh Bill when became an act, it was called Indian Universities Act 1904.




42 | P a g e

Indian Universities Act 1904 The first provision of this act was that the governing bodies of the universities were to be reconstituted and the size of the Senates was reduced. Now the number in the senate could be minimum 50 and maximum 100. Each of them would hold the office for 6 years. For the Universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, the elected fellows were to be 50 and for rest of the universities, the number was fixed 15. This act allowed the Government to appoint a majority of the fellows in a university. The Governor General was now empowered to decide a University's territorial limits and also affiliation between the universities and colleges. The Indian Universities Act made the universities and colleges completely under the Government control. However, for better education and research a grant of Rs. 5 Lakh per year for 5 years was also accepted. This was the beginning of university grants in India which later became a permanent feature in the structure of India education.

Hunter Commission vs. Raleigh Commission The Hunter Commission of 1882 which was appointed by Lord Ripon left the University education completely and emphasized upon the primary education. On the contrary, the Raleigh Commission excluded the primary education completely and emphasized upon the Higher Education only.

Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904 One of the most remarkable acts passed during the times of Lord Curzon was the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. This act made any injury to the protected monuments an offence punishable under the law. This act also established the Archeological Department which was to collect the historical documents and importance, conduct excavations and bring the ancient historical information into light.

Imperial Cadet Corps 1904 In November 1904, the form of Commission for Imperial Cadet Corps was signed and approved by Secretary of State for India and thus Imperial Cadet Corps came into being for the first time under the direct surveillance of Lord Curzon. Major D H Cameroon was made its commandant and Maharaja Pratap Singh of Idar was made its Honorary commandant. The selected youths between 17-20 years were to be admitted as Imperial Cadets and thier education was to be at one of the Chief's college at Rajkot, Indore, Lahore or Ajmer. The selected cadets had to join the corps at Dehradun.

Impact of the Swadeshi Movement The Boycott of the foreign products was successful. In 1906, there was a 22% fall in the customs at Calcutta in the Cotton Goods. The worst affected was cotton yarn which reported around 40% fall. The handlooms, silk weaving and traditional handicrafts started booming. There was a significant revival of handlooms, silk-weaving and other traditional artisan crafts.




43 | P a g e

India House The Surat split of 1907 followed suppression of the extremists and the slow development of atma shakti lost its appeal. But at the same in time in London, numerous informal nationalist organizations were working. The most important among them was the India House. The India House was based in London and was established by Shyamji Krishna Verma to promote the nationalist views among the Indians of Britain. It published a newspaper "The Indian Sociologist" which used its subtitle -An Organ of Freedom, and Political, Social, and Religious Reform. Several revolutionaries got associated with the India house and most important ones are V D Savarkar and Madan Lal Dheengra. Others were V.N. Chatterjee, Lala Har Dayal, V. V. S. Aiyar, M.P.T. Acharya and P.M. Bapat. All of them later laid the foundation of militant nationalism in India. The newspaper was later banned for sedition.

Sacrifice of Madan Lal Dhingra 1909 On July 1, 1909, the Indian National Association was observing its annual day function. In London, many Indians and British had gathered to attend the function and here one of the early murders by the Indian Nationalists was carried out. Sir Curzon Wyllie was shot dead by Madan Lal Dhingra, in order to give the British a clear message to free India. He wished to committe suicide but was arrested. He was trialed and hanged on 17 August 1909. The sacrifice of Dhingra not only inspired the Indians but also the Irish, who were struggling at that time for autonomy.

Anushilan Samiti 1902-1908 As early as 1902, the three societies came together under a single umbrella of Anushilan Samiti. The Anushilan Samiti was established by Pramathanath Mitra, a barrister from Calcutta. The people associated with this samiti were Sri Aurobindo , Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Tagore, Jatindranath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin, Bhupendra Natha Datta, Barindra Ghosh etc. Out of them Bhupendra Nath Datta was brother of Swami Vivekananda. Barindra Ghosh was sent to Paris to learn the science of Bomb Making and here he came in touch were Madam Kama. Madam Kama was already associated with the India House and the Paris India Society.

Alipore Bomb Case 1908 In 1908 a revolutionary conspiracy was intrigued to kill the Chief Presidency Magistrate D.H. Kingford of Muzaffarpur. The task was entrusted to Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki. They threw the bombs on a vehicle coming out of the magistrate’s home on April 30, 1908. The magistrate could not be killed as he was not in the vehicle, but two British ladies were killed in the attack. Prafulla Chaki committed suicide after cornered by the Police and Khudi Ram Bose was arrested. The Indian policewalla Nandalal Bannerjee, who had arrested Khudi Ram Bose was later shot dead by Narendranath Bhattacharya.




44 | P a g e

Alipore Conspiracy Trial 1908-1909 Prior to this trial, there were raids on the members of the Anushilan Samiti. The documents such as letters were seized from the house of Arubindo Ghosh and he was arrested and lodged in Alipore Jail. Khudi Ram Bose was meanwhile arrested. The trial continued two years and finally Khudi Ram was hanged. Chitranjan Das, one of the prominent barristers of the day defended and saved Sri Arubindo. Barindra Ghosh and Ullaskar Dutt were sentenced to rigorous imprison and they were released in 1920. The above series of bombing, shooting and trials had started the era of revolutionary terrorism in the country. The focus of these revolutionaries was to kill and send to hell to those British and Indian Officers who were oppressive. For fund raising, they resorted to Dacoity, which was called Swadeshi Dacoity.

Nasik Conspiracy Case 1909 Abhinav Bharat Society was launched in 1904 by V D Savarkar. One member of this organization Anant Lakshaman Karkare shot dead the district magistrate of Nasik. On 21st of December, 1909 , A M T Jackson the magistrate at Nasik was enjoying a theater where a drama was staged in his honor on the eve of his transfer. A young man of Abhinav Bharat Society named Ananat Laxman Karkare shot this indologist and "pandit" Jackson dead, in the theatre. This sensational murder is known as Nasik Conspiracy Case. 27 members of the Abhinav Bharat Society were convicted and punished. Ganesh Savarkar, brother of VD Savarkar was sent to Kala Pani.



Examinations 2014


www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer










2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Lord Hardinge ....................................................................................................... 3

Delhi Durbar of 1911 ........................................................................................................... 3 Delhi Conspiracy case 1912 ................................................................................................. 3 Other Early Militant Revolutionaries ................................................................................... 4 B.H.U. Act 1915 ................................................................................................................... 4 All India Home Rule League 1915-1920 ........................................................................... 10 Objectives of the Home Rule League movement ............................................................... 10 Indian Home Rule League & Home Rule League ................................................................ 11 Was Home Rule League a light in the dark tunnel? ........................................................... 11 Contribution of HRL ........................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 4. Lord Chelmsford ................................................................................................. 12 The Lucknow Pact of 1916 ........................................................................................ 12

Lucknow Pact- Was it signed without a thought for its consequences? ............................ 13 The Champaran Satyagraha 1917 ........................................................................... 14 Ahmedabad Mill Strike 1917 ................................................................................... 16 Kheda Satyagraha .................................................................................................... 16 Montagu Declaration 1917 ...................................................................................... 17 Government of India Act 1919 .................................................................................. 18

Merits (despite limitations) of GOI Act 1919 ...................................................................... 20 Rowalt Committee 1918 .................................................................................................... 20

Rowlatt Act & Satyagraha 1919 .............................................................................. 20 Jallianwala Bagh tragedy ........................................................................................ 21

Crawling Order .................................................................................................................. 22 Hunter Committee Report ........................................................................................ 22 Khilafat Movement 1919-20 .................................................................................... 23 Moplah Rebellion 1921 ............................................................................................ 24 Non-Cooperation Movement 1920 ........................................................................... 25

The Spread of Non-Cooperation Movement 1920-21 ....................................................... 26 Volunteer Corps ................................................................................................................. 27 Major Events of Non-Cooperation Movement .................................................................... 27 Chauri Chaura Incident 1922 ............................................................................................. 28 Chauri Chaura Incident and Swaraj Party .......................................................................... 28 Outcome of Non-cooperation movement .......................................................................... 28 Positive: ............................................................................................................................. 29

Swaraj Party ............................................................................................................. 29 Pro-changers & No-changers .................................................................................. 30 Emergence of Communal Politics ............................................................................. 31

Divorce of Congress and Khilafat Movement ..................................................................... 31 Lahore session of Muslim League 1924 ............................................................................. 31 Revival of Hindu Mahasabha 1923 .................................................................................... 31 Establishment of Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh 1925 ...................................................... 31

Emergence of Communists ....................................................................................... 32 Another view of genesis of CPI ........................................................................................... 32 Beginning of All India Trade Union Congress 1920 ............................................................ 33

Re-emergence of Revolutionary and Terrorist Movement ........................................ 33 Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) 1924 .................................................................. 33 Kakori Train Conspiracy ..................................................................................................... 33 Peshawar Conspiracy Case 1923 ....................................................................................... 34 Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case 1924 ........................................................................... 34




3 | P a g e

Chapter 1. Lord Hardinge From 1910 to 1916, Lord Hardinge served as India’s Viceroy. He had entered the diplomatic service in 1880 and had served in Tehran as first secretary and Ambassador to Russia. But his administrative experiences were next to nothing. This young viceroy was sympathetic towards the Indians and wished to win their goodwill. The important event during his tenure was the Delhi Durbar of 1911.

Delhi Durbar of 1911 In 1910, there was a succession in England where King George V ascended the throne. In 1911 he paid a visit to India. Darbar was held to commemorate the coronation of King George V and Queen Mary as Emperor and Empress of India. The Darbar brought back the pomp and show of the Mughals once again in Delhi. The King and the Queen attired in the coronation robes with thousands of diamonds and precious gems appeared in the Jharokha of the red fort to give Darshan to 5 Lakh Indian people who gathered to greet the sovereign couple.

Chapter 2. The Congress passed a resolution condemning the pomp and show of this Darbar at the cost of the poor Indians.

Chapter 3. In this Darbar, the King declared that Capital of India will be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi.

In the same Darbar it was also declared the Partition of Bengal is cancelled. This was a striking change. In the same year, another Census of India was carried out.

Delhi Conspiracy case 1912 One of the outfits of Bengal on the lines of Anushilan Samiti was Yungantar, which had started in the guise of a fitness club. It was also established by the revolutionaries like Arubindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh, Raja Subodh Mallik, Khudiram Bose Prafulla Chaki etc. After the Alipore Bomb Case trials, many of the members were lodged in the Jails and sent to Kala Pani, from where they were released only under a general amnesty in 1920 after First World War. One of the important members of this outfit was Ras Bihari Bose, who is best known for his association with the Indian National Army. After the Alipore Bombay Case, he left Bengal and worked in Dehradun as a clerk in the Forest Research Institute. It is said that the Delhi Conspiracy was hatched by Ras Bihari Bose, but was never proved. On 23 December 1912, a Bomb was thrown at the Viceroy Lord Hardinge when his procession was moving from Chandni Chowk. The Viceroy wounded in the attempt, but his Mahavat (driver and keeper of an elephant) was killed. The government strengthens its efforts to destroy the underground activities. Ras Bihari Bose went underground and successfully fled to Japan, where he lived till he died a few years before the conclusion of the Second World War. Before fleeing to Japan, he involved in the Ghadar Conspiracy.




4 | P a g e

In the trial of this Delhi Conspiracy Case, Basant Kumar Biswas Amir Chand and Avadh Behari were convicted and executed. Please note that Delhi Conspiracy Case is also known as Delhi Lahore Conspiracy Case or Hardinge Bomb Case.

Other Early Militant Revolutionaries • Ras Bihari Bose served as a link between the revolutionaries of Punjab and Bengal. He was

not only a brain behind the Delhi Conspiracy Case but also planned an armed mutiny at Delhi. He fled to Japan and founded Indian Independence League out there.

• Sakharama Ganesh Deshkar provided a Link between the revolutionaries of Bengal and Bombay Presidency.

• In the Madras Province, Nilkantha Brahamchari and Vanchi Aiyer founded the secret Bharat Mata Association.

• In Saharanpur, J M Chaterjee founded Bharat Mata Society • The Dacca Anushilan Samiti was established by Pulin Bihari Das. It was able to cerate 500

branches in East Bengal. • Bipin Bihari Ganguly founded Atmonnuti Samiti.

B.H.U. Act 1915 In 1915, under Lord Hardinge, BHU act was passed by which Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya established the Banaras Hindu University. The idea of this university was mooted as early as 1904. Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya was a barrsiter from Allahabad, but his Karmabhoomi was Varanasi. In 1907, Annie Besant had also mooted as idea of establishing the "University of India" at Varanasi and she also submitted a memorandum for grant of Royal charter. In April 1911, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and Annie Besant decided to unite their forces and work for a common Hindu University at Varanasi. This culminated in the "The Hindu University Society". Thus BHU started as a registered socirty in December 1911 and its president was Maharaja of Darbhanga Sir Rameshwar Singh Bahadur. However, to carry out the scheme, a sum of Rupees 50 Lakh was required. This target was achieved by 1915. The Central Hindu College was made the part of the University. This was followed by a Bill in the Imperial Legislative Council in March, 1915 by Sir Harcourt Butler. This Banaras Hindu University Bill was passed in October 1915 and on February 4, 1916, Lord Hardinge, laid the foundation stone of the University.




5 | P a g e

Islington Commission 1912: Development of Civil Services Background: In 1912, the Royal Commission on Public Services in India under Lord Islington came , which is known as Islington Commission. Prior to this commission, the following important happenings had taken place regarding the civil services: The Practice of appointment of the Civil Servants by the Court of Directors of the East India Company had been discontinued by the Charter act of 1853, which provided for a competitive examination for selection to these posts. The competition was thrown open to Indians as well. Macaulay Committee 1854 In 1854 the Macaulay Committee was set up to suggest measures to give effect to the provisions of the Charter Act of 1853. The recommendations that were accepted by the Board of Control were as follows:

• An open Competition system was adopted for recruitment to the Civil Services • Age of candidates was from 18-23 years. • The competitive exam was to be held in London. • A probationary period was kept for training of the successful candidates. • Abolition of the East India College at Hailleybury. • The exam should be of High Standard.

First Competitive Examination First Competitive Examination was held in London in 1855 under the Board of Control. In 1855, the British Civil Services Commission was set up and the above responsibility was later transferred to this commission. The first Indian to pass the exam was Satyendranath Tagore, but he could enter the service only in 1864. Indian Civil Services Act 1861 In 1861, the Indian Civil Services Act was passed which provided the reservation of the certain principle posts for members of the covenanted service. In 1870, there was Civil Service Act which provided for Indianization of the services. Aitchiston Commission 1886 In 1886, a Public Service Commission under Charles Aitchiston was appointed. This commission had to provide suggestions to devise a full justice to the Indian claims of higher employments. This commission made the following recommendations which were largely accepted:

• It provided that the two tier system of covenanted and unconvenanted services should be replaced with a three tier classification i.e. Imperial, Provincial and subordinate.

• The maximum age should be fixed to 23 years. • The competitive exam should NOT hold at India and England simultaneously. • Certain percentage of the posts should be filled by promotion of the members of the

Provincial services. • The statutory civil service should be abolished.




6 | P a g e

As per these recommendations the statutory civil services were abolished in 1892. Islington Commission 1915 The Islington Commission came during the times of Lord Hardinge. This commission submitted its report in 1915 as follows:

• The commission though accepted that the recruitment to the top posts should be made partly in India and partly in England, yet it was not in favor of a simultaneous exam in India and England.

• It recommended that 25 % of the top posts should be filled by the Indians partly by exam and partly by promotion.

• It categorized the Government services into Class I and Class II. • It recommended probation of 3 years for ICS pass outs and 2 years for direct recruits.

This commission’s report was published in 1917 and it was the peak time of the World War I. So no consideration was given to this report. Foundation of Ghadar Party 1913 The founding president of Ghadar Party was Sohan Singh Bhakna and Lala Hardayal was the co-founder of this party. It was after 1910, when the activities of India House had declined and the cradle of activities shifted from Europe to America. Lal Hardayal was In India till 1909, when he moved to Paris and associated himself with a newspaper Vande Mataram over there. In 1911 he settled in San Francisco and indulged in Industrial Unionism. In 1912, when Basant Kumar Biswas threw Bomb on Lord Hardinge, he was in America and was very much impressed with this. In 1913, Pacific Coast Hindustan Association was founded by Lala Hardayal with Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president, which was called Ghadar Party. The members of this party were the immigrant sikhs of US and Canada. The first issue of The Ghadar, was published from San Francisco on November 1, 1913. In 1914, after the Komagata Maru tragedy, Lala Hardayal fled to Europe following an arrest by the United States government for spreading anarchist literature. The Komagata Maru Tragedy 1914 From 1900 onwards there was continuous flow of Sikhs from India to Canada and US. The circumstances were not in favor of Indian / Sikh immigrants and they were subject to all kinds of racial / political / procedural discriminations. One of the main incidence was Komagata Maru Incidence, which was one of the first Indian challenge to colonist British beyond the pacific Coast. Gurdit Singh, a Sikh from a small village in Punjab was a son of a small time farmer near Amritsar. The farmers were struggling with the problems and due to difficulty in getting their livelihood; father of Gurdit Singh left Punjab and went to Malaysia. He became a small time contractor over there. In 1885, Gurdit Singh joined him.




7 | P a g e

Gurdit Singh established a steamship company in Malaysia and leased a Japanese steamship Komagata Maru. This ship left Hong Kong in 1914 to Canada. Those days the authorities in Canada had established a "Continuous Passage Act" to stop the immigrants particularly from India and they called them "brown Invasions". The continuous immigration of Indians, particularly Sikhs had already irked the Canadian natives and authorities. It was a fear that Indians would take their jobs. The "Continuous Passage Act" was a bizarre law, which required that the immigrants must travel Nonstop to their country of the birth. At that time there was no direct ship from India. The journey of the Komagata Maru was set to circumvent this law. Komagata Maru sailed from Hong Kong to Vancouver in 1914, aboard 376 passengers including 240 Sikhs, 24 Muslims and 12 Hindus. The ship arrived on 23 May 1914 at Vancouver. The Canadian authorities refused to allow the passengers to go ashore. Gurdit Singh was pressurized to pay the charter dues in one go. He said he would do so after selling the cargo but the ship was not allowed to unload its cargo. The Indians in Vancouver agitated for the release of the ship. There was no sympathy shown by the Viceroy of India. After a bit confrontation, finally 24 passengers were admitted and the ship was forced back to India. Necessary arrangements were done by the Indian community over there for the return journey. The Komagata Maru docked at Hooghly’s Budge Budge harbor. The news of the Canadian adventures had already reached India and the British took the passengers as rebels. The ship was searched. The Sikhs were herded in a special train to send them to Punjab. Some of them refused and protested. The police opened fire on the procession carrying the Holy book "Guru Granth Sahib” killing 18 people. 200 people were herded in jails. Gurdit Singh escaped the Police and he surrendered in 1921, after 7 years. Rise of Separatist Trends and Origin of Muslim League The seeds of Muslim communalism were sown by Syed Ahmed Khan, who remained loyal to the British in 1857 mutiny. He was suspicious of the Indian National Movement under Congress and called the Muslims to remain loyal to the British Raj. He was of the belief that the Muslim share in administrative posts and in various professions could be increased if Muslims are imparted modern education. For this purpose he needed protection of the British and so he projected the British loyalty as safeguards to the interests of the Indian Muslims. However, he did not create a political organization to counter the Indian National Congress and suggested the Indian Muslims to remain passive, politically. It was Badruddin Tayyab Ji , third President of Congress, who brought many prominent Muslims of Bombay and Bengal under the banner of Congress. These leaders supported the idea of Swadeshi and Boycott. But the movement was later colored in Hindu color and British and Pro-British started using anti-congress propaganda to poison the minds of the Muslims.




8 | P a g e

In 1906, the All-India Muslim League was founded at Dhaka by a lobby of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats, and upper class Muslims.

• Aga Khan III was its first Honorary President. • This party supported the partition of Bengal, because Muslims in East Bengal were in

majority. • Its Headquarters was later located at Lucknow.

The All-India Muslim League raised the slogan of separate Muslim interests, and demanded special protection for the Muslims in government services.

• Under Lord Minto, a branch of Muslim League was established at London by Amir Ali. Thus by 1910, this organization started convincing Muslim educated people to refrain from joining congress. They were against the congress and Hindus but not against the British. The provided a tool to the British to fight with the rising wave of Nationalism in India.

• When the partition of Bengal in 1911 was announced, the Muslim lobby got a rude shock. The declaration of Delhi as capital of British India was also a shock to them.

• This disorientation was further added by British refusal to help Ottoman Empire in the Italian and Balkan War (1912).

The ruler of Turkey was the Caliph of all Muslims and all Muslim shrines were within the Ottoman Empire. Thus by 1912-13, the Muslims did not have a firm ground neither in support of British nor in Congress. A body of young Muslims arose during that time which somewhat continued its militia activities parallel to the Congress. It was in 1913 when Mohammad Ali Jinnah joined the All India Muslim League and changed the course of History. Begin of World War I June 1914 On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the prince of Austria and the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by a Yugoslav nationalist and this triggered the First World War. This was the immediate reason; the long term reasons were the imperialistic policies of the great powers of Europe viz. the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire, the British Empire, France, and Italy. On the one side were the belligerents were such as France, British Empire, Russian Empire, United States, Italy, Japan, Belgium etc and on the other side were the central powers viz. German Empire, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. On 4 August 1914, England declared war against Germany. India naturally became a belligerent in the war. The Viceroy Lord Hardinge announced: The war was none of our seeking, but it has been thrust upon us as a wicked and wanton manner.......




9 | P a g e

The British Government sought support of the Indians and most sections of the Indian society were with the empire. The moderates supported the war because, who knows their demands of self Government may be fulfilled after the war.

