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PAULINE THEOLOGY: A STUDY IN GALATIANS
by
Joel D. Martin
A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of Bucknell University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science with Honors in Classics
Tuesday, May 04, 2004
Approved: __________________________ Greta Ham Thesis Advisor ___________________________ Greta Ham Chair, Department of Classics
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Acknowledgments
Foremost, I would like to thank God the Father who, through the Lord Jesus
Christ, called me by His sovereign will to be a vessel of mercy in order to make known
the riches of His glory. To Him who sent His Son to accomplish His salvific, justifying
work on the cross and who gave His Spirit that causes us cry ‘Abba Father,’ to Him be
the glory forever. Amen.
Special thanks to: my parents for raising me in the discipline and instruction of
the Lord, my family for spurring me on in Christ and challenging my legalistic tendencies
(the reason I chose Galatians), Ben Hagerup for discipling me and training me to be a
workman who accurately handles the Word of Truth, Peter Krol for helping me seek
Wisdom, the Bell twins for giving me a passion for Christ, Jason Goelitz for listening to
my Galatians inspired musings and for being a close friend in Christ, and Professors
Greta Ham, Stephanie Larson, and Sherri Geller for their invaluable instruction and
comments on my thesis.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents...............................................................................................................iii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................viii
Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... ix
Abstract ..............................................................................................................................xi
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter One – Historical and Cultural Background ....................................................... 4
1. Judaism ...................................................................................................................... 4
A. Contemporary Jewish Theology............................................................................. 4
B. The Nature of Jewish Soteriology .......................................................................... 6
C. Paul the Pharisee................................................................................................... 10
D. Hellenistic Judaism............................................................................................... 12
2. Gentile Recipients.................................................................................................... 14
A. General History .................................................................................................... 15
B. Religion and Customs of Galatia.......................................................................... 17
Chapter Two – Specific Context of Galatians ................................................................. 19
1. Paul’s Use of the Official Letter Form .................................................................. 19
2. Date and Recipients of Galatians ........................................................................... 21
iv
3. The Opponents and the Galatian Problem ........................................................... 25
4. Conclusion................................................................................................................ 27
Chapter Three – A New Translation of Galatians .......................................................... 29
Chapter 1...................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 2...................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 3...................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 4...................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 5...................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 6...................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Four – Line By Line Commentary .................................................................... 40
1. Salutation - Gal 1:1-5 .............................................................................................. 40
2. Rebuke For Dissertation and Defamation – Gal 1:6-10....................................... 46
3. Historical Narrative As Defense Against The Trouble-Maker’s Accusations -
Gal 1:11 – 2:10 ............................................................................................................. 50
4. A Microcosm of the Galatians Situation - Gal 2:11-21 ........................................ 59
5. Experiential Appeal – Gal 3:1-5............................................................................. 69
6. The Abraham Example - Gal 3:6-9 ....................................................................... 72
7. Works: The Law Brings Curses – Gal 3:10-14..................................................... 77
v
8. Christ’s Effect on the Law and Faith – Gal 3:13-14 ............................................ 85
9. The Nature of a Covenant - Gal 3:15-18 ............................................................... 88
10. Why the Law? – Gal 3:19-25................................................................................ 92
11. Sonship – Gal 3:26-4:11 ........................................................................................ 97
12. A Personal Plea – Gal 4:12-20............................................................................ 108
13. An Ancient Story as an Allegory For Modern Times – Gal 4:21-5:1 ............. 113
14. Exhortation to Freedom – Gal 5:2-12................................................................ 124
15. Walking By The Spirit Rather Than The Flesh – Gal 5:13-6:10 .................... 133
16. Closing Sub-Letter – Gal 6:11-18 ...................................................................... 160
Chapter Five - Interpreting Pauline Theology in Galatians ........................................ 168
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 168
2. Works: GG ��TTIIC�C�PPQQ ��OOQQWW ................................................................................................. 168
3. Grace: EECC ��TTKKLL and RKRK ��UUVKVKLL ......................................................................................... 172
4. Justification and Righteousness: FFKKMMCCKKQQUUWW��PPJJ ....................................................... 175
A. The Terminology:�F K MC K-cognates ..................................................................... 175
B. Justification by faith ........................................................................................... 176
C. Not by Works...................................................................................................... 178
D. From Law to Christ ............................................................................................ 180
E. An Affront to Grace............................................................................................ 183
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F. Why the PQ�O QL? ................................................................................................... 184
5. Inclusion in the Covenant..................................................................................... 185
6. Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 191
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 192
Appendix ......................................................................................................................... 196
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. Correspondence Between Elements of the Abraham Story and their Allegorical
Counterparts
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Roman Province of Galatia (25 B.C. - 137 A.D)
ix
Abbreviations
1 Chr 1 Chronicles
1 Cor 1 Corinthians
1 Ki 1 Kings
1 Thes 1 Thessalonians
1 Tim 1 Timothy
2 Chr 2 Chronicles
2 Cor 2 Corinthians
2 Ki 2 Kings
2 Tim 2 Timothy
Col Colossians
Eccl Ecclesiastes
Eph Ephesians
Ex Exodus
Ezek Ezekiel
Gal Galatians
Gen Genesis
Hab Habakkuk
Heb Hebrews
Is Isaiah
Jdg Judges
x
Jer Jeremiah
Josh Joshua
Lev Leviticus
LSJ Liddell-Scott-Jones, Greek-English Lexicon
LXX Septuagint
NASB New American Standard Bible
Neh Nehemiah
Num Numbers
Prov Proverbs
Ps Psalms
Rom Romans
TDNT G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, eds., Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament, 10 vols., Et (1964-76).
xi
Abstract
My thesis examines Paul’s Letter to the Galatians in the original Greek and its
socio-historical context with a view to understanding first-century Christian theology,
particularly that which concerns the means of salvation, Christianity as the fulfillment of
the Jewish religion, and the ramifications of these theologies for the early church
community. Paul’s Letter to the Galatians is the fruit of a battle between two
diametrically opposed ideologies over the means of salvation. According to the Pauline
theology, salvation consists of the forensic justification of unrighteous individuals in
Christ and the inclusion of these people in the covenant established by God. Paul argues
that this salvation is based upon faith and dependent upon the unmerited, free grace of
God. His opponents, however, argue that salvation is on the basis of Law-keeping and
man’s own efforts. Paul substantiates the truthfulness of his ideology of faith and grace
by appealing to the precedence of Abrahamic faith for justification, the insufficiency of
the Mosaic Law, the temporal, pedagogical nature of the Mosaic Law, and the evidence
that the Galatians are members of the New Israel, i.e. the Galatians are the fulfillment of
the promised end of the Jewish religion. In addition to theological discourse, Paul also
argues for the truth of his ideology ethically. Paul argues that the flesh, i.e. the innate
desire to be justified by our own works, produces evil passions and dissensions, but the
Spirit, i.e. the freely given mark of covenantal inclusion by faith, produces love, joy, and
peace. Therefore, Paul employs a series of theological and ethical arguments to contend
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that salvation is through Christ Jesus by faith and initiated by the gracious calling of God
the Father.
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Introduction
At the end of the 19th century many physicists concluded the field of physics was
exhausted. There was little to do but collect factual information. No new theories or
ideas could be generated. Such a naïve notion was turned inside out with the advent of
men like Einstein and Planck. Physics was no longer under wraps but wide open for
discovery. Along with the 19th-century physicists, one can often assume that after
approximately 2000 years of study, the theology and practice of Paul would be
thoroughly known with little to discover. This assumption, however, is entirely untrue.
Though much of Pauline theology is known, much remains to be learned about Paul and
his theology. Few displays of his theology are richer than Galatians.
In Galatians, Paul unfolds his defense for justification and inclusion in the
covenant by faith against those who claim justification and covenantal inclusion are by
works of the Law. For Paul, justification is a legal, forensic declaration of an unrighteous
individual as righteous before God, and the covenant is a contract between God and man
with blessings and curses attached. Paul views God as the supreme author and agent of
all things who does all things for his own glory. Therefore, for Paul, justification by faith
acknowledges the insufficiency of man to be right before God and relies on God’s foreign
righteousness to make a man right, i.e. Christ’s righteousness. When others contended
that justification and covenantal inclusion were based upon works of the Law, Paul
vehemently argued against such a position. He argued that justification by faith had
precedence over the Law, that the Law is unable to justify because it brings a curse, that
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the Law was only meant to lead to Christ, and that the Law was temporal. He also
demonstrated that Christ ushered in a new eschatological age in which the true Israel, or
the new Israel, were those who had faith in Jesus Christ. The fact that believers are the
new Israel was demonstrated by their reception of the promised Spirit, their rescue from
slavery (which old Israel had undergone in the exodus), their adoption as sons (Israel was
God’s firstborn), and their likeness in faith to the Old Israelite heroes.
In order to more fully substantiate my assertions of Pauline theology, I will first
address the historical context of the letter, which will include a brief history of Judaism,
the Gauls in Asia and their culture, the early Christian church, and Paul himself. Then in
the second chapter, I will discuss issues pertaining to the epistle itself, e.g. the epistle’s
date (a highly disputed matter with Galatians), its relation to the Book of Acts, the genre
of epistles in antiquity and early Christianity, and the specific occasion which
precipitated Paul’s writing of Galatians. Once I have established the context, in Chapter
Three, I will present my translation of Galatians, which reflects the conclusions of my
own research. Following the translation, I will provide a line-by-line commentary that
will discuss difficult and unique words, Old Testament allusions, literary structures, and
textual and grammatical cruxes that pertain to my thesis’ larger focus. Finally, I will
draw upon the conclusions outlined in the line-by-line commentary and background
material and synthesize them into a summary of Paul’s theology and rhetoric concerning
salvation in the final chapter.
Therefore, I hope you will enjoy plumbing the depths of Paul’s theology as
depicted in Galatians. Do not be like the 19th-century physicists and presume that
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understanding of Paul’s theology is completely exhausted. Rather, take a vibrant journey
of the mind into one of the greatest and most influential thinkers of all times.
4
Chapter One – Historical and Cultural Background
Paul, a one-time zealous Jew of the Pharisaical sect and later a passionate apostle
to the Gentiles, is a microcosm of the two-fold nature of Christianity. Early Christianity
was thoroughly Jewish, believing Jesus was the Messiah (Gal 1:1) and Christians to be
the true Israel of God (Gal 6:16), yet it included Gentiles in the covenant community (Gal
3:29) and abrogated the Jewish covenantal sign of circumcision (Gal 5:2-6). Paul’s
Letter to the Galatians addresses the tensions arising from misunderstandings and
contentions concerning this two-fold nature in that Galatians was written to Gentile
Christians, who were being persuaded to practice Jewish laws. Those who insisted on
Jewish practices for Christian converts are called Judaizers. Therefore, in order to
accurately comprehend the nature and argument of Paul’s letter, the cultural and religious
milieu of the Gentile recipients, the Judaizers, and Paul must be examined.
1. Judaism
A. Contemporary Jewish Theology
By the time of Paul’s writing of Galatians, many sects of Judaism had developed,
yet all the sects still held to some common tenets (Sanders, Judaism 47).1 Foremost
among their common beliefs was the worship of only one God, whose name was Yahweh
(Ex 20:2-3, Deut. 6:4). The Jewish God was a jealous god, who demanded worship of
him and him alone. He cast to the ground the idols that the Jews had taken from other
nations and declared to his people, “I will not give My glory to another, nor My praise to
1 Paul belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, which is discussed in section 1.C.
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graven images” (Isa 42:8).2 This distinctive monotheism of the Jews set them in stark
contrast to the polytheism of the Gentiles surrounding them (Sanders, Judaism 242).
The Jews regarded their distinctiveness and separation from the Gentiles as a
result of the covenant that was established by Yahweh with their forefathers. God
promised to bless Abraham and his descendents, and the mark of this covenant was
circumcision, which the Gentiles did not practice (Gen 17; Sanders, Judaism 213). The
1st -century Jews also recognized the Mosaic Law as sign of the covenant that God had
elected Israel as his chosen people to distinguish them from the nations (Sanders,
Judaism 241). The Jews regarded keeping the law as synonymous with covenant keeping
(Ps 78:10). Josephus, a 1st-century Jewish historian, demonstrates the importance and
pervasiveness of the law in Judaism: “[Moses] did not make religion a department of
virtue, but the various virtues – I mean, justice, temperance, fortitude, and mutual
harmony … - departments of religion” (Apion 2.170-3 in Sanders, Judaism 51). As a
result of their understanding of the Mosaic Law and their election, a great rift existed
between Jew and Gentile. An uncircumcised Gentile was not allowed to enter the temple,
the presence of God (Sanders, Judaism 72). The Jews were not allowed to eat with the
Gentiles nor have significant interaction with them.
The sacrificial system, which resulted in the atonement of sins for Israel, was
another fundamental belief of Judaism. Until 70 A.D., when the temple in Jerusalem was
destroyed, the Jews offered animal sacrifices. They believed that blood was required for
atonement and purification (Sanders, Judaism 252). According to the Mosaic Law, the
2 All translations of Biblical texts, except Galatians, are from the New American Standard Bible.
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animal was the substitute for the person’s sin and died in his stead (Lev 4). The
sacrifices were performed by the Levites, a group of priests designated by God, in order
to remove the uncleanness of the Jews so that they might enter the presence of God (Lev
14:19, Num 19:13).
Finally, an expectation for the prophesied Messiah was common among the
Jewish sects, though in variegated form. The term “Messiah” means “anointed one” and
was a title given to the proper king of Israel (Ps 2; Wylen, 170). Grabbe breaks the
Messianic expectations into two kinds, king-priest and warrior-judge. The latter expected
an earthly, conquering Messiah who would remove Israel’s Gentile oppressors (Acts 1:6 -
7; Grabbe, 67). The former expected a king-priest who would restore righteousness to
the people of Israel. Psalm of Solomon 17:26 reveals this expectation of the king-priest:
“[The Davidic king will gather] a holy people, whom he shall lead in righteousness…and
he shall not permit unrighteousness to lodge anymore in their midst” (Sanders, Judaism
294). This Psalm quote fuses the idea of a king, i.e. David, with that of a priest because a
priest’s role is to remove unrighteousness (cf. Phinehas – Num 25), and the future tense
denotes the messianic expectation. It is also important to note that certain sects of
Judaism, such as the Essenes, expected two messiahs who would each fulfill one of the
two roles. Regardless of form, however, most Jews possessed an eschatological hope that
involved a Messiah who would inaugurate a more glorious time of Jewish existence.
B. The Nature of Jewish Soteriology
Perhaps the most critical key to interpreting Galatians lies in how one
understands the first-century Jewish perspective on salvation. Two prominent views exist
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as to the first-century Jewish understanding of the means of salvation. Traditionally,
biblical scholars, influenced by the Reformers, have held that Jews believed that they
were saved by works, i.e. by following the dictates of the Law (Weber). In other words,
the grace of God was not what brought them salvation, but rather their own
accomplishments made them right with God.
In the late 1970s, the traditional stance was challenged in E.P. Sanders’ seminal
work, Paul and Palestinian Judaism. Sanders argued that the Jews’ means of salvation
was based on grace and mercy. He claimed first-century Jews followed a system, which
he called “covenantal nomism.” Covenantal nomism holds that God elected Israel and
gave Israel his law. Thus, the initial covenant is established through grace. The giving of
the law sealed God’s electio n of Israel, demanded their obedience, and demonstrated that
God punished transgressors and rewarded the righteous. However, the law also provided
atonement for sin and a means to re-establish the covenantal relationship. Therefore,
especially in light of election and the means for atonement, first-century Jews primarily
believed that salvation was by God’s grace (Sanders, Paul & Palestinian 422).
Which view one holds ultimately forms how one understands Paul’s approach to
the Law in Galatians. The traditional view would understand Paul’s polemic against the
Law to be directed towards debasing righteousness by works, i.e. its ability to justify.
Therefore, Paul would be arguing against a Jewish notion that through keeping the Law
one could be saved. Sanders and company, on the other hand, contend that Paul was not
arguing against righteousness by works (because they argue the Jews never held to
righteousness by works in the first place), but rather that Paul attacked the Law because it
8
offered another potential means of salvation apart from Christ, which would make
Christ’s sacrifice superfluous. As Sanders describes it:
Paul did not come to Christianity with a pre-formed conception of humanity’s
sinful plight, but rather deduced the plight from the solution. Once he accepted it
as revelation that God intended to save the entire world by sending his Son, he
naturally had to think that the entire world needed saving, and thus that it was
wholly bound over to Sin. His soteriology is more consistent and straightforward
than are his conceptions of the human plight. It seems that his fixed view of
salvation forced him to go in search of arguments in favour of universal sin.
(Sanders, Introduction 45)
Therefore, Paul argued from his conviction of the certainty of the solution, i.e. Christ’s
salvation, and generated a plight, i.e. man’s sin by the Law, rather than argue from plight
to solution (Sanders, Paul & Palestinian 443). In conclusion, the traditionalists
understand that Paul attacked at least the civil and ceremonial portions of the Law
because the Jews were legalists and did not adhere to Paul’s theology of grace (Carson,
3). The covenantal nomists hold that Paul attacked the Law because it competed with
Christ as a means of salvation, and Paul therefore changed the meaning of the law from
the actual Jewish understanding to suit his purposes.
Recent scholarship has challenged the validity of Sanders’ and the covenantal
nomists’ assertion that first -century Judaism was grace-based. Carson and company,
through a new evaluation of Second Temple literature, argue that much of first-century
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Judaism contains merit theology (Carson, 545). Therefore, it would be fair to say that
first-century Judaism contained factions of both merit theology and grace theology.
Paul thus has reason to argue that “you have been severed from Christ, you who
are seeking to be justified by law, you have fallen from grace” (Gal 5:4). Paul was
attacking a portion of actual Jewish theology, which held to the righteousness of works,
and thus those who wanted others to be circumcised and observe special days in order to
earn righteousness. To Paul, all salvation was an unmerited gift, i.e. by grace. To Paul
both of the categories Sanders constructs for salvation, “getting in” and “staying in,” are
by grace (Eph 2:8-10). The mere fact that some merit theology (i.e. salvation through
one’s own works) is present in first -century Judaism is enough to counter Sanders’
argument because then Paul has actual opponents to address within this subset of Jewish
theology. However, Sanders correctly identifies that Paul has a greater problem with the
Law than with people attempting to earn their own righteousness by it. Sanders grasps
Paul’s understanding that Jesus the Messiah had come a nd therefore the Law is no longer
in effect (Gal 3:15-4:7), but incorrectly concludes that Paul argues from solution to
plight. Sanders’ error originates when he states that Paul ignores that gracious character
of Judaism (Sanders, Paul & Palestinian 551). Paul does not ignore the Jewish
opponents who thought the Law was gracious. Hence, after he declares that no one is
justified by works of the Law, he adds, “I do not nullify the grace of God” (Gal 2:21). He
recognizes that his opponents equate justification by works of the Law and the grace of
God, but subsequently demonstrates that the Law was not gracious. Sanders has fallen
prey to the same misinterpretation of the Mosaic Law as the first-century Jews. Paul cites
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the Law itself in Galatians 3:10 to demonstrate that the Law is not gracious but rather
leaves people cursed because no one can keep the Law and because the Law cannot
impart life (Gal 3:21). Moreover, Paul recognizes that the gracious Messiah has come.
Therefore, for Paul, those who revert to the Law are leaving grace and returning to
condemnation. In other words, even though some first-century Jews believed the Law
was gracious, they missed that the Law was powerless to save and destined to be
abolished after the Messiah came.
C. Paul the Pharisee
The apostle Paul was a man who through his entire life was unwaveringly zealous
for the God of Israel. Initially, he was zealous for the Law in the way of the Pharisees,
but later through revelation (Gal 1:12) he realized the Messiah had come and then
worshipped the God of Israel through Jesus, the true sacrifice of atonement (Rom 3:25).
Paul’s life is perhaps best summarized in his own words:
If anyone else has a mind to put confidence in the flesh, I far more: circumcised
the eighth day, of the nation of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of
Hebrews; as to the Law, a Pharisee; as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to
the righteousness which is in the Law, found blameless. But whatever things were
gain to me, those things I have counted as loss for the sake of Christ. More than
that, I count all things to be loss in view of the surpassing value of knowing Christ
Jesus my Lord, for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and count them but
rubbish in order that I may gain Christ, and may be found in Him, not having a
righteousness of my own derived from the Law, but that which is through faith in
11
Christ, the righteousness which comes from God on the basis of faith, that I may
know Him, and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His
sufferings, being conformed to His death; in order that I may attain to the
resurrection from the dead (Phil 3:4-11).
In this passage, Paul unfolds the drastic change in his life when he turned from the
righteousness that is in the Law to the righteousness of Christ. In Galatians, Paul
recounts a good portion of his post-conversion history, in which he trusts in the
righteousness of Christ (Gal 1:13-2:14). Therefore, that portion of his life will be
discussed in the later line-by-line commentary (see Chapter 4.3 with notes 1.11-2.10).
However, his time under the Law’s righteousness and as a Pharisee is little discussed in
this letter and therefore must be fleshed out.
According to Luke, Paul was born in Tarsus of Cilicia and was trained as a
Pharisee under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). Much of what is known concerning the Pharisees
can be gleaned from the New Testament and Josephus. The Pharisees were known for
their exactness (C XMTK �DG K CP) in Scriptural interpretation (Acts 22:3) and for their
thoroughness and precision in handling the Scriptures (Stemberger, 91). Therefore, Paul
was most likely highly skilled in studying the Old Testament and rendering a precise
interpretation. The Pharisees believed in the resurrection of the dead, in opposition to
the Sadducees (Acts 23:6-8). They followed the oral traditions passed on by their fathers
as co-valid with the written Scriptures. As Josephus says, “The Pharisees had passed on
to the people certain regulations handed down by former generations and not recorded in
the Law of Moses, for which reason they are rejected by the Sadducaean group” (AJ
12
13.297f in Stemberger, 88-89). One final distinction from the Sadducees is that the
Pharisees attributed everything to fate, but fused fate with the free will of man. “[The
Pharisees] postulate that everything is brought about by fate, still they do not deprive the
human will of the pursuit of what is in man’s power, since it was God’s good pleasure
that there be a fusion and that the will of man with his virtue and vice should be
admitted” (Josephus AJ 18.13 in Stemberger, 69).
Paul’s pharisaical training is evidenced in Galatians by his powerful, precise use
of the Mosaic Law to reveal its temporary nature. Paul clearly continues to hold to the
Pharisaic concept of the resurrection. He explicitly states that Christ was raised from the
dead (Gal 1:1) and implies resurrection when he refers to being crucified with Christ and
then living by the Spirit (Gal 2:19-20, 5:24-25). Therefore, Paul retains a large portion of
Pharisaic theology, but only that which is consistent with the revelation of Jesus Christ
(Gal 1:12).
