Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Gender and Work
Presentation for GNDR 111: Introduction to Gender StudiesDane M. Partridge, Ph.D.Associate Professor of ManagementDirector, University Honors ProgramUniversity of Southern IndianaNovember 2005
2
3
Gender and Education
Educational System and Gender Evidence of gender disparity in terms of kinds of jobs
children think about re: future employment Where does this come from? Are boys and girls encouraged
to take different academic programs that lead to different skills, many of which are gender role stereotyped?
Evolution over time: In 1970, women earned only 9% of bachelor’s degrees in business, 4% of master’s; in 1995, 48% and 37%, respectively
4
5
Gender and Education
Educational System and Gender Evidence of gender disparity in terms of kinds of jobs
children think about re: future employment Evolution over time: Doctorates in physics earned by women
have increased from 3% of total in 1970 to 15.5% in 2002; engineering, <1% to 17%, etc.
6
Gender and Work
Labor force participation rate of women has increased from 43.4% in 1971 to 60.2% in 2000 Men’s rate has decreased from 79.1% to
74.7% White men’s LFPR in 2000: 75.4% White women: 59.8 Black men: 69.0 Black women: 63.2 Hispanic men: 80.6 Hispanic women: 56.9
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
9
Gender and Work
Median weekly earnings, full-time wage and salary workers, 2003IV
White men: $728 White women: $573 Black men: $560 Black women: $502 Hispanic men: $468 Hispanic women: $410
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
10
Gender and Work
OB research suggests men and women often differ in communication styles
Men more likely than women to view conversations as negotiations of relative status and power
Also evidence than men interrupt women far more often than vice versa and that they dominate the ‘talk time’ in conversations w/ women Some evidence that women more satisfied with ‘virtual
team’ experience than men Possibly due to nature of computer-mediated
communication: lack of nonverbal cues and structure allowed for more equal group participation Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
11
Gender and Work
Men more likely to engage in “report talk,” women in “rapport talk”
Rather than asserting status, women use indirect requests Women apologize more often and seek advice more
quickly than do men Women are more sensitive to nonverbal cues in face-to-
face meetings
But, men and women mostly overlap in their verbal communication styles
Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
12
Gender and Work
Some OB research suggests men and women differ in use of organizational political tactics
Direct impression mngt tactics apparently used more often by men than women Men more likely to advertise their achievements and take personal
credit for successes of others reporting to them Women prefer to share credit w/ others
Men and women seem to differ in assigning blame Women more likely to apologize, even for problems not caused by
them Men more likely to assign blame and less likely to assume it
Women more likely to use indirect impression mngt as well as forms of networking and coalition building (but don’t over-generalize)
Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
13
Gender and Work
OB research suggests men and women differ to limited extent in conflict management style
Women pay more attention than do men to the relationship btwn the parties
Women tend to adopt collaborative style in business settings, more willing to compromise to protect the relationship
Men tend to be more competitive and take short-term orientation
Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
14
Gender and Work
Gender Issues in Leadership Common belief that men and women lead differently
76% of male and female chief executives believe than leadership and mngt skills of women differ markedly from male counterparts Women generally seen as consensus builders, more
participative leaders Suggested that these qualities make women particularly
well-suited given stronger emphasis on teams and EI Arguments consistent w/ sex-role stereotypes, that men are more
task-oriented and women more people-oriented Research suggests that male and female leaders
equally people-oriented, but female leaders tend to be more participative Stereotyping may lead to greater negative consequences for
autocratic female leaders Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2003)
15
Are Women More Ethical Than Men?