****************** On 8 January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India. In May 1915, he laid the foundation of Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmadabad. 200 people lived in Sabarmati Ashram in a typical Indian village style. To demonstrate the rejection of mechanized industry of Britain, these men at Ashram took the pledge to wear only Khadi. To explain his ideas, he started travelling in IIIrd class railway carriages. He started getting concerned about the poor and untouchables of the country. Till 1917, Gandhi had no official leadership or role or agenda and British could easily tolerate his presence. Home Rule Movement In June 1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from Mandalay. In the beginning he supported the British endeavors in the war. All the moderates and extremists alike were on a mistaken belief that a grateful Britain would repay India by making political concessions towards self-government, once the war is over. The congress was rendered politically inactive practically, after 1910. During the initial period of the World War-I, the new element of reunification of the congress started with the rise of Annie Besant, a theosophical leader. This 66 years lady (in 1914) had begun her career in England as a proponent of free thought, radicalism, Fabianism (socialism), and theosophy and was an ardent supporter of Irish and Indian self rule. She was born in 1847 into a family of Irish origin. The conditions prevalent at home taught her fighting for freedom of thought, secularism, women's rights etc. She started keeping in touch with the Irish home rulers and gave them support, while writing in the newspaper items. She had a close relationship with George Bernard Shaw, an Irish struggler living in London, who later cofounded London School of Economics. George Bernard Shaw is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize for Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938), for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion. George sponsored Annie to join the Fabian Society. In 1875, Theosophical Society was established in New York as an organization to advance the spiritual principles and search for Truth known as Theosophy. Its prominent founding fathers were Helena Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge etc. In 1891, Helena Blavatsky died and soon after William Quan Judge was accused of forgery by Annie Besant and Henry Steel Olcott. Both Henry Steel Olcott and Annie Besant took most of the American society with themselves and this society which exists today in India is called the Theosophical




10 | P a g e

Society - Adyar, when the organization's headquarters moved to Adyar, an area of Chennai in 1883.

• Prior to Annie Besant the leader was Charles Webster Leadbeater who got in some controversy over a sexual insinuation of the spirituality with the boys of the society.

• In 1898, she was instrumental in setting up of Central Hindu College, which in 1911 culminated as Banaras Hindu University with her joint efforts with Madan Mohan Malviya. In 1908, Annie Besant became President of Theosophical Society. By 1914, she had been associated with the Indian National Congress. When the war broke out and England declared a war against Germany, she famously said:

“England’s need is India's Opportunity".

All India Home Rule League 1915-1920 After returning from Mandalay, Tilak proposed that the congress should small and cohesive working committee to carry out its daily functions, so that the Congress is transformed to a real political party. But the good idea was not accepted. The meaning of war for a common man was increased dacoity on his pocket by the government so; the common man was ready to join any movement or protest against the Government. But India lacked a solid political front and congress was just a deliberate functionary; not in a position of organizing mass protests. In September 1915, Annie launched the Home Rule League, modeling demands for India on Irish models. She clearly gave a signal of fighting for a change. For the first time, India saw a political party that was to work all year round, unlike the Congress which croaked once a year. The result was that she was able to mobilize the demonstrations and organize demonstrations, public meetings and agitations. In the next year 1916, Tilak also reorganized his supporters. When the war was near closing, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G. S. Khaparde, Sir S. Subramania Iyer, all came together under the umbrella of the All India Home Rule League. The demand was self-government within the British Empire for all of India.

Objectives of the Home Rule League movement • To establish self- government • To build up an agitation for home rule by promoting political education and discussion. • To build the confidence of the Indians against the suppression of the British government

and to create an alternative movement to break the existing state of stagnation and the inertia.

• To revive the political activity on their own while maintaining the principles of congress. • To demand for greater political representation from the British government.




11 | P a g e

Indian Home Rule League & Home Rule League Indian Home Rule League and Home Rule League were not simultaneously launched by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant. Indian Home Rule League of Tilak was launched in April 1916, while the Home Rule League of Annie Besant came into existence in September that year. As per a common informal understanding between the two leaders, the Indian Home Rule league had to work in Maharastra and Central Provinces, while Home Rule League had to work in all India except Maharastra and Central Provinces. Commonweal and New India were the papers of Home Rule League, while those of the Indian Home Rule league were Kesari and Mahratta. Please note that after Montague declaration in 1917, Besant had dropped her league but NOT Tilak.

Was Home Rule League a light in the dark tunnel? We see that the period between 1909 to 1915 was the lowest ebb in the national movement, when the British suppression led to a vacuum of ideology and leadership. The Congress became directionless and mass movement lost the direction. Under these circumstances, it was the HRL which not only showed positive attitude towards masses but also prevented them from being alienated from the mainstream. HRL was able to combine and balance all the three trends viz. moderates, extremists, and revolutionary terrorists. The two things must be noted here:

• HRL dropped ides of extremist’s mass movement but continued their idea of passive resistance

• HRL dropped the idea of mendicancy of the moderates but continued their concept of patriotism.

It’s worth note that both HRL and IHRL , at that time had emphasized more on awareness through journals like commonweal, India , Mahratta etc. They tried to restore the confidence of the Indians against British suppression, demanded greater political representation and self government and maintained the principles of congress. Therefore, HRL helped to restore the movement which was derailed movement. Tilak founded the first League in Poona. Mohammad Ali Jinnah headed up the League's Bombay Branch. With its national headquarters in Delhi, the main cities of activity were Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.In June 1917, Annie was arrested under the Defense of India Act. To show her defiance, she flew a red and green flag in the garden. Mass protests began and American President Wilson intervened for her release. Despite the banner of All India Home Rule League, there were two leagues one by Tilak that worked in Bombay Presidency, Carnatic, Central provinces and Berar. The Annie Besant’s league worked for rest of India. At the climax of its activities in 1917, the combined membership of both the leagues was around 40,000. The All India Home league ended in 1920, when it elected Mahatma Gandhi as its President, when within a year it merged into the Indian National Congress.

Contribution of HRL • It organized congress party when it was decaying.




12 | P a g e

• It popularized concept of home rule. • It created organizational links between town and country. • It revived the old lost confidence of the Indians and created a generation of ardent

nationalists. • Declaration of Montagu and the Montford Reforms were influenced by the Home Rule

League agitation. • For the first time, widely disseminated the idea of Swaraj via the journals, something which

was followed even by Gandhi.

Chapter 4. Lord Chelmsford On April 4, 1916, Lord Chelmsford took over as next Viceroy of India. This was the time for constant development in the national politics in India.

The Lucknow Pact of 1916 Initially, the policy of the Muslim League was to preserve Muslims interests in India and to support the British Raj. Before and after the cancellation of partition of Bengal, the aims and objectives of Muslim league were confusing. At the close of the war, Lord Chelmsford had invited suggestions from the Indians for post World War I reforms further helped in the development of the situation. So, naturally the Muslim league which was on the sidelines of the country politics by that time would like to come ahead to get a better share in the expected giveaways of reforms. So, it was the brain of Mohammad Ali Jinnah, that an objective aim of the Muslim league emerged and they sought for a sort of joint platform with the moderates and extremists to put a constitutional pressure on the British Government to do some favors in return for the support in the First World War. In December 1915, the extremists under Tilak and moderates under Gokhle met at Bombay where Muslim league joined them to draft a set of minimum constitutional demands through mutual consultations, thus giving an idea of illusionary Hindu Muslim Unity. Congress met once again at Lucknow on December 29 and December 31, 1916. Here Congress and Muslim league negotiated and reached an agreement to pressure the British government to adopt a more liberal approach to India and give Indians more authority in respect with the self government.

Early Career Mohammad Ali Jinnah 1875-1913 Mohammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi in either 1875 or 1876. The school records mention his date of Birth 1875, while Sarojini Nayudu, who wrote his First Biography, records his date of Birth as December 25, 1876. His ancestors were Hindu Rajputs from Kathiawar in Gujarat and his grandfather had converted to Islam. He was a Shiya Muslim. He was educated in Karachi and Bombay. In 1892 he was sent to England to get apprenticeship in the Graham's Shipping and Trading Company, the company in which his father had dealings. He studied law and became youngest Indian ever to be invited to the Bar of England at the age of 19 years. In 1896 he returned to India and settled at Bombay. Here he became Lawyer and practiced in the Bombay High Court. Jinnah defended Bal Gangadhar Tilak in the sedition trial in 1908, but he could not win the case and Tilak was sent to Mandalay. He had close relations with Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta and Surendranath Banerjee since 1896. He won a case representing Sir Pherozshah Mehta in Bombay High Court in 1905. This case is known as Caucus Case. In 1906, he joined Indian National Congress. He also did not favor the outright independence. Initially he avoided the All India Muslim League, because it was too much orthodox. It was in 1913, when he joined the Muslim League and became its president in the Lucknow session of 1916.




13 | P a g e

This was for the first time that Muslim League and Congress met at a common platform for the first time since their birth. The soul of this pact is written here. The Highlighted clauses seem to be the main blunders of our congress leaders.

• There shall be self-government in India. • Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government. • There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community

demanded joint electorates. • A system of weightage to minority political representation (giving minorities more

representation in the government then is proportional to their share of the population) should be adopted.

• The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150. • At the provincial level, four-fifth of the members of the Legislative Councils should be

elected and one-fifth should be nominated. • The size of provincial legislatures should not be less than 125 in the major provinces and

from 50 to 75 in the minor provinces. • All members, except those nominated, should be elected directly on the basis of adult

franchise. • No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-fourth of the

members of that community in the Legislative Council. • The term of the Legislative Council should be five years. • Members of Legislative Council should themselves elect their president. • Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians. • The salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid by the British

government and not from Indian funds. • Of the two Under Secretaries, one should be Indian. • The Executive should be separated from the Judiciary.

This pact which approved one-third representation of the Muslims in the central government was probably an oncogene that finally resulted in a Cancer in India and was cured only when India was cut in two pieces.

Lucknow Pact- Was it signed without a thought for its consequences? We see that the Lucknow Pact of 1916 was signed without regard for its consequences. Muslim League and Congress agreed to separate electorate which means congress formally reorganized communal political and tacitly gave recognition that India consisted of different communities with separate interest of their own. Then secondly, the weightage to Muslim minority was recognized, the result was that this left the way open to the future resurgence of communalism in Indian politics. Thirdly, the Muslim member’s strength in legislature was laid down province by province,




14 | P a g e

thus one of the most dangerous pacifist policies of congress not only recognized communal representation but also recognized communal privileges. Fourthly, in the imperial legislative council, Muslim representation was slated to be 1/3rd, although their population was not 1/3rd. And lastly, any legislature could not work if on any more 3/4th member of any religion opposed it, its consequence was introduction of communal veto in legislature. We see that INC leaders though they are sacrificing their seat in the legislature yet, they failed to understand its logical implications and partition in the offing. But at that time it was called a symbol of Hindu Muslim unity and Sarojini Nayudu hailed Jinnah as an "Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity". The unity last a few years.

• Till Lucknow pact, Muslim League was nowhere in the national politics. • By making this pact, the Congress "recognized" that it is a political party that represents the

Muslims of India. This was a mistake, this was a wrong belief that showed its results very soon.

The Champaran Satyagraha 1917 Mahatma Gandhi’s political guru was Gopal Krishan Gokhle. He had been one or two sessions of Indian National Congress with him but his presence was not felt until then. His first major public appearance in India was at the opening ceremony of the Banaras Hindu University in February 1916. Then, in 1917, he went to Indian National Congress at Calcutta. He had been present at an earlier session of the Congress. But then his political Guru, Gokhale was there. He was not on his own. Since then, things had changed. The Indian struggle in South Africa had made Gandhi known all over India. He had acquired the reputation of a man who was both a saint and a militant. India is a land that venerates saints. So Gandhi had his first taste of the veneration of people who were eager for his darshan. At this session, a young man from Champaran in Bihar, Rajkumar Shukla, met him and talked of the woes of the peasants of Champaran and their exploitation by the British. The planters were forcing them to cultivate Indigo on their lands and imposing and extracting many illegal levies from them. The poor peasants were compelled to make offerings of poultry, meat and the like, whenever there were celebrations in the house of the planters. Gandhi was touched by these accounts, but told Shukla that he would be able to go to Bihar only after some days. Shukla persisted, following him from place to place. Finally, a date was fixed, and Gandhi went to Champaran. The Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was Mahatma Gandhi’s first Satyagraha. Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha were the events which later put Gandhi on the front seat of Indian National Revolution and made Satyagraha a powerful tool.




15 | P a g e

Gandhi’s preliminary enquiries confirmed all that Shukla had said. Gandhi decided to stay and make a detailed enquiry before deciding on a course of action. He was assisted by eminent lawyers like Brij Kishore Babu, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who, later became the first President of India. The news of Gandhi's arrival spread to the villages. 'A Mahatma had come to save the starving and exploited poor peasant.' Thousands of villagers flocked to see Gandhi. The town was overflowing. The British Collector W B Heycock got nervous. He ordered Gandhi to leave the district. Gandhi refused saying that he had gone to Champaran to help the poor, not to challenge the Government. He was arrested and produced in Court. But the trial had to be postponed because the Magistrate did not know whether the massive crowds that had thronged to the premises of the court would remain peaceful. He postponed the trial and sought Gandhi's help to control the crowds. In the meanwhile, the Viceroy and the Governor ordered that the case against Gandhi should be withdrawn, and he should be allowed to proceed with his enquiry. Gandhi was set free. Gandhi resumed the work of collecting evidence. He, and his colleagues interviewed thousands of peasants and recorded their evidence after questioning the witnesses, to be sure that what was being recorded was nothing but unvarnished truth. Even the British officers of the Indian Civil Service were impressed by Gandhi's relentless and dispassionate concern for truth. The Government received reports that the evidence was overwhelming and indisputable. They appointed a Commission of enquiry, and made Gandhi a member of the Commission. After a careful assessment of the evidence, the Commission upheld Gandhi's case in every respect. The system that compelled plantation of Indigo was given up, and it was agreed that the peasants would be paid reasonable compensation. This was the first victory of Satyagraha in India. The psychological impact of this Satyagraha was outstanding. Gandhi became Lord Rama of the peasants who demolished the demons (planters). People got a holy man” Gandhi Baba” in Gandhi who could cure all their problems.

Tinkhatia System The peasants (bhumihars) of the Champaran and other areas of North Bihar were growing the Indigo under the tinakathia system. Under the tinakathia system the peasants were bound to plant 3 out of 20 parts of his land with indigo for his landlord. This means that out of 20 khatas which make an acre, they had to dedicate 3 khatas for indigo plantation. This was the root cause of the trouble. They had to lease this part in return to the advance at the beginning of each cultivation season. The price was too less and was fixed on the area cultivated rather than the crop produced. They were actually being cheated by the English planters. The planters had agreed to the peasants to relive them from the lease contracts but demanded heavy compensations which they were not able to pay. One local peasant leader Rajkumar Shukla had invited Mahatma Gandhi to visit Champaran




16 | P a g e

Ahmedabad Mill Strike 1917 Gandhi was still in Champaran when he was informed about the serious trouble that was brewing in Ahmedabad. The workers of the textile mills were restless. It was feared that they might go on strike, and the city might be in the grip of violent disturbances. Anasuyaben Sarabhai, who was working with industrial labour sought his help. So did the mill-owners who were led by Anasuyaben's brother, Ambalal Sarabhai. Even the Collector, who was the representative of the British Government, asked Gandhi whether he could not step in to save the city from violent disturbances. Gandhi studied the case of the workers. It was mainly for the restoration of some allowances that they were drawing. Nearly 80% of these had been cut down. Meanwhile the cost of living had gone up. Mill-owners were making higher profits. Gandhi pleaded with the mill-owners to settle the matter through negotiations or arbitration. They agreed, but went back on a flimsy and technical excuse. Gandhi had no alternative but to advise labourers to strike. But he got workers to take a solemn pledge not to go to work till their demands were met, not to resort to violence under any circumstance. The workers took the pledge, and Gandhi took up their leadership. It was an uncommon struggle. There was no bitterness and no hatred. The leaders of the owners as well as the employees met Gandhi every day. Gandhi was continuing his efforts to persuade the employers. Everyday all workers assembled at a prayer meeting, and Gandhi advised them on the state of the strike and the duties of workers. Twenty days passed. Workers began to get restive. Someone whispered that it was the workers who suffered by the prolonged strike, not Gandhi who ate his meals and went about in cars. This cut Gandhi to the quick. At the prayer meeting of the day, he announced that he was giving up food. He would fast till the workers reiterated their determination to stand by the pledge they had taken. It was not a fast against the employers, to make them accept the demands of the workers. It was meant to make workers realize the need to stand by the plighted word. Gandhi's announcement resulted in a wave of repentance. Men and women were in tears. They implored Gandhi to give up his fast. The fast also brought pressure on the owners, though Gandhi did not want to influence them with a fast. A compromise was arrived at. An arbitrator was appointed. His award totally vindicated the demands that Gandhi had formulated, Gandhi called the struggle a "Dharma Yuddha", because it was waged for justice, and with the pure means of persuasion, love and voluntary suffering.

Kheda Satyagraha Gandhi was elected President of the Gujarat Sabha. His attention went to the plight of the peasants in the Kheda district of Gujarat. Peasants were reeling under the impact of one of the worst famines in memory. Crops had failed, but the Government was insisting that land revenue should be paid in full.




17 | P a g e

The Bombay Presidency increased the taxes in 1917-18 by 23%. In 1918, Gujarat as a whole suffered a severe epidemic of Plague and in Kheda alone around 17000 people lost their lives. Further, cholera also broke out locally. This was the immediate reason of the revolt. The revolt was against the taxes. The government said that if the taxes are not paid, the property would be seized. This revolt gave India a robust leader in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. It was then that Gandhi made the acquaintance of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, a barrister who had returned from England and was practising in Ahmedabad. Vallabhbhai became a lifelong colleague of Gandhi, attracted by his courage and dynamic methods of struggle for justice. The Sardar himself was of peasant origin. He was one of the ablest organisers the country had ever seen.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and his colleagues such as Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas organized this major tax revolt, which was able to mobilize all the castes and creeds of the region. The peasants of Kheda signed a petition in leadership of Sardar Patel and called for tax to be scrapped. The revolt was organized by Gujarat Sabha and Gandhi was its spiritual leader. The Kheda peasants were joined by Ahmadabad and Vadodara Gujaratis, but it was kept a pure Gujarati struggle. When the tax was not paid, the government sent agents to seize the property. The farmers did not resist but they simply donated their cash and invaluable to the Gujarat Sabha. It was a united protest, outstandingly disciplined. The result was that the Government reached an agreement for both the parties. Tax for the current year and next year was suspended and all confiscated property was returned.

Montagu Declaration 1917 Edwin Samuel Montagu served as Secretary of State for India between 1917 and 1922. On 20 August 1917, he made a historic declaration in the House of Commons defining the goal of British policies in India. In the previous month, he had made a scathing attack on the whole system by which India was being administered in a debate in British House of Commons. It is also known as August Declaration of 1917 The Montague declaration is titled: “Increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration, and the Gradual development of self governing Institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible governments in India as an Integral part of the British Empire”.

The Duke Memorandum Duke Memorandum is associated with Sir William Duke, a member of the English Round Table Group and he had formulated a scheme which eventually became the basis of Joint Report of Montague and Chelmsford. "The Duke Memorandum" became the basis of Mont-Ford Reforms.




18 | P a g e

The Keyword was Responsible Government; the rulers must be answerable to the elected representatives. In November 1917, Montagu visited India to ascertain the views from all sections of political opinion from India. He discussed with Gandhi, with Jinnah and others. On the basis of the above discussions, a detailed report on Indian Constitutional Reforms was prepared. This report was published in July 1918. This report became the basis of Government of India Act 1919.

• Montague declaration, again after a gap of more than half a century of Queen Victoria's proclamation 1858, was called the "Magna Carta of India".

• The nationalists criticized it, as it lacked the legitimate expectations of theirs. • The declaration was criticized in the December 1917 Calcutta session, in which Annie Besant

as president pleaded for establishment of Self Government in India. • Tilak characterized the Montague reforms as "unworthy and disappointing- a sunless dawn".

Mrs. Besant said that it was something "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept". But the moderates led by Surendranath Banerjee supported the Montague declaration in November 1918 in a separate conference. Thus Congress again got split. The extremist remnants crated another front All India Liberal Federation, which soon disappeared from the scene.

Government of India Act 1919 Government of India act is known as a consequence of Montague Chelmsford Reforms. The Government of India act 1919 was passed on the basis of recommendations of Lord Chelmsford and Samuel Montagu to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India. This act covered 10 years from 1919 to 1929. Salient Features: The Government of India act 1919 had a separate Preamble. This Preamble declared that Objective of the British Government is the gradual introduction of responsible government in India. Thus we see that the beginning was made. The beginning was introduction of Diarchy. Preamble suggested for a decentralized unitary form of government. Diarchy means a dual set of governments one is accountable another is not accountable. The Government of India Act of 1919, made a provision for classification of the central and provincial subjects.

Committee under Montague Chelmsford Three committees were appointed to give the Montague Chelmsford report a Constitutional form viz. Franchise Committee, Functions Committee and Committee on Home Administration. They were as follows:

• Franchise Committee - Lord Southborough • Functions Committee - Richard Feetam • Committee on Home Administration- Lord Crewe

(Marquess of Crewe)

Government of India Act 1919, kept the Income Tax as source of revenue to the Central Government. However, there were two Provinces, for which, to meet their objections, a provision to assign them 25% of the Income tax was made. These Provinces were Bengal & Bombay. Also, Foreign Relations and relations with Native states were NOT kept in Central Subjects in Government of India Act 1919




19 | P a g e

The provincial subjects were divided into two groups: One was reserved and another was transferred. The reserved subjects were kept with the Governor and transferred subjects were kept with the Indian Ministers. This division of subjects was basically what they meant by introducing the Diarchy. The reserved subjects were the essential areas of law enforcement such as justice, police, revenue. The transferred subjects were such as public health, public works, education etc. The Indian executive comprised of the Governor General and his council. No bill of the legislature could be deemed to have been passed unless assented to by the governor general. The later could however enact a Bill without the assent of the legislature. This act made the central legislature bicameral. The first house which was central legislature, with 145 members (out of which 104 elected and 41 nominated) was called central Legislative Assembly and second called with 60 members (out of which 33 elected and 27 nominated) was called Council of States. The term of the assembly was fixed 3 years and council 5 years. The central legislature can be called a primitive model of today’s Lok Sabha & council of states can be called a primitive model of Today’s Rajya Sabha. The act provided for the establishment of a Public Service Commission in India for the first time. This act also made a provision in its part V, that a statutory commission would be set up at the end of 10 years after the act was passed which shall inquire into the working into the system of the government. The Simon commission of 1927 was an outcome of this provision. The communal representation was extended and Sikhs, Europeans and Anglo Indians were included. The Franchise (Right of voting) was granted to the limited number of only those who paid certain minimum "Tax" to the government. The tenure of the central legislature was 3 years.

• The seats were distributed among the provinces not upon the basis of the population but upon the basis of their importance in the eyes of the government, on the basis of communities, and property was one of the main basis to determine a franchisee. Those people who had a property, taxable income & paid land revenue of Rs. 3000 were entitled to vote.

• The central legislature was empowered to consider, pass or reject legislation on any of the subjects enumerated in the Central list. But, the Governor-General had the last word on any Bill passed by the Legislature.