D. Hellenistic Judaism
In Galatians, Paul is clearly opposing those who are attempting to convince the
Galatians to practice the Jewish law and be circumcised (Gal 4:21; 5:7-12; 6:12). The
exact identity of his opponents is often debated, but one viable option is that they were
local Jews attempting to win proselytes (Fung 3). The apostle Peter makes a reference to
the F K C URQTC�L (“Di aspora” -the dispersion of the Jews into the rest of the world) in Galatia
(1 Pet 1:1), indicating that Jews were members of the Galatian churches. These Jews are
classed among a group which modern scholars call Hellenistic Jews. Who, therefore,
13
were the Hellenistic Jews and what was their relation to the non-Diaspora Jews in
Palestine?
As a result of the Diaspora, many Jews lived in Greek cities and colonies (Wylen
37). The center of their communities was the synagogue, where the Law was read,
classes were attended, and judicial matters were taken care of. The synagogues were of
importance because, in Hellenistic Judaism, the Temple was inaccessible for regular
worship. The absence of the priests allowed the involvement of the congregation
(Tripolitis, 89). Despite the distance, Hellenistic Jews still revered the Temple and made
frequent pilgrimages to Jerusalem and paid a temple tax (Guignebert, 221). Often the
Jews lived in separate areas of the city, and the synagogues helped them maintain their
segregation (Guignebert, 216). This spirit of segregation and distinction from the
surrounding Gentiles may have contributed to the Judaizers and their desire to have the
Christian converts adopt circumcision and observe Jewish holy days (Gal 4:10, 6:12-13),
so that they were not ostracized from the Jewish community for associating with
foreigners.
Despite attempts to segregate them, the Diaspora Jews became immersed in
Hellenistic society. Many Jews eventually forgot their native Hebrew tongue and turned
to Koiné Greek, which was the lingua franca of the East Mediterranean. The change in
language necessitated translations of the Torah. The most famous of these is the
Septuagint, which is a Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures. Legend holds that the
Septuagint was made by seventy-two Jewish scholars commissioned by Ptolemy who
wished to possess the Jewish Scriptures in his library (Tripolitis, 67). The Septuagint is
14
an important text because Paul often quotes from it in Galatians and because its
renderings from the Masoretic text can introduce subtle nuances.
Greek philosophy also had a large influence on Hellenistic Judaism. The fusion
of Greek and Jewish thought found its most prolific writer in Philo of Alexandria. One of
Philo’s tradema rks was his use of allegorical interpretation in order to harmonize the
Jewish Scriptures with philosophical thought (Tripolitis, 77). Paul employed this new
form of Scriptural exegesis, which favored symbolism and allegory, in Galatians. In
Galatians 4, Paul creates an allegory from the Genesis account of the conflict between
Hagar and Sarah, the mothers of Abraham’s two sons. He equates Hagar, whom God
required Abraham to send away, with the Covenant of the Mosaic Law, and Sarah with
the Covenant of Promise (Gal 4:21-31). He elaborates this allegory further by comparing
Isaac, who was persecuted by Hagar’s son, Ishmael, with the current Christian
community, especially the Galatians, being persecuted by the Judaizers.
2. Gentile Recipients
Just as Paul’s own Jewish background and that of his opponents is essential to
understanding the theology of the letter, so too must one address the identity of the
recipients. In Chapter 1 of Galatians, Paul addresses his letter “to the churches of
Galatia” and in Chapter 3, he calls his audience “Foolish Galatians!” Much scholarly
debate has arisen over the identity of these Galatians. There are two opposing theories as
to their identity. The North Galatian hypothesis is the traditional view, which holds that
15
Galatia refers to ethnic Gauls, not political Galatia3 (Lightfoot). The Southern Galatian
hypothesis is a relatively new view, which holds that Galatia refers to provincial or
political Galatia. By this theory Paul is writing to the four churches in southern Galatia
established during his first missionary journey, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and
Derbe (Longenecker, lxiv-lxviii). Each hypothesis has its strengthens and weaknesses.4 I
will, therefore, examine the history, religion, and customs of both northern and southern
Galatia.
A. General History
Galatia was located in west central Anatolia (see Figure 1, p. 16). Around 900
B.C., an unknown European tribe came and conquered what was to become the Galatian
area. This tribe later became known as the Phrygians, and they ruled until 674 B.C. when
they fell to the Cimmerians. The Cimmerians remained in power for a short time until
they fell subject to Persia in 546 B.C. Phrygian kings were present at this time, but were
under Persian kings. In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and
all of Asia Minor. After his death, a struggle among his generals ensued for central
Anatolia, which was won by Seleucus of Syria. In 281 B.C., Seleucus was murdered, and
his son, Antiochus I, engaged in war with Mithridates of Pontus. During these wars from
278-277 B.C., the Gauls entered Asia Minor as mercenary soldiers (Ramsay, 208-211).
These Gauls, or Celts, continued their marauding of Asia Minor until they were
restricted to the former Phrygian territory by Attalus in 230 B.C. As they remained in
3 The Greek word ������� �����
is a variant form of �� �������� or ��� ��������� , ‘Celts’ = Latin Galli from which we derive “Gauls.” (Bruce, 3) 4 For a more thorough discussion, reference Chapter 2.2.
16
Phrygia, the Gauls began to assume the religion and culture of their Hellenized Phrygian
subjects. In addition, they adopted the Greek language in commerce and diplomacy. In
190 B.C., some of the Galatians fought against the Romans alongside the Seleucids. This
prompted Roman action against Galatia, and they were defeated the next year. From that
point, the Romans ruled Galatia and treated it as a client kingdom, except during the
years from 88-65 B.C. when Mithridates VI of Pontus ruled Galatia. When Galatia’s last
king, Amyntas, died in battle in 25 B.C., Augustus made the kingdom an imperial
province. During Roman rule, some territory was added to the province of Galatia.
Therefore, at the time of Paul’s writing of Galatians, the province of Galatia went from
the Pontic kingdom on the Black Sea to Pamphylia on the Mediterranean (Bruce, 3-5).
Figure 1. Roman Province of Galatia (25 B.C. - 137 A.D)
17
B. Religion and Customs of Galatia
The people of Galatia differed in character depending upon their location. In the
south, the people were not primarily Celtic by descent, but were Galatian citizens
(Ramsay, 308). In the north, the people of Celtic descent were dominant and thus Celtic
culture was more influential (Ramsay, 215).
Southern Galatia was extremely Hellenized in the time of Paul. Ramsay states the
ancient sterotype regarding the Phrygians that they were “without any observable
resistance and with great facility adopted Greek myths, fashions, education, and
language” (Ramsey, 217). They retained Phrygian simplicity and sincerity, but eagerly
enjoyed the Greek concept of learning and education. Their religion was a polytheistic
blend of Phrygian and Greek cults. Pisidian Antioch was home to the center of the
Phrygian religion and where the priests governed the rest of the Phrygia (Ramsay, 317).
The people of Iconium worshiped a goddess, the nursing mother of life, reminiscent of
the Great nameless Phrygian Mater goddess later called Cybele, and a god, who was the
giver of wine (Ramsay, 331). Such worship practices could certainly cause Paul to tell
the Galatians to cease from “drunkenness and carousing” (Gal 5:21). In Lystra and
Derbe, they followed the Greek Zeus. They believed in theophany, so in Acts 14 Paul
and Barnabas are identified as the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes, and the Lystrians say,
“ The gods have become like men and have come down to us” (Acts 14:11).
In the north, the culture and religion was a blend of the Celtic rulers and the
Phrygian subjects. The ancient Roman and Greek writers betray their prejudices against
their northern European neighbors and their descendents. Ancient historians, such as
18
Livy and Diodorus Siculus, described the Gauls as rude and fiery barbarians who
indulged in drunkenness and revelry, were greedy, sought strife and vain glory, and were
prone to anger (Lightfoot, 13-14). The Gauls were also described as restless and fickle
(Lightfoot, 4). Such characteristics may have influenced Paul’s thinking and would
certainly explain the forceful nature of Paul’s letter as well as his amazement at the
Galatians’ rapid desertion of the gospel (Gal 1:6). On t he positive side, the Roman
writers also noted the Gauls’ quickness of apprehension and eagerness for knowledge.
One ancient philosopher, Themistius, even claimed that the Gauls would cling to a
philosopher like steel to a magnet (Lightfoot, 15). In their religion, the Gauls mostly
adopted the religion of the Phrygians, except they retained the practice of sacrificing their
captives (Ramsay, 249). The Gauls who took control of the main shrine at Pessinus
worshiped Cybele, a Phrygian goddess, with wild ceremonies and mutilations.5 On the
whole their religion was characterized by ritual observances and superstitions involving
ritual purification by bloodshed and dietary prescriptions (Ramsay, 220; Lightfoot, 16-
17). The people were enslaved to their priests (Lightfoot, 16-17). Therefore, many of
Paul’s statements in Galatians reflect such practices. The freedom cry of Galatians
would be in stark contrast to slavery to the priests and dietary taboos and might have
induced Paul’s cry for the Galatians not to return to the elemental things of the world that
they previously knew (Gal 4:8-10).
5 Indeed, the Romans called her castrated priests Galloi, i.e. Gauls, which became slang for any eunuch.
19
Chapter Two – Specific Context of Galatians
Chapter One investigated the broad cultural and historical context of Galatians.
Chapter Two now zooms in to inspect the specific context of Galatians. The date of the
letter, the identity of its recipients, the ideology and identity of Paul’s opponents, and
even the style of letter chosen by Paul to respond to his opponents are essential in
appreciating the setting of one of the most scathing yet soothing letters ever written.
Moreover, the events that prompted the writing of Galatians must be retold and
reconstructed in order for the logic and the pathos of the letter to be understood.
1. Paul’s Use of the Official Letter Form
The official letter was a style of letter used in business of the Roman state. Its
formula was often employed by the highest officials, military officers, and ambassadors
to dispatch orders or convey reports. Therefore, when Paul adopted the official letter
style, which communicates authority, he identified his own position, apostle, with the
secular rulers and officials. Paul was an intermediate authority, subject to his king, Christ
Jesus, but he also was an emissary with the authority of Christ to the churches (Stirewalt,
27-32). By implying power in the structure of the letter, Paul was tacitly able to establish
his authority in the face of his opponents who were seeking to debunk his position.
The structure of Galatians’ salutation most fir mly identifies it with the official
letter-form. In the official letter, the writer would state his name, his official title or
position, and descent or place of origin (Stirewalt, 36). In accordance with the purpose of
the first two chapters, Paul adapts the salutation to establish his own authority and says
20
“Paul, an apostle not from man nor through man, but through Jesus Christ” (Gal 1:1).
Here, Paul states his name and gives his title as apostle. However, he takes special care
to emphasize that the title given him is not from earthly, human descent but rather
heavenly, spiritual descent. Paul is the apostle of God and Christ, whose words and
rebukes should be equated with God’s own words.
In ancient letters, co-senders were included in the salutation for a variety of
reasons, including for letters written from a group of citizens to an official or from a king
and his chancery. Of particular interest is the inclusion of co-senders by high-ranking
intermediate officials. These officials would often include a reference to the body they
governed over or their accompanying embassy (Stirewalt, 40-42). Paul continues to
employ the letter form of a high-ranking intermediate official and includes a reference to
“all the brothers with me” (Gal 1:2), again r einforcing his authority. The inclusion of co-
senders also increases the forcefulness of his words because he is not a lone radical, but
many agree with the theology and practice outlined in his letter.
Scribes were often employed to write letters for officials. In order to ensure the
authenticity of the letter, the sender would write in his own hand a mini sub-letter as the
subscript. The subscriptions included a modified salutation, body, greeting, and farewell
(Stirewalt, 48). Paul begins his subscription in Galatians 6:11 with his modified
salutation: “See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand.” In the
body of the subscription he summarizes the issues addressed in the rest of the letter. He
gives the background by identifying his opponents and their motives (6:12-13), states that
the reason for his position is that he boasts only in the cross (6:14), gives his decision that
21
circumcision is nothing, but rather a new creation (6:15-16), and finally closes the body
by asking for personal privilege that no one cause him trouble (6:17). Skipping the
greeting, he closes the sub-letter with a farewell by praying that the grace of God would
be with their spirit (6:18) (Stirewalt, 52-53). Therefore, the last eight verses of the letter
allow the reader to see Paul’s summary of his letter and are useful for understanding the
intention of the preceding didactic passages.
2. Date and Recipients of Galatians
Galatians is generally agreed to be one of Paul’s early letters. However, the
agreement ends there. The dating of Galatians is interdependent on a plethora of other
debated issues, including its harmony with Acts, the intention and rhetoric of Paul’s
opening arguments in Galatians, the identity of its recipients, and the overall structure of
early New Testament history (Longenecker, lxxiii). Efforts to integrate and harmonize
all of the facts have generally forced people to fall into one of two hypotheses, either the
Northern or Southern Galatian hypothesis.
Northern Galatianists, such as J.B. Lightfoot, hold that Galatians was written
during Paul’s third missionary journey around 53 -58 A.D. to the people of Celtic or
Gaulish descent in northern Galatia (55; see Chapter 1.2). As a consequence, they
believe Galatians was written to the churches of Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium and that
Paul in Galatians 2:1-10 was referring to the Jerusalem council of Acts 15 (Longenecker,
lxiv). The apostles and elders in that council in Jerusalem ruled in favor of Paul and
Barnabas in a quarrel concerning the lack of necessity of circumcision for salvation.
22
On the other hand, Southern Galatianists, such as Ramsey, believe that Galatians
was written during Paul’s second missionary journey around 50 A.D and that the
recipients of the letter were the churches of southern Galatia, i.e. Antioch, Iconium,
Lystra, and Derbe (Ramsey, 197). A recent variation of the Southern Galatian hypothesis
holds that Galatians was written from Syrian Antioch in 49 A.D. prior to the Jerusalem
council (Longenecker, lxvii). Finally, the Southern Galatianists believe that Galatians
2:1-10 is describing Paul’s famine visit to Jerusalem mentioned in Acts 11:30. Since the
people of southern Galatia were not ethnically Gauls or Celts, the Southern Galatianists
understand the term, Galatia, to be political and to refer to the Roman province of
Galatia, while the Northern Galatianists believe that Paul was using Galatia in its ethnic,
not political sense (see Chapter 1.2.A.).
I follow the latter, Southern Galatian school. An involved discussion of all the
arguments and counter arguments concerning the Northern and Southern Galatian
hypotheses is beyond the scope of this introduction to the context of Galatians. I will,
however, briefly construct the reasons for my argument that the Southern Galatian
hypothesis is valid as the basis for its use in my subsequent interpretation.6
The greatest support for the Southern Galatians hypothesis comes from the
incongruity between the events of the Jerusalem council in Acts 15 and the events
described in Galatians 2:1-10. In the Jerusalem council, the major participants were
Peter and James whereas Paul is the major participant in Galatians 2:1-10. In Galatians
6 My arguments, based on the events and chronologies laid out in Acts and Galatians, follow previous arguments by Longenecker (pp. lxiii-lxxxviii), and, to a lesser extent, Bruce (pp. 43-56).
23
2:2, Paul states that he went up according to revelation, but Acts 15:2-3 indicates that it
was a church mandate that sent them on their way. The revelation (MC V C ��CXR QMC�NW[K P),
however, fits nicely with the famine visit of Acts 11 as the prophecy of Agabus was the
impetus for their trip to Jerusalem then. By aligning Galatians 2:1-10 with Acts 11:27-
30, Paul’s reference to the apostle’s exhortation to remember the poor makes much more
sense. In Galatians, Paul states that the meeting of the apostles was in private (MC V 8�
K XF K�C P), but the Jerusalem council was rather public (Acts 15:2-6, 12). The greatest
incongruity is that Paul fails to mention the result of the Jerusalem council, which was
directly applicable and had great authority to address the Galatian situation. Moreover,
Paul, who is vigilant about expressing the truthfulness of his account (Gal 1:20), would
not likely neglect to mention a trip to Jerusalem. His eager opponents would have surely
brought this error immediately to light.
The chronology of Paul’s various trips and missions also supports the Southern
Galatian hypothesis. The former visit to Galatia of Galatians 4:13 could refer to his
retracing of the cities described in Acts 13-14. In that case, Galatians would have been
written on the eve of the Jerusalem council and less than a year would have passed since
Paul had evangelized the Galatians. This would explain Paul’s use of V C EG�YL (“quickly”)
in Galatians 1:6. If, however, the Northern hypothesis is held, a whole decade would
have passed between Paul’s evangelism and writing of Galatians, making his use of
V C EG�YL less understandable. In Galatians 1:21, Paul says that “I went into the regions of
Syria and Cilicia” which would fit with Paul’s first missionary journey to Tarsus (Acts
9:30), a chief city in Cilicia, and Antioch (Acts 11:25-26), the capital city in Syria. The
24
famine visit is the next record in Acts which would be congruous with Paul’s account. In
addition, that would place the evangelization of the Galatians on the second missionary
journey, which fits with the Southern hypothesis.
Finally, an important hinge of the Southern Galatian hypothesis is that the term
*C NC VK�C (“Galatia”) includes the four southern churches previously mentioned. While
the Northern Galatianists argue that the term refers only to ethnic Galatians, the southern
cities were included in the Roman province of Galatia, and Paul was probably using the
term in a political not an ethnic sense. Therefore, in light of all the evidence, the scales
appear to tip in favor of the Southern Galatian hypothesis.
Admittedly, there are some weak elements to the Southern hypothesis.
Particularly, the problem of chronology is a major weakness. In Galatians’ account of
his post-conversion career, Paul refers to intervals of three (Gal 1:18) and fourteen years
(Gal 2:1). The seventeen years is too much to fit between the crucifixion of Christ in
either 30 or 33 AD and the famine visit in 46 or 47 AD, considering that Paul’s
conversion is two or three years after Christ’s resurrection. In order for the Southern
hypothesis to be valid, two of the following three situations must be true: the three and
fourteen year periods were concurrent; Paul used a method of computation in which parts
of a year were counted as a whole year; or the crucifixion of Christ occurred in 30 AD.
Nevertheless, while there are some question marks concerning the Southern Galatians
hypothesis, it appears to be the stronger of the two.
25
3. The Opponents and the Galatian Problem
Though there are many varying opinions as to the identity of Paul’s opponents
and to the situation that precipitated Paul’s writing of Galatians, there is an easily
identifiable fundamental error in the Galatian church that Paul addresses. Commentator
J. B. Lightfoot describes this error as “double in aspect,” consisting of “a denial of h is
[Paul’s] own authority and a repudiation of the doctrine of grace” (63). In other words,
Paul’s opponents attacked the authenticity of his apostleship and were seeking to impose
additional requirements for salvation.
The exact identity of the opponents is unknown. Paul refers to his opponents as
trouble-makers (QK B�V C TC�UUQPV G L – Gal 1:7) and unsettlers (QK B�C XPC UVC V QW�PV G L – Gal 5:12),
and he calls their actions judaizing (8,QWF C K �\ GK P – Gal 2:14). There are three grounds for
viewing the trouble-makers as most likely Jewish Christians. First, Paul invokes
extensive arguments involving Abraham, the Law, covenants, promises, and the
supremacy of the heavenly Jerusalem over present Jerusalem. These were likely meant to
counteract the Jewish-based arguments generated to convince the Gentile Galatian
Christians of their need for circumcision (Longenecker, xcv). The trouble-makers were
probably attempting to give the Gentile Christians the “complete -picture,” that is to say
arguing from Genesis 17 that the promises offered came to fulfillment in Christ but, just
like Abraham, in order to seal these promises they must receive circumcision. This leads
to the second reason to identify the trouble-makers as Jewish: Fear of persecution for the
cross of Christ is cited as motive behind circumcision of the Gentiles (Gal 6:12). Only
other Jews, who viewed circumcision as essential and right, would have applied social
26
pressure or persecution to those who were uncircumcised. Circumcision was viewed
with disdain in the Hellenized word of the Gentiles. Therefore, the opponents were
Jewish and not Gentile if they persecuted the uncircumcised. Finally, Paul accuses Peter
of attempting to 8,QWF C K �\ GK P (judaize) the Gentiles in his introductory story (Gal 2:11-21),
which serves as a paradigm of the Galatian situation. In essence, Paul is stating that the
trouble-makers are trying to make the Gentiles Jews. Therefore, the opponents are most
likely Jewish in origin.
The fact that the Jewish opponents were also Christian (heretical, perhaps, but
nevertheless Christian) may be seen in that Paul calls their message “another gospel”
(Gal 1:6). If their message contained no elements that were similar to Paul’s gospel, Paul
would not likely have referred to their message as “another gospel.” Therefore, the
trouble-makers are probably Christians with a Jewish background who are pushing
acceptance of the Mosaic law for salvation.
The main issue of contention in Galatians is justification by works of Law versus
justification by faith. As noted above, the Judaizers seem to have insisted on the
acceptance of the Mosaic Law in order to be saved. This included circumcision,
observation of days, months, seasons, and years (Gal 4:10), and Jewish dietary laws (Gal
2:12). The centrality of the Abrahamic covenant in Paul’s polemic also reveals that the
trouble-makers were likely arguing that this covenant needed to be kept in order for
God’s promises to Abraham to be applicable to the Galatian Christians (Longenecker,
lxcvii). It is important to note that Paul avoids altogether those texts about the
Abrahamic promises in Genesis 17, which closely couple circumcision to the promises.
27
The opponents may have used this text to prove that circumcision was necessary for
justification. They were proclaiming that faith in the Messiah, Jesus, was insufficient to
receive the promises of Abraham and to become children of God (Gal 3:29).
The opponents attempted to launch an attack against Paul in order to win a
hearing and further their position. Paul’s large focus on his interaction with the
Jerusalem apostles, his independence from them, and their approval of his gospel appears
to be a reaction to the preaching by his opponents that his authority only came from the
Jerusalem apostles and that he had deviated from their gospel. Moreover, the opponents
appear to accuse him of preaching circumcision in some places when it suited him best
and, when circumcision was unacceptable, as in Galatia, preaching that circumcision is
unnecessary. In other words, they were proclaiming that Paul was a vacillating
conformer7. Such a position would explain why Paul expresses indifference to
circumcision (Gal 6:15), circumcises Timothy, and is everything to everyone (1 Cor 9:19-
23). Hence, Paul’s response in Galatians 5:11, “Brothers, if I still preach circumcision,
why am I still persecuted? Then I would have set aside the offense of the cross.” In the
entirety of Galatians, Paul argues for his position that circumcision is of no importance
and attacks the necessity of circumcision for justification.
4. Conclusion
As the Jew-Gentile issues in the Church were reaching a climax leading to the
Jerusalem Council, Paul’s most scathing letter was written to the Christian community in
7 The concern that Paul was vacillating was not localized to Galatia (cf. 2 Cor 10:1-2), because, in 2 Cor 1:17, Paul addresses such an accusation.
28
the province of Galatia, especially to the people of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe.