Men tend to use principles of justice, women tend to use principles of caring, so women have more of a relationship ethic
Vs. Socialization matters,
gender doesn’t
16
Gender and Work
Male/female earnings gap has persisted to considerable extent over last 25 years
75.5% in 2003 (down from high of 76.6% in 2002) Equal Pay Act (1963)
Prohibits pay discrimination based on gender Men and women must receive equal pay for “equal work” Allows pay differences based on
Seniority Merit Productivity Any factor other than gender
Cannot lawfully pay women less than men by labeling identical work differently
19
“Women vs. Wal-Mart”
Wal-Mart culture built on inspirational leadership, autonomy, trust Bring Ees into org, convert them to principles: respect for individual, customer service,
excellence, and imperative to buy and sell at lowest price possible But practices also may create barriers, e.g., job posting
Wal-Mart famous for promotion from within – more than two-thirds of managers started as hourly Ees
Hourly job posted within stores, but until current suit, Co had never posted openings for mngt training positions
Not the Wal-Mart way, thought to be too bureaucratic… Wal-Mart way was to trust that store mngrs will promote those who merit promotion Co now also developing formula for pay increases based on evaluation ratings, experience, and other
factors to make raises more uniform Another aspect of culture which may create barrier is willingness to move for the
job Single mother Asst Mngr involved in litigation moved nine times in eight years across
three states Key for Wal-Mart is making processes fair without losing culture that makes it
special Source: Fortune, 7/21/03
20
“Women vs. Wal-Mart”
AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS** IN 2001 -----------------------------
NO. OF % OF MALE FEMALEJOB EES* WOMEN SALARIES SALARIES
REGIONAL V-P 39 10% $419,400 $279,800DISTRICT MNGR 508 10 239,500 177,100STORE MANAGER 3,241 14 105,700 89,300ASST MNGR 18,731 36 39,800 37,300MNGT TRAINEE 1,203 41 23,200 22,400DPT HEAD 63,747 78 23,500 21,700SALES ASSOC 100,003 68 16,500 15,100CASHIER 50,987 93 14,500 13,800
* Full-time ** Including bonuses Data: Richard Drogin
21
Gender and Work
The Earnings Gap Differences in Occupational Attainment
Discrimination and gender stereotyping or choice? In early 70s, over half of women workers were in administrative support and
service occupations, cf. 15% of men Today, about 40% of women work in support and service
In early 70s, less than 20% of managers were women Today, about half of managers are women
In 1960, almost half of women who graduated from college became teachers Today, less than 10%
Differences in Personal Work-Related Characteristics Experience, seniority, education
College major is single strongest factor affecting income of college graduates Differences in Industries and Firms
Female employment more heavily concentrated in small firms Differences in Union Membership
Source: Milkovich and Newman (2005)
22
Assertiveness Gap?
Study of MBAs entering job market, interviewing for position paying $61K 71% of male candidates believed they were better than other
candidates, told hiring managers so, asked for more money 70% of female candidates believed themselves to be equal to other
candidates, willing to accept offered salary Men and women have different attitudes about competing and
winning In research study involving computer maze, men performed 50% better
when competing against others in group rather than when paid piece-rate
In research study involving runners, boys ran faster if they ran against other boys, even faster if they ran against girls; girls ran at same speed either running alone or w/ competitor
Social risks: “Consistent assertiveness in a woman rankles people” Men may be more comfortable with selling themselves than women
Source: Washington Post, 7/8/03
23
Gender and Work
In AFSCME v. State of Washington case, jobs of maintenance carpenter (2.3% female) and secretary (98.5% female) were deemed to be “equal” in value or worth by job evaluation study
Prevailing market rate 7/1/80 for carpenter, $1707/mo., for secretary, $1122/mo.
What to do? Market rates are defense to paying dissimilar jobs differently
under Civil Rights Act (unlike Equal Pay Act, and equal work) “Comparable worth” advocates that women performing jobs
judged to be equal on some measure of worth should be paid the same as men
Not mandated by federal law Some states, for public employees; Ontario, public and private
24
25
Gender and Work
Causes of Job Segregation Socialization Social and
Institutional Barriers But note
CRA ‘64 What about
ease of exit and re-entry?
26
Diversity Initiatives
Diversity initiatives are about creating an inclusive climate. “There must be a place for everyone, even those whose personalities, political parties, religious practices and a host of other variables require accommodation.”
“Diversity is easy when we are all alike. It is really tested when we are forced to be flexible and expand the boundaries of our inclusion.”
27
Diversity Initiatives
“Inclusion, however, does not require changing your values. It is not the organization’s place to tell you how to feel or how to think, but it can legitimately expect you to work with any and all colleagues and coworkers on common tasks.”
“Appreciating fellow employees for their talents and utilizing those talents in pursuit of accomplishing goals and objectives should be the focus of a diversity initiative.”