• He possessed the power to prevent the consideration of a Bill or any of its part, on the plea that it was injurious to the peace and tranquility of the country. He could disallow a question in the legislature. He had the power to withhold his assent to any Bill passed by the legislature without which it could not become an Act. He also had the power to disallow an adjournment motion or debate on any matter. He could enact a law, which he considered




20 | P a g e

essential for the safety and tranquility of the empire even if the legislature had refused to pass it.

The financial powers of the central legislature were also very much limited. The budget was to be divided into two categories, votable and non-votable. The votable items covered only one third of the total expenditure. Even in this sphere the Governor-General was empowered to restore any grant refused or reduced by the legislature, if in his opinion the demand was essential for the discharge of his responsibilities. Thus the Government of India Act provided for partial transfer of Power to the electorate through the system of diarchy. It also prepared the ground for the Indian Federalism, as it identified the provinces as units of fiscal and general administration. But the growing nationalism was not satisfied.

Merits (despite limitations) of GOI Act 1919 Despite of several limitations, the GOI Act 1919 had some merits. The GOI act 1919 marked the end of the policy of benevolent despotism, and thus began the genesis of the responsible government in India. It was for the first time, that elections to the legislatures were known to the people and this created political consciousness among the masses. However, those people who had a property, taxable income & paid land revenue of Rs. 3000 were entitled to vote. The number of the Indian in the was raised to 3 in the Governor General in Council of 8. These Indian members were entrusted to some portfolios such as labor, health and industry. It was the GOI Act 1919, whereby, the Indians came in direct contact with administration for the first time. This was a very useful experience. It was also for the first time that a number of Indian women got the right to franchise for the first time. Now, under the Indian ministers , some of the far reaching measures were taken such as enactment of Madras State Aid to Industries Act, 1923, the Bombay Primary Education act, the Bihar and Orissa village administration Act, the Bombay local boards act, 1923, etc.

Rowalt Committee 1918 In 1918, Lord Chelmsford appointed a sedition committee with Justice Rowlatt, an English judge, as its president. The idea was to evaluate the political "terrorism" in India, especially in Punjab and Bengal. The committee was also identifying its links with the German government and the Bolsheviks of Russia. The Government was aware that the Indian revolutionaries are getting massive support and resources from the Germans. This committee submitted its report in April 1918 and tried to make a comprehensive review of the militant nationalists. The committee could not establish the Bolsheviks, but substantiated the links with the Germans.

Rowlatt Act & Satyagraha 1919 On the basis of the finding of the Rowlatt Committee two bills were introduced in the Imperial Legislative Council.




21 | P a g e

Out of them one was dropped and another which was an extension to the Defense of India Regulations Act 1915 was passed as "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, in March of that year.

• This act authorized the government to imprison for a maximum period of two years, without trial, any person suspected of terrorism.

• The act provided speedy trial of the offenses by a special cell that consisted of 3 High Court Judges. There was no court of appeal above that panel.

• This panel could also accept the evidences which were not even acceptable in the Indian Evidences Act.

Thus in succession, the Government passed Montagu Chelmsford Reforms and Rowlatt Act that were part of the Carrot and Stick policy of the British. This act gave a new direction to the movement. Gandhi organized a mass protest at all India level. By March 23, 1919, the volunteers started courting arrests. The three organizations viz, the Home Rule league, Muslim league and the Satyagraha Sabha along with some other small organizations coordinated and organized the biggest Satyagraha ever. On April 6, 1919, an all India strike was organized. There was mob violence in Bombay, Ahmadabad and all other major towns. The Satyagraha lost momentum with the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy on April 13, 1919.

Jallianwala Bagh tragedy Punjab was facing from the sever war time depression as the sipahis were returning from Central Asia and Mesopotamia. Then the Ghadar party made Punjab a cradle of revolutionary movements. The situation in Amritsar and Lahore was worse and army was called there. The Amritsar was handed to Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer. On April 13, 1919 in Amritsar, more than 5,000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh. The foolish General believed that these Indians are conspiring for a coordinated revolt in the next hot months when the British troops will be withdrawn from the plains and would be deployed in the hills. So, such a conspiracy must not be accepted. It was a Baisakhi day and the people were peaceful, unarmed, most of the crowd was villagers and were not aware that the sarkar has banned the meetings. The luckless mob was fired from all sides by the troops of General Dyer and massacred more than 400 people at the place. This stunned the entire country. Punjab was placed under martial law.

• On April 18, 1919, Gandhi withdrew the movement and called it a "Himalayan blunder". • On May 30, 1919 Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood.

Gandhi returned the Kaiser-i-Hind Gold medal given to him for his work during Boer war. A parallel nonofficial enquiry committee was set up by the congress and Government also set up a committee of enquiry with 4 British and 3 Indian members. The Indemnity act was also passed. Dyer was removed from the job and sent to London, but he was never charged of any offence.




22 | P a g e

Impact of Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy On April 13, 1919 on the Baisakhi day, the luckless people gathered were fired from all sides by the troops of General Dyer. At least 400 people died on the spot and many died when they jumped in a well to save their life. The massacre was worth calling genocide and it stunned the entire country. Whole of Punjab was placed under martial law and within a week on April 18. 1919, Gandhi withdrew the movement and called it a "Himalayan blunder”. On May 30, 1919 Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood. Gandhi returned the Kaiser-i-Hind Gold medal given to him for his work during Boer war. A parallel nonofficial enquiry committee was set up by the congress and Government also set up a committee of enquiry with 4 British and 3 Indian members. The Indemnity act was also passed. Dyer was removed from the job and sent to London, but he was never charged of any offence.

Crawling Order Brigadier General Reginald Dyer could not see any difference between the peaceful meeting of the Jallianwala Bagh and the Warfield of France. After placing Punjab in Martial law and imposing curfew, he placed one more foolish and humiliating order. In the turmoil one Miss Marcella Sherwood was assaulted and the General passed an order that those who are passing through the street where she was living would have crawl, laying flat on their bellies. Gandhi declared that the British have lost the moral right to rule this country.

Hunter Committee Report The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was followed by establishment of a non-official enquiry committee was Congress. The British Government did not initiate such inquiry till Congress had set up such committee. Later, the Government established a committee headed by I.ord Hunter a Senator of the "College of justice of Scotland". This committee had 7 members viz. 4 British and 3 Indians. Before the committee could publish its own report, Congress put forward its own view. This view criticized Dyer's act as inhuman and also said that there was no justification in the introduction of the martial law in Punjab. But the Hunter Report, as expected saw the things differently. Although it condemned most of the decisions taken by General Dyer, it agreed with imposition of the martial law in Punjab. It also criticized the method of Satyagraha adopted by Gandhi and held Gandhi partially responsible for "deteriorated" law and order situation.

Fact Box: Disorders Inquiry Committee: Members The 7 member Hunter Committee which was set up to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy was also known as Disorders Inquiry Committee. The British members were as following:

• Chairman: Lord William Hunter, ex- Solicitor-General and the Senator of the College of Justice in Scotland

• WF Rice, Additional Secretary to the Government of India (Home Department) • Justice GC Rankin, Judge of the High Court, Calcutta; • Major General Sir George Barrow, Commandant of the Peshawar Division, a non-

official Englishman The Indian Members were as follows:

• Sir Chimanlal Setalvad • Pandit Jagat Narayan • Sardar Sultan Ahmed Khan

The secretary of this committee was H G Stokes, secretary to the government of Madras.




23 | P a g e

The result was the Dyer was sent to England, relived of his command. But rests of the things were the official opinion of the Government. This miffed Gandhi and he returned the Kaisar-I-Hind Gold medal. He said that the time has come when such blatant action of inhumanity could not be 'remedied' through the conventional political channels. The time was ripe for the Khilafat Grievances as well. The result was the Indian National Congress joined hand with the Khilafat leaders and in the wake of once again shortly revived Hindu Muslim unity, Gandhi put forward the idea of nationwide non-cooperation campaign with the goal of attaining full Swaraj. as it was the only opinion left for the nationalists.

Khilafat Movement 1919-20 From 1876 to 1909, Abdul Hamid II was the Ottoman emperor. Being a Caliph, the Ottoman emperor was the supreme religious and political leader of all Sunni Muslims across the world. In the World War I, the Ottoman Empire had sided the Central Powers and the result of this war was the defeat of the Central Powers. As per the Treaty a/Versailles (1919), the territorial boundary of the Ottoman Empire got reduced. Meanwhile, in Turkey, a national movement arose under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who was a Pro-western nationalist. He, supported by the western powers, abolished the position of the Caliph. Naturally the Muslims in India became anti British, as the power and influence of their religious leader was ended. In India Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar and his brother Maulana Shaukat Ali along with some other Muslim leaders such as Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari. Raees-ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo, Hasrat Mohani, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Hakim Ajmal Khan joined hands a created an All India Khilafat Committee, at Lucknow..

• It had two main demands, which were never accepted:

• Caliph Sultan must retain sufficient territories so that he is able to defend the Islamic Faith.

• The places which are called Jazirat-ul-arab, including the Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine must remain under Muslim suzerainty.

October 17, 1919 was observed as Khilafat Day. The Hindus also joined hands with the Muslims and a strike was called for. On November 23 1919, the All India Khilafat Conference was organized at New Delhi and later a Khilafat Manifesto was published which called upon the British to protect the Caliphate. The leaders of the Khilafat Movement joined hands with Indian National Congress for the upcoming Non-cooperation Movement. Again March 19 1920 was observed as Khilafat Day and following

Did Gandhi give a call to Maulana Brothers to launch Khilafat Movement? Gandhi had not called Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali to launch Khilafat Movement. First the leaders met, and then Published their Khilafat manifesto and after only that there was an unwritten pact between INC and Khilafat Movement to work and cooperate on agitation. Gandhi gave them a call to participate in NCM, because he (Gandhi) thought that it was only remedy for British.




24 | P a g e

that there was an all party conference in June 1920 at Allahabad. The agenda of the Non-cooperation Movement was finalized. The agenda was:

• Boycott of the Titles conferred by the Government • Boycott of civil services, army and police and all other Government offices. • Non-payment of taxes to the government.

The Khilafat movement came and went very quickly. It had lost its relevance when Mustafa Kemal Atatlurk had abolished the Caliphate. The last Caliphate was Abdülmecid II, who was expelled with his family and took asylum in Istanbul (Constantinople), where he spent rest of his life catching butterflies. He died in 1948.

Was Khilafat Movement a new chapter in Hindu Muslim Unity or was a closing chapter? The period 1919-22 is understood as the heyday of Hindu-Muslim unity against the colonial rule. This was the period when the leaderships of Congress and the Khilafat movement often overlapped. This was in tune with Gandhi's idea that British can be fought only with united Hindus and Muslims. Strikes, demonstrations, and Satyagrahas took place around the country, while 'Hindu-Musalman ki Jai was the famous slogan. But the above was just ephemeral. After 1922 a series of differences between the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation leaderships intersected with growing popular conflict between Hindu and Muslim communities. Some section of Muslims started to see the futility of Swaraj and fresh interest was awakened in the Muslim league which had been stagnant since 1918. The most ardent khilafatists started to believe that there was more to be gained by supporting government in its honest efforts than by adhering to the hitherto non-cooperation . Many Muslim leaders raised fears and doubts about the capacity of India to win freedom through civil disobedience. As a result of this, the old dissensions, based upon complaints like cow-slaughter and music before mosque, were raised up and issues of disagreement such as Suddhi Movement or tabligh and sangathan or tanzim were added. The Hindu Muslim Unity was shattered, giving way to a period of "communalism". This was the sad demise of the Hindu-Muslim unity as marking a turning point in the freedom struggle. The disintegrated state of affairs then offered an opportunity to the British to re-establish their old relations with the Muslims. They were able to successfully bring the Muslims into their loyalists fold. The so called bond of fraternity turned out to be an ad hoc coalition of interests. India was now on a path to partition. How Government seeded hate? The Government created commissions and commissions on one another with an undeclared motive of creating mutual apprehensions and mistrusts. It was the time when the top leaders including Gandhi were failed to understand the political implications of his extensions of support to the cause of Khilafat. Practically, the leaders of Khilafat needed support of Gandhiji only for a defined particular purpose. Most of the constitutional acts were there to ensure that there was a constant creation of mutual mistrust among the communities. It was made sure that people would understand that the benefit of one caste / community was at the cost of those of others.

Moplah Rebellion 1921 The Moplah Rebellion or the Malabar Rebellion was an extended version of the Khilafat Movement in Kerala in 1921. The Government had declared the Congress and Khilafat meetings illegal. So, a reaction in Kerala began against the crackdown of the British in Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar. But the Khilafat meeting incited so much communal feelings among the Muslims peasants , known as Moplahs, that it turned out to become an antihindu movement from July 1921 onwards. The violence began and the Moplahs attacked the police stations and took control of them. They also seized the courts, and the government treasuries. It became a communal riot when the kudiyaan or




25 | P a g e

tenant Moplahs attacked their Hindu jenmis or landlords and killed many of them. Thus the Hindu Landlords became the victims of the atrocities of the Moplahs. The leaders of this rebellion were:

• Variyankunnath Kunjahammed Haji, • Seethi Koya Thangal of Kumaranpathor • Ali Musliyar.

For two some two months the administration remained in the hands of the rebels. The military as well as Police needed to withdraw from the burning areas. Finally the British forces suppressed the movement with greater difficulty. The situation was under control by the end of the 1921. This rebellion was so fearful that the government raised a special battalion, the Malabar Special Police (MSP).

Non-Cooperation Movement 1920 On 1 August 1920, Non-Cooperation Movement was announced formally. This was a bereaved day when early in the morning, the news of death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak arrived. Gandhi and a crowd of around 2 Lakh people paid its respect to this “Maker of Modern India", The Movement started with strikes and processions all over India. On 4 September 1920, Congress met at Calcutta in a special session. In this session Gandhi wrongly projected that if the Non-cooperation movement gets successful, Swaraj could be attained in One year. This was something immediately repudiated by CR Das. In December 1920, Congress met once again in the Nagpur Session. This time the differences of CR das had melted away. He moved the main resolution of Non-cooperation. A programme of surrender of titles, the boycott of schools, courts and councils, the boycott of foreign goods, the promotion maintenance of a Hindu-Muslim unity and strict non-violence was adopted. Nagpur Session 1920 At the Nagpur session in December 1920, some crucial changes were made in the organization of the Congress, so that it becomes a real political party. These changes were actually mooted by Gandhi, but they confused Jinnah and Jinnah left the party, a beginning of the division that later would make him Qaide-i-azam of Pakistan. Here are a few important changes: Earlier the object of the Congress was to attain self Government by constitutional and legal means. The new aim of congress was attainment of Swaraj by legitimate and peaceful means. Here, was confusion. Jinnah and Madan Mohan Malviya were confused whether this object of Swaraj is to make any connection with the British Empire or any other way out. Jinnah was still not convinced because the objective was still not clear. Thus Jinnah said adieu to the Congress and left it after his association for 15 years with the party.

• A 4 anna membership was launched so that more and more poor people could join the Congress




26 | P a g e

• A hierarchy of village, taluka and district level committees was to be created so that Congress reaches to the Grassroots.

• Reorganization of the Provincial Congress Committees so that now they would be organized on linguistic basis. The idea was to bring it close to the masses by using the vernacular languages.

• The numbers of delegates were to be fixed in proportion to the population. The above changes in Nagpur session paid the party dividends when it walked away with independence in 1947 and elections were held later on. Congress is still the largest political party in the country, though, now it is not of the same character and value

The Spread of Non-Cooperation Movement 1920-21 The Noncooperation movement was the first nationwide mass movement. The year 1921-22 witnessed an unprecedented movement in the nation's history, when there was a widespread unrest among students. Here are some important points related to its spread in all over India: A nationwide tour was taken up by Mahatma Gandhi and Ali Brothers of Khilafat movement C R Das. Moti Lal Nehru, M.R Jayakar. Saifuddin Kitchlew (Punjab), Vallabhai Patel, C.Rajagopalachari. T. Prakasam and Asaf Ali left their legal practice and jumped in the full-fledged politics of congress. Thousands of students left government schools and colleges and joined the movement. Maulana Mehrnud Hasan, laid the foundation stone of Jamia Millia lslamia at Aligarh on Friday, October 29, 1920, during the meeting of the Foundation Committee of Jamia Millia lslamia. Bihar Vidyapeeth came into existence. The leaders of Indian movement started teaching in the pure Indian educational institutions. In some provinces such as Bengal and Punjab, there was a complete boycott of education by the Firangies. The shops which sold foreign clothes were picketed. Khadi and Charkha became the symbol of national movement.

• In Bengal, Someshwar Prasad Chaudhary led the peasants in a anti-indigo cultivation. • The Tana-Bhagat sect of Bihar boycotted the liquor. • In Punjab , Akali Movement that was originally for reforms in the Gurudwaras got linked

with the noncooperation movement. On 13 December 1920 after the formation of Shiromani Curudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), to secure Sikh Gurdwaras from corrupt priests, Akali Dal was formed. The prominent founders were Kartar Singh Jabbar, Master Tara Singh, Baba Kharak Singh.

Livery of freedom: Khadi & Charkha "Livery of freedom" was a phrase used by Jawahar Lal Nehru for Khadi. Khadi and Charkha were the two things for which Gandhi had an unbounded passion. The middle class and the educated class initially did not like the use of Khadi because of the boring whiteness and even Rabindranath Tagore said that "use of Khadi by everyone would bring the 'death-like sameness in the country" (taken from the book Mahatma Gandhi by Sankar Ghose). However, Jawahar lal Nehru used this phrase and became a beloved of Gandhi for almost rest of his life. Gandhi remarked that this expression shall be remembered as long as the English Language lasted.




27 | P a g e

Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee provided a focal point for the movement for the reformation of Sikh religious places. The Committee began to take over management of gurdwaras one by one, and were resisted by incumbent mahants of Udasi sect. The movement was weak in the Presidency of Bombay, where, the people were mourning on the demise of Tiiak. The Gandhi magic did not work there. In Andhra Pradesh, Alluri Sitaram Raju organized the tribals and linked with the Noncooperation movement. In March 1921, there was a Congress session at Vijayawada, in which the congress rookies were directed to collect funds, enroll more and more members and distribute charkhas. On July 21, 1921, All India Khilafat Conference was called in Karachi. Here, Maulana Mohammad Ali initiated a resolution that no Muslim should serve in the British Indian army. So, the Ali brothers were arrested for sedition. But, later congress also passed similar resolution and the Government had to ignore the whole episode. In Midnapore of Bengal, a movement was led by Birendranath Sasmal against the union board of taxes. People in various parts of the country happily joined the No-tax to Government movement. It was successful in the Andhra region.

Volunteer Corps In November 1921, the Prince of Wales arrived in India. He was welcomed with strike in Bombay. The cup of Congress was full when the volunteers created a parallel unofficial police force, which was called Volunteer Corps. In December 1921. the Government declared this corps illegal and banned all the public meetings, assemblies and all kinds of noise. The government took actions by declaring the activities of Congress and the Khilafat volunteers illegal. By December 1921 all main leaders of the movement were arrested and lodged in jails. The newspapers offices were raided.The Congress wanted to start mass civil disobedience movement. A letter was written by Gandhi to Viceroy Lord Reading to lift a ban on the civil liberties and release the political prisoners. The viceroy did not try to oblige. So, with this Gandhi announced that mass Civil Disobedience would begin from the Bardoli in Surat of the Bombay Presidency, the place where later, a Satyagraha would be launched in 1928.

Major Events of Non-Cooperation Movement The visit of the Prince of Wales in November 1921 was marked with demonstrations, hartals and political meetings marred by scenes of mob violence and Police atrocities in Bombay. It was in December 1921, when some leaders such as Madan Mohan Malviya and Mohammad Ali Jinnah interceded with the viceroy to find some solutions to the deteriorating situation. The Viceroy agreed for a Round Table Conference but here, Gandhi demanded to release all the prisoners associated with the Khilafat Movement as a precondition. The Viceroy refused it.

Dar-al-Harb In November 1920 the Muslim theologians had issued a joint pronouncement wherein, India was declared Dar-al-Harb (House of war). This pronouncement issued two options for the Muslims: 1. Wage a Holy war against the infidels 2. Hijrat (migration) Some 20 thousand Muslims adopted the second option and left India to Afghanistan. The Emir of Kabul refused to accept these people and this there was a chaos and misery among these poor Muslims.




28 | P a g e

In 1921, at the Allahabad Session of the Indian National Congress, it was decided to launch Non-cooperation movement at both individual and Mass levels. An appeal was made to all men over the age of 18 to join the Volunteer Corps. At this Allahabad Session, Gandhi was declared as sole of this movement. In February 1922, Gandhi wrote to the viceroy and said that he had the intention to launch the movement in Bardoli in Gujarat, if the government fails to solve the Khilafat question and Punjab issue.

Chauri Chaura Incident 1922 The Non-cooperation movement was on its pinnacle in all of north India. In South, though it was luke warm. On February 4, 1922, a mob of 2000 people gathered to picket a liquor shop at Chauri Chaura, a town near Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. The local administration sent armed police to control the situation. The Police, tried to disperse the crowd by firing two shots in air. So stone pelting started. The police fired and killed 3 people. The result was that outrageous mob set the Police Chauki on fire an d all 23 Police wallas inside got burnt alive. On 12 February 1922, when the Congress leaders met at Bardoli, Gandhi decided to withdraw the Noncooperation movement. It was a bit controversial but by that time Gandhi's figure was respected by every Congressman. Thus, they accepted this decision, but they got demoralized and disintegrated. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922 and trial led at Ahmadabad. A simple prison of 6 years was awarded to him.

Chauri Chaura Incident and Swaraj Party Chauri Chaura incident led Gandhi to call off the Civil Disobedience movement from Bardoli in February 1922. The event led to a Schism in the Congress Party when one faction of the leaders established the Congress-Khilafat-Swarajya Party. Moti lal Nehru, C R Das, N C Kelkar, GS Gharpade and S Srinivas who founded the Swaraj party were in frustration due to sudden withdrawal of CDM by Gandhi via the Bardoli resolution on 12.2.1922. But as none of them was capable to lead such a large scale movement, they decided swaraj within the British Raj and that 's what led them to contest the elections and win some handsome number of seats.

Outcome of Non-cooperation movement The most significant impact of the NCM was that it brought Gandhi on the front seat of National Politics in India. He was regarded as a logical heir of Balgangadhar Tilak. There was a mass imprisonment and the sense of terror of the jails was removed and "going to jail" became a badge of honor.

There was a practical view in Gandhi's decision that because in later half of 1921, the movement had become violent in some parts and started dwindling in many parts of the country. The prolonged movement was not possible in those circumstances, it had been realized by Gandhi, who a few days back had declared that Swaraj is possible in one year, if movement gets mass support. There was a fear of communal violence, responsible for breaking the morale of the volunteers and shaking the main pillar of strength of the movement.