These Galatian churches were being pursued by Jewish Christian trouble-makers8, who
debased Paul’s authority and taught that in order to be covenant members the Galatians
must receive circumcision and perform the Jewish laws. Upon report of these
disturbances, Paul composed a polemic letter in the official letter style to defend his
apostleship and expose the teachings of the trouble-makers. Such is the context of
Galatians.
8 Paul’s term for his opponents (See pp. 25)
29
Chapter Three – A New Translation of Galatians
1:1 2C W�NQL�CXR Q�UV QNQL�QWXM�C XR 8�C XPSTY�R YP�QWXF G��F K 8�CXPSTY�R QW�CXNNC ��F KC��8,JUQW��&TK UV QW��MC K��SG QW��R C V TQ�L�V QW��G XIG K�TC PV QL�C WXV Q�P�GXM�PG MTY�P��
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4 V QW��F Q�PV QL�G BC WV Q�P�WBRG �T�V Y�P�C BO C TV K Y�P�JBO Y�P��Q=R YL�G XZG �NJVC K �JBO C�L�G XM�V QW��C KXY�PQL�V QW��G XPG UV Y�V QL�R QPJTQW��MC V C��V Q��SG �NJO C �V QW��SG QW��MC K��R C V TQ�L�JBO Y�P��
5 Y��JB�F Q�ZC �G KXL�V QW�L�C KXY�PC L�V Y�P�C KXY�PYP��C XO J�P��
6 3C WO C�\ Y�Q=V K �QW=V YL�VC EG �YL�O G VC VK�SG USG �C XR Q��V QW��MC NG �UC PV QL�WBO C�L�GXP�EC �TK V K ��ETK UV QW���G KXL�G =V G TQP�G WXC IIG �NK QP��
7 Q?�QWXM�G �UV K P�C�NNQ��G KX�O J��V KPG�L�G KXUK P�QKB�V C TC�UUQPV G L�WBO C �L�MC K��SG �NQPVG L�O G VC UV TG�[C K �V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V QW��&TK UV QW���
8 CXNNC��MC K��G XC �P�JBO G K�L�J�C �IIG NQL�GXZ�QWXTC PQW��G WXC IIG NK�\ JVC K ��WBO K�P��R C T8�Q?�G WXJIIG NK UC�O G SC �WBO K�P��CXPC �SG O C �G �UV Y��
9 YBL�R TQG K TJ�MC O GP�MCK ��C �TV K �R C�NK P�NG�IY��G K ��V K L�WBO C�L�G WXC IIGNK�\ G V CK �RC T8�Q?�R C TG NC�DG V G ��CXPC �SG O C �G �UVY��
10 �$TVK �IC�T�C XPSTY�R QWL�R G K�SY�J�V Q�P�SG Q�P��J�\ JV Y��C XPSTY�R QK L�C XTG �UMG K P��G KX�G �V K �CXPSTY�R QK L�J�TG UMQP��&TK UV QW��F QW�NQL�QWXM�C P�J�O JP��
11 *PYTK �\ Y�IC�T�WBO K�P��C XF G NHQK���V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V Q��G WXC IIG NK USG �P�WBR 8�GXO QW��Q=V K �QWXM�G �UV K P�MC VC ��C�PSTYR QP>�
12 QWXF G��IC �T�GXIY��R C TC ��C XPSTY�R QW�R C TG�NC DQP�C WXV Q��QW�V G �GXF K F C�ESJP�C XNNC��F K 8�C XR QMCNW�[G YL�8,JUQW��&TK UV QW���
13 8+MQW�UC V G �IC�T�V J�P�G XO J�P�C XPC UV TQHJ�P�R QVG �GXP�V Y��8,QWF C K"UO Y���Q=V K �MC S8�WBR G TDQNJ�P�GXF K �YMQP�V J�P�GXMMNJUK �C P�V QW��SG QW��MC K��G XR Q�TSQWP�C WXV J�P��
Chapter 1 1Paul, an apostle, not sent from
man nor by man, but by Jesus the Messiah and God the Father who raised him from the dead, 2and all the brothers with me to the churches of Galatia: 3Grace to you and peace from God our Father and our Lord Jesus the Messiah 4who gave himself on behalf of our sins in order that he might set us free from this present evil age according to the will of our God and Father, 5to whom glory is forever and ever. Amen.
6I am amazed that you are so quickly turning from him who called you by the grace of the Messiah to another gospel, 7which is not another, except there are some who are troubling you and are wishing to pervert the gospel of the Messiah. 8But if even we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to what we preached to you, let him be accursed. 9As I have said before and I now say again, if anyone preaches to you a gospel contrary to what you received, let him be accursed. 10For now do I obey man or God? Or do I also seek to please men? If I were still pleasing men, I would not be a slave of the Messiah. 11For I am making known to you, brothers, the gospel, which was preached by me that it is not according to man. 12For I did not receive it from man nor was I taught it, but I received it through the revelation of Jesus the Messiah. 13For you heard of my former conduct in Judaism, that I was persecuting beyond measure the church of God, and I was trying to annihilate it,
30
1.14 MCK ��R TQG�MQR VQP�GXP�V Y��8,QWF C K"UO Y��WBR G�T�R QNNQW�L�UWPJNK MK Y�V C L�GXP�V Y��IG �PG K �O QW��R G TK UUQVG �TYL�\ JNYVJ�L�WBR C�TEYP�V Y�P�R CV TK MY�P�O QW�RC TC FQ�UG YP��
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1.14and that I was advancing in Judaism over many contemporaries among my people, being far more zealous for the traditions of my fathers. 15But when God, who set me apart in my mother’s womb and called me through his grace, 16 was pleased to reveal his Son in me in order that I would preach him to the Gentiles, I did not immediately consult with flesh and blood 17nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before me, but I went to Arabia and again I returned to Damascus.
18Then after three years, I went to Jerusalem to meet Cephas and I remained with him fifteen days. 19I did not see any of the other apostles except James the brother of the Lord. 20About the things which I am writing to you, behold, before God I am not lying. 21Then I went to the regions of Syria and Cilicia. 22I was not known by face to the churches of Judea who are in the Messiah. 23They were only hearing that the one who was formerly persecuting you now preaches the faith, which he once destroyed, 24and they were glorifying God by me. Chapter 2 1Then after fourteen years, again I went up to Jerusalem with Barnabas also taking along Titus. 2I went up according to revelation and I submitted to them the gospel which I preach to the Gentiles, in private to men of reputation, lest I was running in vain or had run in vain. 3But not even Titus who was with me, though he was Greek, was compelled to be circumcised.
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4But on account of false brothers secretly brought in, some who slipped in to spy out our freedom which we have in the Messiah, Jesus, in order to enslave us, 5to whom we did not yield for an hour in subjection in order that the truth of the gospel would remain with you. 6From the men of reputation who seemed to be worth something (of what sort they were formerly makes no difference to me; God does not receive the face of man) – the men of reputation contributed nothing to me. 7But on the contrary they saw that I was entrusted with the gospel of the uncircumcised just as Peter was with the circumcised. 8For He who worked in Peter the apostleship for the circumcised, worked in me for the Gentiles 9and knowing the grace which was given to me, James and Cephas and John, who were reputed to be pillars, gave the right hand of fellowship to Barnabas and me, in order that we go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised. 10They only asked that we remember the poor, which I was zealous to do. 11When Cephas came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face because he was condemned. 12For before the coming of some men from James he ate with the Gentiles but when they came, he withdrew and separated himself, fearing those of the circumcision. 13And the rest of the Jews joined him in hypocrisy, so that even Barnabas was led astray in their hypocrisy. 14But when I saw that they were not consistent with the truth of the gospel, I said to Cephas before all, “If you a Jew exist like a Gentile and do not live like a Jew, how do you compel the Gentiles to live as a Jew?
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15We by nature are Jews and are not sinners from the Gentiles. 16But knowing that a man is not justified by works of the law, but through faith in Jesus the Messiah, even we believed in the Messiah, Jesus, in order that we might be justified by faith in the Messiah and not by works of the law, because by works of the law no flesh will be justified. 17If while seeking to be justified in the Messiah, we are found to be sinners, is the Messiah a minister of sin? May it never be! 18For if I build again the things which I destroyed, I demonstrate myself a transgressor. 19For through the law, I died to the law in order that I will live to God. I crucified myself with the Messiah. 20I no longer live, but the Messiah lives in me. The life, which I now live in the flesh, I live by faith in the son of God who loved me and offered himself on my behalf. 21I do not nullify the grace of God. For if righteousness was through the law, the Messiah would have died in vain.” Chapter 3 1O foolish Galatians, who bewitched you, before whose eyes Jesus the Messiah was set forth as crucified? 2Only this I wish to learn from you, did you receive the Spirit by works of the Law or by the hearing of faith? 3Are you so foolish? Having begun by the Spirit, are you now completing yourselves by the flesh? 4Did you suffer so many things in vain? If it is yet in vain? 5Therefore, does the one who supplies the Spirit to you and works power in you do them by works of the Law or by the hearing of faith? 6Just as Abraham believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness. 7Then know that those of faith, these are the sons of Abraham.
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8The Scriptures foreseeing that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, proclaimed the gospel in advance to Abraham that “all the n ations would be blessed in you.” 9So that those of faith are blessed with Abraham the faithful. 10For as many as are of the works of the Law, they are cursed. For it has been written that “Cursed are all who do not obey all the things which have been written in this book of the Law, to do them.” 11Because no one is justified by the Law before God, it is evident that “The righteous will live by faith.” 12The Law is not of faith, but the one who does these things will live by them. 13The Messiah redeemed us from the curse of the Law becoming a curse on behalf of us, because it has been written “Cursed are all who hang upon a tree,” 14in order that the blessing of Abraham might come to the Gentiles in the Messiah, Jesus, in order that we would receive the promise of the Spirit through faith. 15Brothers, I speak according to man’s ways. Just as no one sets aside a covenant of man, which has been ratified, or adds codicil to a will, 16so also the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. It does not say, “and to his seeds” as to many but as to one, “and to your seed,” which is the Messiah. 17I mean this: with the covenant having been previously ratified by God, the coming of the Law after 430 years does not invalidate the promise in order to destroy it. 18For if the inheritance is by the Law, it is no longer by the promise. But to Abraham through the promise God freely gave the inheritance.
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19Therefore, why the Law? It was added for the sake of transgressions, until the seed came to whom it was promised, being directed through angels in the hand of a mediator. 20The mediator is not of the One, but God is the One. 21Therefore, is the Law against the promises of God? May it never be! For if a law was given which was able to give life, then righteousness would be by the law. 22But the Scriptures imprisoned all things under sin, in order that the promise of faith in Jesus the Messiah would be given to those who believe. 23Before the coming of faith, we were held in custody under the Law, being shut up to the faith about to be revealed, 24so that the Law might become our tutor to the Messiah, in order that we would be justified by faith. 25With the coming of the faith, we are no longer under the custodian. 26For you all are sons of God through faith in the Messiah, Jesus. 27For as many of you who were baptized into the Messiah, are clothed in the Messiah. 28There is not Jew nor Greek, there is not slave nor free, there is not male nor female, for you all are one in the Messiah Jesus. 29If you are of the Messiah, then you are the seed of Abraham, heirs according to the promise. Chapter 4 1I say to you, as long as the heir is an infant, he does not differ from a slave, though he is Lord of all, 2but is under a guardian and manager until the appointed day of his father. 3Thusly also we, when we were infants, had been enslaved by the elemental things of the world.
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4But when the fulfillment of time came, God sent his son, born of a woman, born under the Law, 5in order to buy back those under the law, in order that we might receive adoption. 6Because you are sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son in our hearts, crying ‘Abba Father.’ 7So that you are no longer a slave, but a son. If a son, also an heir through God. 8But formerly you did not know God. You were enslaved to gods who were by nature not gods. 9But now knowing God, or rather being known by God, how is that again you turn back to the weak and poor elemental things to which you desire to be enslaved again? 10You keep days and months and seasons and years. 11I fear for you lest somehow I have toiled in vain on your behalf. 12I beg you to become as I am, because I became as you are, brothers. You have done no wrong to me. 13You know that through a weakness of the flesh I preached the gospel to you previously, 14and you did not despise nor disdain your trial in my flesh, but you received me as an angel of God, as the Messiah Jesus. 15Therefore, where is your blessing? For I testify to you that, if it were possible, you would have torn out your eyes and given them to me. 16So have I become your enemy, speaking the truth to you? 17They do not seek you commendably, but they wish to exclude you, in order that you seek them. 18It is always good to be sought in a right manner and not only when I am present with you.
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19My children, for whom I again suffer birth pangs until the Messiah is shaped in you. 20I wish to be present with you now and to change my tone, because I am at a loss about you. 21Tell me, you who wish to be under the law, do you not listen to the law? 22For it has been written that Abraham had two sons, one from the female slave and one from the free woman. 23But the one from the female slave has been born according to the flesh, but the one from the free woman has been born through the promise. 24This is allegorically speaking. For these women are two covenants, one is from Mount Sinai who bears children into slavery; she is Hagar. 25Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia. It corresponds to the present Jerusalem, for she is in slavery with her children. 26But the Jerusalem above is free; she is our mother. 27For it has been written, “Be glad, barren woman who does not bear, break forth and shout, woman who does not give birth, because more numerous are the children of the desolate than the one having a husband.” 28You, brothers, like Isaac, are children of the promise. 29But as then, the one being born according to the flesh persecuted the one born according to the Spirit, thus it is now also. 30But what does the Scripture say, “Throw out the slave woman and her son. For the son of the slave woman will not inherit with the son of the free woman.” 31Therefore, brothers, we are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman. Chapter 5 1For freedom, the Messiah set us free. Therefore, stand firm and do not again be subject to a yoke of slavery.
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2Behold, I, Paul, say to you that if you are circumcised, the Messiah will profit you nothing. 3I testify again to every man being circumcised that he is a debtor to do the whole law. 4You have been severed from the Messiah, whoever is justified by the law. You have fallen from grace. 5For we, by the Spirit, by faith, eagerly await the hope of righteousness. 6For in the Messiah Jesus circumcision means nothing nor uncircumcision, but faith worked out in love. 7You were running well. Who hindered you from obeying the truth? 8This persuasion is not from the one who called you. 9A small amount of leaven leavens the whole lump. 10I have confidence in you in the Lord that you will accept no other thing. But the one disturbing you will bear the judgment, whoever he is. 11Brothers, if I still preach circumcision, why am I still persecuted? Then I would have set aside the offense of the cross. 12Would that those who are disturbing you castrate themselves! 13For you were called to freedom, brothers. Only do not turn your freedom into an opportunity in the flesh, but through love be enslaved to one another. 14For the whole law has been fulfilled in one word, in this, “Love your neighbor as yourself.” 15If you bite and devour each other, see that you are not consumed by each other. 16But I say, walk by the Spirit and you will not fulfill the desire of the flesh. 17For the flesh lusts against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh, for these things are opposed to each other, so that you do not do the things that you wish.
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18If you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the Law. 19The works of the flesh are evident, which are sexual immorality, impurity, debauchery, 20idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, wrath, selfishness, dissension, factions, 21envy, drunkenness, excessive feasting and things like these, which I forewarned you, just as I said before that those practicing such things will not inherit the kingdom of God. 22The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faith, 23gentleness, self-control. Against such things there is no law. 24Those of the Messiah Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires. 25If we live by the Spirit, let us follow the Spirit. 26Let us not become conceited, provoking one another, envying one another. Chapter 6 1Brothers, also if a man is overtaken by some transgression, you who are Spiritual restore such a one in the Spirit of gentleness, looking to yourself lest you also be tempted. 2Carry the burdens of each other and thus fulfill the law of the Messiah. 3For if someone thinks himself to be something (though he is really nothing), he deceives himself. 4Let each man test his own work, and then only to himself will he have reason to boast, not to another. 5For each carries his own burden. 6Let the one who is taught the Word share all good things with the one teaching him.
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7Do not be deceived, God is not mocked. For whatever a man sows, this he will reap. 8Because the one sowing into his own flesh, will reap from the flesh corruption, but the one sowing into the Spirit, will reap from the Spirit eternal life. 9Do not lose heart in doing good things, for we will reap in due time if we do not grow weary. 10Therefore, then as we have time, let us work good to all, especially to those of the house of faith. 11Look how great the letters are I write with my own hand. 12The ones who desire to make a good showing in the flesh, these compel you to be circumcised, only in order that they are not persecuted for the cross of the Messiah. 13For those who are circumcised do not even observe the law but they want you to be circumcised in order that they can boast in your flesh. 14Let it never be that I boast except in the cross of our Lord Jesus the Messiah, through whom the world was crucified to me and I to the world. 15For neither circumcision or uncircumcision is anything, but a new creation is. 16And for those who live by this rule, peace be upon them and mercy even upon the Israel of God. 17For now on, let no one bring trouble for me. For I carry the marks of Jesus on my body. 18The grace of our Lord Jesus the Messiah be with your Spirit, brothers. Amen. � �
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Chapter Four – Line By Line Commentary
1. Salutation - Gal 1:1-5
The beginning of Paul’s angry, yet grace -filled letter to the Galatians sets forth
some of the major themes of the letter. In the salutation, Paul establishes his authority,
goes on the offensive against the agitators, begins to unearth the theme of death to the
Law and resurrection to Christ, reminds the Galatians of the gospel, and demonstrates
that God’s glory is his chief end.
The opening of the letter follows an epistolary formula, common to the Eastern
Mediterranean: “X to Y: greetings” (Bruce, 71). Paul states his commission or title as
apostle and therefore writes in a style consistent with the official letter form, just as
Roman officials would transcribe a letter. This manner of address communicates
authority. In addition to the standard formula, Paul uses what appears to be an early
Christian confession (1:4) and a doxology (1:5) (Longenecker, 1).
In his opening statement, Paul is immediately on the offensive and declaring his
apostleship to be from Jesus Christ and God the Father. The agitators in Galatia have
most likely indicated that Paul received his apostleship from the Jerusalem apostles and is
dependent on them for authority (1:17). Indeed, the agitators themselves may have been
using letters of recommendation to bolster their authority and Paul reminds the Galatians
that he received the authority directly from Christ, not from some insignificant scrawl on
a paper or the utterance of a mere mortal (Piper, Deliver).
41
Paul also immediately reminds the Galatians of “God the Father who raised him
from the dead” (Gal 1:1). In the reminder, Paul introduces one of the major themes
throughout Galatians, which is death to the Law and life to Christ. The resurrecting
power of God, which foreshadows the death to the Law that the Galatian Christians have
undergone (Gal 2:19-20) and the new life in Christ, gives hope to the Galatians because
God is powerful and able to raise the dead (Luther, 36). In addition to the motif of death
and life and the normal salutation, Paul summarizes the gospel. The gospel is that Christ
gave himself for our sins according to the will of God (1:4). The end of the gospel is that
God be glorified. God’s glory drives Paul (1:5). Paul desire for God’s glory can be seen
in his anger over the Galatians’ works righteousness. Righteousness by works removes
God from the situation and the glory of salvation goes to man. To Paul this is detestable.
1:1 C XR Q�UV QNQL�QWXM�C XR 8�CXPSTY�R YP�QWXF G��F K 8�CXPSTY� R QW�CXNNC��F K C��8,JUQW��&TK UV QW��MC K��SG QW��
R C V TQ�L��
Intriguingly, Paul uses both the prepositions, C XR Q��and F K C�, to qualify his
apostleship. The preposition, CXR Q�, denotes the origin or ultimate source, while F K C�
denotes agency. Therefore, Paul is stating that humans are neither the source of his
gospel nor the agent by which he received the gospel. It is important to note that Paul
uses the preposition F K C� instead of C XR Q��with 8,JUQW��&TK UV QW��MC K��SG QW��R C VTQ�L. It is
doubtful that Paul means that Christ and God the Father are merely the agents through
which he received the gospel and that there is an even more ultimate source. Therefore,
Paul likely has a parallel structure in mind. Both the C XR Q��and F K C� implicitly go with
Christ and God, but for sake of style and streamlining, Paul only uses F K C� and expects the
42
reader or hearer to infer C X R Q�. Therefore, Christ and God the Father are both the agents
through which Paul received the gospel and the source of his gospel.
1:2 MC K ��QKB�UW�P�G XO QK��R C�PV G L�CXF G NHQK ���
The mention of all the brothers with him increases the force and weight behind
the letter. No longer is it merely Paul asserting the claims and charges against the
Galatian Christians but all those who are with him. The witnesses also lend credence to
the truth of his words being able to verify and corroborate them (Luther, 37). The word
order is important in that by placing UW�P�G XO QK��first in the construction, he is emphasizing
their agreement with him. Immediately following UW�P�G XO QK��is R C�PVG L, which is an
inclusive word, that helps enhance the force of the statement. Before the reader arrives at
the word C XF G NHQK�, it appears that those who are with him are “all”, not just “all the
brothers.” Such a construction lends even more weight to his words.
1:3 EC �TK L�WBO K�P�MC K��G K XTJ�PJ�CXR Q��SG QW��R CV TQ�L�JBO Y�P�MC K��MWTK �QW�8,JUQW��& TK UV QW��
Though Galatians is one of Paul’s earliest works, Paul had already established
this phrase as a common salutation that appears in some form in all of his letters. The
line is not merely a standard greeting, but it is a summation and concise statement of
Paul’s theology and gospel in which EC �TK L�MC K��G KXTJ�PJ from God the Father and the Lord
Jesus Christ are at the heart. Though EC �TK L appears only seven times (Gal 1:3, 6, 15; 2:9,
21; 5:4; 6:18) in Galatians, EC �TK L is central to understanding why Paul takes issue with
the Galatian Christians for receiving circumcision as a means of justification. In Paul’s
letters, EC �TK L is commonly linked in meaning to the salvation event, i.e. Christ’s work on
the cross. Starting from the linguistic base of EC �T K L in the sense of “making glad by
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gifts”, Paul uses the term to indicate free, unmerited grace. In Paul’s theology, EC �TK L is
the basis of salvation and is a gift from God, which is opposition to man’s own efforts,
which Paul refers to as G �T IC (“ works”) (Eph 2:8 -10, Rom 4:1-6; 9:11). Therefore, when
Paul uses the term EC �TK L he has in mind the context of salvation, which is given to the
individual not on the basis of effort, but as a free, unmerited gift (TDNT, 394). Hence,
when the Galatians are seeking to receive justification, which results in their salvation
from circumcision, Paul sees this as a direct attack on the free, unmerited gift of God and
swiftly seeks to correct their misunderstanding.
The location of JBO Y�P in the sentence makes it grammatically ambiguous which
noun it is modifying. The JBO Y�P could be attached to SG QW��R CV TQ�L alone or to it and
MWTK �QW�8,JUQW��&TK UV QW. The ambiguity may have been intentional and the mini chiastic
structure of the sentence suggests that JBO Y�P is associated with both nouns since JBO Y�P lies
at the center:
A. Name: SG QW�
B. Title: R C V TQ�L
C. JBO Y�P�MCK �
B’. Title: �MWTK �QW
A’. Name: �,J UQW���
Such an analysis leads to the translation, “God our Father and our Lord Jesus the
Messiah.”