Gardenswartz and Rowe (1999)
28
Diversity Programs
75% of Fortune 500 organizations have diversity programs
Only 36% of non-Fortune 500 orgs have diversity programs in place Although 14% plan to start one within the year
Mechanisms for measuring program impact often absent, although believed to be effective
29
Diversity Programs
Forty percent of Fortune 500 companies link diversity goals to management compensation a/o performance reviews
Only 16% of non-Fortune 500 companies do so…
(SHRM Survey of Diversity Programs, 1998)
30
Gender Diversity
Only 10% of top jobs at largest U.S. companies held by women; only 2.4% of very top managers
Why do orgs want more women in top jobs? Helps bring more talent in the door, key to long-term
profitability Best women will become harder to attract and retain, so
orgs acting now will have edge Can serve increasingly female customers better
(Business Week, 2/17/97)
31
Gender Diversity
What tactics are orgs using? Set goals and objectives Modify succession planning
Identify top female/minority candidates, provide opportunities to acquire necessary experience
Lack of general mngt or line mngt experience seen as primary obstacle to advancement of women
“Glass walls” as well as “glass ceilings”
Pay for diversity management performance Diversity training
E.g., male/female differences in leadership styles (Business Week, 2/17/97; Harvard Business Review, June
2003)
32
A Cautionary Note…
Recent research suggests that having a diverse workforce does little to improve a Co’s business performance or bottom line
Diversity education programs have little impact on performance Don’t give people skills needed Need training to deal with group process issues, communicating
and problem-solving in diverse teams Hard metrics for measuring performance results or return on
diversity spending are in very short supply Generally more success in dealing with gender issues than
racial/ethnic issues Source: Workforce, April 2003
33
Sexual Harassment Defined
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature, when: Quid pro quo Unreasonably interferes with work performance
or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment
34
Sexual Harassment Defined
Elements of “hostile work environment” Severe and pervasive Reasonable person (woman?) test
To what extent do men and women differ in their perceptions?
Employee need not have suffered any detriment (e.g., termination)
Basis for imputing liability to employer Conduct by supervisor Co-worker Client or customer
35
Sexual Harassment Defined
Employer’s defense (when no tangible employment action taken against employee) employer “exercised reasonable care to prevent and
correct promptly any sexually harassing behavior,” and “the plaintiff employee unreasonably failed to take
advantage of any preventive or corrective opportunities provided by the employer or to avoid harm otherwise”
36
Elements Of An Effective Harassment Prevention Policy
Be in writing; Define what constitutes harassment and declare
that it will not be tolerated; Establish a complaint procedure; Involve training and education programs to
sensitize supervisors and employees to harassment issues;
37
Elements Of An Effective Harassment Prevention Policy
Include a prompt and thorough investigation of every complaint;
Provide for prompt corrective action, including appropriate disciplinary action, if it is determined that unlawful harassment occurred.
38
Hostile Work Environment and the “Assumption of Risk”
You are a restaurant manager and patrons are making arguably offensive comments to female waitstaff. What do you do?
Does it matter whether it’s Hacienda or Hooters? Hooters staff must sign Co SH policy, which includes acknowledgement that
“female sexual appeal is an essential ingredient of the Hooters concept” Also must sign Ee handbook containing waiver:
“Work environment is one in which joking and innuendo based on female sex appeal is commonplace….I do not find my job duties, uniform requirements, or work environment to be offensive.” Uniform requirements include orange shorts, Hooters t-shirt, half-shirt, tank top, and
“prom-like appearance” (hair, makeup, nails done neatly) In Washington D.C. area, mngr filed SH case based in part on boss taking
her to lunch at Hooters Settled hiring discrimination lawsuit in 1997, after EEOC dropped action in
1996
39
Affirmative Action Plans
Objective distinguishable from equal employment opportunity – it is to take “affirmative action” to increase representation of historically underrepresented groups
Elements Utilization analysis Goals and timetables
“goal” vs. “quota” Action steps
OFCCP
40
Redefining Achievement
Should achievement be redefined, so as to better reflect women’s lives and realities? To achieve work/life balance?
How would you define success in your life, re: career, family, other activities?
41
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Should ‘power’ be redefined?
Do women have to follow ‘the boys’ scorecard’? Suggested that women view power differently from way men do
Seen in terms of influence, not rank ‘Making a difference’
Many fast-track women ambivalent about what’s next This despite fact they foresee day in which there is parity in gender
representation at top of corporate America Do women lack power in business because they just don’t want it enough?