29 | P a g e

Negative: • Gandhi's decision had given a sudden jolt to the Congress. The reasons for which it was

started were the Jallianwallah Bagh tragedy, Swaraj, problems of Khilafat volunteers etc. But none of them got a remedy. Gandhi's idea of Swaraj in one year proved to be a bubble.

• The boycott of the educational institutions was not accepted by many of the leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai. Some leaders did not like they way it was started, many other did not like the way it was conducted and most of them could digest the sudden withdrawal.

• There shock was for the people of Punjab who were waiting some wonders to happen that would punish the guilty of the Jallianwala massacre. Nothing happened and the revolutionary activities in Punjab again got a setback in Punjab. Some new outfits were born parallel to congress, because Congress was left without any political programme.

Positive: • Congress became the party of common man. Now it was with widespread support of the

average peasants, workers and the intellectuals. • Charkha and Khadi became symbol of Indian Nationalism. • Gandhi was able to see the real picture of India. He realized that the real power of India lies

in the rural areas and not in urban area. • There was a need for general awakening the masses to their political rights and privileges,

and further there was a total loss of faith in the system of government. People could realize that it was only through their own efforts that India could hope to be free.

• It revealed that the congress was the only organization while could properly direct national effort to gain freedom. The movement also revealed that communal problem is going to be a big problem and this problem of communalism is absolutely state sponsored.

Parttially the three objects of non-cooperation viz. Swaraj, boycott and constructive programmes comprehensively failed and NCM was meaningless. Gandhi had promised Swaraj within a year and this proved to be a bubble. The boycott of councils , law courts, educational instructions proved ineffective and as regards to constructive programme like Charkha didn’t last long. But still, this movement was able to make the Charkha and Khadi a symbol of National Movement. There was a general awakening of masses of their political rights and privileges, the total loss of faith in the present system of the government. There was a belief that people by thier own efforts can get the freedom. There was another belief that Congress was the only organization which can properly direct national effort to gain freedom and the utter failure of repression to cow down the people. But the Non-Cooperation Movement proved the will and ability of the general masses. The Movement collapsed but its greatness survived.

Swaraj Party The sudden withdrawal of the Non Cooperative Movement left congress with no other such programmes. There was an impatient section of the leaders in Congress whose expectations were




30 | P a g e

wrapped up in the coming up elections in India in 1923, so that they enter into the legislatures and bring "change". These elections had to be conducted as per the provisions of the Government of India Act 1919.

Pro-changers & No-changers These leaders were Moti Lal Nehru, N C Kelkar and CR Das. They linked up with some Khilafat leaders such as Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and some other leaders such as Subhash Chandra Bose & Vithalbhai Patel and were known as Pro-Changers. But, most of the leaders of Congress had now left the business of agitation for a while and started uplifting the poor people by teaching them how to use Charkha, denouncing untouchability, making nonviolence and Gandhian methods popular. These were called No-changers. The Gaya session of Congress was organized in 1922, which was led by C R Das, who was leading the Pro-Changers. The No-changers leader was C Rajgopalachari. The outcome of this session was that once again these leaders got divided. CR Das resigned from the presidentship of the Congress and along with Moti Lal Nehru, N C Kelkar launched their own political outfit called "Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party" or simply the "Swarajya Party". In the elections they got elected in the councils and one among them Vithalbhai Patel became the President at the Central Legislative Assembly, some titular kind of arrangement with very limited powers . They could not bring any change except making a noise in the parliament. However, one work was notable. It was making a noise so that the Government appoints Muddiman Committee to bring out the defects in the Government of India Act 1919. On 5 February 1924, Gandhi was released from Jail due to health problems. He favored the No changers but wanted to stop a disastrous repeat of Sur at split of 1907. So he wanted conciliation and in November that year he brought the strife between no-changers and Swarajists to an end. Both the parties signed the joint statement and declared that Swarajists would work in the council on behalf of and as an integral part of the Congress.

• This decision was endorsed in the December 1924 Belgaum Session of Congress in which Gandhi became president of congress for first and only one time. In 1925. C R Das Died and this was followed by Moti Lal Nehru return to congress a few years later.

• Please note that in Madras Province, a different Madras Province Swarajya Party was established in 1923 by S. Sathyamurthy and S. Srinivasa Iyengar. This party later merged with the Congress in 1935, prior to the elections by the Government of India Act 1935.

Muddiman Committee To meet the demand of the Indian Leaders and in view of the resolution adopted by Swaraj Party in early 1920s, the British Government had set up a committee under Sir Alexander Muddiman (Muddiman Committee), along with 4 Indian members, to go into the provisions of the Government of India Act 1919 and pinpoint the defects. The members were: 1.Sir Sivaswami Aiyar 2.Dr. R P Paranjape 3.Sir Tejbahadur Sapru 4. Mohammad Ali Jinnah




31 | P a g e

Emergence of Communal Politics Divorce of Congress and Khilafat Movement

There was another dangerous outcome of the sudden withdrawal of the Non Cooperation Movement. The direction less leadership actually disintegrated and now the communal elements became a permanent feature of the Indian Politics. In September 1924, some Hindus were killed in the North West Frontier Province. In April and July 1926. there were Hindu Muslim riots in Calcutta in which some 150 people lost their lives. Between 1923-27, there were a lot of communal riots in India. Delhi, Patna, Rawalpindi, Dhaka, Calcutta and Punjab got affected. The marriage of Khilafat movement and Congress soon ended into a divorce. The 1923 Kakinada session of Congress was presided by Maulana Mohammad Ali and soon after this session he split from the Congress citing the communal riots. The seeds of this schism were sown by the Government of India Act 1919, which broadened the franchise but preserved the system of separate electorates . In Muslims, there was a growth of the Tabligh and Tanzims. Among Hindus, the Arya Samajis started Shuddi sangathans. The leader of the Arya Samajis was Swami Shraddhanad who was murdered later in 1926 in Delhi.

Lahore session of Muslim League 1924 All India Muslim league got revived under Muhammad Ali Jinnah. In 1924, they had a session at Lahore, thus met for the first time since 1918. This session saw a new demand of the Muslim league in which they asked for a federation with full provincial autonomy, so that they can preserve the Muslim majority areas from the danger of Hindus. This demand remained so (separate electorates) till 1940, after that they wanted nothing less than Pakistan.

Revival of Hindu Mahasabha 1923 In 1923, there was a Kumbh Mela in Haridwar and here the Hindu Mahasabha was revived by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya. Now the slogan of Hindu Mahasabha became the protection and promotion of the Hindu Civilization.

Establishment of Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh 1925 In 1925, Keshav Bahram Hedgewar founded the Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh in Nagpur. Dr. Hedgewar , who had got his education in the Calcutta Medical College had been a part of the Anushilan Samiti and Yugantar and was a nationalist by heart. He became a member of Indian National Congress initially but left it soon and established RSS. The idea was to train the Hindu youths so that they united the Hindu Community and make India an Independent undivided country. He was much influenced by V D Savarkar and adopted his ideals.

Suddhi Movement The Suddhi movement was initiated by Dayananda with the intentions to unify India and in it; Non-Hindus and untouchables were converted to Hinduism. So, the movement led to some political implications, and indirectly led to growth of communalism.




32 | P a g e

Emergence of Communists The Russian Revolution of 1917 had a great impact on the minds of the Indian People. So naturally when the Non cooperation movement turned out to be a failure, they were dissatisfied. The image of Gandhi was also tarnished. One of the members of the Anushilan -Manabendra Nath Roy was very much influenced by the communist thoughts. His original name was Narendra Nath Bhattacharya and in 1907, when he was a young man of 20 years had conducted a political dacoity, to raise money for Anushilan. He was arrested but was defended by J N Roy and was released. Later he tried to get arm making techniques in Batvia, unsuccessfully. After that he reached California and then married a Californian girl and settled in New York. In New York he studied Marxism. But he was pursued by the British spies out there. So he fled to Mexico and from there he developed contacts with the Germans. In 1930 he came to Bombay and was arrested in 1931 and sent to jail for 6 years. On 20 October 1920, he had been in Russia to attend the second congress of communist international. Here as per the sources of one faction of (PI with his wife Evelyn Trent Roy, Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fiting, Mohammad Ali , Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui and MPST Acharya founded the Communist Party of India in Tashkent. At the same time, an Berlin group was launched by Virendranath Chattophadhyaya, Bhupendra Dutt et al.

• Thus, the communist party of India was launched in Tashkent in October 1920. But this was only the primitive work done. For the next five years, various Communist groups were launched in various parts of India. It was in December 1925, when Satyabhakta organized these small organizations into one All India Conference of the Communists at Kanpur.

• The present of the All India Conference of Communists was Singarvelu Chettiar from the Madras Province.

This conference is known as the “formal” beginning of communist party of India in 1925, from Kanpur.

Another view of genesis of CPI Please note that in 1922-24, communist party faced a series of conspiracy cases such as Peshawar and Kanpur Bolshevik conspiracy case. In 1924, Satyabhakta announced the formation of CPI and he became the secretary. Most of these of groups came together at Kanpur in December 1925 and founded an all India organization under the name of Communist Party Of India in December 1925 S.V. Ghate became general secretary of CPI. In March 1929, government arrested 32 radical political and trade union activist, including Bradley and Lester Hutchinson in the Meerut conspiracy case, defense of the prisoners was to be taken by many nationalists including M.C. Chagla, M.A. Ansari, Jawaharlal Nehru , K.N. Katju, etc. in 1934, the communist party was declared illegal.




33 | P a g e

Beginning of All India Trade Union Congress 1920 In October 1920, when MN Roy was laying the foundation of CPI in Tashkent in Russia, back at home, Lala Lajpat Roy was busy in giving rise to the oldest trade Union federation of India. In 1920, India saw more than two hundred strikes, as they were the most popular means of public protest. Most of these strikes were called by the labor. On October 31, 1920, the first session of the All India Trade Union Congress was held at Bombay under Lala Lajpat Roy, thus marking the beginning of AITUC. Today AITUC has over 27 Lakh members and is politically affiliated with the CPI.

Re-emergence of Revolutionary and Terrorist Movement Mahatma Gandhi had created a wave of dissatisfaction among the revolutionaries by a sudden suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement. So these decisions disillusioned many young men who were full of energy to fight the Government. These young men did not like the theory of nonviolence. They had confidence that the British can be thrown out of the country by using of force and violence. At the same time, there were uprisings in other parts of world and one could witness a number of bloody revolutions and coupe de etat around the word. The result was that the old Yugantar and Anushilan samiti got awaken and a new breed of terroristic kind of revolutionaries emerged from the unenthusiastic and unsatisfied Non-cooperators.

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) 1924 In the village of Bholachang in East Bengal, there was meeting between some of these young men viz. Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen, Pratul Ganguly. Here, they established an offshoot to the Anushilan samiti. The name was chosen as Hindustan Republican Association on the lines of Irish Republican Army. The manifesto of this revolutionary organization was "The Revolutionary". The Objective of the HRA was to establish "Federated Republic of the United States of India” through an organized armed revolution". The tactics of HRA were killing the officials; organize political dacoties to raise funds, terrorism among the British and British loyalists and strikes against the raj. However, it is incorrect to say that these revolutionaries were terrorists by attitude. The perspective of the HRA was socialistic and it wanted to establish a United States of India by deposing the British. The idea attracted the young champions; some immediately joined the organization were Bhagat Singh, ChandraShekhar Azad, Sukhdev, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and many others. The first organized 'crime' of this group was the Kakori Train Conspiracy.

Kakori Train Conspiracy The idea that objects of the political dacoties must be to secure money belonging to the Government was that of Ram Prasad Bismil. The idea was accepted and it followed a plan that a running train at Kakori on the Lucknow-Saharanpur section should be looted. The Railway was carrying the




34 | P a g e

Government chest and it was plundered successfully by 10 HRA revolutionaries. But the whole plot was unearthed. The result was arrest of some 30 people and all of them were trailed in the Kakori Conspiracy Case. The people who were arrested as follows: Swaran Singh (uncle of Bhagat Singh), Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Durga Bhabhi (Durga Bhagavati Chandra Vohra), Roshan Singh, Sachindra Bakshi, Chandrasekhar Azad, Vishnu Sharan Dublish, Keshab Chakravarthy, Banwari Lal, Mukundi Lal, Sachindra Nath Sanyal,Manmathnath Gupta. These detainees were provided legal defense by Pandit Gobind Ballabh Pant, Mohanlal Saxena, Chandrabhanu Gupta, Ajit Prasad Jain, Gopinath Srivastava, R. M. Bahadurji and B. K. Chaudhury. The following 5 members of given sentence to death. Swaran Singh, Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and Roshan Singh

• Swaran Singh was the uncle of Bhagat Singh. His martyrdom inspired Bhagat Singh. • The Urdu poem Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna was made popular by Ram Prasad Bismil. • This poem was actually written by Bismil Azimabadi. This poem is associated with

Ashfaqullah Khan, Shaheed Bhagat Singh, and Chandrashekhar Azad, who got very much inspired.

Rest all were either put in jail for long term or were deported for life. The result was that HRA came to almost an end.

Peshawar Conspiracy Case 1923 Peshawar Conspiracy case is related to the Muslims taking interest in the Communist revolution of Russia. Many Muslims from Peshawar went to Moscow and started getting training related to Military and Communist regimes. When they returned to create disturbances, the Government caught them on the way and trialed them. Many of them were sentenced to long imprisonment.

Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case 1924 Kanpur Conspiracy Case was also against the newbie communists which were abhorred by the British Government. Some newly turned communists named M N Roy, Muzaffar Ahamed, S A Dange, Shaukat Usmani, Nalini Gupta, Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain were caught by the Government and were trailed for conspiring against the Government. The Charge on them was “to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from

imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution." But this case, brought the communists in the lime light. The newspapers covered the matter exhaustively and this was for the first time the people of India could know the communist doctrine in details. So, this case was responsible for introduction of Communism to the Indian Public.In this case, M N Roy was charged in absentia, so he was not arrested. Ghulam Hussain turned a British informer and was pardoned. Rest all people were arrested and sent to jail for 4 years.



Examinations 2014


www.gktoday.in






Disclaimer










2 | P a g e

Contents Chapter 1. Lord Irwin .............................................................................................................. 3

Simon Commission 1927 ............................................................................................ 3 Explicit and Implicit Objectives of Simon Commission ......................................................... 4 Recommendations of Simon Commission ............................................................................ 4 Limitations of Simon Commission ........................................................................................ 5

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association 1928 ...................................................... 5 Lahore Conspiracy Case 1928-31 ............................................................................... 5 Moti Lal Nehru Report 1928 ....................................................................................... 5

Nehru Report as a Reversal of Lucknow Pact ...................................................................... 6 Jinnah's 14 Points ....................................................................................................... 7 Poorna Swarajya Resolution: Lahore Session 1929 .................................................... 8

Independence of India League ............................................................................................. 8 Trial and Execution of Bhagat Singh 1931 ................................................................. 8 Chittagong Armory Raid 1930 .................................................................................... 9 Salt Satyagraha 1930 .............................................................................................. 10 Civil Disobedience Movement ................................................................................... 10

Recommendations of Simon Commission 1930 ................................................................. 11 First Round Table Conference 1930 ................................................................................... 11

Gandhi- Irwin Pact 1931, March 5 ........................................................................... 12 Karachi Session of Congress 1931 ............................................................................ 12 Second Round Table conference 1931 ...................................................................... 13 Civil Disobedience Movement Second Phase 1931-1934 .......................................... 14

Assessment of the Civil Disobedience Movement ............................................................... 15 Communal Award August 1932 ............................................................................... 16 Poona Pact of September 1932 ................................................................................ 17 Third Round Table Conference November 1932........................................................ 18 Changes in the Congress before Government of India Act 1935 ............................... 18

Bihar Earthquake 1934 ...................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 2. Lord Linlithgow ................................................................................................... 19

Government of India Act 1935 .................................................................................. 19 Background of Events ........................................................................................................ 19 Salient Features of Government of India Act 1935 ............................................................ 20 All India Federation: .......................................................................................................... 21 Political Reaction to the Federation of India Act ............................................................... 22 Circumstances at the time of Election ............................................................................... 24 Elections and Results ......................................................................................................... 25 Rise of Separatism ............................................................................................................. 25

Rise of Congress Socialist Party : 1934 Onwards ...................................................... 26 Some important points: ..................................................................................................... 26

Subhash Chandra Bose ............................................................................................. 27 Congress Haripura Session 1938 ....................................................................................... 27 Congress Tripuri Session 1939 ........................................................................................... 28 Establishment of Forward Bloc 1939 ................................................................................ 29 Begin of Second World War 1939 & Bose’s Escape ............................................................ 30

Second World War 1939 & Congress ........................................................................ 30 Jinnah's Two Nations Theory March 1940 ................................................................. 30 August Offer 1940 .................................................................................................... 32 Individual Satyagraha 1940-41 ............................................................................... 32 Cripps Proposals 1942 .............................................................................................. 32 Quit India Movement: August 1942 .......................................................................... 33 Later Career of Subhash Chandra Bose .................................................................... 34

Tokyo Conference: March, 1942 ......................................................................................... 35 All Malayan Indian Independence League: 1942, Singapore ............................................ 35 Bangkok Conference : June 1942 ....................................................................................... 35 Arrival of Bose in Japan 1943............................................................................................ 36 Provisional Government of Free India, Singapore, October 1943 ...................................... 36 End of INA .......................................................................................................................... 37




3 | P a g e

INA Trials (Red Fort Trials) 1946 ........................................................................................ 37 Chapter 3. Lord Wavell ........................................................................................................ 38

C. Rajagopalachari formula of 1944 ........................................................................ 38 Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 .................................................................................... 38

Wavell Plan, June 1945 ..................................................................................................... 39 Shimla Conference, June 1945 ................................................................................. 40 General Election, December 1945 ............................................................................ 40 RIN Mutiny 1946 ...................................................................................................... 41 Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 ....................................................................................... 41

Reaction to the Cabinet Mission Plan................................................................................. 42 Direct Action Day, August 16, 1946 .......................................................................... 43 Constituent Assembly – December 6, 1946 .............................................................. 43 Objectives Resolution- January 22, 1947 ................................................................. 44 Atlee’s Declaration – February 20, 1947 .................................................................. 45

Chapter 4. Lord Mountbatten ............................................................................................... 45 Dickie Bird Plan 1947 ......................................................................................................... 46

June 3 Plan: June 3, 1947 ........................................................................................ 46 Partition Committee and Partition Council ........................................................................ 46

Indian Independence Act 1947 ................................................................................. 47 Salient features: ................................................................................................................ 47

Chapter 1. Lord Irwin On April 3, 1926 Lord Irwin was appointed 30th Viceroy and Governor-General of India. He succeeded Lord Reading. This was the most tumultuous period for the politics of India. The following important events happened during the times of Lord Irwin:

• Appointment of Simon Commission • Nehru Report • All Parties Conference. • Jinnah's 14 Points • Civil disobedience Movement • Round Table Conferences.

Simon Commission 1927 Government of India Act 1919 had introduced the system of dyarchy to govern the provinces of British India. This act had a provision that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to investigate the progress of the governance scheme and suggest new steps for reform. The Government in England was a conservative Government which was not in very much favor of giving any control to Indians. In March 1927, his majesty's Government announced its decision to appoint the "Statutory Commission" in advance of the prescribed date. (The commission was supposed to be set

up in 1929).

The announcement came as a surprise. Indians were already in a state of frustration. The Congress was almost agenda less and no active programme was there except the Khadi. The Swarajists were in the Legislative Council and had lost cohesiveness with the Congress. So, for the




4 | P a g e

agenda-less Congress, Simon Commission came as a blessing in disguise and they got an issue to take up effectively. The personnel of the Commission and its terms of reference were announced in November 1927. It had 7 members which were lifted from the three political parties of the British Parliament under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. None of the Indians was appointed in the commission and the promise of appeasing the Indian opinion seemed to be a bubble. When no Indian was included in the commission, it was like depriving of their right to participate in the determination of the constitution of their own country. At the annual session of the Congress in Madras in December 1927, a resolution was passed which advocated the boycott of the Simon Commission “at every stage and in every form". Other factions of the politicians also joined the suit.

• However, in Muslim league, there was a split of thought. Jinnah was for boycotting the commission; but Muhammad Shafi was for support for the Government.

• Thus in 1927, Muslim league had two sessions- One was led by Jinnah at Calcutta where he opposed the Commission. Another was held at Lahore that was led by Muhammad Shafi, where he supported the Government.

So, all parties except the Shafi group of Muslim league and a Justice Party at Madras, were against the Simon Commission.

Explicit and Implicit Objectives of Simon Commission • To delay the process of transfer of power from the British to the people. • To further widen the communal feelings by diametrically provisions which could be

diametrically opposed to the interests of the two communities? • To show the people that British were sincere in the efforts in giving people the self rule but it

was Indians who could not decide for a consensus on power-sharing. • To give impression of a federal constitution so that week centre and a powerful province can

be created. It would created feelings of regionalism which is an antidote to nationalism. • To give political autonomy without economic autonomy.

Recommendations of Simon Commission • There should be a constitutional reconstruction. • It would be a federal constitution. • The provinces should be given full autonomy including law. • The governor should have discretionary power to relate to internal security and

administrative powers to protect the different communities. • The number of members of provincial legislative council should be increased. • Governor general should have complete power to appoint the members of the cabinet. • The government of India should have complete control over the high court.




5 | P a g e

Limitations of Simon Commission • No Indians members in the commission. • No universal franchise was proposed. • The position of governor-general remained unaffected. • No provision to abolish separate electorate but rather extended to other communities as

well. • No financial devolution was proposed.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association 1928 The sole remaining absconder of the Kakori Conspiracy of 1923 was Chandra Sekhar Azad. He was born in 1906 in Jhabua District of Madhya Pradesh and was deeply disturbed by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. He had actively participated in the Non-cooperation movement but was jolted due to sudden withdrawal of the movement. At that time he age was around 15 years and this young boy was sent to prison at this tender age. After the Kakori conspiracy, 5 members as mentioned above were sentenced to death. Other members either were sent for long imprisonments or deported for life. Chandrasekhar led the remaining revolutionaries and on September 9-10, 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla Maidan of Delhi and he along with Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Batukeshwar Dutt, and Rajguru founded the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association or the Garam Dal. This HSRA brought out a Manifesto known as "Philosophy of the Bomb”. This manifesto was written by Bhagawathi Charan Vohra. Death of Lala Lajpat Rai 1928 The political parties boycotted the Simon commission and this was followed by a wave of demonstrations all over India. In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was leading an anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928, when the brutal Lathicharge claimed his life.