44
1.4 V QW��F Q�PV QL�G BC WV Q�P�WBRG �T�V Y�P�CBO C TVK Y�P�JBO Y�P�
Even though Paul used his common salutation that appears in some form in all his
letters, only in Galatians does he modify it with a participial phrase. The use of the
participial phrase V QW��F Q�PV QL…to modify�EC �TK L …C XR Q ...�8,JUQW��&TK UV QW helps establish
that the�EC �TK L Paul had in mind was in relation to the salvific work of Christ, not merely
a cordial greeting. By using the verb, F K �F YO K, which means ‘to give’ with the connotation
of handing over or delivering up (LSJ II.i), Paul is expressing that the grace of Christ is a
gift, with Christ being both the giver and the gift. Since Christ gave himself for sins, as a
gift, attempting to add a requirement to the gift makes it no longer a gift but a wage (Rom
4:4-8). Therefore, the grace of Christ is free and unmerited because he offered himself for
our sins. In his salutation Paul is revealing the essence of his gospel, which will help the
Galatians understand why justification by works is so anti-gospel.
1.4 G XM�V QW��C K XY�PQL�VQW��GXPG UV Y�V QL�R QPJTQW�
The fact that Paul employs this phrase has significant ramifications for the
reasoning of Paul’s argument that c ircumcision and the works of the Law are no longer
enforced. C K XY�P has many different meanings in the New Testament, ranging from the
eternal to a specific period of time. In this context, it appears that Paul is using C K XY�P in
the sense that Aristotle defined it, as a relative period of time allotted to a specific thing
(TDNT, 198). The fact that Paul uses G XPG UV Y�V QL (present) to qualify the C K X Y�PQL suggests
that Paul had in mind a multiplicity of C K XY�PG L and is not using C KXY�P in the eternal sense.
9 Note my use of the plural. Compare to 1.5 below.
45
His second qualification for C K XY�PQL is RQPJTQW�, which carries the connotation of evil but
also a connotation of full of distress and sorrow (TDNT, 553). Therefore, combining
thoughts, we see that Paul has in mind an age which is not eternal, but rather which is
part of a series, and that this age is currently in effect and is evil, troubling, and
distressing but from which Christ sets us free. The fact that Paul thinks in terms of ages
is critical for understanding his reasoning in chapters 3 and 4. The Messiah has ushered
in a new age in which the Mosaic Law is no longer binding. Rather, it is the age of the
Messiah and an age in which he rescues men and establishes his kingdom.
1.5 Y��JB�F Q�ZC �G KXL�V QW�L�CK XY�PC L�V Y�P�C KXY�PYP�
G KXL�V QW�L�CK XY�PC L�V Y�P�C KXY�PYP literally means “into the ages of the ages”, which is
generally rendered as “forever.” 10 It is helpful to compare C K XY�P to ETQ�PQL, another Greek
word for time. &TQ�PQL is the moving image of time, while C K XY�P is the timeless ideal
eternity with no days, months, or years (TDNT). Therefore, for Paul to say for timeless
ages of timeless ages suggests a permanent enduring quality that God will receive glory
for as long as it is fathomable and even more.
Paul caps his salutation by showing the chief end of all these ages that have
occurred according to God’s will: that God receives glory forever and ever. Paul’s
greatest aim is that God receive glory and this is the ultimate end of Paul’s gospel. The
article that is attached to F Q�ZC indicates glory as a general category and this is omitted in
English.
10 It is important to note that this is how Semitic languages generate the superlative (King of Kings, Holy of Holies, Age of Ages). Admittedly, in this instance, both the nouns are plural, which generates some difficulty in translation.
46
2. Rebuke For Dissertation and Defamation – Gal 1:6-10
Paul normally follows his salutation with a thanksgiving for and praise of his
recipients (e.g. Rom 1:8). Here, however, Paul immediately beings with a rebuke.
His departure from such a form demonstrates the dire nature of the Galatian situation. He
must not even be able to come up with much he can rejoice over and be thankful for in
Galatia. This is most likely because the heart of the Galatian situation is diametrically
opposed to the heart of the gospel. Paul’s displeasure can be seen in that Paul calls down
the most extreme curses upon those who preach such a gospel. In fact, he is so vehement
that he takes time to repeat the curse again. The repetition also increases the emotional
force of the thought. The Galatian hearers would have certainly been emotionally moved
by his double appeal and strong curse and would have recognized that they were in
danger by associating with those who were troubling them.
1.6 3C WO C�\ Y�Q=V K �QW=V YL�V C EG�YL�O G VC VK�SG USG �
Paul is amazed at the swiftness at which the Galatian people turned from the
truth. Indeed, such a fickle nature may have reminded Paul of the Israelite people and
their episode with the golden calf and as well as their swift desertion of Yahweh for other
gods during the period of the Judges. For Paul uses the same adverb to describe the
Galatians that the LXX uses to describe the Israelites during the golden calf incident, who
had turned V C EW��G XM�V J�L�Q�F QW (“quickly from the way” Ex 32:8) that they were
commanded (Longenecker, 14). Therefore, Paul is rebuking the Galatians for their
behavior that is akin to unbelieving Israel.
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1.6 C XR Q��V QW��MC NG�UC PV QL�WBO C�L�G XP�EC �TK VK �&TK UVQW��
Paul wants the Galatians to be clear on the object of their desertion. It is not a
message or philosophy, but rather it is a rejection of a person, God the Father. The article
with a participle can be either particular or generic. In this case, the article is particular
and refers to the one who called the Galatians.
In this context, Paul mentions�EC �TK L for the second time. The immediate context
clarifies Paul’s usage of EC �TK L. Here, EC �TK L is dependent upon the verb MC NG �Y, which in
the Pauline corpus is closely associated with election (Rom 9:7, 12, 24, 26). Election is
the unconditional, sovereign choice to freely bestow salvation or damnation on
individuals. By employing such a concept, Paul is reminding the Galatians that their
salvation is by a grace which is solely dependent on God and his call, not their actions.
Therefore, to be justified by works is absurd because then God’s choice is no longer a
true choice. It is also important to note that the grace is originating from Christ as
indicated by the dependent genitive and not from man. In other words, if grace were
contingent on people’s works it would be from them. However, because it is from Christ,
their works can play no part. The Galatians have turned from a sovereign, electing God,
who takes pleasure in being gracious, but freely gracious and not bounded by man’s
actions.
1.7 Q?�QWXM�G �UV KP�C�NNQ��
Here, by using a relative clause to modify his initial declaration that they are
turning to an another gospel, Paul employs a rhetorical principle of self correction, saying
that the different gospel is not gospel at all, which heightens the seriousness of the
48
offense because it demonstrates that the different gospel can not even be qualified as
good news (Anderson, 146).
1.8 CXNNC ��MC K��G XC�P�JBO G K�L�J�C �IIG NQL�GXZ�QWXTC PQW��G WXC IIG NK �\ JV C K ��WBO K�P��R C T8�Q?�
G WXJIIG NK UC�O G SC �WBO K�P��CXPC �SG O C �G �UV Y��
The use of C XNNC ��MC K��G XC�P�suggests that the following conjecture is highly unlikely.
Paul does not believe that any angel or himself would preach a different gospel. He is so
vehement that he uses a third person singular imperative,�G �UV Y, which in essence
commands the preacher of the foreign gospel to be C XPC�SG O C. In the LXX, C XPC�SG O C refers
to something dedicated to sacrifice or something delivered up to divine wrath and in
Pauline literature it has the meaning of a curse (TDNT, 354). The replacement of this
section which is normally thanksgiving with a strong curse reveals that the Galatian error
is striking against the very heart of the true gospel, the gospel of grace and justification
by faith.
The condition which Paul employs with G XC �P�… G WXC IIG NK �\ JV C K is a present general
condition, which means the conclusion holds true at all times. It is a universal truth.
Therefore, Paul is attempting to communicate the timelessness of the truth of the gospel.
Unlike the Mosaic covenant, which is temporary, the gospel is permanent and timeless
and will always be true. No infringement or change is ever welcome or possible.
Paul may be attempting to heighten his point by hyperbole in stating that even if
the angels should preach something different, let them be accursed. However, he may
also be alluding to the fact that angels were the ones who ordained the old Mosaic
49
covenant (Gal 3:19). In this case, he might be suggesting that the gospel stands superior
and has more weight than the Mosaic Law.
1.10 C�TV K … G�V K
By using both�C �TV K (now) and�G �V K (still) in these questions, it seems that his
opponents had accused Paul of seeking the favor of men. Paul uses�C �TV K (now) and�G �V K
(still) in jest to say in effect, “Where is your argument now? I am certainly not trying to
please men now.” The trouble -makers may have been accusing Paul of changing his
gospel to suit whomever he was preaching to and was still preaching circumcision (5:11).
The translation of R G K �SY provides a unique challenge. R G K �SY could be a present,
active, either indicative or subjunctive, and thus the meaning behind Paul’s statement is
ambiguous. He could be saying “For am I now persuading men or God?” or “For should
I now persuade men or God?” The first rendering is more likely because \ J V Y� is present,
active, indicative in the next sentence and the sentence is similar in thought to the first.
In other words, Paul is asking if he currently, in the midst of his letter, is trying to please
men. From the content of the letter and his angry tone, the answer is certainly, ‘No!’ 11
The set of rhetorical questions is setting the reader up for the next section of
Galatians where Paul defends his authority against the trouble-makers. Paul in the next
section will show how pleasing men is certainly not his aim, but rather his aim concerns
being a bond-servant of Jesus Christ and preaching the gospel which he received directly
from him.
11 Most of Paul’s answers to rhetorical qu estions are negative (cf. Rom 3:3, 3:5, 3:27, 3:31, 6:1-2, 6:15, 7:7, 8:35, 9:14, 11:11).
50
3. Historical Narrative As Defense Against The Trouble-Maker’s Accusations - Gal
1:11 – 2:10
Narrative defense is a common ancient apologetic technique typified by
Demosthenes and Chrysostom (Anderson, 148). Paul establishes two main points with
his narrative defense. The first is that he received the gospel not from man, especially not
the Jerusalem apostles. The second is that nevertheless his gospel is in accordance with
the gospel of the Jerusalem apostles and that they concur with his gospel.
In order to defend his apostleship, Paul gives the Galatians a biographical sketch
of himself. He begins with a tacit account of his conversion on the Damascus road, with
which his audience would likely be familiar. The story of Paul’s conversion implicitly
reaffirms what he explicitly stated in 1:12 that the gospel was received by revelation. As
a testimony to the effectiveness of the revelation and the gospel, Paul recounts how he
ceased from persecuting the church even though he was advanced in Judaism. By noting
his limited contact with the Jerusalem apostles, Paul is attempting to communicate that
his gospel did not originate with the apostles nor was he dependent upon them for
authority. While noting that his Jerusalem brethren were not his source, nevertheless
Paul is careful not to isolate his teachings. If the trouble-makers in Galatia had been
purporting that the Jerusalem apostles and subsequently the Jewish churches were
opposed to Paul’s gospel, Paul may have inserted this reference to the Jewish churches
praising God for him (1:22) in order to disprove that the Jerusalem churches were against
him. Thus far in the letter, Paul’s supporters include all the brethren with him and the
Jerusalem churches and will soon include the Jerusalem apostles. Clearly, Paul is
51
attempting to demonstrate that the trouble-makers are really the odd-men-out, not himself
(Luther, 91).
Paul also reveals that his commission is to preach the gospel to the Gentiles. The
declaration of the gospel to the Gentiles is his driving passion. This passion is crucial to
understanding subsequent passages in Galatians, particularly in how the promise to
Abraham reaches fulfillment (Gal 3:6-4:11).
Following 2:1 the narrative shifts to focus on how, when Paul did consult with the
Jerusalem apostles, they approved his gospel and sent him out with full support. Paul
relays how he submitted the gospel to them and how not even Titus was forced to be
circumcised. He does mention the occurrence of [G WF C�F G NHQK (2:4), who apparently
sought to have Titus circumcised. However, the [G WF C�F G NHQK are clearly a distinct group
from the apostles, who approve Paul’s gospel. Not only do the Jerusalem apostles
approve Paul’s gospel, but they also acknowledge h im as a fellow apostle. If the trouble-
makers were indeed pitting the Jerusalem apostles against Paul, Paul turns their argument
on its head and reveals that the Jerusalem apostles were actually supporting him (Luther,
111).
Although we do not have extant the attacks to which Paul is responding, we can
draw some conclusions from the two points he chooses to address. The trouble-makers
were most likely stating that Paul was dependent on the Jerusalem apostles for authority
and that he had drifted from the truth of their gospel to make it more palatable to the
Gentiles. The course of Paul’s argument would have addressed both prongs of such an
accusation.
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1:11 V Q��G WXC IIG �NK QP�V Q��GWXC IIG NK USG�P�WBR 8�GXO QW��
Instead of Paul referring to his message as V Q��G WXC IIG �NK Q�P�O QW (“my gospel” Rom
2:19) he uses an awkward construction, V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V Q��G WXC IIG NK USG �P�WBR 8�G XO QW (the
gospel which was preached by me). However, Paul may have employed the passive to
indicate more readily that the gospel originated from Jesus Christ and not from himself.
That the gospel is from Christ and God is clear from Paul’s other epistles where the
gospel is referred to as�V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V QW��SG QW� (‘the gospel of God’ 1 Thes 2:8, 2 Cor.
11:7) and V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V QW��&TK UV QW� (‘gospel of Christ’ 1 Thes. 3:2, 2 Cor. 2:12, Rom
15:9). Gal 1:12 makes this explicit.
1.13, 14 G XP�V Y��8,QWF C K "UOY��
The double appearance of 8,QWF C K "UO Q�L in these two verses is the only time the term
appears in the New Testament. The term, outside of the New Testament, appears in 2
Maccabees in the sense of the sum of Jewish life and being (TDNT, 383). By using this
term in reference to his former conduct, Paul is distancing himself from Judaism.
Christianity is not the same as Judaism, but rather Paul views that Christianity is the
proper outcome of the Old Covenant.
1.15 QB�C XHQTK�UC L�O G �GXM�MQK NK�C L�OJV TQ�L�O QW�MCK��M C NG�UC L�F KC��V J�L�EC �TK V QL�C WXV QW��
Once again, EC �TK L crops up in Paul’s discussion and it is once again linked with
MC NG�Y, which has connotations of election. The grace of God to call him from his evil
persecution of the church was done before his birth. In other words, God’s grace was
unmerited and in accordance with the sovereign unconditional election of God. Paul
recognizes that he was set apart even before birth (G XM�MQK NK �C L�O JV TQ�L�O QW), before he had
53
the opportunity to do good or bad, and that he was called by the free gift,�EC � TK L (cf. Rom
9:10-11: O J�R Y�IC �T�IG PPJSG �PV YP�O JF G��R TC ZC�PV YP�V K �CXIC SQ�P�J�HC W�NQP��K =PC �JB�MC V 8�
G XMNQIJ�P�R TQ�SG UK L�VQW��SG QW��O G�PJ). This verse once again opens a portal into Paul’s
theology that demonstrates that he perceives his salvation and occupation as a work of
God’s grace apart from works.
1.20 C?�F G ��ITC�HY�WBO K �P��KXF QW��GXPY�R K QP�V QW��SG QW��Q=V K �QWX�[G W�F QO CK ��
That Paul inserts this injection into his narrative reveals how little rapport that he
had remaining with the Galatians. He uses the imperative K XF QW� to demonstrate how
emphatic he is that he is not lying. The opponents must have sufficiently defamed him in
order for him to explicitly state that he is not lying.
1.23 G WXC IIG NK�\ G V CK �VJ�P�RK �UV K P��
V J�P�RK�UV K P, which Paul sees as the basis of justification, has been substituted for V Q��
G WXC IIG�NK QP, which Paul normally preaches. Therefore, Paul is equating his gospel with
R K�UV K L and implicitly is beginning to attack G �TIC. For according to Paul, justification by
works is never the good news.
2.1 O GV C��%C TPC DC ��UWO RCTC NC DY�P�MC K��6K�V QP>�
It is interesting to note that that Paul’s traveling companions are composed of a
Gentile and Jew. As revealed in 2:3, Paul may have included his mention of Titus to
demonstrate that the Jerusalem apostles did not object to uncircumcised Christians. Titus
provided a physical, tangible test case of the Jerusalem apostles’ position. Therefore, in
his own life, Paul is practically living out the gospel he preaches: “neither circumcision
nor uncircumcision is anything, but a new creation” (Gal 6:15) (Luther, 94).
54
2.2 O J��R YL�G KXL�MG PQ�P�V TG �EY�J�G �F TC O QP��
The tone of Paul’s visit with the men of reputation is not immediately clear from
the phrasing of the sentence. One option was that Paul is admitting that his gospel is
potentially errant and was submitting it to the Jerusalem apostles in order to ensure its
validity. The second option is that Paul was fully confident of the validity of his gospel
and he was submitting his gospel to the Jerusalem apostles in order to see if his previous
or current evangelistic work was useless because the Jerusalem apostles might be
opposing his gospel (Anderson, 151). Paul’s use of O J��R YL (lest) reveals his
apprehension (cf. 4:11) that he feared the potential result. In addition, whenever Paul
uses G KXL�MG PQ�P, he usually means ‘uselessly’ o r ‘without effect.’ (Longenecker, 48).
Therefore, in light of the context in which Paul has asserted that his gospel was by
revelation, his submission of the gospel most likely falls into the second category. Paul
was fully confident of his gospel but he wanted to see if it would be in vain because it
would be opposed by a different gospel from the Jerusalem apostles.
2.3 CXNN8�QWXF G��6K�V QL�QB�U W�P�G XO QK ���]( NNJP�Y�P��JXPCIMC �USJ�R G TK VO JSJ�PC K >�
Without explicitly answering his rhetorical question of 2.2 (see supra), Paul
skillfully employs his narrative to imply that his evangelization of the Gentiles was not in
vain because Titus was not forced to be circumcised. In other words, the test-case for the
acceptance of an uncircumcised Christian passed with flying colors…at least among the
apostles. Paul now had evidence in the flesh, so to speak, that circumcision was not
necessary for justification. Perhaps if Titus had been along on Paul’s missionary journey
55
to the Galatians, they would remember him as an object lesson that Christians do not
have to be circumcised.
2.4 F KC��F G ��V QW�L�R C TGK UC�MV QWL�[G WFC FG �NHQWL��QK=V KPG L�RC TGK UJ�NSQP�MCV C UMQR J�UC K �V J�P�
G XNG WSG TK�C P�JBO Y�P�J?P�G�EQO G P�G XP�&TK UV Y��8,JUQW���K =PC �JBO C �L�MC VC F QWNY�UQWUKP��
The grammar of the sentence is difficult. The difficulty lies in the fact that Paul
uses all subordinate clauses and does not give a main clause. One would expect a main
clause such as “but it was”, the phrase which the NASB introduces. The ‘but’ or a
negative seems necessary to infer. Otherwise, Paul would be saying that the false
brothers did compel Titus to be circumcised, which seems contrary to his point.
Therefore, when one introduces a main clause for Paul that says “but a compulsion to be
circumcised was brought” the rest of the sentence is clear. The false brothers were trying
to compel Titus to be circumcised, but Paul refused in order that the truth of the gospel
might stand.
2.5 QK�L�QWXF G��R TQ�L�Y=TC P�GK �ZC OG P�V J��WBR QVC IJ��
The Western text omits QK �L�QWXF G ��completely transforming the meaning of the
clause to ‘we yielded for an hour in subjection.’ The omission is likely incorrect because
it does not fit with the second half of the sentence because then their yielding would
allow the truth of the gospel to remain with them, which is contrary to Paul’s point
(Bruce, 113). If they had given in for an hour, how would that fact fit with the result that
the truth of the gospel is upheld when the truth of the gospel is that no one needs be
circumcised? The omission misled some of the early church fathers to believe that Titus
was circumcised (Longenecker, 52).
56
2.5�K =PC �… FK CO GK�PJ …
The K =PC + subjunctive shows purpose and thus signals that Paul’s purpose in
refusing to circumcise Titus was for the truth of the gospel to remain with the Galatians
specifically and the Gentile Christians generally. It is important to note that it was not to
establish that circumcision in and of itself was wrong, but rather that the uncircumcised
are free to remain uncircumcised and still be members of Christ and his church.
2.6 R TQ�UYR QP��QB��SG Q�L�CXPSTY�R QW�QWX�NC ODC�PG K ��
R TQ�UYR QP�QB�SG Q�L�CXPSTY�R QW�QWX�NC ODC�PG K is an idiom to demonstrate that God
shows no partiality. In the LXX, R TQ�UYR QP is often used in passages that demonstrate
that God is just and shows no preference to rich or poor or any class (Lev 19:15, Deut
1:17, 16:19) (Longenecker, 54). Therefore, once again, even in the midst of Paul’s
evidence of the Jerusalem apostles’ support, Paul is careful to p oint out that the words of
man have no meaning before God. The inference is that the only thing that matters is the
word of God, which has been given to him by revelation. Moreover, Paul’s reference to
the impartiality of God in this context helps set up Paul’s argument that God does not
judge on the basis of circumcision or uncircumcision.
2.8 QB�IC �T�G XPG TIJ�UC L�2G�V TY�G KXL�C XR QUVQNJ�P�V J�L�R G TK V QO J�L�G XPJ�TIJUG P�MC K��G XO QK��G KXL�V C��
G �SPJ��
Verse 8 in conjunction with verses 7 (V Q��G WXC IIG�NK QP�V J�L�C XMTQDWUV K�C L�MC SY�L�
2G�V TQL�V J�L�R G TK V QO J�L) and 9 (JBO G K�L�G KXL�V C��G �SPJ��C WXV QK��F G��G KXL�V J�P�RG TKV QOJ�P) reveals
that Paul’s commission and passion were for the Gentile people, while Peter’s
commission was to the Jewish people. The distinction between Paul’s commission to the
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Gentiles and Peter’s commission to the Jews is so important that Paul repeats the concept
three times. Paul also repeats R G TK V QO J� (circumcision) three times. Twice it is associated
with Peter and once with the Jerusalem apostles. Paul likely wants the Galatians to
understand that the difference between the Jerusalem apostles and himself is not
primarily one of theology or doctrine, but rather of commission. It appears as if Paul is
stressing the division between circumcised and uncircumcised, and, in a way, he is. But
his intention is to show that the gospel goes to both groups. Since the gospel is capable
of going to both groups, circumcision is of little significance to Paul (5:6, 6:15).
It is also important to note that Paul shifts from C XMTQDWUV K�C to V C��G�SPJ in his three
statements concerning his and Peter’s commissions. The shift reveals that
uncircumcision and Gentiles (“nations”) are interchangeable. The same holds for Jews
being interchangeable for circumcision (see note 2.15).