Do women want to ‘fill the pipeline’? Only 9% of teenage girls anticipate careers in business, cf. 15% of boys Women make up 36% of MBA students, cf. 47% med school and 49% law
school Half of entering classes at law and medical schools are fresh out of college,
but most first-year business students have had three to five years work experience – biological clocks are ticking (New York Times, 11/6/04)
42
Power: Do Women Really Want It? GE study of 135,000 professional ees
Women quit at higher rate Female voluntary turnover 8%, cf. 6.5% for males (2,000+ more women quit
each year) Catalyst studies
26% of professional women who are not yet in most senior position indicate they don’t want it
But, while 57% of men aspire to be CEO, so do 55% of women… (Wall Street Journal, 6/23/04)
Women have made more progress in moving into top positions in academe than in business or government 21% of college presidents are female USI’s new provost (Linda Bennett) is female
16% of law firm partners are female 14% of U.S. Senate and 14% of U.S. House female 8% of major co top mngrs (EVP+) female, 4% of CEOs of Fortune 500 female
However, may not hold true for sciences (where perception is that gov’t has been more open and fair…)
43
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Gender differences
Citigroup mngr reports that when she interviews candidates for “stretch assignments,” women often tell her they’re not ready – men almost never do
May be it’s not that women can’t get high-level jobs, but rather they’re choosing not to… “Dirty secret: women demand a lot more satisfaction in their lives
than men do” (Jamie Gorelick) “Women have to play be the same rules as men do, and right now
there are really brutal rules for women who want to have families” (Hilary Clinton)
To get to highest levels of power, women may be forced to choose between work and children Or may need stay-at-home spouse
“Glass ceiling” or “maternal wall” “The Opt-Out Revolution”
44
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Between one-quarter and one-third of professional
women are out of work force Number of children being cared for by stay-at-home moms
has increased by nearly 13% in less than a decade Percentage of new mothers who go back to work fell to 55%
in 2000, from 59% in 1998 Two-thirds of mothers 25-44 work fewer than 40 hrs/wk
Only 5% work 50+ hrs White male MBAs: 95% working full-time; white female
MBAs: 67% (African-American female MBAs more similar to white men than women)
45
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Belkin suggests that women today have the
equal right to make same bargain men have made for centuries – to take time from family in pursuit of success
Instead, women are redefining success In doing so, redefining work?
Suggested that balance between work and life is different for women than men But, pull of motherhood or push of job
dissatisfaction?
46
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Significant organizational challenge in redesigning organizations
to take advantage of mothers ready to re-enter work force Attract, retain, motivate, plus now re-integrate? Many professional women who quit their jobs to raise children
now trying to go back – and they’re finding it harder than they ever imagined Two-thirds of highly-educated women who left jobs mainly for family
reasons want to return to work Deloitte & Touche planning to launch “Personal Pursuits” program,
which will allow ees to take unpaid leave for as long as five years Training sessions for those on leave, mentors to stay in touch
“There’s a part of every woman who has had what it takes to succeed on Wall Street that yearns for that type of overachieving applause that you got, and that motherhood does not allow you to have. There’s just no applause. And I miss that.”
Source: Wall Street Journal, 5/6/04
47
Power: Do Women Really Want It?
37% of women surveyed in study in Harvard Business Review voluntarily left work at some point in their careers – 43% of those w/ children – average break lasted ~2 years In contrast, only 24% of men took time off from careers (w/ no
difference btwn fathers and non-fathers) – average break lasted ~1 year
44% of women cited family responsibilities as reason for leaving, cf. 12% of men Among men, primary reason was career enhancement
In this study, 93% of women who took time off from work wanted to return to careers
Reductions in earnings potential due to exit and re-entry are a primary reason for earnings gap btwn men and women of comparable education increasing during child-bearing and –rearing years
Source: Business Week, 3/28/05
48
Selling Yourself
Strategies consultants offer for mothers planning to return to work Present your volunteer work with active business words Never apologize for the time off Convey that you’re truly committed to working again
While you’re out of work: Be strategic about volunteer work you do Keep abreast of your field
Source: Wall Street Journal, 5/6/04
49
Power: Do Women Really Want It? Some evidence of growing dissatisfaction on part of men w/ price
required to advance in corporate America, desire for same flexibility and balance that women want Belkin suggests that instead of women being forced to act like men, men are
being freed to act like women Number of married men who are full-time caregivers to their children has
increased 18% (to what and from when?) Working men born between 1965 and 1979 now spend ~3.5 hrs/day with
their children – same amount as working women Among all working men, ~2.7 hrs, up from 1.8 hrs in 1977 70% of men report they would take a pay cut to spend more time at home w/
family, almost half would turn down promotion if it meant less family time Biggest change is new unwillingness to relocate
(Business Week, 11/8/04) Family-friendly organization?
Better opportunities to work flexible hours, share jobs, not relocate
50
Get a Life!
Fortune poll Up to 80% of top mngt
time is devoted to issues that account for less than 20% of co’s long-term value
51
Law School: Out of the Combat Zone One group of female legal scholars
vehemently opposed to Socratic Method Observed that women tend to be more reflective
and take longer to formulate answers in class Men often better at giving quick, clear-cut answers
under the pressure Socratic Method creates Women law school graduates more than twice as likely
to choose public-interest jobs (although very small percentage of both do so)
Source: New York Times, 11/6/04