Lahore Conspiracy Case 1928-31 The death of Lala Lajpat Rai led the HSRA again take the path of assassination of the British. The death of Lala Lajpat Rai led the HSRA again take the path of assassination of the British. To avenge the killing of Lal Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh, Raj guru, Jai Gopal and Sukh Dev conspired to kill the police chief, Scott. But they shot on the DSP - J. P. Saunders, who was killed on the spot. Bhagat Singh immediately fled from Lahore and to avoid recognition, he cut his beard and hair. Later he was trailed in this Lahore Conspiracy Case when he was captured after throwing bomb in Delhi Assembly.

Moti Lal Nehru Report 1928 At the annual session of the Congress in Madras in December 1927, a resolution was passed which advocated the boycott of the Simon Commission “at every stage and in every form". Other factions of the politicians also joined the suit.




6 | P a g e

On February 3, 1928 a complete Hartal was observed in Mumbai on the day when Simon Commission landed in Bombay. Wherever the commission goes, people came out in processions and show him “Simon Go Back”. But the commission had to do its duty. It visited twice in 1928 and 1929 and finally submitted its report in May 1930. But, it was not to be accepted by the Indian Leaders. The secretary of state for India was Lord Birkenhead, who threw a challenge to these congressmen to prepare a draft of constitution of India. The political leaders accepted the challenge and this was followed by a call for All party conference in February and May 1928. The outcome of the All Parties Conference was that a committee was appointed under the Chairman ship of Motilal Nehru, to draft the proposed constitution. The draft constitution was prepared which was called “Nehru Committee Report”. This report was submitted on August 28, 1928 at the Lucknow conference of all the parties. But Jinnah Voted against this report. The main points of this report were as follows:

• India would be given Dominion status. This means independence within the British Commonwealth.

• India will be a federation which shall have a bicameral legislature at the centre and Ministry would be responsible to the legislature.

• Governor General of India would be the constitutional head of India and will have the same powers as that of British Crown.

• There will be no separate electorate. • The draft report also defined the citizenship and fundamental rights.

The novel features of the Nehru Committee Report were almost accepted by the Indian leaders. The next session of the Congress was held in Calcutta in December 1928. In this session, the Nehru Report was accepted by a majority vote. The congress gave an ultimatum to the British Government to accept the recommendation of the report by December 31, 1929, and also threatened for another mass movement in case the report is not accepted. The report was not accepted by the Government.

Nehru Report as a Reversal of Lucknow Pact The Motilal Nehru Committee Report, published in 1928 recommended reservation of seats for Muslims only in provinces where they were in a minority. The report proposed to abolish separate electorates, to discard reservation of seats for Muslim majorities in the Punjab and Bengal and to reject the principle of weightage for Muslim minorities. This was a reversal of the Lucknow Pact. The Nehru Report asked for a political status of India as a dominion, which should be the same as that of British dominions like Canada, south Africa. It asked for a similar reservation for Hindus in NWFP. The provinces of Sindh and Karnataka shall be separate any further reorganization of




7 | P a g e

proposed report was good but not practical. The joint and mixed concept was practically unacceptable for the Muslim league.

Jinnah's 14 Points In the All parties meeting at Calcutta in December 1928, Jinnah moved certain amendments to the Nehru Report. But these amendments were not accepted by Congress. So Jinnah et al refused to participate further in the conference. A few days later, there was a Muslim All Parties conference was held in Delhi, in which the nationalist Muslims attended and formulated a series of demands on behalf of the Muslims of the Country. In this All Muslim Parties conference, it was made clear that no constitution, by whomsoever proposed or devised, would be acceptable to the Muslims of the country, unless it conformed with those demands. At the same time Jinnah after consulting the Muslim leaders formulated the "Fourteen Points" for safeguarding the rights and interests of the Muslims in any future constitution of the country. Here are these 14 points:

• The form of the future constitution should be Federal, with the residuary power vested in the provinces.

• A Uniform measure of the autonomy shall be granted to all provinces. • All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite

principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to minority or even equality.

• In the Central legislature Muslim representation shall not be less than one third. • Representation of the communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates

provided that it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favor of the joint electorates.

• Any terrestrial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWF Province.

• Full religious liberty that is liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education shall be guaranteed to all communities.

• No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three fourth of the members of any community in that particular body oppose it being injurious to that of the community.

• Sind should be separated from the Bombay Presidency. • Reforms should be made in the NWF Province and Baluchistan. • Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along with

the other Indians in all the services of the State and Local self Governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of efficiency.




8 | P a g e

• The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards to the protection of the Muslim Culture, education, language, religion, personal laws, and Muslim charitable institutions. They should get their due share in grant-in-aid.

• No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being at least one third of the Muslim Ministers.

• No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central legislature except with the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian Federation.

Poorna Swarajya Resolution: Lahore Session 1929 When the Nehru Report came before the annual session of the Congress in Calcutta in December 1928, the left lashed it out on the fact that it did not want the complete Independence and wanted only a dominion status.

Independence of India League Meanwhile in April 1928, the "Independence of India League" was formed with Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose as Secretaries and S. Srinivasa Iyengar as President. The Congress session at Calcutta marked an almost split among the leaders who wanted dominion and leaders who wanted complete Independence. Ultimately it was resolved that if the British parliament accepts the Nehru report by 31 December 1929, Congress would adopt the report as it is. If the report is not accepted by the British parliament, Congress would insist in Complete Independence and would organize a nonviolent Non cooperation movement. The one year deadline passed and no positive reply came from the Government. This was followed by Lahore Session of Congress which was presided by Jawahar Lal Nehru. The most land mark resolution was that the Nehru Committee Report had now lapsed and Dominion status will not be acceptable. A Poorna Swarajya Resolution was passed and it was Swarajya means complete Independence. In pursuance with this resolution, the Central and Provincial Legislatures had to be boycotted completely and all the future elections were also to be boycotted. A Programme of the Civil Disobedience was to be launched.

• On the midnight of December 31, 1929 and January 1, 1930, the deadline of the Nehru Committee report expired and Jawahar Lal Nehru unfurled the Flag of India’s independence on the bank of River Ravi in Lahore.

• The Congress working committee met on January 2, 1930 and on that day it was decided that the January 26, 1930 should be observed as Poorna Swarajya Day., as on that day, a Poorna Swarajya pledge was drafted by Mahatma Gandhi.

Trial and Execution of Bhagat Singh 1931 After the murder of Saunders, Bhagat Singh and others went underground. The Government enacted the Defense of India Act, which gave more power to Police such as preventive detention and admissibility of evidence which did not conform to the Indian Evidence act.




9 | P a g e

To protest against this act , Hindustan Socialist Republican Association conspired to explode a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly where the ordinance was to be passed. The idea was of Bhagat Singh and it was influenced by a similar bombing in the by anarchist Auguste Vaillant in the French Assembly who said” "It takes loud noise to make the deaf hear". On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly and shouted "Inquilab Zindabad!". After that they showered the leaflets stating that it takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear. The bomb was not intended to kill or injure any one. It was just to make noise. It was later proved by the forensics also that the bomb was not powerful to kill anybody. Bhagat Singh and Dutt surrendered themselves and were transported for life on June 12, 1929. Meanwhile, in April Police discovered the Lahore Bomb Factory, followed by arrest of other members of HSRA. Out of them 7 became informants and they helped the British to solve the mystery of JP Saunders Murder and Bhagat Singh was connected to that Lahore Conspiracy. The trial began with charges of murder on Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev.

• During the trial, Bhagat Singh and others launched hunger strike for the rights of under trials and prisoners.

• After 64 days strike, Jatin Das, one of the under trials died on September 13, 1929. • It ended the strike and Bhagat Singh demands were accepted by the Jail authorities.

In May 1930, an ordinance was passed by Lord Irwin declaring an emergency. The Lahore Conspiracy Case was shifted from the court of an Indian Judge to special Tribunal of three Judges which was given the power to proceed with the case in the absence of the accused and accept death of the persons giving evidence as a benefit to the defense. The Tribunal was also the highest court of appeal. The tribunal gave its verdict on 7 October 1930, Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Raj guru were given Capital Punishment in the Lahore Conspiracy Case. The other members of HSRA wished to free them by attacking on the prison. This was to be done by exploding bombs in the jails which had to be prepared by Bhagawathi Charan Vora. But the unlucky bomb maker died while making bombs when one of the bombs exploded.

• Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in Lahore on March 23, 1931. Chittagong Armory Raid 1930

On April 18, 1930, there was an attempt to raid the armory of the Police and Auxiliary forces from the Chittagong armory in Bengal.

• The leader of this conspiracy & raid was Surya Sen. Apart from Surya Sen, these patriots included Ganesh Ghosh, Lokenath Bal, Nirmal Sen, Ambika Chakrobarty, Naresh Roy, Sasanka Datta, Ardhendu Dastidar, Harigopal Bal , Tarakeswar Dastidar, Ananta Singh, Jiban Ghoshal, Anand Gupta, Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Dutta.




10 | P a g e

The idea was to capture the two main armories in Chittagong and then demolish the Telegraph and telephone office. It was to be followed by the assassination of Europeans. The plan was put into implementation on the night of April 18, 1930. On that night, the armory of the police was captured by Ganesh Ghosh. Lokenath Bal took over the Auxiliary Force armory. But the ammunition was not located. They dislocated the telephone and telegraph communications and disrupted the movement of the trains. 65 people executed this conspiracy in the name of Indian Republican Army. After everything was done, all the revolutionaries gathered outside the police armory where Surya Sen took a military salute, hoisted the National Flag and proclaimed a Provisional Revolutionary Government. After that they fled to the hills. They were pursued by the Police; surrounded by the British Indian Army in the Jalalabad Hills. There was an encounter. Surya Sen was successful in fleeing. The revolutionaries who were arrested in Chittagong were captured and trailed and 12 people were deported for life. In February 1933, Surya Sen was arrested by the Police because of a tip off. He was trailed and hanged in the January 1934.

Did the failure of individual revolutionary terrorism significantly contributed to the success of Gandhi? Yes. The revolutionaries sent a message of failure to both moderates and extremists and proved that a vacuum had been created and thereby a new reorientation was needed. This was something which contributed to some extent to the emergence of Gandhian Politics. The failure of revolutionaries indicated that unless there is an involvement of big organizations, British can not be exterminated by the sporadic efforts. The revolutionary activities compelled the British to relinquish the double standards of benevolent despotic rule. The ruthless executions exposed in brute manners of British exposed the naked face of colonialism and imperialism.

Salt Satyagraha 1930 Mahatma Gandhi was authorized by the Congress Working Committee to determine the time, place and issue on which the Civil Disobedience was to be launched. He took the decision to break the salt law first, on which the British had imposed a duty, affecting the poorest of the poor. Salt Satyagraha began with the Dandi March on March 12, 1930 and was the part of the first phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi led the Dandi march from Sabarmati Ashram to the sea coast near the village of Dandi. In this journey of 24 days and covering a distance of 390 kilometer, thousands of people joined him. He reached Dandi on April 6, 1930, and broke the salt law. This triggered the Civil Disobedience Movement and millions of Indians jumped in the tumult.

Civil Disobedience Movement Breaking of the salt law was the formal inauguration of the Civil Disobedience Movement. A programme was outlined, which included the following:

• Violation of the laws such as Salt Law • Non payment of Land Revenue, Taxes and Rent • Boycott of courts of law, legislatures, elections, Government functionaries, Schools and

Colleges.




11 | P a g e

• Peaceful picketing of shops that sold foreign goods. • Mass strikes and processions. • Picketing of shops that sold liquor. • Boycott of Civil Services, Military and Police services.

The Government came into action by putting the law breakers in jails and suppressing them by police firings, lathicharge and other means. 60 Thousand people were arrested in less than one year. Those who dis not pay taxes, the properties were confiscated. Gandhi and all important leaders were arrested and placed behind the bars.

Recommendations of Simon Commission 1930 The recommendations of the Simon Commission were published in May 1930. They were as follows:

• Dyarchy in the provinces should be abolished and ministers should be made responsible to the provincial legislatures in all departments, including the department of law and order.

• The Governor was to retain the special powers for the safety and tranquility of the province and for the protection of the minorities.

• He would also have full powers of intervention in the event of breakdown of the constitution.

• The Franchise was to be extended and legislatures were to be enlarged. • At the centre, a Federal assembly would be constituted on the basis of representation of the

provinces and other areas as per the population. • The council of state would continue as the Upper House but its members would be chosen

not on the basis of direct election but on the basis of indirect election by the Provincial councils.

• No change in the central executive. • The all India federation was not considered practical idea for immediate execution. • Burma should be separated from the British India and should be provided a constitution of

its own.

First Round Table Conference 1930 On 11 September 1930, the personnel of the Round Table Conference were announced. The conference was opened officially by King George V on November 12, 1930 in London. It was chaired by British PM Ramsay MacDonald. 16 delegates represented the three political parties of Britain and 57 political leaders from India representing all shades of Indian opinion, minus Indian National Congress. The main Indian representatives were as follows:

• Muslim League: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Shafi, Aga Khan, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Zafrulla Khan, A.K. Fazlul Huq

• Hindu Mahasabha: B. S. Moonje and M.R. Jayakar • Indian Liberal Party : Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani and Srinivasa Sastri




12 | P a g e

• Sikhs: Sardar Ujjal Singh • The Untouchables: B. R. Ambedkar • Dewans of many princely states.

The concept of All India Federation was supported. Dr. Ambedkar demanded a separate electorate for the Untouchables. Most of the congress leaders were absent because they were either in Jails or followed the decision of Congress to boycott the conference. So, without congress, the entire exercise turned out to be fruitless. After the failure of the First Round Conference, many leaders mainly the pro-Bitish members of Indian Liberal Party such as Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani and Srinivasa Sastri appealed Gandhi to talk with the Viceroy. The talks between Gandhi and Irwin were arranged. Many congress leaders were released to make a favorable environment.

Gandhi- Irwin Pact 1931, March 5 Gandhi was authorized by the Congress to negotiate with Lord Irwin. The talks prolonged and the outcome of these talks was a pact known as Gandhi Irwin pact that was signed on March 5, 1931. Its main points were as follows:

o Gandhi agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience movement, on behalf of the Indian National Congress.

o Congress agreed to join the second Round Table Conference to chalk out the constitutional reforms on the basis of

o Federation o Responsibility o Safeguards for Indian opinion on matters of defense, external affairs, minorities and

finances. o The ordinance that was promulgated in the wake of the Civil Disobedience Movement was

agreed to be withdrawn. o All those detained in connection with the movement were to be released. o The Government agreed to permit some people living at the sea cost to collect duty free salt. o Government agreed to let the people picket peacefully, the shops that sold liquor.

Karachi Session of Congress 1931 The Gandhi Irwin Pact was endorsed by the Congress in the Karachi Session of 1931, that was held from March 26-31. Gandhi was nominated to represent Congress in the Second Round Table Conference. Just a week back, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj guru had been executed. So, there was anger in the public whose point was that why Gandhi did accept to sign the pact. So, when Gandhi was going to attend the Karachi session, all over the route, he was greeted with the Black flags.




13 | P a g e

In the Karachi session, congress passed a resolution to dissociate itself from and disapprove the political violence in any shape. The resolution which was drafted by Gandhi, admired the bravery and sacrifice of the 3 martyrs. Congress endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and reiterated the goal of "Poorna Swaraj". The Karachi session was presided by Sardar Patel. The congress adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy which represented the Party's Social, Economic and Political programme. It was later known as Karachi Resolution. Nehru had originally drafted it, but some Congress leaders thought it was too radical and it was redrafted. We have been told that MN Roy also played a role in drafting this resolution, but Nehru himself later said that MN Roy had nothing to do with it. In any case, the redrafted resolution made the Karachi Session memorable, because for the first time, the resolution tried to define what would be the meaning of Swaraj for common people. Thus it was the Karachi session, which for the first time tried to define what would be the meaning of Swaraj for common people. Some important aspects of these resolutions were:

o Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly, Freedom of association,

o Equality before law o Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise o Free and compulsory primary education. o Substantial reduction in rent and taxes o Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work. o Protection of women and peasants o Government ownership or control of key industries, mines, and transport. o Protection of Minorities.

Thus, the Congress which was agenda less a few years back had the most impressive agenda in hand now and made this agenda- the basis of its political programme for the next many years to come.

Second Round Table conference 1931 The Second Round Table conference was held in less auspicious environment. In India, Lord Irwin was replaced by Lord Wellingdon, who remained India's Viceroy till 1936. In England, The Labor Government was now replaced by a National Coalition Government. Samuel Hoare was the Secretary of State for Government of India. Meanwhile, there was a strong reaction in India against the statement of Winston Churchill who called Gandhi a "Naked Seditious Fakir". There were political and financial pressure on the Imperial Government. The period of 1928 to 1931 also marked the large number of revolutionary activities in which many Europeans were killed.




14 | P a g e

The Second Round Conference opened on September 7, 1931. Gandhi represented Indian National Congress and Sarojini Nayudu represented Indian women. Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Mirza Ismail Diwan of Mysore, S K Dutta and Sir Syed Ali Imam were other people that attended the conference.

o This conference saw an overwhelming number of Indian delegates. These included loyalists, communalists, careerists, big landlords, representatives of the princes and all sorts of Tom, Dick and Harry.

So, now the Government claimed that the Congress did not represent the interests of All India. But, Gandhi claimed that Congress Represented India. Gandhi iterated the need of a partnership between Britain and India as between two equal nations. His demands were :

o A responsible government must be established immediately and in full, both at the centre and in the provinces.

o Congress alone represented political India o The Untouchables were Hindus and should not be treated as a “minority", o There should be no separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other

minorities. But these claims of Gandhi were rejected by the other Indian delegates. The conference was deadlocked on the minorities’ issue for; separate electorate was now being demanded by the Muslims, Dalits, Christians, Anglo Indians, and Europeans etc. The result was that the Conference ended on December 11, 1931 and Gandhi came back to pavilion without any score. In the last document, we studied that with the advent of the coalition Government in England, the whole atmosphere of the Second Round Table conference got changed and the sole outcome of this session was the widening of the gap between the Congress and the minorities. Except Sikhs, all of the minorities (including Dalits) wanted to get their own separate electorates. So, on the one side, Minorities were in opposition, who wanted to reach at an agreement among them. On the other side, it was the antagonistic British Government, which was for anything opposite to the Indian aspirations. Result? Gandhi came back, disappointed, without any achievement.

Civil Disobedience Movement Second Phase 1931-1934 When Gandhi was in England to attend the round table conference, the political situation in India got even worse. There was a general disturbance in Bengal, United Provinces and Punjab. The Viceroy had issued an array of ordinances, which gave the authorities unlimited powers. This is called by many scholars as "Civil Martial Law". There were no civil liberties. The authorities could detain people and seize their property at will.




15 | P a g e

In a proposed launch of no-rent campaign by the Congress, Jawahar Lal Nehru had been arrested. In NWF province, Khan Abdul Gaffer Khan had also been arrested along with his comrades – The Red Shirts. Gandhi arrived from London on 28 December 1931 and on that day, Congress Working Committee decided to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement. Within a week, on 4 January 1932, Gandhi was arrested. In the first 4 months, around 80 thousand people were jailed. Lakhs of people jumped into the protests all over India. They just did two main things i.e. picket the shops that sold liquor and foreign cloth and carried out processions. The Congress and other political parties were declared an illegal organization. The offices and funds of these parties were seized. All the Ashrams of Gandhi were occupied by the Police. But the movement could not build the tempo and was crushed within a few months. Officially, the Civil Disobedience movement was suspended in May 1933 and it was finally withdrawn in May 1934.

Assessment of the Civil Disobedience Movement o While the Non-cooperation Movement was launched to remedy the wrongs of the

Government of India Act 1919, the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched as an attempt to attain Poorna Swarajya.

o The Congress became so popular that in 1937, when elections were held, it swept away all others.

o The Non-cooperation movement was the beginning, and there was no deliberated violation of law. But in the Civil Disobedience Movement laws were deliberately broken; it became popular among the rural and poor.

o The picketing of the Liquor shops was something which made the women an indispensable part of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

o The impact of this movement was slow but definite. In due course of time, CPI emerged as an alternative to the Congress.

o The gap between Hindu and Muslims became so wide that it culminated in partition, around a decade and half later.

The second phase of the Civil disobedience Movement also saw the significant uprising in two princely states viz. Kashmir & Alwar in Rajasthan. The uprising in Alwar is also called the Mev Uprising; the Mevs are the semi-tribal peasants of Alwar district.

o These people rose against the Maharaja Jaisingh against the revenue enhancement measures.

o The result was the Maharaja of Alwar was sent to Europe and Alwar administration came under the Central Government for many years.




16 | P a g e

It was the second half of 1932, when it was almost clear that the Civil disobedianece Movement is going to prove to be fruitless. The days of Gandhi’s Satyagraha seemed to have gone, and the Peasants were almost against Gandhi because, they never wanted to lose their lands. The result was that in many Zamindari areas, the peasants turned radicals. Some Kisan Sabhas came up and many peasants started leaning towards the Communists.

Comparison of CDM with NCM During the civil disobedient movement, government income from liquor, excise and land revenue fell and there was drastic fall in the imports of foreign cloth and other items. The election of legislative assembly was largely boycotted. Here are some visible and invisible differences between CDM and NCM:

Difference CDM NCM Objective Complete Independence Swaraj Methods adopted Violation of Law Only non-cooperation , adopted the British Rule Government’s reaction Ruthless repression Moderate repression Participation of women Great extent Marginal Participation of Business and peasants More than NCM Less than CDM Impact on Congress Emerged stronger Emerged weaker Number of Imprisonments X 3X

Communal Award August 1932 On August 16, 1932, the British Prime Minister McDonald announced the Communal Award. Thus it is also known as McDonald Award. The Communal Award was basically a proposal on minority representation. Major proposals were as follows:

o The existing seats of the provincial legislatures were to be doubled. o The system of separate electorates for the minorities was to be retained. o The Muslims, wherever they were in minority, were to be granted a weightage. o Except NWFP, 3 % seats for women were to be reserved in all provinces. o The depressed , dalits or the untouchables were to be declared as minorities. o Allocation was to be made to labor, landlords, traders and industrialists.