An understanding of Paul’s commission to the Gentiles helps one understand the
vigor of Paul’s letter to the Galatians. The commission given to him on the Damascus
road shaped his entire life and writing. A significant portion of Galatians deals with the
inclusion of the Gentile people into the Jewish promises. In Paul’s mind the inclusion of
the Gentiles, as demonstrated by their reception of the Spirit, was one of the most
dramatic distinctions arising from the coming of the Messiah and this belief shaped his
theology.
2.9 MC K��IPQ�PV G L�V J�P�EC �TK P�VJ�P�F QSG K�UC �P�O QK ��
Once again EC �TK L is mentioned and it is the impetus of all things not only in the
minds of the pillars (Peter, James, and John) but also in Paul’s mind as indicated by �
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IPQ�PVG L. These three pillars recognized the grace given to Paul and shared fellowship
with him…something very unlikely for preachers of different gospels. F K �FYO K is also
again linked with EC �TK L to demonstrate that grace is a result of giving, not earning or
works. Though never explicit in Galatians (explicitly in Rom 11:6), Paul clearly
indicates that EC �TK L is antithetical to works. Therefore, Paul once again communicates
here that God works by grace and grace alone, and he prepares his reader for arguments
to come. �
2.9 8,C �MYDQL�MC K��-JHC�L�MC K��8,YC �PPJL��
In order to bolster his resumé, Paul includes a recommendation from the three
men closest to Christ. Peter, James, and John constituted the inner circle of Christ and
were with him at the transfiguration and who observed Christ’s raising of the dead (Luke
8:51).
2.9 F G ZKC �L�G�F YMC P�GXO QK��MC K��%C TPC DC��MQK PYPK�C L�
Though Paul mentions himself and Barnabas, he does not include Titus. This is
presumably because Titus had not yet reached the importance in the Galatian church as
Paul and Barnabas who evangelized the churches. The omission here also demonstrates
that the inclusion of Titus in 2:1 was more for argumentation’s sake to prove that the
Jerusalem apostles did not require Gentile Christians to be circumcised.
2.10 O Q�PQP�V Y�P�R V YEY�P�K =PC �O PJOQPG W�YO G P�
Paul is so eager to share the truth and the whole truth that he includes what the
pillars did contribute to him, which is that he must remember the poor. The inclusion of
this phrase also reminds the Galatians that love is the first fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22),
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which, in light of Paul’s exhortation in chapters 5 and 6, was presumably severely lacking
in the Galatian churches. This exhortation also fits with the Southern Galatian hypothesis
in which Paul and Barnabas came to Jerusalem because of a famine in Jerusalem. If the
purpose of their visit was to bring a gift to the poor at Jerusalem, the apostles would be
likely to remind him to remember them and the poor as he went out to the Gentiles. The
poor Jewish Christians would continue to need help from the Gentile churches.
4. A Microcosm of the Galatian Situation - Gal 2:11-21
At Gal 2:11, Paul introduces a new section in his narrative that recounts his
confrontation of Peter in Antioch. The Antioch narrative serves not only as a historic
event, but also as a model that encapsulates the current Galatian situation. Paul uses the
narrative to help convey to the Galatians the false beliefs they hold and how they play out
practically. In education, little instructs more poignantly or accurately than a real life
story. The characters in the story are also figures prominent among the Galatian
Christians and weigh therefore more importantly on their present situation.
Peter is almost a caricature of the Galatian churches. The state of Peter before the
coming of men from James is synonymous with the unity of Jews and Gentiles in Galatia
before the coming of the trouble-makers. The unity of Jew and Gentile is seen in that
Peter eats with them, an ancient symbol of unity. Following the initial unity, in regards
to both Peter and the Galatian churches, outsiders who were of Jewish origin arrived and
began to separate out men (Gal 4:17). Both of these sets of men were using circumcision
as the dividing line, which resulted in discord and factions. Upon the arrival of the men,
the people began to be swayed from their initial position and began to fear the Jewish
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men. In Peter’s case the outsiders’ influence caused him to become hypocrit ical and
expect the Gentiles to live as Jews, while he himself lived as a Gentile. In the Galatian
churches’ case, they too fell into hypocrisy by claiming works, i.e. practice of Jewish
law, as a means of salvation. Finally, both situations result in a confrontation by Paul in
an open, public way. Therefore, by using a story with so many parallels to the current
situation, Paul is able to communicate the truth of the Galatians’ actions. This story
communicates that fear of man is the driving factor in justification by works and that
actions are sufficient for the practice of justification by works of the Law. This does not
have to be a formal doctrine (cf. note on 2.13 below).
2.11 MC VC��R TQ�UYR QP�C WXV Y��C XPV G�UV JP��Q=V K �MCV G IPYUO G�PQL�J P��
As a demonstration of the ultimate source of his authority, Paul is free to state that
Cephas was MC V G IPYUO G�PQL (condemned). He is able to oppose the foremost of the
apostles, the man on whom Christ said the Church was to be built (Matt 16:18). One of
the parallels between the Antioch confrontation and the Galatian situation is that Paul is
opposing (C XPSK �UV JO K) Cephas MC V C��R TQ�UYR QP, which is an idiom for openly and publicly,
just like Paul is openly opposing the trouble-makers by his public letter.
2.12 R TQ��V QW��IC �T�GXNSG K �P�… Q=V G �FG��J NSQP�
By using R TQ��and Q=V G �F G �, Paul setups a temporal comparison with the coming of
men from James as the turning point. Before this time, Peter O G V C��V Y�P�GXSPY�P�UWPJ�USK G P,
which is a symbol of fellowship and unity. After this time, Peter CXHY�TK \ G P�G BC WV Q�P, which
denotes disunity and discord. In essence, Paul is trying to communicate that the coming
of trouble-makers breaks the unity of people for this is the very thing occurring among
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the Galatians. It is also interesting to note that Paul uses the verb C XHQTK �\ Y, which earlier
refered to an act of God (Gal 1:15), and applies it to Peter. Perhaps, Paul is insinuating
that Peter is trying to separate people, which should only be an act of God’s sovereign
election, not an act of man.
2.12 HQDQW�O G PQL�V QW�L�G XM�R G TKV QOJ�L
Paul attaches the participial phrase, HQDQW�O G PQL …, in order to show that the fear
of man causes disunity and discord. Peter was fearing the opinions of men who were
circumcised. Paul is attempting to communicate to the Galatians that it is the fear of man
that is driving their behavior and not the Scriptures. In addition, he is revealing the
tactics of the trouble-makers, which is pressure with fear (Gal 4:17-18).
2.13 UWPWR G MTK�SJUC P�… V J��WBR QMTK�UG K ��
The verb and noun form of hypocrisy, UWPWR QMTK �PQO CK �and WBR Q�MTK UK L, both
appear in this verse. Throughout antiquity hypocrisy has had many different nuances.
Paul’s particular meaning can be deduced from the context and from the usage of the
UWPWR QMTK�P- cognates in the New Testament. Immediately following this verse Paul
describes hypocrisy through the actions of Peter, i.e. that he compels the Gentiles to live
like Jews while he himself lives like a Gentile (2:14). Such a definition of hypocrisy is
corroborated by other uses of WBR Q�MTK UK L in the New Testament. For example in Mark 7:6
were Jesus calls the people WBR QMTK VC K�, of whom he says that “This people honors me with
their lips, but their heart is far away from me.” Therefor e, Paul is using hypocrisy to
mean saying one thing while doing another. Presumably, if one asked Peter whether
Gentiles were members of the covenant community he would invariably respond in the
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affirmative, since the Holy Spirit already confirmed their acceptance (Acts 10-11).
Considering that Paul is using the Antioch confrontation as a mini-representation of the
Galatian situation, he is trying to instruct the Galatians that they do not have to make
circumcision an official doctrine to be in error. If they even act differently towards the
uncircumcised, they stand condemned and are trying to be justified by works of the Law.
2.14 ( KX�UW��8,QWF C K �QL�WBR C�TEYP�G XSPK MY�L�MC K��QWXEK ��8,QWF C K"MY�L�\ J�L
Here, Paul likely uses the noun form and adverbial form of Jew and Gentile to
mean different things. The noun forms, 8,QWF C K �QL and V C ��G�SPJ, likely refer to ethnicity.
The adverbial forms, G XSP K MY�L and 8,QWF C K"MY�L, are probably used figuratively to mean
living under the Law or not. GXSPK MY�L would mean living apart from the Law and
8,QWF C K"MY�L would mean living under the Law. Therefore, Paul is saying “If you a Jew live
apart from the Law and do not live under the Law, how do you compel the Gentiles to
live under the Law?” (see note 2.15).
2.14 R Y�L�V C��G �SPJ�C XPC IMC �\ GK L�8,QWF CK�\ G K P��
It is interesting to note that C XPC IMC�\ Y appears here in reference to Peter, where the
previous mention in Galatians (2:3) was in reference to [G WF C �F GNHQK. Paul thus parallels
the actions of Peter in Antioch and the [G WF C �F GNHQK. Though Paul recognized Peter as a
brother, his actions in treating the Gentiles differently demonstrated that he was just as
bad as the false brothers who were bringing division to the church and implicitly by their
actions were promoting justification by works of the Law.
The only time 8 ,QWF C K�\ G KP�appears in the New Testament is here. Outside the
New Testament, 8,QWF C K �\G K P�means to convert to Judaism, especially by circumcision
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(TDNT, 383). Therefore, by his language, Paul is insinuating that Peter is trying to force
circumcision on the Gentiles through the social pressure of not associating with him. As
he goes on to demonstrate, this social pressure really means that you are trying to be
justified by works of the Law.
2.15 `+O GK�L�HW�UG K �8,QWFC K�QK �MC K��QWXM�G XZ�GXSPY�P�C BO C TV YNQK�>�
The meaning of C BO C TV YNQK� (sinners) in this context is crucial for understanding
Paul’s argument in verse 17. Paul says that he and Peter are Jews �HW�UG K (by nature or
natural condition). In essence, Paul is saying that he and Peter are Jews by birth and by
descent. They are kosher Jews who are law-keepers by inheritance, while on the other
hand the Gentiles are C BO C TV YNQK��and law-breakers by birth. In other words, Paul is not
using C BO C TV YNQK��in an absolute sense to say that Jews do not sin, but rather he uses it in a
limited sense to mean the Gentiles are apart from the Jewish tradition, the godly way.
2.16
Initially, it appears that Paul employs a circular argument: “we know that a man is
not justified by works of the law, but through faith in Jesus the Messiah … because by
works of the law no flesh will be justified.” However, the chiasmic structure of this verse
potentially reveals that his argument is not quite as circular as it seems. It also provides a
potentially crucial piece of information on the way Paul viewed the Mosaic Law.
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A. QWX�F K MC KQW�V CK �C�PSTYR QL�GXZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�
� � B. G XC �P�O J��F K C��R K�UV G YL�8,JUQW��&TK UV QW�
C. JBO GK�L�G KXL�&TK UV Q�P�8,JUQW�P�G XR K UV G W�UC O G P�
B’. F K MC K YSY�O G P�GXM�R K�UV G YL�&TK UV QW��
A’. QWXM�G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW��Q=V K �GXZ�G�TIYP�PQ�O QW�QWX�F K MC K YSJ�UG V C K �R C�UC �UC �TZ��
In a chiasm, the center is normally the turning point or the crux of the argument.
Therefore, the crux of why they are not justified by works of the Law is because they
believed in Jesus as the &TK UV Q�L or the Messiah. As previously discussed in note 1.4,
Paul had in mind that time was divided into ages. Also, from Gal 4:4 we see that Christ
came at V Q��R NJ�TYO C �VQW��ETQ�PQW and ushered in a new age. As in Jewish though, the
expected Messiah was associated with a new age, so for Paul, Jesus as the Messiah had
ushered in a such a new age. Therefore, when they had believed in Jesus as the Messiah,
they recognized that man is not justified by works of the Law. His coming ushered in a
new age that confirmed what was true all along, namely, that man was not justified by
works of the Law, but rather that the Law was a temporary measure to bring them to
Christ (3:24).
Also, at the crux of the chiasm is the verb R K UV G W�Y. Like the subsequent
argument, in Paul’s mind faith has been what has characterized men of God for all history
(3:6-9). The reason that a man is not justified by works of the Law is because faith is
central to the ancient men of God, i.e. the patriarchs.
It is also very important to note that Paul in this section is harkening back to
Psalm 143:2 (LXX 142:2) when he states G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�QWX�F K MCK YSJ�UG V CK�R C�UC �UC �TZ.
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The LXX version of Psalm 143:2 reads QWX�F K MC K YSJ�UG V C K �G XPY�R KQ�P�UQW�R C�L�\ Y�P. Paul
replaces \ Y�P with UC �TZ and adds G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW. The psalmist in Psalm 143, right before
he says that no man living will be justified before God, pleads with God not to enter into
judgment with him. The psalmist recognizes that he is guilty before God. Therefore,
Paul’s point is that no man can be justified by the Law because all men are wicked and
unable to keep the Law. Thielman notes:
Paul, then, has skillfully altered Psalm 143:2 to make its meaning relevant to the
situation at Antioch and Galatia. The psalm is a confession that no one can claim
perfect innocence before the all-knowing gaze of God and a plea for God’s mercy
in spite of this. Paul uses the psalm’s language to say that no flesh, not even
circumcised flesh, can claim to be innocent of all wrongdoing. (Thielman, 125)
2.17 GK X�F G��\ JV QW�PV GL�F KMC K YSJ�PC K �GXP�&TK UV Y��G WBTG �SJO G P�MCK��C WXV QK��C BO C TVYNQK���C TC �
&TK UV Q�L�C BO C TVK�C L�F KC�MQPQL��O J��IG �PQKV Q��
In order to understand Paul’s rhetorical quest ion, we must recall Paul’s usage of
C BO C TV YNQK��in note 2.15 in which the term did not mean sinner in the absolute sense, but
rather in the limited sense of being non-Jewish. From the rhetorical question, Piper
reconstructs the probable objection by the men from James (2:12), which the question
addresses: “By encouraging Jews to neglect the laws of God (e.g. the ones Peter
neglected when he ate with Gentiles) and thus act like Gentile sinners, you are making
Christ the agent of sin (C BO C TVK�C L�F KC �MQPQL).” (Piper, Nullify). Paul responds that if while
seeking to be justified in Christ they are made “sinners”, i.e. non -Jewish and law-
breakers, then Christ is not a minister of sin. He is not saying that if, while seeking to be
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justified in Christ, we are found to sin absolutely that Christ is not a minister of sin.
Here, in context, Paul is suggesting that to break the Mosaic Law, especially the
ceremonial portion, because you are being justified in Christ is not sin. In other words, if
seeking to be justified by Christ means that they are law-breakers and hence not justified
by works of the Law, this is not wrong, for it is not a sin to be not justified by works of
the Law.
2.18 G KX�IC�T�C ?�MC V G�NWUC �V C W�V C �R C�NK P�QKXMQF QO Y���R C TC DC�V JP�G XO C WV Q�P�UWPK UV C�PY��
The question arises as to what C ?�MC V G�NWUC �V C W�V C �refers. From the argument in the
preceding lines, the thing which Paul implicitly destroyed (MC V C NW�Y) was justification by
works. He is saying that if he again builds what he once destroyed (i.e. justification by
works in his own life), he is the transgressor. Paul proves himself a transgressor because
he died to the Law. Why is he a transgressor?
By employing R C TC DC �V JP, Paul turns on its head the objection that by allowing
people to be “sinn ers” or law -breakers you make them true sinners. In fact, those who
are HW�UG K �8,QWF C K�QK and are law-keepers are the true R C TC DC�V CK �(transgressors). The
“transgressor” of the Law is right, while the one who does “do the Law” is the
transgressor.
2.19 GXIY��IC �T�F K C��PQ�O QW�PQ�O Y�C XR G�SC PQP��K=PC �SGY��\ J�UY��
The particle IC �T here signals a crucial connection to the preceding statement.
Paul is substantiating his previous claim. F K C� + genitive signifies agency. Therefore,
Paul is saying that through the agency of the Law he died to the Law. This thought is
very similar to Paul’s thought in 4:23 -25, in which the Law serves as the agent which
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brings people to Christ. Thus the Law is not in vain, but rather has fulfilled its purpose
and thus it is no longer applicable in the Messianic age. Attachment to Christ, in Paul’s
mind, means that one is no longer attached to the Law. Hence, PQ�O Y�C XR G�S C PQP and
bringing people to Christ are one in the same. PQ�O Y�C XR G�SC PQP means no longer being
under the Law, i.e. bound by its requirements. In Romans 7, Paul relates C X R QSPJ�UMY with
PQ�O QL in a metaphor of a wife married to a husband who dies. The wife is no longer
bound to him and marries another. For Paul, the Christian dies to the law and is
separated from it and then is married to Christ. In this context, K=PC �SG Y��\ J�UY carries the
same meaning as being married to Christ, who is the giver of life. Paul uses this
statement to clarify the previous verse by showing that the thing he destroyed was living
to the law or justification by works of the Law. Rebuilding this makes him the
transgressor. Why is he a transgressor? The Law is the agent that brings death (3:10-12),
so he died to the Law that he might live to Christ. Therefore, a return to the Law is a
transgression because one is no longer living by Christ’s righteousness.
2.20 \ Y��F G��QWXMG �V K �GXIY���\ J��F G��G XP�GXO QK��&TK UV Q�L>��
Paul not only suggests that the believer dies to the Law, but that the G XIY��also dies.
In fact, because G XIY� and PQ�O QL are both linked to dying and living to Christ and God, I
would suggest that to Paul the desires of self and the Law are closely linked. Justification
by works of the Law provides a means for man to gain favor by his own efforts, the
control of oneself/the G XI Y�. Therefore, Paul sees both of these dying when Christ lives in
you. &TK UV Q�L takes the place of G XIY� in a parallel construction: both are the nominative
subject of \ J�P. By employing such a parallel, Paul is showing that self and one’s own
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ability to perform is rendered unto Christ. The parallel also suggests that Paul perceives
Christ as having complete control over the Christian’s life.
2.20 V QW��WKBQW��V QW��SG QW��VQW��C XIC R J�UC PV Q�L�O G �MC K��RC TC F Q�PV QL�GBC WV Q�P�WBR G �T�GXO QW���
This verse reveals the nature of Pauline C XIC �R J, a revelation important to his
ethical instruction in chapters 5 and 6. Since�V QW�� WK BQW��V QW��SG QW� is the subject of two
parallel aorist, active, participles, C XIC R J�UC PVQ�L and R C TCF Q�PV QL, one can view the two
actions as comoplementary. In other words, C XIC �RJ is parallel to Christ giving up himself
on Paul’s behalf. This R C TC F Q�PV QL refers to his work on the cross and dying for the sins
of men. Therefore, when Paul uses C XIC�R J in Galatains 5 and 6 and encourages the
Galatians to love one another and not to be quarreling and disputing, he is telling them to
‘die’ for the sake of the other, to lay down their life. Paul’s standard of love is the cross.
2.21 QWXM�CXSG V Y��V J�P�EC�T K P�V QW��SG QW�>�G KX�IC �T�F K C��PQ�O QW�FK MCK QUW�PJ��C�TC �&TK UV Q�L�
F YTG C�P�C XR G�SC PG P�
Here, most clearly, Paul sets EC �TK L in direct opposition with justification by works
of the Law. Again, we can reconstruct his opponents’ argument from Paul’s refutation.
Since Paul denies that he is nullifying grace in his argument, the opponent’s objection is
most likely that the Law is a means of grace and justification by faith denies this grace.
In other words, setting aside the requirements of the Law for his opponents is a denial of
grace. Paul argues that he does not deny grace by freeing people from the Law. Why?
Because the law never brought righteousness in the first place. In fact, the Law brings a
curse (3:10). Therein lies the ultimate reason why rebuilding justification by works of
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the Law is a transgression: the Law was never able to provide righteousness (3:21), and it
denies the importance of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross.
Paul again uses�IC �T to show a connection between two sentences (see note 2.19).
Since F K C� + genitive signifies agency, if the Law was already the agent or mediator of
righteousness then Christ died needlessly. By making such a comparison, Paul implies
that Christ is the agent or mediator of righteousness. In terms of his logic, Paul begins
with the assumption that there is only a single agent of righteousness, and that Christ is
that agent of righteousness. Therefore, the Law cannot be an agent of righteousness.
5. Experiential Appeal – Gal 3:1-5
After two chapters of establishing his authority and providing an apologetic
history, Paul finally turns his attention to the Galatians themselves. His first appeal to the
Galatians is a series of rhetorical questions that calls on them to remember their
experiences, which will corroborate what Paul is about to say (Anderson, 162). He uses
the reception of the Spirit as a defining experience in the lives of the Galatians and asks
them to recall how they received it. Since Paul uses the Spirit as the defining mark, he
likely sees the Spirit as being synonymous with being a covenant member and with Christ
living in them. Paul even appeals to their suffering and miracles as evidence of their
reception of the Spirit and the validity of the Spirit. Ultimately, Paul wants the Galatians
to remember the time before the trouble-makers arrived and told them circumcision was
necessary. Do they not remember that before their arrival, they had the Spirit, which was
bringing about their perfection and was marking their inclusion in the covenant? Do they
not remember that they obtained this Spirit by believing in Jesus Christ crucified and that
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they did not need circumcision to do so? Indeed, in this passage the first great
concentration of R K �UV K L appears and Paul sets up the antithesis of G �TIC and R K�UV K L.
Following his juxtaposition of G �TIC and R K�UV K L, Paul addresses each in turn,
dealing with faith in v.6-9 and Law in v. 10-12. He finally follows with Christ’s effects
on the law and faith in v. 13 -14.
Chiasm (Gal 3:2-5)
A. G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�V Q��R PG W�O C �GXNC�DG VG �J�G XZ�C XMQJ�L�R K�UV G YL��
B. QW=V YL�C XPQ�JV QK��G XUV G �
C. GXPC TZC �O GPQK �R PG W�O CV K�PW�P�UC TMK��G XR KV G NG K�USG �
B’. V QUC W�V C �GXR C�SG V G �G KXMJ���G K��IG �MC K��G KXMJ���
A’. QB�QW P�G XR K EQTJIY�P�WBOK �P�V Q��R PG W�O C �MCK��G XPG TIY�P�F WPC�O GK L�GXP�WBO K�P��GXZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�J�
G XZ�C XMQJ�L�R K�UV G YL��
The center of a chiasm is the crux or stress of the structure. Paul uses two
temporal words at the center of this chiasm, G XPC �TEQO CK and G XR KV GNG�Y, to highlight the
change that the Galatians have undergone or are trying to undergo. As Paul mentioned in
1:6, the Galatians are turning to another gospel. At the center of this appeal, Paul uses a
pleading, accusatory question. The question is: are the Galatians going to proceed with
this foolish endeavor of being perfected by the flesh in light of the surrounding
arguments, which involve the method of receiving the Spirit?