Thus, this award accorded separate electorates for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, Depressed Classes, and even Marathas. (Some seats in Bombay were given to Marathas)

o The depressed classes were given seats which had to be filled by election from the special constituencies in which only they could vote.

o However, they were eligible to vote in the general constituencies as well. o The labor, Commerce and Industry, Mining and Planting, Landholders were also given

special electorates. o Sikhs were 13.2% of the population in Punjab. Here they were given 32 seats out of the total

175 seats. McDonald award was another manifestation of British policy of divide and rule The McDonald Award was based on the British theory that India was not a nation, but is a conglomeration of racial, religious and cultural groups, castes and interests. The British knew the strengths and weaknesses of the Indian Society and knew that Indian society had a tendency to gravitate towards localism and regionalism and the reason was obvious: India was a self-sufficient country based on self-sufficient units and there was very




17 | P a g e

little interaction between the two. The British were very much aware that a sense of nationalism is always an antidote to imperialism. We can also say that the British had a single point agenda to strike down the nationalism and to create parochial loyalties among the smaller communities. This was one of the reasons that British came up with the concept of separate electorate, as Elections are a powerful means for the allocation of power and therefore, So, McDonald award was to debilitate national unity by creating different spheres of interests. It was dangerous and Gandhi knew it. The new challenge was to combat with the feeling of separatism. This award started a policy of appeasement and quota, which is still killing India, slowly.

It was declared by Gandhi for more than once that the separate electorates for the depressed class was an attempt to divide and detach the depressed classes from the main body of Hindus. It seemed to him the these Firangies are going to break the country on the basis of the communities and so, he wrote a letter to the Prime Minister that if the award, so far it was related to the Depressed class, is not changed, he would sit on a fast unto death. On 20 September 1932, Gandhiji sat on the fast unto death in the Yarawada Jail, in which he was lodged at that time. The Hindu leaders woke up and went directly to Dr. Ambedkar, to negotiate on this matter. The outcome of these negotiations was Poona Pact of 1932.

Poona Pact of September 1932 The Poona Pact was the agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Br Ambedkar reached on 25 September 1932. The major points in this pact were as follows:

o 148 seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures. This was more than double from the 71 seats as promised in the Communal Award.

o Certain percentage of the seats allotted to the general Non-Muslim electorate would be reserved for the depressed classes.

o Congress agreed that adequate representation would be given to the depressed classes in the civil services.

o The depressed classes agreed to adhere to the principle of Joint Electorate. We see that the Poona pact was more generous to the depressed classes comparing to the Communal award. The seats reserved for the Depressed Classes out of the general Non-Muhammaden seats in the provincial legislatures were as follows:

o Madras 30 o Bombay plus Sind: 15 o Punjab : 8 o Bihar & Orissa : 18 o Central Provinces: 20 o Assam : 7 o Bengal : 30 o United provinces : 20




18 | P a g e

What is Joint Electorate? The election to these seats was to be by joint electorates. This means that all the members of the depressed classes registered in the general electoral roll in a constituency would form an electoral college which would elect a panel of four candidates belonging to the depressed classes of the reserved seats by the method of the single vote. The four members getting the highest number of votes in such primary election would be candidates for each such reserved seats by the general electorate.

Did Poona pact divert all attention from the actual fight of civil disobedience movement, when it was on its climax? Yes. We should blame both the McDonald Award and Poona Pact. McDonald award was devised create a dissension amongst the Hindus and it had the hidden objective of deviating the leadership from the CDM. British were successful in attaining both the objectives. Depressed classes secured double the number of seats reserved for them in the communal award and also enjoyed the benefits of a separate electorate thought in a modified form. Thus, the future of the depressed classes was deliberately linked to the policy of reservation. In this process, the larger issues fade into the background for the time being at least. The common man was confused with the compromise formula of Poona pact. They thought that the agreement on communal award is the end of the movement, and thus brought a halt in the pace of the movement.

Third Round Table Conference November 1932 Third Round Table Conference was held in London on November 17, 1932. This was just a nominal conference, Congress refused to attend it (not invited, in fact) and in Britain, the Labor party also refused to not to attend it. So, only 46 people reached out there. Please note that it was this conference where a college student Chaudhary Rahmat Ali proposed the name of the new land specially carved out from India for the Muslims. The name of this "holy" land was - Pakistan. Muslim leaders who attended the conference were Muhammad Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq, Jinnah. The outcome of the Third Round Table conference was the “ White Paper” issued by the Government. On the basis of this paper, the Government of India Act 1935 was to be passed.

Changes in the Congress before Government of India Act 1935 The proposal of the Communal award and its aftermath led Gandhi to focus his attention on the Harijan Welfare. Harijan upliftment was now to become his main concern. He started an all India Anti-untouchability league in September 1932 and the weekly Harijan paper in January 1933. In 1933 he went out on a Congress Harijan Tour. He worked towards the social upliftment of these sections- openings of wells, roads, and particularly temples plus humanitarian work. However, by this the Civil Disobedience gradually slipped in the background. Officially, the Civil Disobedience movement was suspended in May 1933 and it was finally withdrawn in May 1934.

o The Swarajya Party was reconstituted and in the annual session of the Congress in October 1934, the Congress rejected the "White Paper".

o The Congress iterated that the only satisfactory alternative was a constitution drawn up by the Constituent Assembly which should be elected as far as possible on the basis of Adult Suffrage.




19 | P a g e

o But the Communal award was not rejected by Congress. I was criticized only. A section of Congress led by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya broke away from the main body and started the "Congress Nationalist Party". This party's immediate job was to reject the communal award. By the end of 1934, the elections were held to the Central legislative assembly. Congress and Congress Nationalist party together secured more than half of the number of elected seats. Muslim League did not contest the elections. Jinnah returned to the assembly as an Independent.

Bihar Earthquake 1934 The last major event during the times of Lord Wellington was the catastrophic 8.4 scale Earthquake in Bihar. This earthquake completely destroyed the Munger and Muzaffarpur area. Its epicenter was in Nepal and almost whole of the Bihar state got affected. Life of some 40 thousand people was lost.

Chapter 2. Lord Linlithgow Lord Linlithgow was Viceroy of India from 1936 to 1944. This was the longest reign as Viceroy of India. During his reign, the following important events took place:

o Government of India Act 1935 o Elections in the Provinces 1937 o Beginning of Second World War 1939 o Arrival of Cripps Mission. 1942 o Quit India Movement begins 1942 o Great Famine of Bengal 1943

He was the third last British Viceroy of India. The two following viceroys were Lord Wavell (1944-1947) and Lord Mountbatten (1947-48).

Government of India Act 1935 Background of Events

o The changes introduced by the Government of India act 1919 were too short of a self government in our country. There was only partial transfer of powers through a system of dyarchy. The act was inadequate to satisfy the National aspirations.

o The division of subjects in Reserved and transferred was illogical and not acceptable. In November 1920, there were elections which were boycotted by the congress. The government of India act 1919 envisaged the centralization through the division of authority between the central and provincial governments in various fields of administration but central legislature was competent to legislate on the Provincial subjects and there was still no federal principle in operation and Government in India was still unitary.

o The act of 1919 could not satisfy any one. The dyarchy as an experiment failed, when it was put to practice as there was no substantial transfer of power to the representatives of the people.




20 | P a g e

o There was an emergence of a new spirit, zeal and unity among the educated Indians under the banner of Indian National Congress

o In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi had returned to India from South Africa. In may 1915 he established Sabarmati ashram in Gujarat.

o The Champaran Agragarian dispute of North Bihar, a similar dispute in Gujarat at kaira and also a labor dispute in Ahmadabad made Mahatma Gandhi a national hero and his influential political career started. He devised a new technique Satyagraha.

o The British were irked by the growing revolutionary terrorism and the ongoing First World War.

o In 1919, a committee was established by the Governor general Chelmsford under the judge of the Kings Bench in London Sydney Rowlatt. The responsibility of this committee was to investigate into the nature and extent of revolutionary activities and suggest measures. This committee submitted its report in April 1918. Based upon the recommendations of this committee two bills were introduced. One was dropped and another was passed. The name of this passed bill, which was now an act was Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act which was called Rowlatt Act.

o On February 6, 1919, Gandhi Ji decided to launch the Satyagraha and criticized the Rowlatt act as subversive and unjust and against the principles of liberty. The volunteers courted arrest and a strike was launched country wide on April 6, 1919. On April 13, 1919 the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy occurred and the Satyagraha lost momentum.

o Before the government of India act 1935 passed, 3 round conferences in London were held. These have been discussed in our Independence struggle.

Salient Features of Government of India Act 1935 o The Government of India Act 1935 introduced the provincial autonomy and provided for an

all India federation. o This act introduced dyarchy at the central level. o This act had 321 sections and 10 schedules. o It made a provision for establishment of a Federal court. o The franchisee was extended. o It divided the subjects in 3 lists. o The Indian council was abolished and an advisory body was introduced. o Burma was separated from India, and Aden was surrendered to British Colonial office.

Lord Dundas & Viscount Ennismore In 1935, the Government of India Act 1935 provided a new Burma Office, in preparation for the establishment of Burma as a separate colony, but the same Secretary of State headed both Departments and was styled the Secretary of State for India and Burma. The first secretary of state for India and Burma was Lord Dundas. The India Office of the Secretary of State for India and Burma came to an end in 1947, when we got independence and now the Secretary of state of India and Burma was left to be Secretary of Burma. Viscount Ennismore was the first and last Secretary of Burma, as Burma got independence in 1948.




21 | P a g e

The political conscious of the people of India was not considered. There was no provision of any fundamental right. It perpetuated the sovereignty of the British parliament over India.

All India Federation: The government of India act 1935 provided for an all India federation. In this all India federation the British India provinces, the chief commissioners of the provinces and those Indian states which might accede to be united were included. The federation consisted of 11 provinces, 6 chief commissioners’ provinces and other states.

o The accession to the federation was voluntary. Some notable Points

o This act ended the system of dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act 1919 and provided for the establishment of a "Federation of India", to be made up of both British India and some or all of the "princely states"

o This act introduced for the first time the direct elections and increased the franchise from seven million to thirty-five million people.

o The partial reorganization of the provinces included separation of Sind from Bombay, Splitting Bihar and Orissa into separate provinces, Complete separation of Burma from India, Detachment of Aden from India and establishing as a separate colony.

However, the degree of autonomy introduced at the provincial level was subject to important limitations: the provincial Governors retained important reserve powers, and the British authorities also retained a right to suspend responsible government. The act proposed that federation of India could come into existence only if as many princely states (which had been given option to join or not to join) were entitled to one half of the states seats in the upper house of the federal legislature.

o The parts of the Act intended to establish the Federation of India never came into operation, due to opposition from rulers of the princely states. The remaining parts of the Act came into force in 1937, when the first elections under the Act were also held.

The proposed federal polity was to have a bicameral legislature at the center. Upper House: The upper house was called Council of States and it consisted of 260 members. Out of these 260 members 156 were to represent the provinces and 104 to the native states. Out of the 156 which were to represent the provinces, 150 were to be elected on communal basis. Seats reserved for Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, were to be filled by direct elections and Seats reserved for Indian Christians, Anglo Indians and Europeans was to be filled by indirect method of a electoral college consisting of their representative members.




22 | P a g e

Lower House: The lower house was to be called the federal assembly. It consisted of 375 members out of whom 250 were to represent the provinces and 125 to represent the princely states. The term of the assembly was five years but it could be dissolved earlier also. Federal Court: A federal court was established which began its functioning from October 1, 1937. The chief Justice of the federal court was Sir Maurice Gwyer. It consisted of One Chief Justice and not more than 6 Judges. Federal Railway Authority: The Government of India Act 1935 vested the control of the railways in federal railway authority , a new 7 member body. This authority was kept free from the control of ministers and councilors. The idea was to assure the British Stakeholders of the railways that their investment was safe. The Simon commission had promised ‘Dominion Status’ for India in 1929 , but the Government of India Act did not confer it. This act by providing separate electorates for Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Europeans, Anglo Indians, Indian Christians etc. proved to be an instrument of disintegrating the unity fabric of the country. It was over obstructing and Nehru called it “all breaks, no engine”. So , in summary this act provided the following:

o Establishment of an All India Federation of the Provinces in British India and Princely states. o Bicameral Federation Legislature o Representatives of the Princely states to be elected by their rulers. o Abolition of Dyarchy o 14% of the population was now having right to vote. o Appointment of Governor General and Governors by British. o Special Powers to Governors. o Principle of Separate Electorates. o Provincial autonomy. o Federal Court. o Creation of Sind and Orissa.

The federal part of this act was never introduced. However, the provincial part came into being on 1st April 1937.

Political Reaction to the Federation of India Act The Government of India act came into force on 4 August 1935.

Background: Separation of Burma Please note that the Government of India Act 1935 contemplated the Federation of the British Indian Provinces and Indian States. But for Burma, there was a separate set of Events. Burma was proposed to be separated in pursuance of the recommendation of the Indian Statutory (Simon Commission) whose proposal was accepted in principle by the Government. Consequently a Burma Round Table Conference was held in London in 1932. In 1935, Burma Act was passed and separation of Burma actually took place in 1937.




23 | P a g e

The provinces namely Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, North West Frontier Province, Orissa and Sind were now in a proposed federation. The chief commissioner's provinces namely Delhi, Ajmer-Mewar, Coorg, British Baluchistan, Andmana & Nicobar Islands, Panth Piploda were also to be in the Federation. In the case of the provinces, accession to the Federation would be automatic. But in case of the princely states this accession was to be voluntary. This means that the ruler of an Indian Princely state would acceded to the Federation by executing an "Instrument of Accession", which would have to be accepted by Viceroy of India and this Federation would be brought by a Royal proclamation. But here was a big confusion. .. No such proclamation would be issued until the rulers of the States, representing not less than half of the aggregate population of the States, and also entitled to not less than half of the seats allotted to the states in the Federal Upper Chamber, had signified their desire to accede to a Federation, and both the houses of the Parliament had presented an address to His majesty that such proclamation be issued. Since, for the princely states, this was something similar to surrendering the remnants of the autocratic powers which was left with them. So, this was a nonstarter. No princely states were ready to join the proposed federation.

o The first reaction was towards the way, the representation of the princely states was proposed. The delegates were not to be elected by the public but by the rulers.

o This was because, they (princely states) were the "natural" allies of the British Government of India. So, here Dr. Rajendra Prasad commented:

It will be a kind of federation in which unabashed autocracy will sit entrenched in one third of India and peep in now and then to strangle the popular will in the remaining two thirds.

o Second important reaction was against the proposed form of dyarchy. o The Dyarchy had been total failure in the provinces, but now there was an experiment

coming up at the centre. o The safeguards and the special powers vested in the Governor General was something like a

"Charter of Slavery" as mentioned by Jawahar Lal Nehru. He compared it with a "machine with all brakes, no engine".

o Similarly Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya said: "the act is somewhat democratic in its appearance but completely hallow from inside".

Jinnah commented it as "thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable". Jinnah's point of view was based upon the feeling that it would substantially increase Hindu majority at the center. However Jinnah was ready to accept the provincial scheme, as it seemed that it would ensure Muslim control of the four Muslim majority provinces.




24 | P a g e

The result of above hotch potch was that the proposed Federation of India was shelved. Next was the provincial elections. The Elections to the provincial legislatures were held in the January and February 1937. This was a radical change in the politics of India. The political reaction of the Government of India Act 1935 was so that the proposed Federation of India was shelved. Next were the provincial elections. The Elections to the provincial legislatures were held in the January and February 1937. This was a radical change in the politics of India. Before we move ahead, please note the following important points:

o The Population of British Indian Provinces under the 1931 Census was 256 million. 11.5% of the population was enfranchised.

o The Section 93 of the Government of India Act 1935 provided that at any time of the Governor of the Province was satisfied that a situation had arisen in which the Government of the Province could not be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the act, he could by proclamation take upon himself, the administration of the province. This was the primitive model of President Rule of present in India as today and was provided by the Section 93 of the Government of India Act 1935.

o The Chief Commissioners Provinces were directly governed by the Central Government. But Coorg was an exception. In Coorg, there was a legislative council.

o If there was any dispute regarding the domains of powers between the Central Government and the Provincial Government, there was a Federal Court Established.

o This Federal Court consisted of One Chief Justice and 2 regular Judges.

Circumstances at the time of Election As per the Congress, the act had more enemies than friends. In words of J L Nehru, it had all brakes not engine. The Federal provisions had already been condemned by all the political parties including the Congress and the Muslim League.

o The Only parties to declare themselves in favor of the working of the Act of 1935, both in the provinces and the Central were --National Liberal Federation and Hindu Mahasabha.

In due course of time, the urge to fight the elections grew among them Congressmen. In 1936, When Congress met at Faizpur, the president of the session was Jawahar Lal Nehru. He said that

"there was no choice but to contest the elections as it would educate the masses on the political policies and economic programmes of the party".

In the Faizpur session, there was a general opposition to the proposed federal portion, safeguards and Governor General's overriding powers. So, the resolution of the congress was "not to submit to this constitution or to cooperate with it, but to combat it both inside and outside the legislatures so that it can be ended.” But the provincial portion of the act was accepted. The Congress launched the Election campaign and in its manifesto the top thing was "A demand for the Constituent Assembly".




25 | P a g e

In the same year 1936, Jinnah was elected president of the Muslim League. Thus the Muslim league which was up till now was in moribund state got a fresh lease of life. The Muslim league appointed a Central parliamentary board to direct the elections.

Elections and Results The Congress swept the polls. It won absolute majority in 5 provinces viz. Madras, United Provinces, Central provinces, Bihar & Orissa, Bombay, Assam and North West Frontier Province it emerged at the largest political party and formed the governments. Later Assam and NWFP also came under Congress rule. In Bengal, Punjab and Sind, Congress had no majority. In Punjab, the Muslim League with Unionist Party formed a coalition government. However, later a faction of Unionist Party in the premiership of Sikandar Hayat Khan mixed up with the Muslim league and remained so till 1947. In Bengal, Muslim league formed a coalition government with Krishak Praja Party under Fazlul Haq.

o In Sindh, during 1937-1947, two leaders remained premiers viz. Ghulam Hussain Hidayutulla and Alla Bakhsh. They were non congress leaders.

o The Muslim league got 108 sats out of the total 485 Muslim Seats. Congress contested on 58 Muslim seats and won 26 seats out of them.

o Congress remained in office for more than two years. Under this tenure, Tenancy acts were passes un United Provinces and Bihar, to protect the tenants from the moneylenders. They took pro-labor stand but remained away from the class struggle.

o In 1937, the Congress Government in Bombay appointed a Textile Inquiry Committee which recommended a wage increase for labor.

In November 1938, the Congress Government in Bombay introduced the “Industrial Disputes Act”. The act was based upon the principles of arbitrage and avoided the strikes and lock outs. In these two years Congress did all that lifted its image from a political party to a party that can lead the masses of India not only in protests but also in Governance. The Ministers of Congress traveled in second and third class of railways and voluntarily reduced their salaries by Rs. 500 per month.

Rise of Separatism In 1937, after the Provincial elections, the Congress had refused to make coalition Governments with the Muslim league. This gave the Muslim League leaders an opportunity to accuse the ministries of oppressing the Muslims. Apart from that, Muslim League had the view that it alone had the right to contact with the Muslims and take care of them. When Congress started mass contacts in villages, the Muslim league did not approve it. A dream was shown to the middle and lower class Muslims of the country that if they remain in united country, they will always be unable to compete with the Kafirs who will not allow them to get the higher jobs and prospects. If a separate sovereign state is created, then it would be the middle and lower class Muslims that would get the most benefit.




26 | P a g e

There was one more reason of a press for separate Muslim nation. It was the Wardha Scheme of Education, which led the Muslim league to champion for the cause of Pakistan.

Rise of Congress Socialist Party : 1934 Onwards Congress Socialist Party, or (CSP), was a left-wing group within the Congress. It was formed with Acharya Narendra Deva as President and Jay Prakash Narayan as General Secretary in 1934. The rise of this party was due to the increased left influence in the Indian National Congress. By 1935, one third of the Congress members were Congress Socialists. These leaders rejected the idea of Gandhi (which they saw as anti-rational). Though, they remained active in the workers and peasants movement, they rejected the sectarian attitude of the Communist Party of India. They were influenced by Marxism-Leninism. The members ranged from the advocates of arms struggle to nonviolent resistance. The ideal of this party was decentralized socialism in which a substantial share in the economic power of co-operatives, trade unions, independent farmers, and local authorities.

Some important points: o J P Narayan was lodged in the Nasik Jail in 1932 for civil disobedience against British rule.

Here he met with Ram Manohar Lohia, Minoo Masani, Achyut Patwardhan, Ashok Mehta, Yusuf Desai and other national leaders.

o After his release in 1934, JP Narayan convened a meeting in Patna which founded the Bihar Congress Socialist Party with Narayan as general secretary and Acharya Narendra Deva as president.

o On October 23-23, 1934, another conference was held in Bombay where they formed an all India level "Congress Socialist Party" with Narayan as general secretary and Masani as joint secretary and Acharya Narendra Deva as president.

o The greeting “Comrade” was used in the new party. o Masani mobilized the party in Bombay, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya and Puroshottam

Trikamdas organized the party in other parts of Maharashtra. o The CSP was not separate from the Congress. Its constitution defined that the members were

all required to be members of the Indian National Congress. Members of communal organizations or political organizations, whose goals were incompatible with the ones of CSP, were barred from CSP membership.

o Many communists joined the CSP, it adopted Marxism in 1936. They had a conference on the sidelines of the Faizpur Conference and then propounded a doctrine that was aimed to transform the Indian National Congress into an anti-imperialist front.

Thus, emergence of the CSP had a long lasting impact on the politics of the Congress for many years to come.




27 | P a g e

Subhash Chandra Bose Netaji was born on 23 January 1897 at Cuttack. His father Jankinath Bose was an advocate and his mother's name was Prabhavati Devi. He finished his schooling from Cuttack and graduated from the Scottish Church College of the University of Calcutta in 1918. Later, he went to University of Cambridge for higher studies and passed the Indian Civil Services Examination with high marks. He resigned from Civil services in 1920 and remarked “The best way to end a Government is to withdraw from it”. After he returned to India, he started writing for Swaraj and then worked towards the publicity of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee.

o Chitaranjan Das was his mentor. o In early 1920s he mobilized the All-Bengal Young Men's Conference. His ideology was very

much influenced with Swami Vivekananda and Arubindo Ghosh. In 1925, he was arrested and sent to Burma (Mandalay Jail) where he is said to have contracted the Tuberculosis. He was released in 1927 and then was appointed the General Secretary of the Congress. He worked closely with Jawahar Lal Nehru. In participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and then was again sent to Jail. In Jail itself, he was elected as Mayor of Calcutta. He was then released and in 1930, he was again arrested for organizing demonstrations. Most of the early 1930s he spent in Europe, travelled Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Italy, Ireland and other countries of the Eastern Europe and got influenced by the preparations of the Axial Powers. He met Mussolini during these visits. In 1938, he returned from Europe. His philosophy was entirely different from that of Gandhi and Nehru, which reflects in the saying "If somebody slaps you once, slap him twice".

Congress Haripura Session 1938 By 1938, Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose had emerged as candid spokespersons of the Congress. By the same time, Congress had divided among two groups based upon the ideology. One was the conservative group and another was radical. During this period, Gandhi remained almost retired from the active politics and took the job of upliftment of the Harijans. Babu Subash Chandra Bose was very critical to the ideology of compromise of Gandhi. In the midst of the violence and non-violence, in the midst of new developments of the socialist ideology, in the midst of the subdued resentment against the Congress ministries which had become slow in their progress towards independence and in the midst of the conflict of ideologies, Congress met at Vitthal Nagar Haripua from 19th 21st February 1938. President of this Congress was Subhash Chandra Bose. He outlined his policy as follows: " My term of office as the Congress President will be devoted to resist the unwanted federal scheme will all the peaceful and legitimate powers, including non violence and non cooperation if necessary and to

strengthen the country's determination to resist this scheme".




28 | P a g e

Bose had the idea of developing the power of resistance among the people of India as to make the British Government abandon the idea of forcing the federal scheme down the throats of Indians. But it was this 1938 Haripura session when the differences between Gandhi and Bose surfaced over their attitudes towards the Great Britain. Subhash Chandra Bose was against the plan of the British to drag India into the Second World War. He was aware of the political instability of Britain and wanted to take advantage of it, rather than wait for the British to grant independence. Which is evident from his statement : Britain’s Peril is India’s Opportunity. In this session, under Bose, a resolution was passed.

o As per Haripura resolution, Britain was given 6 months ultimatum to the British, failing to which there will be a revolt.

But this was something Gandhi could not digest. Subhash did not endorse the nonviolence and Satyagraha tactics of Gandhi to throw the British away. The result was that there was a great divide between Gandhi and Bose. Similarly, Nehru also fell apart from Bose.

o This variance grew further when Subhash Chandra Bose organized National Planning Committee.

o National Planning Committee was the Forerunner of India’s Planning Commission. The idea was to draw a comprehensive plan for economic development of India on the basis of Industrialization. It was against the Charkha policy of Gandhi.

Congress Tripuri Session 1939 The British Government was keen on Bose taking interest in the Axis Powers and the developing Gandhi Bose strife. In December 1938, Bose had a meeting with two representatives of the German Nazi Party. Here, Bose told the Nazis that the Hitler regime must stop insulting the Indians. In India, Nazis were not liked because of their deeds of extinguishing the democracy, eliminating the socialist ideas. For the 1939 elections of the President of Congress, Subhash announced his candidature knowing that he would be opposed. By this time, Nehru was on a long holiday in Europe. When he returned in 1938, Gandhi suggested him to announce his name as a candidate. But he declined and suggested the name of Maulana Azad. But Maulana Azad withdrew his name and then new name came up was of Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, an Andhra leader. But Subhash was not sure of his win. The result was declared on January 29, 1939 and Subhash secured 1580 Votes. Sitaramaya got 1377 votes, thus Subhash winning by a narrow but clear margin. But the defeat of Sitaramayya was taken by Gandhi as a personal blow. He said "

... I am glad of his (Subhash's) victory....and since I was instrumental in inducing Dr. Pattabhi not to withdraw his name after Maulana Azad Sahib done so, the defeat is more mine than his....".

Gandhi said that Bose was president in his own right. He should form his own working committee and run the congress. Gandhi said that




29 | P a g e

"...after all Subhash Babu is not the enemy of our country...he has suffered for it". In His opinion, his is the most forward and boldest policy and programme....the minority can only wish him all the best"..

We see, that Gandhi in a characteristic way had declared a "personal" war against Bose. Actually, Gandhi meticulously started planning to destroy Subhash, who was now the most serious challenge to his ideology and superiority. Gandhi, whom we today cherish as Father of the Nation, planned his moves against Subhash with utmost care. The constitution of Congress did not provide for the removal of the President and the delegates vote was something which could not be reversed. The Congress Working committee was still controlled by the followers of Gandhi. Thus , Subhash might reign but could not rule. In March 1939, Congress met at annual session at Tripuri near Jabalpur. Prior to this session, Bose fell ill (which may be a psychological reaction to the stress) just before February 20-21, when a meeting of Congress Working Committee was held in Wardha. Subhash was unable to reach and so sent a telegram to Patel to postpone the meeting of working committee till the annual session. He had also sent a telegram to Gandhi to nominate the working committee as his wish, but strangely Gandhi DID NOT SUGGEST any name. But this telegram hurt the congressmen. They said that this demonstrates Subhash's dictatorial ambition, who does not want the congress to do the normal business in his absence. The result was that Patel and other 11 members resigned from the Working Committee. Earlier, Bose had described the followers of Gandhi as of low intellectual level. The members of Congress wanted Subhash to apologize for the slur. He refused. In this session, when Subhash was brought to the dais on stretcher, one of the congressmen fanned "Why don't you check whether he has any onions under his armpits" (Onions when kept under armpits raise the temperature of the body). Such was the disastrous division between Subhash and Gandhi & his followers. Next Month, Subhash resigned from Congress and now he was on an entirely different path. The place was filled by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

Establishment of Forward Bloc 1939 In April 1939, Subhash left Congress and on 3 May 1939, he established the "Forward Bloc” of the Indian National Congress. This formation was announced in a Public Rally at Calcutta. Here, he said that those who are joining would never return to the British and must fill the pledge form by cutting their finger and signing it with their blood. Bose became the president of the Forward Bloc and S.S. Cavesheer its vice-president. In June 1939, a Forward Bloc Conference was held in Bombay. In July 1939, he announced the Committee of the Forward Bloc. In August same year, he started publishing a newspaper titled Forward Bloc. He travelled around the country and now was the most cherished after hero of the nation.




30 | P a g e

Begin of Second World War 1939 & Bose’s Escape The Second World War broke out on September 3, 1939 and on the same day Lord Linlithgow declared India as belligerent and at war with “Germany”. Bose advocated a campaign of mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's decision to declare war on India's behalf without consulting the Congress leadership. He approached Gandhi to persuade on this matter , but was not successful. Gandhi had different ideas. He organized protests in Calcutta and called for removal of the 'Holwell Monument’, which commemorated the Black Hole of Calcutta. In 1940, he was arrested and was put behind the bars. In Jail, he sat on a hunger strike. When his condition deteriorated, he was released by the British and was taken under surveillance to his home in Calcutta. He left the house in disguise and reached Peshawar by Train. From there he crossed India's border and reached Kabul. From Kabul, he went to Moscow and From Moscow he reached Germany to take Hitler’s help. In Berlin, he established Free India centre and raised a unit of Indian prisoners of War in Germany. Later he came to know about Japan's phenomenal success in the war. So to take advantage, he moved on to Japan. However, things did not come up as expected and thus India lost a True Hero in disarray.

Second World War 1939 & Congress Soon after the war broke out, an array of emergency legislations was passed in India and Britain. The autonomy of the Provincial Governments was curbed and civil liberties of the people were restricted. Congress was of the idea to support the British on the condition that India should be declared an independent nation immediately after the war and a responsible government must be placed at the centre. Gandhi, opposed to Subhash, did not wanted independence from the ruins of England, because that was not the way of non violence. On September 8, 1939, there was a meeting of the Congress Working Committee. In it, it was suggested that the issue of the war and peace with India must be decided by the Indian People. But on this resolution, Government did not do anything. So the Congress High Command declared that Congress Ministries in the provinces should resign. This irked the British Government. The Muslim league had openly supported the British in the war policies and thus they were encouraged hereafter.

Jinnah's Two Nations Theory March 1940 In November 193, a Pirpur Committe which was submitted by the Muslim league had presented its report in which it charged the congress for interference with the religious rites, suppression of

Pirpur Committee Pirpur Committee was established in November 1930 by the All India Muslim League to prepare a detailed report regarding the atrocities of the Congress Ministries (1937-1939) formed after the elections under the 1935 Government of India Act in different provinces. Its report charged the congress for interference with the religious rites, suppression of Urdu and propaganda of Hindi, denial of legitimate representation and suppression in economy of the Muslims.




31 | P a g e

Urdu and propaganda of Hindi, denial of legitimate representation and suppression in economy of the Muslims. The national poet of Pakistan, Allama Muhammad Iqbal had initially suggested the creation of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. But in his work Tarana-e-Hind, he stated the belief of a strong united India. In the Third round table conference, a Cambridge student Chaudhary Rehmat Ali coined the term Pakistan. On 28 January 1933, he published a pamphlet "Now or Never" which is called "Pakistan Declaration". This declaration said:

“ At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN - by which we mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan. ”

This pamphlet appealed the Government that the five northern Units of India come up as a state independent of the proposed Indian Federation. But, this was not a movement until Jinnah Took it up. For Jinnah, the Congress was "Gandhi Hindu Congress". On March 20, 1940, the Muslim League met at Lahore. Here Fazlul Haq, the Premier of Bengal, who along with Muslim League had formed the Government Bengal Province, moved a resolution, which was passed by Muslim League. The resolution said:

the areas in which Muslims are numerically in majority, as in north-western and eastern zones of India, should be grouped to constitute the Independent States in which the Constituent units would be autonomous and sovereign".

In this session Jinnah in his Presidential address gave the famous two nation theory as follows: "India cannot be assumed today to be Unitarian and homogenous nation, but on the contrary, there are two nations in the main- the Hindus and the Muslims".

But the term Pakistan was not used in this session. This resolution was ambiguous and only a primitive idea which took firm shape only in 1946. Gandhi rejected the two-nation theory and said:

“My whole soul rebels against the idea that Hinduism and Islam represent two antagonistic cultures and doctrines. To assent to such a doctrine for me is denial of God".




32 | P a g e

August Offer 1940 When the Congress ministries in the Provinces resigned, the British arose and wanted to get support of the Congress for war. In March 1940, Congress met at Ramgarh in Bihar in its annual session. He Congress passed a resolution offering the British Government support in war, if a provisional National Government is setup at Centre. This was responded by Lord Linlithgow in the sort of a proposal which is called August Offer.

o The August Offer turned down the demand of the Congress to set up a national Government at the center but proposed the following:

o After the war, a representative “Constitution Making Body” shall be appointed immediately after the war.

o The number of the Indians in the Viceroy’s Executive council will be increased. o A war advisory Council would be set up.

The Congress did not approve the August Offer. Jawahar Lal Nehru said that the whole idea was “dead and doornail”. The Muslim League said that it will not be satisfied with anything short of partition of India.

Individual Satyagraha 1940-41 The Congress was in a confused state again after the August Offer. The radicals and leftists wanted to launch a mass Civil Disobedience Movement, but here Gandhi insisted on Individual Satyagraha. The Individual Satyagraha was not to seek independence but to affirm the right of speech.

o The other reason of this Satyagraha was that a mass movement may turn violent and he would not like to see the Great Britain embarrassed by such a situation. This view was conveyed to Lord Linlithgow by Gandhi when he met him on September 27, 1940.

o The non-violence was set as the centerpiece of Individual Satyagraha. This was done by carefully selecting the Satyagrahis.

o The first Satyagrahi selected was Acharya Vinoba Bhave, who was sent to Jail when he spoke against the war.

o Second Satyagrahi was Jawahar Lal Nehru. o Third was Brahma Datt, one of the inmates of the Gandhi's Ashram.

They all were sent to jails for violating the Defense of India Act. This was followed by a lot of other people. But since it was not a mass movement, it attracted little enthusiasm and in December 1940, Gandhi suspended the movement. The campaign started again in January 1941, this time, thousands of people joined and around 20 thousand people were arrested.

Cripps Proposals 1942 1942 saw the advancement of British forces in India. Apart from that there was a pressure from the American President F. Roosevelt and Chinese premier Chiang Kai-Shek to concede the real political power to the people of India. The fall of Burma was enough to frighten the British and when the Japanese army began to knock the doors of India after Burma and Singapore, the war cabinet of




33 | P a g e

Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on March 1942 to elicit cooperation from the Indians. It promised for the fulfillment of past promises to self government to Indian people. The proposal of the Cripps mission was that:

“India would be a dominion associated with the United kingdom”. It promised that immediately after the war is stopped, steps would be taken up to set up an elected body charged with the task of making the constitution for India and provisions would be made so that the Indian states could participate in the framing of the constitution.

o Through the Cripps mission for the first time, British government recognized the “Right of Dominion’ for India.

o Indians were given promise of liberty to frame their own constitution. The Cripps mission which was a move to appease the Congress, Muslim League and Indian states at the same time was rejected by all of them.

o Gandhi wanted an undivided India, Muslim league wanted a separate Pakistan , Congress demanded a full control over defense “stating that a slave country cannot have any inspiration” .

o Muslim league said there was inadequate representation of Muslims. o Sikhs rejected because of non accession of provinces. o Hindu Mahasabha rejected because the “Pakistan Virus” was alive. o The Dalits and depressed classed also rejected because there was nothing new for them.

Quit India Movement: August 1942 In July 1942, the Congress Working Committee met at Wardha. Here a long resolution was passed that demanded that the “British Rule in India must end immediately”. This resolution was an outcome of the change in attitude of Congress and Gandhi himself towards British. The attitude changed because in the Second World War the Japanese were triumphing and they had already overrun Singapore and Malaya. They were nearly reaching Burma and India. So it was thought that “Presence of British in India was an invitation to Japan to invade”. The Wardha Resolution is also known as “Quit India Resolution”. This resolution was ratified in the All India Congress Committee at Bombay on August 7, 1942. Here a nonviolent mass struggle under the leadership of Gandhi was sanctioned in the “August Kranti Maidan”. In case Gandhi and the Congress leadership is arrested, the document said:

“Every Indian who desires freedom and strives for it must be his own guide urging him or her on a long hard road where there is no resting place and which leads ultimately to the independence of India”

After that , Gandhi made the following statement in his speech: “ Every one of you should from this moment onwards consider yourself freeman or woman and act as if you were free……I am not going to be




34 | P a g e

satisfied wish anything short of freedom. You should do or die. We shall either free India or die in the attempt”.

This movement attracted the common people of India. After the above sanction, the AICC meeting ended on the midnight of 8 August 1942. The same night police arrested Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Abul Kalam Aazad and all other leaders. Within a week, almost all the leaders of Congress were in jails. From August 9 to August 13, there was widespread disturbance in Bombay, Ahamadabad, Poona, and Delhi. However, after that the movement started deteriorating. It was followed by widespread hartals, strikes and other outbreaks. All of them are commonly called the “Great August Uprising”.

Was the Great August Uprising inevitable? Yes. We have seen in the above discussion that the immediate cause of QIM was the failure of Cripps mission. It was realized that any further silence would be tantamount to accept the right of the British government to decide India’s fate without any reference to the wishes of her people. That was also a time of a rising inflation and the acute shortage of food stuffs. The World War created problems for the common people and as soon as the news of allied reverses and British withdrawals from south-east Asia and Burma came, the people started looking for opportunity to express their discontent.

By the end of the year, the movement had been suppressed due to ruthless use of force. For next two and half years, there was no large political movement.

Was the Quit India Movement a natural corollary of the prolonged struggle for the independence? Partially Yes. In fact, Quit India Movement was a natural corollary of the failure of the Cripps Mission. Various reasons given for the outbreak of the Quit India Movement are as follows: Gandhi's was desperate and wanted to call for "do-or-die" after the failure of the individual Satyagrnha. Failure & Rejection of the Cripps Proposals

o There was a general demoralization of the Congress leaders. o There was a growing demand for separate land among the Muslim League. o There was a presence of large number of troops in India. o There was also a feeling that Indians would do the same with British as the people in Singapur, Malaya and

Burma did.

Did Quit India Movement prove to be a metaphor? India movement represented a metaphor because it was

o Not a Non-violent Movement o Not led by Gandhi o Not Planned (That is it was spontaneous Movement)

Basically, Gandhi did not formulate any definite programme of action before he was arrested on 9th August. The violent acts in the 1942 movement were not of its original character, and the QIM movement in 1942 shortly merged itself into the revolutionary or terrorist movement. One of the powerful sections of congress led by Jaya Prakash Narayan openly repudiated the policy of Gandhi. There were sporadic events of violence in all parts of India and the leaders preached the cult of violence and mass revolution. The revolutionary movement and the non-violent satyagraha launched by Gandhi, both came to an end, almost simultaneously, without achieving freedom. The movement was not spontaneous because it ultimately represented it was a byproduct of a combination of trends underlying at varying degrees to produce independence, at that time. Further, the communists had opposed this movement and it virtually damaged the labour movement also. Labour Unions under Communist influence had apparently decided against participation in the movement, there were large-scale strikes in mills at Kanpur, Jamshedpur and Ahmadabad. There was an indifference of the Labour Class

Later Career of Subhash Chandra Bose In 1941, When Netaji left India in disguise and reached Germany, he was welcomed by Joachim von Ribbentrop, Foreign Minister of Germany from 1938 until 1945, and right hand of Adolf Hitler.




35 | P a g e

In Berlin, Subhash established Free India centre and raised a unit of Indian prisoners of War in Germany. He frequently used the Berlin Radio and broadcasted is cause for India. It was called Azad Hind Radio. The headquarters of Azad Hind Radio was later shifted to Singapore and later Rangoon. On this Radio, Netaji referred the British Broadcasting Corporation as the Bluff and Bluster Corporation and the All India Radio as the Anti Indian Radio. He used the greeting "Jai Hind" and the public greeted him in return with the same. However, in East, the outbreak of war was giving a new dimension to the efforts of Subhash to throw out the British.

Tokyo Conference: March, 1942 By this time, Ras Bihari Bose had established himself in East and in March 1942, he convened a conference in Tokyo. The outcome of this conference was the new face of "Indian Independence League", the organization which was originally founded in 1928, by Rash Bihari Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru. The decision was taken to form the Indian National Army for the liberation of India. A Council of action was created and Ras Bihari Bose became its president. Mohan Singh was the commander in chief of the proposed Indian National Army. However, Mohan Singh was later arrested. But the Indians had difference with Ras Bihari's idea of Indian liberation with the Japanese help and were actually worried about the vested Japanese interests. The result was that nothing substantial came out and the conference agreed to meet again in Bangkok at some future date. In April 1942, Ras Bihari and the Indian delegation returned to Singapore.

All Malayan Indian Independence League: 1942, Singapore In Singapore, Ras Bihari Bose arranged a conference to make All Malayan Indian Independence League. The president of this league was League was Nedyam Raghavan, a Penang Barrister and a prominent Malayan Indian. Again this league made a number of proposals including the creation of a Council of Action. The league got overwhelming support and by August 1942 one Lakh people became its members. The league took up the issue of the local Indian population which was mainly engaged in plantations.

Bangkok Conference : June 1942 As decided in the Tokyo conference, the Bangkok conference was held and here the Indian Independence League was again constituted. Rash Bihari Bose was to chair the council, while K.P.K Menon, Nedyam Raghavan were among the civilian members of the council. Mohan Singh was to be the INA's members. A 34 point resolution was passed by which the Indian National Army was made subordinate to the Indian Independence League.

o The resolution expected the Japanese government to respond to each point. This resolution said that the Japanese Government should clearly, explicitly and publicly recognize India as an independent nation.




36 | P a g e

o It also demanded that the Japanese Government should recognize the league as the nation's representatives and guardians.

o The resolution demanded assurances from the Japanese Government on Free India's relation with Japan, respect for her sovereignty and her territorial integrity.

o The resolution further demanded that the Indian National Army should be accorded the status of an allied army and be treated as such, and that all Indian Prisoners of Wars be released to the INA.

Arrival of Bose in Japan 1943 Prior to this conference, an invitation was sent to Subhash Chandra Bose to come to East Asia. After a three-month journey by submarine, and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943, and here, he could get the promise of authorities of Japan to extend all the help to him to expel the British from India and enable India to achieve independence. The Indian National Army was initially formed under Capt Mohan Singh Deb with Japanese aid and support after the Fall of Singapore and consisted of approximately 20,000 Indian prisoners of war who were captured either during the Malayan campaign or surrendered at Singapore. Mohan Singh Deb had differences with Japanese authorities. The Japanese too were frustrated with him.

o On 29 December 1942, General Mohan Singh Deb was removed from his command and taken into custody by the Japanese military police. Later, after the war, he was given to the British authorities, which repatriated him to India to face the INA trails.

o He was not given any punishment as such and later he became a Rajya Sabha MP when India was ruled by the Congress Government!

o On 15 February 1943, the Army was put under the command of Lt. Col. M.Z. Kiani. He revived the former ranks and badges.

o In July 1943 Subhash went to Singapore and here, he was given the premiership of the Indian Independence League. When in 1943, Subhash took over the command of the Indian National Army, it was almost zenith of his career.

o At this juncture of time, an Officers’ Training School for INA officers was opened under Habib ur Rahman.

o Azad School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. o For the first time in Asia a women's regiment, the Rani of Jhansi regiment was raised as a

combat force, under Captain Laxmi Swaminathan.

Provisional Government of Free India, Singapore, October 1943 On 21st October 1943, Subhash set up the Provisional Government of Free India in Singapore. The INA took half a year for its preparation to march to India. In March 1944, the INA commenced its military campaign with the battle cry of Subhash "Dilli Chalo" against Burma and the columns of the army reached Kohima and laid siege of Imphal. The provisional Government of India was




37 | P a g e

recognized by Japan, Germany, Italy, Croatia, Burma, Thailand, Nationalist China, Philippines etc. This provisional Government was given Andaman and Nicobar Islands by the Japanese which had occupied them earlier.

o The two islands were renamed by Subhash as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). o Here on December 30, 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose first raised the flag of Indian

independence. o From March to July 1944, the Japanese armies along with INA attempted to destroy the

Allied forces at Imphal and invade India. This was known as Battle of Imphal. Here, the Japanese forces were driven back into Burma with heavy losses. INA also lost lots of men and material. There was another Battle of Kohima going on simultaneously in which the INA and Japanese forces unsuccessfully encircled Allied forces.

But the fate changed soon after. Japan suffered the biggest defeat in this part of the world. In May 1945, Rangoon was recaptured by British. On August 6, 1945 and August 9, 1945, two atom bombs were dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki and in the next month, Japan surrendered. At the time of surrender of Japan, in September 1945, Bose left for Manchuria to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops. But here, he was toppled by the forces of history.

End of INA Ras Bihari Bose had died in January 1945 in Tokyo. Subhash Chandra Bose was also presumed to have died. Before the war ended, the INA soldiers started falling into the hands of the allies. These were taken as Prisoners of Wars and the Court martial began as early as 1943. INA had around 43000 recruits out of which many perished, many fled and mixed with the civilians, but 16000 were captured. They were stuffed into the ships and sent to India via Rangoon. Various detention camps had been organized in Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta, Kirkee near Pune, Attock, Multan and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi.