3.1 �9�C XPQ�JV QK �*C NC�V C K ��V K�L�WBO C�L�G XDC�UMC PG P��
Paul lashes out against the Galatians and calls them CXPQ�JV QK. Though some
scholars, such as Lightfoot (15), have suggested that Paul is referring to an ethnic
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characteristic of the Galatian people because Roman writers labeled the Galatians as
fickle, Paul is probably using C XPQ�JV QK to denote the spiritually undiscerning. Such an
interpretation seems supported by Paul’s use of DC UMC K �PY to refer to the Galatians’
activity in the next clause. If the Galatians were being bewitched, they surely lacked the
spiritual fortitude to not be labeled foolish. Their foolishness is also derived from the fact
that they failed to comprehend that since they started by the Spirit they should also finish
by the Spirit (3:3).
3.1 R TQG ITC�HJ��
Normally, R TQG ITC �HJ means to ‘write in advance’ and refers either to prophecy in
Scripture (Rom 15:4, Jude 4) or to what was written in a previous letter (Eph 3:3).
However, in this case R T Q is locative instead of temporal and means to display before
one’s audience. Some of have suggested it means to give a vivid description of Christ’s
death because they have taken MC V 8�QXHSC NO QW�L to mean ‘to paint a visual picture’ (Bruce,
148).
3.2 GXZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�… GXZ�C XMQJ�L�R K�UV G YL�
Paul uses a parallel double genitive construction here and in 3:5 to denote the two
different theories on ways to receive the Spirit. The G �TIC of the Law is understood as
doing the deeds that the Law requires.12 C XMQJ�L takes the place of G �TIC in respect to faith.
In essence, hearing is the action required by faith. In this case, C XMQJ�� probably does not
mean the physical act of hearing but rather hearing on the spiritual level, i.e.
12 For a full discussion of !"$#�%�&('*) +�,*)�-controversial meaning, see Chapter 5.2.
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understanding the gospel and regarding it as true. C XMQJ�� also denotes the content of what
is heard of the message and can mean “rumor” or “report” (TDNT). In Rom 10:17 ( JB�F G��
C XMQJ��F KC��TBJ�O C V QL�&TK UVQW�), faith comes through hearing, and hearing through the word
of Christ. Implied is that the hearing is related to hearing the gospel or Christ’s word. In
other words, the basis of receiving the Spirit and justification is accepting the message by
faith. Paul is referring to a specific faith in the words of Christ, not a general belief.
3.3 GXPC TZC �O G PQK … G XR KV GNG K�USG �
Paul uses two verbs G XPC �TEQO C K and GXR KV G NG�Y that are temporal in nature to
demonstrate how the Galatians are turning and changing. They began (C XTE J��) a certain
way and will finish (V G �NQL) another.
6. The Abraham Example - Gal 3:6-9
In order to substantiate his claim that reception of the Spirit and justification come
by faith, Paul employs the Old Testament example of Abraham. The trouble-makers
were likely using Abraham, especially the Abrahamic covenant (Gen 15-17), to prove
that circumcision was necessary for the promises to be valid. Therefore, Paul cites
Abraham to establish that righteousness is by faith and that the story of Abraham actually
proves that circumcision is not necessary for people to receive the Abrahamic promises.
Paul quotes Gen 15:6 to prove that Abraham’s source of righteousness was his
faith in God that was reckoned to him. In the narrative of Genesis, the reckoning of
righteousness to Abraham by faith occurred before God commanded Abraham and his
descendents to be circumcised. Therefore, implicit in Paul’s argument is that faith, since
it preceded a work of the Law, is the justifying agent. Even more devastating to the
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trouble-makers’ argument is that the Law did not come until 430 years after faith was
already established as the means of righteousness. Once Paul has concluded that
Abraham is a man of faith, he infers that Abraham’s true descend ents are also men of
faith, not men of physical descent. Paul cites the promise to Abraham that all the nations
would be blessed in him to prove that the Gentiles were always meant to receive the
blessing by faith. Paul argues that “blessed in Abraham” m eant “blessed by faith”
because Abraham received the blessing by faith. Otherwise, how could Gen 12:3 be
construed as proof for the Gentiles being justified by faith? Support for such a
conclusion is found, when Paul says that QK B�G XM�R K�UV G YL are blessed with Abraham, QB��
R K UV Q�L. The distinguishing characteristic of Abraham is his faith which brought him
blessing. To receive this blessing, one needs to have the same quality as Abraham, i.e
R K�UV K L.
3.6 MC SY�L�8$DTC C �O �GXR K�UV G WUGP�V Y��SG Y���
The conjunction, MC SY�L, demonstrates that Paul is drawing a comparison between
the Galatians’ experience in receiving the Spirit and Abraham’s faith being reckoned to
him as righteousness. It is essential to see that justification and receiving the Spirit are
synonymous because later in chapters 5 and 6, when Paul focuses on the Spirit, he sees
the lifestyle of the Spirit as being driven by justification by faith. The comparison of the
MC SY�L also highlights the similarity between the Galatians’ faith and Abraham’s faith and
proves Paul’s point that justification is by faith since it was so for Abraham.
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3.6 MC K��G XNQIK�USJ�C WXV Y��G K XL�F K MC K QUW�PJP��
Paul commonly uses this quote from Gen 15:6 in his works/faith debate (Rom 4:3,
4:9, 4:22) and it is central to Paul’s theology. The word G XNQIK�USJ is key. NQIK �\ QO C K in
common Greek can have two meanings, either ‘to reckon’ such as in legal language or ‘to
estimate’. The second sense means ‘to consider’ or ‘to think a certain way’ or ‘to hold an
opinion’ as in 2 Cor 11:5 where Paul uses�NQIK �\ QOC K to say: “For I consider myself not in
the least inferior to the most eminent apostles.” Though such usages exist in Pauline
literature, NQIK �\ QOC K often carries the legal connotation and means to credit to one’s
account (cf. Rom 4:3-4), especially when used in the context of justification or Christ’s
work on the cross. Therefore, Paul is communicating that Abraham’s R K UV K�L put
F K MCK QUW�PJ in the black on his ledger.
3.7 *K PY�UMG V G ��
The ending of *K PY�UMG V G is ambiguous and could be either indicative or
imperative. Either Paul is merely stating that the result of his instruction of the preceding
line is knowledge that those of faith are the sons of Abraham, or he is being more forceful
and commanding them to recognize that in light of his argument, they should know that
those of faith are Abraham’s sons. Considering that the context is one of rebuke and
teaching, Paul is likely using the imperative.
3.6 QW�V QK �WK BQK��G KXUK P�8$DTC C�O �
From Paul’s argument, I reconstruct t hat a major emphasis of the trouble-makers’
teaching was that one needed to be correctly related by circumcision to Abraham in order
to receive his blessings. Therefore WK BQK �8$DTC C �O is used polemically to show that if one
75
wants to be related to Abraham, he must associate with him in faith, not in circumcision.
In other words, WK BQK ��8$DT C C�O denotes covenantal connections and association with
Abraham’s promises, and Paul sees this connection being established by faith in Jesus
Christ.
3.8 R TQK"F QW�UC ��
Paul uses the aorist participle, R TQK"F QW�UC, to denote an action occurring before the
action of the main verb and thus shows that God had planned to include the Gentiles
before he even preached the gospel to Abraham.
3.8 R TQG WJIIGNK�UC V Q�V Y��8$DTC C �O
By attaching R TQ to G WXC IIG NK�\ QOC K, Paul creates a word that appears only once in
the New Testament. By drawing together the two concepts associated with�R TQ and
G WXC IIG NK�\ QO CK, beforehand (i.e. before the primeval Abraham) and the gospel, Paul is
showing that the gospel apart from the Law is a timeless truth. Even in ages past, God
was proclaiming that people from all nations would be saved by faith.
3.7 8( PG WNQIJSJ�UQPV CK �GXP�UQK ��R C�PV C �V C��G �SPJ>�
This is a conflation of Gen 12:3, G XPG WNQIJSJ�UQPV CK�G XP�UQK��R C�UC K �C KB�HWNCK��V J�L�
IJ�L, and Gen 18:18,�G XPG WNQIJSJ�UQPV CK �GXP�C WXV Y��R C�PV C �VC��G �SPJ�V J�L�IJ�L (Bruce, 156).
The context of both quotes is critical for understanding Paul’s argument. In both
promises of Gen 12 and 18, the means by which Abraham’s blessing would be
propagated to the nations is the nation into which God was making Abraham. For
example, Gen 18:18 reads “Abraham will surely become a great and mighty nation, and
in him all the nations of the earth will be blessed.” The ‘him’ i n this text could refer both
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to Abraham himself, but also to the nation that would come forth from his loins.
Therefore, the blessing that Abraham will bring to the nations is closely associated with
his offspring and thus with Abraham’s concern about who his offspring will be in Gen
15. When Abraham believes God in Gen 15 and his belief is reckoned to him as
righteousness, he obtained the promises and the blessing. In essence, the blessing to the
Gentiles was received by faith. In the same way, Paul wants the Galatians to realize that
the blessing is by faith for that is how Abraham ensured it for them.
The Hebrew word wenibrekû, which 8G PG WNQIJSJ�UQPV CK translates, can sometimes
carry a reflexive sense, rendering the sentence, “All the nations of the earth shall bless
themselves by him” (Gen 18:18). Such a meaning would imply that the nations are the
ones who bring about their own blessing. However, Paul unambiguously translates the
verb as a passive, indicating that Abraham is the source of the blessing (Bruce, 156). The
Gentiles cannot earn God’s favor, but rather they are the recipients of it.
Paul’s opponents may have been claiming that circumcision was necessary for the
Galatians to receive the Abrahamic blessings. Therefore, Paul uses the language of G XP�
UQK � to emphasize the Gentiles’ association with Abraham. Just like Christians are ‘in
Christ’ and members with him and unified as one, so also the Gentiles are unified with
Abraham in faith. The Gentiles would not receive faith by an alternative mechanism, but
rather by the same means as Abraham.
3.9 Y=UV G �QKB�G XM�R K�UV G YL�GWXNQIQW�PV CK �UW�P�V Y��R K UVY��8$DTC C �O ��
Y=UV G introduces a result clause, thus indicating that it contains a closing statement
that stresses the heart of what Paul has just been saying. In summation of his point, Paul
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includes R K UV- cognates twice to emphasize the importance of faith for receiving the
blessing. Again, U W�P crops up, probably to counteract the opponents who were stressing
association with Abraham by circumcision and keeping the Law. Paul uses the word
‘with’ ( UW�P) to demonstrate the correspondence between Abraham and the receiver of the
blessing; both are characterized by faith. UW�P takes on the sense of ‘alongside’ or ‘in the
same manner as’. In other words, Abraham is R K UV Q�L and he was blessed, and
correspondingly, working backwards, the one wanting to be blessed must be a believer.
7. Works: The Law Brings Curses – Gal 3:10-14
Once Paul has established that justification by faith was the norm and standard in
the Old Covenant (Gal 3:6-9), Paul further amazes the Galatians. Instead of the positive
view of being under the Law that the Galatians possessed because of the influence of the
trouble-makers, Paul explains that the Law is not only not good, but in fact the Law only
brings curses. Paul’s angry tone in Galatians is not merely because the Galatians were
futilely trying to find righteousness in the Law (Gal 3:21), but also because the very thing
they were seeking righteousness from was bringing them under condemnation.
In order to destroy justification by works, Paul argues that it is those who are of
the works of the Law that are cursed, not those who do not keep the Law, i.e. those not
under the Law (3:10a). Yet he supports his argument with a quote from Deuteronomy
that states the complete opposite, i.e. those who do not keep the Law are cursed. Has the
great rhetorician made a fundamental logic flaw? Most likely not. Paul has an unstated
presupposition in his argument that no man is able to fully keep the Law and practice all
that is required. Therefore, he is stating that those who are of the Law, i.e. who submit to
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the Law trying to keep it for righteousness, will always fail and thereby fall under the
curse of the Law. By saying that no one can do all that the Law requires, he is in essence
saying that no one can be justified by the law, which is exactly how Paul summarizes this
point when he says “ Because in the Law, it is evident that no one is justified before God”
(3:11).
Paul supports his logic by using two parallel quotes (Hab 2:4, Lev 18:5)
concerning how one lives. The first (Hab 2:4) equates the righteous man with the one
who will live by faith. The latter (Lev 18:5) equates the one who does the Law with the
one who will live by the Law. Since the righteous man lives by faith, living by the Law
is excluded. Therefore, the one doing the Law cannot be righteous. This is substantiated
by the phrase Paul places in the middle of the quote, namely, that the Law is not of faith.
Since the Law does not have faith, but rather you live by what it prescribes, the Law
cannot be equated with the righteous man. Paul’s logic proceeds as follows (such
equations are substantiated by the fact that they are matched in a chiastic structure; see
below):
Habakkuk 2:4: `1�F K�MC K QL�G XM�R K�UV G YL�\J�UG V CK >�
Leviticus 18:5 `1�R QK J�UC L�C WXV C��\ J�UG V CK�G XP�C WXV QK�L��
`1�F K�MC K QL = G XM�R K�UV G YL�\ J�UG V CK �
`1�R QK J�UC L C WXV C� = \ J�UG VC K �GXP�C WXV QK�L
G XM�R K�UV G YL�\ J�UG V CK � \ J�UG VC K �GXP�C WXV QK�L�
∴
`1�F K�MC K QL� �� `1�R QK J�UC L C WXV C
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Finally, having established that the Law brings a curse to those who wish to
remain under it, Paul explains how one can escape the curse that the Law places upon all.
He explains that a transfer or imputation of curse from one person to another has
occurred and that Christ has received our curse on himself. Paul then substantiates that
Christ was cursed by using the very Law he just destroyed. Thus Paul feels that Law is
holy, righteous, and good (Rom 7:12), but that it provides a curse for those who try to
live by it instead of by faith.
Paul also employs a chiasm (see below) to further illustrate that faith and works of
the Law are contradictory and also that, though the Law brings a curse, Christ took the
penalty of the curse. The crux of the chiasm is that “the Law is not of faith.” Here, Paul
highlights that the reason why justification by works of the Law is wrong is because the
Law does not require faith and faith is how the righteous man lives. The chiasm also
parallels the fact that the Law cannot justify while Christ can justify because he removes
the curse of the Law. Paul wants the Galatians to know that the Law is incapable of
removing their sins and rescuing them from this present evil age, while on the other hand
Christ is perfectly able (Gal 1:4).
Chiasm – Gal 3:2-14
A. Spirit by faith (3:2-7)
B. “All the nations ( V C ��G �S PJ, i.e. Gentiles) will be blessed in Abraham” (3:8)
C. Blessing of Abraham (3:9)
D. “ Cursed is everyone who does not abide by all things written in
the book of the law to perform them” (3:10)
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E. “Now that no one is justified by the Law before God is
evident” (3:11)
F. “The righteous man shall live by faith” (3:11)
G. The Law is not of faith (3:12)
F’. “He who practices them shall live by them”
(3:12)
E’. “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having
become a curse for us” (3:13)
D’. “Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree” (3:13)
C’. Blessing of Abraham (3:14)
B’. “Come to the genti les (V C ��G�SPJ)” (3:14)
A’. Spirit by faith (3:14)
3.10 Q=UQK �IC�T�G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�
Paul uses Q=UQK in the absolute sense to mean “all who” and attaches G XZ�G �TI YP�
PQ�O QW to modify “all who” to create a select group, which is antithetical to QK B�GXM�R K �UV G YL
from the preceding sentence. The combined phrase of Q=UQK �IC �T�G XZ�G�TIYP�PQ�O QW carries
the sense of being what J.B. Tyson calls “a specific mode of existence” that views
observance of the Law as obligatory and is contrary to the “specifc mode of ex istence”
characterized by�QK B�G XM�R K �UV G YL who live with a pervading faith (in Longenecker, 116).
3.10 WBR Q��MC VC �TC P��
The association of the preposition WBR Q� with things pertaining to the Law occurs a
total of ten times in Galatians. The phrase generally has the connotation of “being under
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the authority or power of that which it modifies.” (Longenecker, 116). For example, WBR Q��
C BO C TV K�C P (3:22) and WBR Q��PQ�O QP (3:23; 4:4, 5, 21; 5:18). Therefore, Paul is saying that
those who try to justify themselves by works of the Law are under the power of a curse.
They live and die by their own efforts which will never accomplish their purposes and it
makes for a difficult existence. Ultimately, they will receive the fullness of the curse in
that they will be separated from Christ and grace and will bear judgment for their sins
which the Law could not remove.
3. 10 8( R K MC V C�TC V QL�R C�L�Q?L�QWXM�G XO OG�PG K �RC�UK P�V QK�L�IG ITC OO G�PQK L�GXP�V Y��DKDNK�Y�V QW��
PQ�O QW�VQW��R QK J�UC K �C WXV C ���
One of the most important words in this quote from Deut. 27:2 is R C�UK P. RC �UK P
qualifies�V QK�L�IG ITC OO G�PQK L and makes explicit that every one of the things written must
be kept in order to avoid the curse. Paul reasons that the entirety of the Law must be
fulfilled in order for the curse not to remain upon anyone. Paul makes this point explicit
in Gal 5:3 when he says, “ I testify again to every man (R C PVK��C XPSTY�R Y) being
circumcised that he is a debtor to do the whole law (Q=NQP�V Q�P�PQ�O QP).” In other words,
the Law requires perfection, which Paul assumes that no one can meet, and therefore all
are under a curse.
The Deut 27:2 passage is also a summation of two prominent themes in
Deuteronomy: a proclaimation that all those who do not keep the Law are under a curse,
and a prophetic prediction that in fact Israel will not keep the Law. In Deut 4, Moses
reminds the people to keep the covenant because God is a consuming fire (Deut 4:23-24).
The implied consequence of breaking the Law is to be destroyed (Deut 4:23). However,
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Moses immediately proceeds from this to inform the Israelites that they and their
descendents will serve other gods and they will be destroyed (Deut 4:25-27). The theme
is repeated in 8:19-20 and 11:8-32 and climaxes in chapters 27-32 (Thielman, 126). In
other words, Paul is picking up what is explicit in the Old Testament - that the Law
brings a curse to those who break it, and people will break it. No one is able to fulfill all
that the Law requires, and therefore all are under a curse.
3.11 Q=V K … �FJ�NQP… Q=V K
Following the scholar Thielman, I have translated the idiomatic phrase F J�NQP�Q=V K
as “it is obvious that.” Considering that �Q=V K appears twice in this sentence, one Q=V K is
translated as ‘because’ while the one associated with F J�NQP is translated as ‘that.’
However, which Q=V K and its associated clause goes with F J�NQP is ambiguous. The choice
of which�Q=V K is dependent upon�F J�NQP changes the logic of Paul’s argument. Most
English translations associate F J�NQP with the first Q=V K rendering the sentence as “It is
evident that no one is justified by the Law before God, because ‘the righteous will live by
faith.’ However, the more natural word order would place the second Q=V K with�F J�NQP,
and therefore the sentence would be rendered as “ Because no one is justified by the Law
before God, it is evident that “The righteous will live by faith.” The standard translation
suggests that Paul provides a second reason why no one can be justified by the Law:
because another Scripture says the righteous will live by faith. His first reason was that
no one is able to keep the Law. However, my translation maintains the flow of Paul’s
argument. The main point is that no one is able to complete all the requirements of the
Law, so it is on account of this that the righteous will live by faith (Thielman, 127-128).
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3.11 `1�FK �MC K QL�GXM�R K�UV G YL�\ J�UG V C K >�
This is a direct quote from Habakkuk 2.4. Just as in the subsequent quote (Gal
3:12 and Lev 18:5), Paul uses the verb, \ C �Y, as an alternative to justify (F K MC K Q�Y) (Bruce,
162). Indeed, the outcome of justification in Paul’s mind is living (Gal 2:15 -21). In
other words, being made right in God’s sight is synonymous with living because only
those righteous will ultimately live. By observing that \ C �Y means F K MC K Q�Y, we can see
that in Paul’s mind the righteous ( F K �MC K QL) are justified by faith (G XM�R K �UV G YL), but those
who practice the law will be justified by the Law. As mentioned before, in Paul’s
argument no man can fulfill the Law; therefore, when attempting to be justified by the
Law, he is cursed instead.
Excursus – Habakkuk 2:4 In Context
The context of Hab 2:4 is essential in understanding Paul’s confrontation of men
who purport justification by works. In Habakkuk, the prophet makes a series of
complaints, which God answers. In his first complaint, he asks why there is so much
wickedness in Israel and why the wicked hem in the righteous. God’s response is that the
wicked will be punished by the Babylonians. These Babylonians are “they whose
strength is their god.” (1:11). The prophet’s second complaint is how God can use an evil
nation such as the Babylonians to punish Judah. God then answers his complaint by
stating that Babylon will be destroyed, but the righteous will be rewarded. Hab 2:4 lies in
the heart of God’s second response. Hab 2:4 -5 reads:
4 Behold, as for the proud one, His soul is not right within him; But the righteous
will live by his faith. 5 Furthermore, wine betrays the haughty man, so that he
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does not stay at home. He enlarges his appetite like Sheol, And he is like death,
never satisfied. He also gathers to himself all nations and collects to himself all
peoples.
In Hab 2:4, the righteous man is contrasted with the proud one, who in context is
Babylon. In Hab 1:11, the Babylonians are referred to those whose own strength is their
god. The Babylonians were in essence men who believed in justification by works
because they believed in their own strength and ability to accomplish victory. Therefore,
Paul is bringing to light that the righteous man is unlike the one whose own strength is
his god. Rather, the righteous man has faith that God will ultimately punish Babylon,
something beyond his own power. The righteous relies on the power of God and not his
own works to accomplish his tasks.
3.12 QB�F G ��PQ�O QL�QWXM�G�UV K P�GXM�R K�UV G YL�
The phrase serves both as the center of his chiasm13 and as a concise statement of
his thesis. Paul uses this short phrase to show that faith and Law are diametrically
opposed. In this instance, G XM�takes on the meaning of “being based upon”: “The law is
not based upon faith.”
3.12 C XNN8�`1�RQK J�UC L�C WXV C ��\ J�UG V C K �GXP�C WXV QK�L��
Here Paul quotes Lev 18:5 to emphasize that the Law is indeed not based upon
faith. In the surrounding verses of Lev 18:5, the verb ‘to do’ ( R QK G �Y) or ‘to conduct one’s
self’ ( MC V QK MG�Y) is repeated six times. Therefore, the emphasis of Lev 18:5 is on doing
and practicing the Law. Paul is attempting to show from Scripture that the Law requires
13 See the introductory comment to section 7 above.
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doing in order to be justified14. The Law is not based upon faith. One cannot say that
trying to be justified by the law is an act of faith.
8. Christ’s Effect on the Law and Faith – Gal 3:13-14
Paul has discussed faith in 3:6-9 and the Law in 3:10-12. He now turns his
attention to Christ and his effect on faith and the Law. The Law is dealt with first. The
Law provides a curse on all people because all are unable to keep its requirements.
However, Christ has a dramatic effect on this curse. He bought people back from under
the Law’s curse, i.e. redeemed them, and took their curse upon himself. Christ did not
change the outcome of the Law, but he changed its recipient. Christ also had a direct
effect on faith. Christ allowed the blessing of Abraham to go to the Gentiles so that the
promised Spirit could be received by faith. Christ made faith effective and clothed it with
certainty. The object of Abraham’s faith was proved effective.
3.13 JBO C�L��
The use of JBO C �L is rather startling in this sentence. From Paul’s flow of thought it
is apparent that those who are of the works of the Law are under a curse. And it would
be logical to assume that those who are not of the works of the Law are not under a curse.
However, the inclusion of JBO C �L indicates that Paul himself, though certainly not of the
works of the Law, is under a curse. In order for his logic to remain consistent, Paul most
likely believes that the Law presides over all people, both those seeking to be justified by
the Law and those not. Since no man is able to keep the Law, all men are under a curse.
Verses 10 and 11 can then be understood to mean that those who seek to be justified by
14 Note that Paul uses .�/ 0�1 to mean 2�35476�398 :�; . See note 3.11.
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Law remain under a curse, but those who live by faith do not remain under the curse.
How? Paul explains. Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law by taking it himself
through faith (Anderson, 159).
3.13�G XZJIQ�TC UG P
The verb G XZC IQTC �\ Y (set free) is used only four times in the New Testament, but
twice in Galatians. The verb is used in a parallel statement in Gal 4:5, K =PC�V QW�L�WBR Q��
PQ�O QP�GXZC IQTC �UJ. Here in its first usage, people are redeemed from the V J�L�MC V C�TC L�V QW��
PQ�O QW, while in the second usage people are redeemed from WBR Q��PQ�O QP. Therefore, Paul
treats the curse of the Law as synonymous with being under the Law. When we are
under the Law, i.e. under the authority of the Law, we are under a curse. Christ removes
us from under the authority and power of the Law, by coming under the Law on our
behalf.
3.13 IG PQ�O G PQL�WBR G�T�JBO Y�P�MC V C�TC �
By using the verb IK �PQO C K (equivalent to Attic IK �IPQO CK), Paul is introducing the
idea of imputation. Christ, he says, became a curse on our behalf and thus suggests that
the curse, which belonged to us, was transferred or imputed to Christ. In this statement,
Paul only deals with the negative half of his double imputation. Later in Gal 3:14, 29,
association with Christ imputes the positive attributes of Christ to the believer. He
receives the sonship and inheritance that was promised to Christ.
3.13 8( R K MC V C�TC V QL�R C�L�QB�MTG O C�O G PQL�GXR K��ZW�NQW
The use of the text from Deut 21:23 further highlights Paul’s idea of imputation.
In Deut 21:22, a man guilty of a sin worthy of death was to be hanged on a tree and
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(21:23) his corpse was not to remain upon the tree during the night because those hung on
a tree are accursed. This curse is linked to a sin worthy of death. Paul viewed all men as
committing sins worthy of death. This was the curse which was imputed to Christ at his
death upon the cross. Indeed, this is parallel to Gal 1:4 where Christ gave himself for the
sins of man.
3.14 K =PC �GKXL�V C��G �SPJ�JB�GWXNQIK�C �V QW��8$DTC C �O �IG�PJV C K �GXP�&TK UV Y��8,JUQW���K =PC �V J�P�
G XR C IIG NK�C P�VQW��R PG W�O CV QL�NC�DYO G P�FK C��V J�L�R K�UV GYL��
The double use of K =PC, which introduces purpose clauses, reveals that Paul sees
two important purposes for the curse being imputed to Christ. One was to fulfill the
promise made to Abraham that he would be a blessing to the nations. The inclusion of G XP�
&TK UV Y��8,JUQW��is critical because, for Paul, Christ Jesus was the blessing of Abraham.
Not only was the purpose of Christ’s death to bring Abraham’s blessing to the nations,
but Christ’s death itself was the blessing. In essence, G XP indicates that Christ was the
vessel for the blessing. The second purpose was in order that the Spirit would be
received by faith. The genitive, V QW��R PG W�O C V QL, can be taken to mean either the promise
that the Spirit, i.e. God, made (subjective genitive) or that the promise was for the
reception of the Spirit (objective genitive). The latter is the more likely interpretation
because Paul viewed that the Spirit coming to the Gentiles was a part of the promised
blessing of Abraham to the nations.
It is also important to note that Paul links the reception of the Spirit with the death
of Christ. The reception of the Spirit is commonly linked with the restoration of Israel in
the Old Covenant. For example, in Ezekiel 11, Yahweh declares that he will gather the
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exiled Jews and assemble them in the land of Israel and he will put a new spirit in their
heart that will allow them to walk in His statutes. Ezekiel 36:26-27 and 37:1-14 also link
the reception of the spirit with the restoration of Israel. The language of Ezekiel is also
reminiscent of Jeremiah 31, which concerns the New Covenant that Christ inaugurated
according to the New Testament Scriptures. Therefore, the Galatians, since they have
received the Spirit, are the promised restoration of Israel. The death of Christ ushered in
a new era, the era of restored Israel, in which the Gentiles are included (Thielman, 135).
9. The Nature of a Covenant - Gal 3:15-18
Once Paul destroys the notion that those who practice the Law are the righteous
ones (in fact they are accursed), then he moves on to show that receiving inheritance or
becoming sons of God (Gal 3:29) has always been based upon the promise to Abraham,
not upon the Law given to Moses. The Law did not supercede the promise when it came
430 years later. Paul begins by stating that he is using a human analogy. In the realm of
human contracts and covenants, when one makes an agreement, one does not change the
conditions after the fact. Paul then argues from lesser to greater, suggesting that if
humans do not add conditions to their covenants how much more would God not add
conditions. Then Paul adds what appears to be a tangential comment that the promises
were not made to many persons, i.e. seeds, but to one seed, i.e. Christ. Initially, it does
not appear to fit into his argument that the coming of the Law did not nullify the promise.
However, Gal 3:19 states that Law was added “ until the seed came to whom it was
promised.” Thus Paul is attempting to show that the promise could not be set aside while
it was still outstanding. In other words, the promise was made to Abraham and Christ.
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When the Law came Christ had not yet appeared; therefore the Law could not negate the
promise since it had not yet been fulfilled. In fact, Paul uses this similar idea to show that
the Law is finally negated when the object of the promise, Christ, came (3:19). Finally,
Paul summarizes his point by demonstrating that an inheritance based on two separate
means (law and promise) is not possible, and, since God granted the inheritance to
Abraham by a promise, the inheritance by necessity must be based upon the promise.
3.15 MC VC��C �PSTYR QP�NG�IY�
Paul uses the phrase MC V C ��C �PSTYR QP�NG �IY only four times (Rom 3:5, 6:19, 1 Cor
9:8, and here). It is difficult to determine exactly what he means. There is no other usage
in the New Testament or LXX nor any similar Aramaic or Hebrew expressions
(Longenecker, 127). I take the general sense of the expression as he is employing
information not necessarily explicit in the Scriptures but deduced from everyday life.
3.15�MG MWTYO G�PJP�F KC SJ�MJP�
Paul uses a perfect, passive participle MG MWTYO G �PJP to modify F K C SJ�MJP. The
perfect tense highlights the “feature of irrevocability,” and the passive mood accents the
covenant’s “unilateralness” (Longenecker, 127). These are the very qualities Paul wishes
to attribute to the Abrahamic covenant, because he sees this covenant as being permanent
and timeless.
In ancient Greek, F K C SJ�M J was used as a legal term referring to ‘last will and
testament.’ In the LXX , F K C SJ�MJ was a treaty between two parties or on occasion a treaty
made by one individual, Yahweh, and laid upon another. Yahweh’s F K C SJ�MJ also had a
religious sense in which
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the people were freely given ordinances, or dispositions of the sovereign will of
God, which declare both His demand and His saving purposes. … [Therefore,] the
concept MC K PJ��F K C SJ�MJ allows us to conceive of the religion of the age of
salvation,… only as the free gift of God, as the delectation of His saving will, as
the revelation of grace, in relation to which Israel can be only a recipient”
(TDNT).
In other words, F K C SJ�MJ is a sovereign decree made by Yahweh that outlines his saving
purposes and the conditions of this agreement. In this case for Abraham, faith was the
condition by which righteousness was imputed to him.
3.16 MC K��V Y��UR G �TO CV K �C WXV QW���QWX�NG�IG K ��-C K��V QK�L�UR G�TO C UK P�
In this verse, Paul delves into a bit of grammatical exegesis on Gen 15, noting that
the promise was made to the singular, UR G �TO CV K, not the plural, UR G �TO C UKP. Though the
Hebrew language commonly used the generic singular to mean plural descendents (cf. the
English adjective ‘fruit’), Paul feels that such a grammatical difference is theologically
significant. It is important to note that Paul was a skilled Hebrew scholar and therefore
did not err by evaluating the LXX instead of the Hebrew text (see Chapter 1.1.C.).
Therefore, Paul sees the promise of Abraham being made to Christ himself (Y��UR G �TO C V K��
UQW��Q=L�G XUV KP�&TK UV Q�L) and not numerous descendents. Later in the letter we learn that
the promise goes to others through association with Christ (Gal 3:29; 4:4-7).
3.17 F K C SJ�MJP�R TQMG MWTYO G�PJP�WBR Q��V QW��SG QW��
The fact that Paul affixes R TQ to�MG MWTYO G�PJP modifying�F K C SJ�MJ reveals that the
temporal sequence of events is very important to his argument. The fact that the
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covenant was ratified before the Law means that it has precedence, much like the
American judicial system in which previous events have precedence.
3.17 QB�O G VC��V G V TC MQ�UK C �MC K��V TK C�MQPV C �G �V J�IG IQPY�L�PQ�O QL
Paul also uses a temporal indication to modify�PQ�O QL: O GV C� V G V TC MQ�UK C �MC K��
V TK C�MQPV C �G�V J. The Law thus was not in place until 430 years after the promise was in
effect. Abraham was not under the Law. How could the Law then be a necessary
component of the promise? It is not, for the promise came before the Law (Bruce, 173).
3.18 JB�MNJTQPQO K�C �
Paul introduces the term MNJTQPQOK�C (inheritance), which incorporates all the
benefits of the promise. The term is closely associated with WK BQSG UK�C (sonship or
adoption) in Gal 3:29-4:7. Paul also would see the inheritance as all the things promised
to Abraham in Genesis, which include a great nation (Gen 12:2, 17:2, 4, 5, 22:17-19,
24:7), great name (12:2), promised land (12:7, 15:18), descendents as the dust (13:15-16,
15:4-6), kings as descendents (17:6), and descendents possessing the gates of the enemy
(22:17). However, Paul would likely see all these things fulfilled in a typological sense,
not literal. Finally, MNJTQPQOK�C would be seen from Gal 3:14 as the reception of the
Spirit. All of these wonderful blessings, including sonship, come on the basis of a
promise and not on the basis of the Law or works. On the other hand, the opponents
would say the sonship of Abraham comes through accepting the Law. Paul is directly
contradicting the idea that sonship comes by observing the Law; rather he says, it comes
by promise, a free promise.
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10. Why the Law? – Gal 3:19-25
Once Paul established that the Law did not supercede or nullify the promise, he
was left with the problem of the Law being instituted by God. Through a series of
arguments, Paul attempts to prove that the Law was of God and had a function, but this
function was not justification. First, he argues that the Law came to add transgressions,
which ultimately would drive people to faith in Christ because of their sinfulness.
Second, he argues that the Law was ordained by angels through a mediator, Moses. The
mediator was not God and therefore should not be placed equal with God, nor as
permanent as God’s promises. Even though Paul just insinuated that the Law is
temporary and that Moses should not be elevated to the position of God, he reminds the
reader that the Law is not contrary to the promises. Why? It is because the Law never
gave life. Therefore, Law and promise are not competing means of obtaining life (see Ch
1.1.B). The implied truth is that the Law is actually working in conjunction with the
promises. In fact, Paul states that the Law shuts everyone up under sin, contains them,
and drives them to Christ. The Law functions to keep everyone in line and order until the
time of Christ. Paul uses the imagery of a tutor, who would train a child. The tutor
would be able to correct the external behavior of a child and direct him towards wisdom
and maturity, but he never could fix the heart or true desire of the child. In the same way,
the Law could keep Israel in line and direct them towards Christ, but could never give life
itself. But when the faith came, the external guidance of the tutor is no longer needed,
but one can now live by faith.
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3.19 V Y�P�R C TC DC�UG YP�EC�TK P�R TQUGV G�SJ�
The preposition, EC �TK P, can be either cognitive or causative in function
(Longenecker, 138). The cognitive function would render the phrase to mean that the
Law was added to bring knowledge or point out sins. The causative function would
render the phrase to mean that the Law was added in order to increase the transgressions.
I believe that Paul actually intends both meanings. Both ideas are common in Paul. In
Rom 3:20, Paul states that “through the Law comes the knowledge of sin” and in Rom
5:20, Paul states “the Law came in so that the transgression would increase, but where sin
increased, grace increased all the more.” Therefore, the Law was not opposed to the
promise, but actually came in to increase transgressions and make people aware of them -
All of which would help people see their need for the atoning work of Christ.
3.19 C �ETK L�QW��G �NSJ�V Q��UR G�TO C �
C �ETK L QW��is a key temporal phrase which highlights that in Paul’s mind the Law
was a temporary entity that was in place from the time of Moses until the coming of
Christ. The temporal nature is dependent on the promise coming to the UR G � TO C, which
earlier Paul had linked with the promise and Christ. In other words the coming of the
one to whom the promises were made would end the need for the Law because the Law’s
function was to keep everyone “shut up” or “hemmed in” until the seed came.
3.19 G XP�EG K TK ��O G UK�V QW��
This phrase is an allusion to Moses, who inscribed the Law upon the stone tablets
by his own hand. In Ex 34:27-28, Moses spends forty days writing down the Law which
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the Lord gave. Moses was known as the mediator between man and God, who constantly
interceded on behalf of the people and those who opposed him.
3.20 QB�F G��O G UK�V JL�GBPQ�L�QWXM�G �UV K P��QB�F G��SG Q�L�G K�L�G XUV K P��
This sentence is one of the most poorly understood and most debated lines in
Galatians. Some speculate that hundreds of different interpretations have been made. In
my mind, it is apparent that Paul is drawing a contrast, because of F G �, and because the
mediator G BPQ�L�QWXM�G�UV K P, while God G K �L�GXUV K P. Therefore, I think that Paul is trying to
establish that the mediator (Moses) and God are not the same whereas Christ is both
mediator and God. Though a very apparent truth to everyone, Paul is insinuating that the
opponents are truly treating Moses as God when they treat words, i.e. the Law, as the
highest word and eternal. Therefore, I translate: “ The mediator is not of the One, but God
is the One.”
3.21 G KX�IC �T�G XF Q�SJ�PQ�O QL�QB�F WPC�O G PQL�\ YQR QK J�UC K ��Q�PV YL�GXM�PQ�O QW�CP�J P�JB�F K MCK QUW�PJ>�
Paul uses the word, F W�PC O C K, in negative relation to the Law through this contrary
to fact conditional. He thus attempts to show that the Law is powerless, i.e. the Law
cannot effect F K MC K QUW�PJ in an individual. Elsewhere in Pauline literature, powerlessness
is associated with the Law (Rom 8:3), while power is associated with the Spirit (Rom
15:13,19; Eph 3:16).
Paul is beginning to set up the Law/flesh and righteousness/Spirit dichotomy.
The association of \ YQR QK J�UC K and FK MC KQUW�PJ in this conditional clause is critical for
understanding Paul’s p erception of justification. As mentioned previously, \ C�Y is
associated with justification because Paul sees the net outcome of justification as life.
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Here in this sentence, we see that righteousness is what gives life, for if the law were able
to give life, then righteousness would be derived from it.15
3.22 UWPG �MNG K UG P��
The verb UWI MNG K �Y is used twice in Galatians and only one other time elsewhere in
Pauline literature. In Rom 11:32, Paul uses the verb in a parallel sentence� UWPG �MNG K UG P�
IC �T�QB�SG Q�L�V QW�L�R C�PV C L�G KXL�C XR GK�SG K C P��K=PC �VQW�L�R C�PV C L�G XNG J�UJ. This sheds light on his
usage in Galatians. In Rom 11:32, God, like the Scriptures here in Gal 3:22, shuts up all
people to disobedience in order to have mercy on them, which is akin to giving them the
promise. It is apparent from these two parallel verses that God deliberately brought in the
Law to bring about sin and its penalty so that he could then in turn be merciful by
bringing his promise by faith. In other words, Paul is presenting the incredible idea that
God deliberately brought everyone under sin and a curse in order that he could be
merciful and bring his promised blessing.
The second usage of U WI MNG K�Y in Gal 3:23 is very similar to the first. It carries the
same idea of containment. However, in this context, the Law is containing people to faith
instead of containing them under sin. Here, Paul uses the same idea of the Law shutting
up but with a different outcome. The Law both confines people under sin and confines
people to faith. Therefore, Paul sees the containment of people under sin as synonymous
with confining them to faith. The realization that all people are under sin should lead
them all to Christ who can cleanse their sins (Gal 1:4).
15 Note: to justify ( <�=9>7?�=9@ A�B ) is a verbal cognate of the noun righteousness ( C�D5E7F�D9G$H�I J�K�L ). See Ch 5.4.
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3.22 JB�G XR C IIG NK�C … F QSJ��
Paul again, as with EC �TK L (see notes 1.4 and 2.9), strategically uses the verb��
F K�F YO K in the passive mood to show that the promise is given, not earned. In order to
gain the promise (JB�G XR C IIG NK�C), one must receive it by faith (V QK �L�R K UVG W�QWUK P). One
does not have to do the works of the law and circumcise himself to be Abraham’s son.
3.23 2TQ��V QW��F G��G XNSG K�P�V J�P�RK �UV K P��
Paul repeats this idea of the coming of faith in 3:25 (G XNSQW�UJL�F G��V J�L�R K�UV GYL).
On the surface, it might appear that Paul views that faith as a means of justification was
not existent before the coming of Christ. However, from Rom 4 and Gal 3:6-9, 11, it is
evident that faith was the means of justification before the coming of Christ. So, what
does he mean by the coming of faith? The context following 3:25 reveals that Paul
believes that faith brought sonship to all kinds of people, both Jew and Gentile.
Therefore, Paul likely sees V Q��GXNSG K �P�V J�P�R K�UV K P as an age in which faith would be
widespread, “a period of redempt ive history … in which great numbers of people,
especially Gentiles, are responding to God’s word in faith.” (Piper, Heirs). Also, one
could take V Q��G XNSG K�P�V J�P�R K�UV K P to mean that the object or culmination of true faith has
come. The Old Testament saints had faith in the promises of God, but now the promises
are fulfilled, and the object of faith is completely revealed.
3.24 R CK F C IYIQ�L�
The R C K FC IYIQ�L was a particular social position in Greek society. F. F. Bruce
gives a wonderful description of role of a R C K F C IYIQ�L:
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The R C K FC IYIQ�L was the personal slave-attendant who accompanied the free-born
boy wherever he went, from the time he left his nurse’s care. It was his duty to
teach the boy good manners (with the use of the birch, if necessary), take him to
the school, wait for him there … then take him home and test his memory by
making him recite the lesson he had learned. During the boy’s minority the
R C KF C IYIQ�L imposed a necessary restraint on his liberty until, with his coming of
age, he could be trusted to use his liberty responsibly. (Bruce, 182)
The metaphor Paul uses is that the Law is the one who guided and trained for the day of
liberty, the day of faith in Christ.
11. Sonship – Gal 3:26-4:11
Paul shifts his focus from the purpose of the Law to the coming of faith and its
implications, namely sonship. His metaphor of a pedagogue flows nicely into his
discourse on sonship, since he used pedagogue to show how the Law was training people
and bringing them to Christ. It is an intriguing possibility to speculate that in Paul’s mind
the Law functions as a pedagogue only for those who ultimately come to faith (3:23),
leaving those not of faith under the curse. Such a view is substantiated because Paul uses
IC �T in 3:26 to indicate that the reason that people are no longer under a tutor is because
they are sons through faith. Otherwise, the individual might remain under the Law.
Therefore, once he has established that sonship is the reason for the release from
the tutor, Paul expounds upon its implications; namely, how all different types and
classes of people are unified in baptism and in Christ. The discussion of sonship in Jesus
and the unity of the people is surely meant to counteract the trouble-makers, who were
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claiming that sonship was only through receiving circumcision, the mark of being a son
of Abraham, and dividing people because of it (4:17). Paul seals his point to the
opponents with a concise presentation of the truth, namely, that all those who belong to
Christ are the seed of Abraham, heirs according to the promise.
After addressing the implications and glories of being a son of God, Paul exhorts
the Galatians not to turn from the sonship they have back to the slavery they once knew.
Paul once again employs the metaphor of a child, who is akin to a slave when young, but,
when he reaches age, he is set free from those who bound him. However, in this
metaphor, the enslaving agent is not the Law, but rather the elementary principles of the
world. These elementary principles represent the pagan religions followed formerly by
the Galatians. Strikingly, Paul draws a comparison between the holy and righteous Law
and the pagan religions. Paul then reminds the Galatians that they were once enslaved,
like the child, but Christ came at the appointed time to set them free, just like the child
reaches an appointed time for freedom. At that time of freedom, the child receives the
full benefits of sonship, namely receiving the inheritance. In like manner, the Galatians
were enslaved, but God sent forth the Spirit of his Son to allow the Galatians to cry out to
him as a son and not a slave.
Once Paul has described to the Galatians, how they were rescued from slavery
and adopted, Paul relays to them that they were enslaved to things which are not gods and
that God knew them without them seeking to know him, that is to say by grace. He then
asks how they could turn from the splendor of being sons of God and being known by
him back to their old slavish ways. He finally reveals the elementary principles, the
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slavish principles, to which they are turning back: the observation of days, months,
seasons, and years. In other words, they are reverting to seeking to be justified by works,
by observing the Jewish calendar.
3.26 2C�PV G L�IC�T�WK BQK ��SG QW���
IC �T is used in both an explanatory and continuative function (Longenecker, 151).
Paul is explaining what he means when he states that faith came: people are now sons of
God. He is also using IC � T in the continuative sense to indicate that the reason the
Galatians are no longer under the tutor is because they are sons by faith.
3.27 Q=UQK �IC �T�G KXL�&TK UV Q�P�G XDC RV K�USJV G ��&TK UV Q�P�GXPG F W�UC USG ��
G XPF W�Y when used with a personal object means to take on the characteristics,
virtues, and or intentions of the object (Longenecker, 156). Therefore, Paul is reminding
the Galatians that their baptism caused them to take on the characteristics of Christ and to
have the same desires - not the desire for disunity like the trouble-makers, but for unity
like Christ. In the LXX, G XPF W�Y is often used to refer to being clothed with righteousness,
salvation, strength, and glory (cf. 2Chr 6:41; Job 29:14; Ps 131[132]:9, 16, 18; Prov
31:25; Isa 51:9; 52:1; 61:10, Zech 3:3-5). Therefore, Paul is reminding them of what in
Christ they have been clothed with.