INA Trials (Red Fort Trials) 1946 The officers of the INA were taken to court martial at the Red Fort of Delhi from November 1945 and May 1946. Around ten courts-martial were held.

o The first of these was the joint court-martial of Colonel Prem Sahgal, Colonel Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Major General Shah Nawaz Khan, who had been taken Prisioners of Wars in Singapore.

o They were charged of "Waging War against the King Emperor" as well as Murder and abetment of Murder.

o The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League both made the release of the three defendants, one Hindu, One Muslim and One Sikh !

o They were sentenced to death, but under pressure from the political parties from India, Army Chief Claude Auchinleck was forced to commute the sentences of the three defendants in the first trial.




38 | P a g e

Chapter 3. Lord Wavell When Linlinthgow retired as viceroy in the summer of 1943 he was succeeded by Lord Wavell, who remained 23rd Viceroy of India from 1 October 1943 to 21 February 1947. The most important events during his tenure were as follows:

o Great Famine of Bengal 1943 o Shimla Conference 1945 o Cabinet mission 1946 o Direct Action Day.

This period was disastrous for the population of India. C. Rajagopalachari formula of 1944

Objective of the C R Formula was to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress. League's position was that the Muslims and Hindus of British India were of two separate nations and hence the Muslims had the right to their own nation. The Congress was opposed to the idea of partitioning India. The Core principle of the CR Formula was a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan based on plebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority. The main features were:

o The Muslim league was to endorse the demand for independence for the traditional period, i.e. Muslim league would support the congress’s demand for complete freedom and then majority provinces would go to plebiscite especially north eastern provinces.

o At the end of war a commission would demarcate those contiguous areas in NWFP and NEI where Muslims were in majority.

o In the event of separation, agreements would be and other essential purpose. o The terms would be binding only in case of transfer by Britain of full power and

responsibility for full governance of India. o The Muslim league endorsing the congress demand for full independence and cooperating

with it in forming an interim government in the transition period. Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944

The allies in the war seemed to be victorious and attitude of British administration towards Congress softened with this. At the same time, America was pressing on meeting India’s demand for self-governance though being an ally of Britain in the war. When Gandhi was released on 5 May 1944, he proposed talks with Jinnah on his two-nation theory and negotiating on issue of partition. The CR formula acted as the basis for the negotiations. Gandhi and Jinnah met in September 1944 to ease the deadlock. Gandhi placed the CR formula as his proposal to Jinnah. Negotiations continued for two years and ultimately failed.

o Jinnah rejected CR Formula arguing that separation could not be deferred till after independence, considered common services to be unnecessary, and felt that plebiscites with




39 | P a g e

both Muslims and Hindus voting contradicted the basic principle of Muslims being a distinct nation with an inherent right of self-determination.

o Gandhi did not accept the view that the Indian Muslims constitute a separate nation, he regarded India as one family consisting of many members, and the Muslims were one of them.

o Gandhi proposed that only the Muslims living in Baluchistan, Sindh , N.W.F.P and parts of the Punjab, Bengal and Assam, who desired to lives in separation from the rest of India, should form the new state. But on this, Jinnah insisted that Pakistan should include all the six provinces resolution of the Muslim league in 1940. He did not a mutilated, moth eaten Pakistan. same like Allama Mashriqi cried for.

Moth Eaten Pakistan & Allama Mashriq’s Point Khaksar Movement was established by Allama Mashriqi in 1931. Please note that other name of Allama Mashriqi was Inayatullah Khan and he was a mathematical intellectual. He is known for publishing a pamphlet in which he claimed that Muslims only had the right of being the guardians of Hindustan and no other could claim to govern Hindustan. The organization was declared unlawful in 1940 and Khaksars including Allama Mashriqi were stuffed in Jails. Jinnah had appealed them to support the Muslim league's cause but Khaksar's relation with league were not so friendly. He wanted a Pakistan undivided , stretching from Karachi to Calcutta and did not accept a "Moth eaten Pakistan" as per the Mountbatten Plan.

o Gandhi held that the separate Muslims state should be formed after India was free, on this Jinnah urged for an immediate and complete settlement.

o Gandhi suggested that there should be a treaty of separation to provide for foreign affairs, defense, communication, customs commerce and the like, as matters of all these matters, which were the life-blood of common central authority or government. But none of them were acceptable to Jinnah.

o We see that Gandhi- Jinnah talks did not bring the two communities nearer each other. The clever Viceroy was now convinced that these Indians would keep quarrelling and Indian problem cannot be settled by an agreement between the Hindus and Muslims. So now the British government must take the initiative for the post-war settlement promised by them.

Wavell Plan, June 1945 The war had ended, though Japan was yet to surrender. The heroic deeds of INA were about to end. 30 Million people had lost lives in the Famine of Bengal, which was largely manmade as the Government stopped the supplies from Burma due to the fear of the Japanese invasion. Burma was the largest exporter of rice and the scarcity of the supplies coupled with the low rains and droughts in several parts of India from as early as 1942, when 10 princely states of Rajputana had declared themselves famine affected as per the famine code and wanted to get relief. People in Orissa and Bengal died and the government could take steps to save a few only. The Muslim league had escalated the demand for a separate sovereign state.




40 | P a g e

o There was a deadlock with the congress since 1939 resignations. On June 14, 1945, Lord Wavell came out with a plan which had the following schemes:

o A new Executive Council was to be formed at the Centre in which all but the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief will be Indians. This executive council was for the time being till a new permanent constitution could be agreed upon and come to force.

All portfolios except the Defense would be held by the Indian Members. Breakdown Plan Wavell Plan is also known as Breakdown Plan and was not accepted by the British, for whom, leaving without a universally agreed agreement was dishonorable. It also said that in case of a disagreement, the British should withdraw to the 6 Pakistan Provinces, and leaving the Congress to deal with rest of India.

Shimla Conference, June 1945 To discuss the provisions of the Wavell Plan a conference of 21 Indian Political leaders was invited to the Summer Capital of British Government Shimla. The leaders included Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, who was the President of the Congress at that time. Mohammad Ali Jinnah also reached in the conference. But here, Jinnah made a strange claim. He said that no non-league Muslim should be represented to the Executive Council because only Muslim League has right to represent the Muslims of India. So, it was said that Congress had no right to nominate any Muslim in the Executive council.

o Jinnah also demanded that in case of the division of votes and objection by the Mulism members, there should be a provision that vote is cleared only by 2/3rd of majority.

Wavell had given place to 6 Muslims in the Executive Council of 14, and British had given it the power of Veto to any constitutional proposal which was not in its interest. But Muslims represented only 25% of Indian Population. Thus, these unreasonable demands were rejected by Congress. The Muslim league did not relent and Wavell dropped the plan. However, now it was almost clear to Congress that Muslim League can make or mar the fortune of Muslims of India. It was seen as strongest at this point of time, than ever before.

Was the failure inevitable at Shimla? Yes. The three parties’ viz. Congress, Muslim League and Viceroy had to decide the fate of the conference the congress. For Congress, India was a single nation but for Muslim League, the Muslims were not only a minority but a nation in themselves. The viceroy’s decision was to be based upon this disagreement as the larger is the disagreement, larger may be the extension of the British rule. It was Lord Wavell that formally handed over the power to veto-final authority in any constitutional progress in India to Jinnah. So, this was the reason that Jinnah became sole representative of Muslims. Now Jinnah was Muslim League's answer to Gandhi of Congress. But at the same time, Wavell also reversed the proposals of Cripps mission which had recognized INC as the only platform which could discuss with the government. Thus Wavell created two platforms at Shimla. Raise the level of Jinnah to that to the level of Gandhi Make the Muslim league sole dispenser to the Muslim fate in India. The result was that Muslim League emerged as a great gainer and they were now closer to a separate nation of their own.

General Election, December 1945 Before the WWII ended on August 15, 1945, there was a general election in Britain. The election ended with the defeat of Conservative Party of Winston Churchill and now the new Government of




41 | P a g e

Labour Party came into power with Clement Atlee as Prime Minister. The new Secretary of State for India was Sir Pethick Lawrence. The first major step by this new government was to announce a General Election in India. The last general elections were held in 1936 and now almost a decade later , the whole world had changed. The results of the elections were announced in December 1945. In these elections Congress secured over 91% votes and Muslim league secured all the Muslim seats. Congress formed the Government with absolute majority in Madras, United provinces, Bihar, Orissa and Central Provinces.

o In Punjab it made a coalition Government with Akalis and Unionists. o Muslim League was in majority in Sind and Bengal.

RIN Mutiny 1946 On February 18, 1946, a section of non-commissioned officers and sailors known as Ratings, serving in the Royal Indian Navy, mutinied against the British Officers.

o The mutiny started as a strike by the ratings to protest against the hardships regarding pay, food and racial discrimination.

o In the same night, a Naval Central Strike committee was created by the Ratings. o This committee was presided by Signalman M.S Khan and Vice president was Petty

Officer Telegraphist Madan Singh. The populace of India was already fascinated by the heroic tales of the Indian National Army. So, the strikes and hartals spread from Bombay to Calcutta, Madras and even Karachi. The foolish British commander made some derogatory remarks on the nationality of these personnel and the result was that they took possession of some ships, mounted guns over there and started firing. The mutineers hoisted three flags tied together on the ships which they had captured -One of Congress, One of Muslim League, and the third Red Flag of the Communist Party of India. The mutiny was ended by intervention of Sardar Patel, who after a meeting with M. S. Khan made a statement of ending the strike. The similar statement was made by Jinnah in Calcutta. The mutineers surrendered but despite the assurances of Congress and Muslim League, many mutineers were arrested, subjected to court martial and dismissed from the services. The violence broke out in Mumbai and over 200 people lost lives in this disturbance. The mutiny made an impression on the British, that it would be better to leave the country. On February 19, the second day of this mutiny, Cabinet Mission was sent to India.

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 Cabinet Mission was composed of three Cabinet Ministers of England

o Sir Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India. o Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, o V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty

The mission arrived on March 24, 1946. The objective of this mission was to




42 | P a g e

o Devise a machinery to draw up the constitution of Independent India. o Make arrangements for interim Government.

Thus the mission was like a declaration of India’s independence. The mission spent some 3 weeks to discuss with the leaders of various political parties, but could not arrive at any agreed solution. So finally it announced its own recommendations on May 16, 1946. The cabinet mission plan of 1946 proposed that there shall be a Union of India which was to be empowered to deal with the defense, foreign affairs and communications.

o The cabinet mission recommended an undivided India and turned down the Muslim league’s demand for a separate Pakistan. The Cabinet mission restricted the Communal representation

o It provided that all the members of the Interim cabinet would be Indians and there would be minimum interference by the Viceroy.

o It also provided for formation of the constituent assembly on democratic principle of population.

o It recognized Indian Right to cede from the Commonwealth. o The Union Government and its legislature were to have limited powers, dealing with

Finance, Foreign Affairs and Communications. The union would have powers necessary to raise the finances to manage the subjects. Thus, the Cabinet Mission plan proposed a weak Centre. We can realize what would have been of the country if this plan was approved and implemented.

o All subjects other than the Union Subjects and all the residuary powers would be vested in the provinces.

o The Princely states would retain all subjects and all residuary powers. o A Constituent Assembly will be formed of the representatives of the Provincial Assemblies

and the Princely states. Each province had to be allotted a total number of seats in proportion to the its population. The Constituent assembly had to comprise 293 Members from the British Provinces and 93 members from the Princely states.

o The representation of the Provincial legislatures was to be break up into 3 sections. o Section A: Madras, UP, Central provinces, Bombay, Bihar & Orissa. o Section B: Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Baluchistan o Section C: Assam and Bengal.

Thus though the Cabinet Mission plan rejected the idea of separate Pakistan, yet it grouped the provinces in such a way that it gave weightage to the idea of Pakistan, because the Section B would get almost complete autonomy.

Reaction to the Cabinet Mission Plan The Congress accepted the proposals related to the Constituent assembly. But since, the Muslim league had been given disproportionate representation; it rejected the idea of the Interim




43 | P a g e

Government. Congress also rejected the idea of a weak centre and division of India in small states. Congress was against decentralization and the idea was to have a strong centre. The Muslim league first approved the plan. But when Congress declared that it could change the scheme through its majority in the Constituent Assembly, they rejected the plan. On July 27, the Muslim League Council met at Bombay where Jinnah reiterated the demand for Pakistan as the only course left open to the Muslim League. On July 29, it rejected the plan and called the Muslims to resort to "Direct Action" to achieve the land of their dream "Pakistan". August 16, 1946 was fixed as "Direct Action Day".

Direct Action Day, August 16, 1946 16 August 1946 was fixed as the Direct Action Day and it turned into the "Great Calcutta Killing". This date started the week of long Knives and following this day, 6000 Hindus and Muslims stabbed, shot, and battered each other. 20 thousand were maimed and raped. India was yet to taste the independence. The Chief Secretary of Bengal was R.L. Walker. The Prime Minister of Bengal was Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, from Muslim League. Suhrawardy requested Governor of Bengal Sir Frederick Burrows to declare a public holiday on 16 August. But the Bengal Congress protested against the declaration of public holiday, because this would enable the Muslims to enforce hartals. Both the political parties had their own thousand reasons of observing it or not observing it a public Holiday. Congress leaders urged the Hindus to keep the shops open. The Urdu newspapers called for a complete strike on that day. The programme was published in the newspapers that the processions would start from multiple parts of Calcutta, Howrah, Hooghly, Metiabruz and 24 Parganas, and would converge at the foot of the Ochterlony Monument where a joint mass rally presided over by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy would be held. The emotion of Hindus was mobilizing around idea of United India. The troubles started on the morning of the August 16. Shops were forcefully closed. Stabbing, throwing of stones and brickbats started. At 12 O'clock, the League's rally began, which was the largest ever Muslim assembly in Bengal. The Muslims from all sides of Calcutta with Iron Bars and lathes started congregating and this was followed by a Namaz at 2.00 PM. Here some fiery speeches were made by Khawaja Nazimuddin and Suhrawardy. This was followed by widespread riots in Calcutta. The riots soon spread to all parts of North India and it turned into a Civil War between Hindus and Muslims. Amidst this situation of Chaos and insanity, Mahatma Gandhi went to calm down the maddened riotists.

Constituent Assembly – December 6, 1946 By the December 1946, the elections to the Constituent assembly had taken place. On 6 December 1946, ,the Constituent assembly met for the first time.




44 | P a g e

o The members of the constituent assembly were elected by the Provincial assemblies by method of single transferable vote system of proportional representations.

o Total membership of the constituent assembly was 389, out of which 292 the representatives of the states were, 93 were representatives of princely states and 4 were from the chief commissioners provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Mewar, Coorg and British Baluchistan.

The elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian provinces were completed by July-August 1946 .

o Congress won 208 seats and Muslim league won 73 seats. After this election, the Muslim league refused to cooperate with the Congress. The political situation got worse and Hindu Muslim riots started. The Muslim league demanded for a separate Constituent assembly for Muslims in India. So, the British declared that the decisions of the Constituent assembly would not be valid in the Muslim majority areas. Thus the working of the assembly got virtually crippled.

o The membership of the Constituent assembly became 299 after this reorganization and it met on December 31, 1947.

o The Constituent assembly was the First parliament of Independent India. o Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first president (temporary Chairman of the Assembly)

of the Constituent Assembly when it met on December 9, 1946. o Dr. Rajendra Prasad then became the President of the Constituent Assembly, and who

later become the first President of India. o The Vice President of the Constituent Assembly was Professor Harendra Coomar Mookerjee,

former Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University and a prominent Christian from Bengal who also served as the Chairman of the Minorities Committee of the Constituent Assembly. He was appointed Governor of West Bengal after India became a republic.

Objectives Resolution- January 22, 1947 The historic Objectives Resolution was moved by Jawahar Lal Nehru on 13 December 1946 and was adopted on 22 January 1947. It reads as follows: 1. This Constituent Assembly declares its firm and solemn resolve to proclaim India as an Independent Sovereign Republic and to

draw up for her future governance a Constitution;

2.WHEREIN the territories that now comprise British India, the territories that now form the Indian States, and such other parts for

India as are outside British India and the States as well as such other territories as are willing to be constituted into the Independent

Sovereign India, shall be a Union of them all; and

3.WHEREIN the said territories, whether with their present boundaries or with such others as may be determined by the Constituent

Assembly and thereafter according to the law of the Constitution, shall possess and retain the status of autonomous Units, together

with residuary powers and exercise all powers and functions of government and administration, save and except such powers and

functions as are vested in or assigned to the Union, or as are inherent or implied in the Union or resulting therefrom; and




45 | P a g e

4.WHEREIN all power and authority of the Sovereign Independent India, its constituent parts and organs of government, are derived

from the people; and

5.WHEREIN shall be guaranteed and secured to all the people of India justice, social economic and political : equality of status, of

opportunity, and before the law; freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action, subject to law

and public morality; and

6.WHEREIN adequate safeguards shall be provided for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and depressed and other backward

classes; and

7.WHEREBY shall be maintained the integrity of the territory of the Republic and its soverign rights on land, sea, and air according to

justice and the law of civilized nations; and

8. this ancient land attains its rightful and honored placed in the world and make its full and willing contribution to the promotion of

world peace and the welfare of mankind.

This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 January 1947. Late in the evening of 14 August, 1947 the Assembly met in the Constitution Hall and at the stroke of midnight, took over as the Legislative Assembly of an Independent India. On 29 August, 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the draft Constitution, the Assembly moved, discussed and disposed of as many as 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635 tabled.

o The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November, 1949 and the members appended their signatures to it on 24 January, 1950.

o In all, 284 members actually signed the Constitution. On that day when the Constitution was being signed, it was drizzling outside and it was interpreted as a sign of a good omen.

The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January, 1950. On that day, the Assembly ceased to exist, transforming itself into the Provisional Parliament of India until a new Parliament was constituted in 1952.

Atlee’s Declaration – February 20, 1947 The Prime Minister of Britain Clement Atlee declared on February 20, 1947 in the House of Commons that the British would quit India after transferring power into the responsible hand not later than June 1948. The idea was that the Indians should settle their issues before that. He also announced the appointment of Lord Mountabatten as Viceroy in place of Lord Wavell.

Chapter 4. Lord Mountbatten On March 22, 1947, Lord Mountbatten came as last British Viceroy of India. He immediately began the procedure to transfer the power. On March 27, 1947 Muslim League observed Pakistan Day, which resulted in riots, massacre and atrocities. The Interim government, which was in existence since 2 September 1946 had failed in controlling the riots, and later uselessness of opposition of demand for a separate Pakistan by the Muslim league was realized by the leaders of the Interim Government Including Nehru.




46 | P a g e

Dickie Bird Plan 1947 Mountbatten prepared a “Dickie Bird Plan” for India’s independence. The main proposal of this plan was to that provinces should become first independent successor states rather than an Indian Union or the two dominions of India & Pakistan. As per this plan all the provinces viz. Madras, Bombay, United Provinces of Bengal, Punjab & North West Frontier etc. were proposed to be declared Independent. The states later would decide whether to join constituent assembly or not. This plan was not discussed in details with leaders of India and Mountbatten discussed just informally. He gave the plan a final touch and sent to London. Later when he moved to Shimla, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru joined him as a guest. Here the details of the plan were put by Mountbatten before Nehru. Nehru rejected the plan right away and told him that this plan would invite Balkanization of India and would provoke conflict and violence. Consequently, Mountbatten cabled to England that this plan was cancelled.

June 3 Plan: June 3, 1947 By the month of June, Congress had given consent to the partition of the country. On June 3, 1947, Prime Minister Atlee announced the Partition Plan or June 3 Plan in the House of Commons. The plan laid down the following provisions.

o The provincial legislative Assemblies of Bengal and Punjab would meet in two parts separately, one representing Muslim majority districts and another representing the Hindu Majority districts to decide by the vote on partition.

o In case of Sind and Baluchistan, the provincial assemblies would take the decision. o In case of NWFP, the decision had to be taken on the base of referendum. o A referendum was to be organized in Sylhet region of Assam which was Muslim majority. o The Paramount of the princely states will not be transferred to either of India or Pakistan.

So, they would in theory become sovereign when India is partitioned. Congress accepted the plan. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan called the Congress treacherous which has thrown the Khudai Khidmatgars to wolves. The partition became realty soon. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan rejected the referendum but the voting was done in favor of Pakistan.

Partition Committee and Partition Council Partition Committee was formed which was chaired by Lord Mountbatten and its members were Vallabh Bhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Liaqat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar. Later this committee was replaced by a Partition Council. In this council, Congress was represented by Sardar Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad, with C. Rajgopalachari as alternate member. Muslim league was represented by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar as alternate member. Please note that even after 15 August 1947, this partition council was in existence, but the composition was changed as 2 members from each dominion. Patel and Dr. Prasad kept representing Indian Domain even at that time.




47 | P a g e

Indian Independence Act 1947 The Indian Independence Act was based upon the Mountbatten plan of 3rd June 1947 and was passed by the British parliament on July 5, 1947. It received royal assent on July 18, 1947.

Salient features: o It provided for two dominion states : India and Pakistan o The boundaries between the two dominion states were to be determined by a Boundary

Commission which was headed by Sir Cyril Radcliff. o It provided for partition of Punjab & Bengal and separate boundary commissions to

demarcate the boundaries between them. o Pakistan was to comprise the West Punjab, East Bengal, Territories of the Sind, North West

frontier provinces, Syllhat divisions of Assam, Bhawalpur, khairpur, Baluchistan and 8 other princely states of Baluchistan.

o The authority of the British Crown over the princely states ceased and they were free to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent.

o Both the dominions of India and Pakistan were to have Governor Generals to be appointed by the British King. The act also provided for a common Governor general if both of them agreed.

o The constituent assemblies of both the states were free to make constitutions of their respective countries.

o For the time being till the constitution was made, both of them would be governed in accordance with the Government of India act 1935.

o Any modification or omission could be done by the Governor General. o British Government would not continue any control on any dominion. o The Governor general was invested with adequate powers until March 1948 to issue orders

for effective implementation of the provisions of the Indian independence act 1947. o Those civil servants who had been appointed before the August 15, 1947, will continue in

service with same privileges. Jinnah left for Karachi on August 7, 1947. Here the Constituent assembly of Pakistan met on August 11, 1947 and elected him the President. 3 days later he was sworn in as Governor General of Pakistan. On the midnight of 14 August and 15 August 1947, India and Pakistan came into existence. The Constituent assembly then appointed Lord Mountbatten as the First Governor General of the Indian Dominion. In the Morning of August 15, 1947, a new cabinet headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru was sworn in. India paid a heavy price, thereafter in the form of thousands of lives that got burnt in the fire of partition.

Documents

General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Services ... · General Studies Manual for UPSC and State Public Service Examinations ... It helps fill in this mysterious gap in