3.29 V QW��8$DTC C �O �URG �TOC �
The V QW��8$DTC C �O �URG�TO C takes on a double meaning. From 3:16, the UR G �TO C
signifies Christ. Therefore Paul is saying that if you belong to Christ, you are in fact
Christ himself, the recipient of the promise. The V QW��8$DTC C �O �URG�TO C can also be taken
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in the generic singular sense to mean the descendents of Abraham, which the trouble-
makers were arguing came about only by being circumcised.
4.1 QB�MNJTQPQ�O QL�PJ�R K Q�L�… �F QW�NQW�MW�TK QL�R C�PVYP�
Paul uses legal imagery in this sentence. MNJTQPQ�O QL (heir) comes from
inheritance law. PJ�R K Q�L means a minor in a legal sense. MW�TK QL�R C�PV YP or ruler of all is
also a legal position (Harrison, 105). By using such language, Paul is showing that God
declares the minor to be a son, i.e. the one who has the inheritance, in a legal manner.
The Galatian Christians are given an inheritance, a legally binding inheritance as sons in
Christ.
By linking PJ�R K Q�L with FQW�NQW, Paul may be implying that the slavery and
bondage to the elementary things of the world is a childish practice. In other words,
justification by works of the Law is for the infants and immature people who do not see
how to be justified in Christ.
4.2 WBR Q��G XR KV TQ�R QWL … �QK XMQPQ�O QWL��
Once again the Law is compared to overseers (cf. Gal 3:24-25), though this time
to GXR K �V TQRQK and QKXMQPQ�O QK. The connection is also made in Gal 4:4 where there is a
parallel construction with WBR Q��GXR K V TQ�R QWL and�WBR Q��PQ�O QP. The GXR K�V TQR QK and QKXMQPQ�O QK
are also used to describe the UV QK EG K�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW also by a parallel construction (see note
4.3). In Roman law, fathers were allowed to appoint both tutors and curators over a child
until the age of 14 (Bruce, 192). Paul is once again using the imagery of a child with
authority figures to portray both the Law and the elementary principles of the world. The
law, elementary principles, and beings under authority all lack freedom.
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4.2 C �ETK
A key word here is C �ETK, which is also found in Gal 3:19. Paul has been
intimating that those under the Law are under authority and are in essence slaves.
However, the condition of slavery is temporal, which is signaled by C �ETK. The father sets
the conditions for freedom from slavery. In the analogy, Paul wants the Galatians to
understand that the Father has set them free from the Law. They are no longer under
slavery. To return to slavery is against the Father’s will and intended design.
4.3 V C��UV QK EG K�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW��
The exact meaning of V C ��UV QK EGK �C �VQW��MQ�UO QW, found here and in 4:9, is unclear.
The basic meaning of V C ��UV QK EGK �C is “elements that make up a series” or “members of a
row.” Outside of the New Testament, V C ��UV QK EGK�C has been used to mean degrees on a
sundial, basic elements of the cosmos, fundamental principles or rudimentary teachings,
the stars or heavenly bodies, and the stellar spirits and gods. The latter two usages
postdate the writing of Galatians (Longenecker, 165). Therefore, it likely that Paul
meant the fundamental principles or elementary principles of the world because V C ��
UV QK EGK �C �VQW��MQ�UO QW includes the Mosaic Law as well as the pagan religions of the
Galatians. The Mosaic Law is included because Paul says that as children we were
enslaved (F QWNQ�Y) under V C��UV QK EG K�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW and then he goes on to say that Christ
set us free (G XZC IQTC �\ Y) from under the Law. Therefore, the parallel imagery of F QWNQ�Y
and G XZC IQTC�\ Y indicates that Paul viewed the Law as a subset of V C ��UV QK EG K�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW.
The pagan religions are associated with V C ��UV QK EGK�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW because the Galatians
are enslaved (F QWNQ�Y) both to false gods (G XF QWNG W�U C V G �V QK�L�HW�UG K �O J��QW UK P�SG QK�L�4:8)
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and the elementary principles of the world (WBR Q��V C ��UV QK EGK �C �VQW��MQ�UO QW�J�O G SC �
F G F QWNYO G�PQK �4:3).�In summary, Paul is referring to the decrees of all religions, which
necessitate any practice or work in order to earn the favor of the gods. This is
corroborated by the usage of V C ��UV QK EGK�C �V QW��MQ�UO QW in Col 2:20, where the elementary
principles of the world are the decrees: “Do not handle, do not taste, do not touch!” Paul
calls these decrees the commandments and teachings of men, self-made religion, and self-
abasement, but says they are of no value against fleshly indulgence.
Chiasm - Gal 4:4-5
A. G XZC R G�UV GK NGP�QB�SG Q�L�V Q�P�WK BQ�P�C WXV QW�
B. IG PQ�O G PQP�WBR Q��PQ�O QP
B’. K =PC �V QW�L�WBR Q��PQ�O QP�GXZC IQTC�UJ�
A’. K =PC �V J�P�WKBQSG UK �C P�CXR QNC�DYO GP�
Paul employs a chiastic structure to highlight the sonship that the Galatians have
in Christ and the resultant freedom from the Law. By using such a structure, Paul draws
a parallel between God sending his son and the Galatians’ adoption as sons. Because
God was able to part from his son, he was able to gather many more sons to himself. The
believer’s sonship is also parallel to Christ’s sonship. The believer shares in Christ’s
inheritance. This is an implicit example of positive imputation: the believer receiving
good things from being in Christ.
Freedom from the Law literally lies nestled within the concept of sonship,
grammatically, and logically. Literally, freedom from the law is at the crux of the
chiasm. Grammatically, freedom from the Law is a purpose (K =PC) of Christ’s sonship and
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commission. Logically, Paul sees sonship as freedom because a son is cherished by his
father and released from bondage. Paul is building up to the fact that sonship frees
people from slavery to the Law so that he can then rebuke them for wishing to return to
slavery and rejecting the sonship of God (4:9) (Lightfoot, 168).
4.4 V Q��R NJ�TYO C �V QW��ETQ� PQW�
The division of historical time into ages is extremely important for Paul. Indeed,
Paul breaks history into at least three different ages, the time before Christ (3:19; 4:4), the
time from Christ until his second coming, i.e. this present evil age (1:4), and the age after
Christ’s return, as signaled by his use of inheritance (3:18, 29; 4:1,7) and reaping benefits
in due time (6:9). Paul indicates a major division of history at the first coming of Christ
through his use of the phrase, R NJ�TYO C �V QW��ETQ�PQW. R NJ�TYO C can mean either fullness or
completion. Therefore, Paul is saying that when the time or age of the Law was complete
or full, one could almost say ripe, Christ came to end the age. For Jesus was born under
the Law for the purpose of setting people free from the Law.
4.5 V J�P�WK BQSG UK�C P�
The term WK BQSG UK �C appears in the New Testament only five times and only in
Paul’s letters (Rom. 8:15, 8:23, 9:4; Gal. 4:5; Eph. 1:5). Though the concept of being
WK BQK��SG QW��is prevalent in the Old Testament,�WK BQSG UK �C does not appear in the LXX and is
therefore unique to Paul in the Judeo-Christian literature. In the Greek world, WK BQSG UK�C
means ‘adoption as a child.’ By using the idea of adoption, Paul conveys that being a son
of God is not a natural state for man, but rather one that must be declared (TDNT, 399).
That sonship of God is not a natural state is corroborated by Rom 8:15 where Paul is
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noting that the believers have received a Spirit of�WK BQSG UK�C, and the Spirit was not
something originally possessed by mankind. It is interesting to note that Paul attributes
WK BQSG UK�C to the Israelites in Rom 9:4 when cataloguing all the privileges of the Israelites.
Paul is thus attributing to the Galatians, although Gentiles, characteristics of Israelites.
He implies that the Galatians and members of Christ are the new Israel. Since they are
already members of the new Israel, circumcision, the old method of inclusion in Israel, is
no longer needed. If the Galatians have been adopted as sons into the new Israel, why
would they want to turn back to the old ways of slavery?
4.6 GXZC R G�UV G K NG P�QB�SG Q�L�V Q��R PG W�O C �V QW��WK BQW��C WXV QW��
Paul employs the parallel construction in 4:4 (G XZC RG �UV G KNG P�QB�SG Q�L�V Q�P�WKBQ�P�
C WXV QW) and here to indicate that God sent both his Son (WK BQ�L) and the spirit of his Son (V Q��
R PG W�O C �VQW��WKBQW��C WXV QW), a Trinitarian notion. All throughout Galatians, Paul has drawn a
close parallel between receiving the Spirit and justification (3:1-6; 3:13-14; 5:5). The
sending of his Son is akin to justification because the Son redeemed those under the Law
(4:5�V QW�L�WBR Q��PQ�O QP�GXZC IQTC �UJ). Therefore, since sending the Spirit of his Son and
sending the Son himself are parallel, sending the Spirit is akin to justification.
Paul is also trying to show that God sent His own Son to perform the external act
necessary for adoption of the Galatians as sons, i.e. dying on the cross to redeem those
under the Law (3:13, 4:5) and that he sent the Spirit of his Son to perform the necessary
internal act to make them sons, i.e. giving them the heart to cry to God as a close, warm
father figure (‘Abba Father’). Through God, the believers are both l egally declared to be
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the sons of God through sending his Son and spiritually are given the internal intimate
relationship with God.
4.6 $DDC �QB�R C V J�T
$DDC is an Aramaic term for father that was not used in religious connotations
before the New Testament. The term was familial and not used in formal discussions.
Therefore, when used by Paul it carries the nuance of closeness and warmth to a father
figure, much like “Papa” in modern American culture. Therefore, Paul is showing how
intimate the relationship with the Father has become through the spirit of his Son (TNDT,
6).
4.7 Y=UV G �QWXMG�V K �G K �F QW�NQL�C XNNC��WKBQ�L>�G KX�F G ��WKBQ�L��MC K��MNJTQPQ�O QL�F KC��SG QW���
In this sentence, Paul summarizes his flow of thought, which he had started at
3:26. By using C XNNC �, he makes his ongoing contrast between being a WK BQ�L or a F QW�NQL
explicit. Starting from 3:26, Paul has been showing the Galatians that sonship in Christ
Jesus by its nature excludes one from being a slave, specifically a slave to the Law and
the elementary principles of the world. This fact naturally leads to his interrogative
concerning why they wish to return to their slavish state. After drawing the negative
comparison of what a WK BQ�L is not, he depicts the positive aspect of being a W K BQ�L, i.e. a
MNJTQPQ�O QL, an heir to the abundant riches of Christ (Col 1:18) and thus the promises
made to Abraham (3:18). In a pithy statement, Paul recaps that being a son means no
longer being a slave, but rather the heir of great wealth.
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4.8 8$NNC ��V Q�V G �
By using 8$NNC �, a disjunction, and V Q�V G, a temporal word, Paul draws the
Galatians’ attention to a different former state in which they used to live. He is shifting
from describing how they moved from enslavement to freedom as sons of God back to
how they were enslaved, in efforts to show them the foolishness of turning back to
enslavement.
4.8-9 O G �P�QWXM�G K XF Q�V G L�SGQ�P… PW�P�FG ��IPQ�PV G L�SG Q�P��O C�NNQP�FG��IPYUSG �PV G L�WBR Q��SG QW���
Paul uses a O G �P… �F G� construction and three instances of SG Q�L with a verb of
knowing, IK PY�UMY or QK F C, to set up a contrast. In the first usage, not knowing God (QWXM�
G KXF Q�V G L�SGQ�P) is associated with being enslaved to false Gods (G XF QWNG W�UC V G �V QK�L�HW�UG K �O J��
QW UK P�SG QK�L). By implication of the grammatical construction, knowing God is not being
enslaved, i.e. living as sons of God who enjoy the benefits of justification. Further, in the
F G� clauses, Paul uses the rhetorical technique of self-correction to make a powerful point
about sonship that is linked to his concepts of election and grace. Paul first employs
IPQ�PVG L, an aorist, active participle, to indicate that the subject is the agent of the action.
Then, Paul corrects himself by shifting to an aorist, passive participle to indicate that the
subject is not the agent, but rather is being acted upon. Paul thus shows that becoming
sons of God, i.e. being knowing by him, is not really act of man but rather of God. In the
context of the Galatians’ seeking to be justified by works of the Law, Pau l is pointing out
that justification, or being sons of God, is not brought about by their own efforts, but
rather by God’s. Therefore, to go against God’s initiative is wrong and an affront to his
grace.
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4.9 R Y�L�GXR K UV TG�HG VG �RC�NK P��
Paul uses the verb G XR K UV TG �HY, which has the same base as the verb O G V C UV TG�HY
used in 1:7, to show how the trouble-makers were distorting the gospel. As in 1:7, Paul is
amazed that the Galatians would wish to turn back to the weak and poor elementary
principles and be enslaved again.
The double usage of R C �NKP has some startling implications. Earlier in 4:3, Paul
related UV QK EG K �C to what the Galatians were formerly enslaved, the gods who were no
gods (4:8). However, the larger context of Galatians informs us that the Galatians are in
danger of accepting the Mosaic Law as a means of justification. Therefore, when Paul
uses R C�NK P, he is fusing the pagan religion of the Galatians with observance of the Mosaic
Law. R C �NK P carries the sense of repeating a former action. Therefore, Paul sees turning
to the Mosaic Law as the same as turning to their former, false gods. For Paul, trying to
observe the Law to gain righteousness is the same thing as idol worship, i.e. worshiping
the idol of man’s ability and strength.
4.10 JBO G�TC L�R C TC V JTG K�US G �MC K��O J�PC L�MC K��MC K TQW�L�MC K��G XPK C WV QW�L�
Paul switches from interrogation to a simple declaration that the Galatians had in
fact returned to the elementary principles to which they were once enslaved. A debate
rages about the meaning of JBO G �TC L … OJ�PC L�MC K��MC K TQW�L�MC K��G XPK C WV QW�L, whether it refers
to the Jewish religious calendar or other more pagan observances. R C TC V JTG �Y does not
occur elsewhere in the New Testament or LXX in a religious sense. However, Josephus
does use R C TC V JTG�Y to refer to observing the Jewish law (cf. Ant. 3.91; 11.294; 14.264;
Ag. Ap. 2.282). Therefore, the most likely meaning is that the Galatians were observing
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the Jewish religious calendar, with JBO G �TC L referring to the Sabbath days and special
festival days, O J�PC L referring to new moons (Col 2:16; Num 10:10; 28:11-15), MC K TQW�L
referring to great feasts such as the Passover and Tabernacles, and G XPK C WV QW�L referring to
the sabbatical years, year of Jubilee, or the start of the new year (Longenecker, 182).
Therefore, Paul sees their efforts to keep the Jewish calendar as an effort to be justified
by works.
4.11 HQDQW�O C K �WBO C�L�O J��R YL�G KXMJ��MG MQR K�C MC �GKXL�WBO C�L��
Paul reveals a fear that he has labored over them in vain. Just as in 2:2, when
Paul uses G KXMJ�, he is not worried that the gospel is a vain work or somehow errant, but he
is worried that his labor (MQR K C�Y) will not be fruitful and that all his work will be for
naught. Paul’s use of HQDG�QO C K with G KXMJ� would be a sharp rebuke to the Galatians. For
Paul, their apostle, is intimating that they may have fallen from salvation.
12. A Personal Plea – Gal 4:12-20
In typical Pauline fashion, after he has laid out the cold, hard, logical arguments
for his case, he turns to appealing to the emotions and relationships of his reader. This
section is full of the first person as Paul appeals to his relationship with the Galatians.
Paul once again returns to historical narrative, like in Chapters 1 and 2, and appeals to the
Galatians to receive him as they formerly did. He recounts the emotions that existed
between them. Unlike the previous narrative section, here Paul does not appeal to
authority but rather to the common bond that existed between them. In Chapters 1 and 2,
Paul set himself above the Galatians in authority, but now he describes himself as their
equal. Finally, he turns his attention to the opponents and how they are seeking to divide
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the church, while he seeks them commendably to bring unity. He ends the section by
relaying his wish that he did not have to be so harsh and that he could be with them in
person. Indeed, Paul was known for writing harsh letters, but being gentler in person.
This was a characteristic for which some even used to slander him (2 Cor 10:1).
4.12 *K�PG USG �YBL�G XIY���Q=V K �MCXIY��YBL�WBO G K �L��CXF G NHQK ���F G�QO CK �WBO Y�P��QWXF G�P�O G�JXF K MJ�UC V G >�
Paul uses the imperative *K �PG USG and�YBL as an article of comparison to order the
Galatians to become as he is. Q=V K introduces the reason that the Galatians should become
as Paul, which is that Paul became like them (MC XIY� �YBL�WBO G K�L). The idea of this verse is
very reminiscent of 2:14, where Peter is compelling the Gentiles to live like Jews, while
he himself is living like a Gentile: a very negative action. Paul, on the other hand, instead
of compelling the Galatians to be unlike him, compels them to be as he is. I believe that
in this verse Paul is saying that he became like the Gentiles in no longer being under the
Law. He became a “sinne r” like them 16. Now the Galatians are trying to become like
Jews. He is exhorting them each to return to being “sinners” as he is, i.e. no longer under
the Law (Longenecker, 189).
4.13 F K 8�C XUSG �PG KC P�VJ�L�UC TMQ�L�
Though C XUSG �PG K C refers generally to any weakness, when modified by V J�L�UC TMQ�L,
it most likely refers to a sickness or illness (Longenecker, 190). In ancient times,
illnesses were viewed as a visitation of divine wrath and normally generated loathing
from people rather than sympathy (Machen, 209). Therefore, Paul cites this as a powerful
16 See notes 2.15 and 2.17.
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example of the Galatians’ love for him: that they did not despise him but accepted him as
Christ himself.
4.13 G WXJIIG NK UC�O JP�WBO K�P�V Q��R TQ�V G TQP��
The adjective R TQ�V G TQL in classical Greek was comparative, meaning the “former
of two”, while R TY�V QL was absolute, meaning “first of a series.” In Koiné, R TQ�V G TQL is
often the same as R TY�V QL. Therefore, some see R T Q�V G TQP as indicating that Paul took two
trips to Galatia. For the Northern Galatianist scholars argue that the first visit is Acts 16:6
and the second is Acts 18:23, while the Southern Galatianist scholars argue that the first
visit is the eastward journey from Pisidian Antioch to Derbe of Acts 13:14-14:20 and the
second is the westward return trip in Acts 14:21. Others consider�R TQ�V G TQP, when taken
in conjunction with the implied PW�P of Gal 4:16, to mean that Paul is talking of his first
proclamation of the gospel rather than the Galatians’ response to him now (Longenecker,
190).
4.14�YBL�C �IIG NQP�SGQW��GXF G �ZC USG ��O G ��YBL�&TK UV Q�P�8,JUQW�P��
C �IIG NQL in both secular and religious literature is commonly used to mean
messenger. Therefore, Paul is reminding the Galatians that they viewed him as a
messenger of God, one who spoke the truth. He eventually wants to know why they
changed their mind concerning this view. In fact, Paul heightens the emotion and force
by saying that they have received him YBL�&TK UV Q�P�8,JUQW�P. Paul is in essence equating
his rejection by the Galatians with the Galatians’ rejection of Christ. With such a grand
reception, why the sudden change of heart?
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4.15 QB�O C MC TK UO Q�L��
� Paul uses the substantive QB�O C MC TK UO Q�L to denote a state of blessedness or joy. In
former times, the Galatians and Paul were in blessing and joy together. Paul is asking
what happened to their former state (Longenecker, 192).
4. 15 G KX�F WPC V Q�P�V QW�L�QXHSC NO QW�L�WBO Y�P�GXZQTW�ZC PV GL�G XF Y�MC V G��O QK ��
This expression is an idiomatic hyperbole that expresses the affection that the
Galatians and Paul for one another. They were so intimate that like men at war, they
were willing to lose life and limb to help each other. Paul pleads with them. Where has
such a strong bond gone?
4.16 IG �IQPC �
Paul uses the perfect tense of IK �PQO CK, which denotes a past action that has present
ramifications, in a somewhat prophetic sense. Paul presumes that C XNJSG W�YP to the
Galatians in the current letter will potentially cause hatred. The perfect would look back
to the past action of Paul composing the letter, relative to the Galatians receiving the
letter. Paul’s writing of the letter would have present relevance with his becoming their
enemy.
4.17-18 \ JNQW�UK P�WBO C�L�QWX�MC NY�L� … K=PC �C WXV QW�L�\JNQW�V G >�MCNQ�P�F G��\ JNQW�USC K �GXP�MC NY��
Paul uses the word \ JNQ�Y three times in short order, stressing its importance.
\ JNQ�Y can mean to seek, but also has the connotation of jealousy. The trouble-makers are
jealous or lusting after followers, i.e. the Galatians, with the purpose (K =PC) that they in
turn are lusted after. Paul is exposing that at the core of the trouble-makers is a deep
desire to be honored, appreciated, and respected and to boast about their record of
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followers (6:13). Paul has no problem with people seeking after the Galatians, even if
not him, as long as it is for good (G XP�MC NY�). It is interesting to note that the direct objects
of the first two instances of�\ JNQ�Y are people and both these actions are negative, while
the direct object of the last instance of \ JNQ�Y is an ideal and is viewed as a positive
(MC NQ�P). Paul is intimating that seeking after people is bad, while seeking after good is
good. In fact, Paul detests people seeking after him (1 Cor 1:10-3:22).
4.17 G XMMNG K�UC K �WBO C �L�SG�NQWUK P
Paul comments that the trouble-makers wish�G XMMNGK �UC K, meaning to shut out or
exclude, the Galatians. This could mean that the trouble-makers were seeking to shut out
or exclude the Galatians from Paul and to cut off the relationship. Considering the
context of Paul addressing their broken relationship, this reading is most likely.
However, it is also a distinct possibility that Paul means that the trouble-makers are
trying to exclude the Galatians from the covenant, saying that without circumcision they
are out, in efforts to get the Galatians to seek after them.
4.19 YXF K�PY�
The same verb, YXF K �PY, appears again in 4:27 in reference to the allegorically free
Jerusalem, who was not in labor, but will eventually have to enlarge its tent pegs to hold
the incoming children. Paul is in essence saying that in the gospel he is birthing children
for the New Jerusalem, but now he has to go through labor again, because the Galatians
have turned back to their former ways. Paul could also be alluding to the gospel making
the Galatians sons of God. He thought he had already birthed them to be sons of God,
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but now it appears as if they have crawled back into the womb and must now be made
sons of God again.
4.19 O G�ETK L�QW��O QTHYSJ��&TK UV Q�L�G XP�WBO K�P
O QTHYSJ��&TK UV Q�L�G XP�WBO K �P marks the temporal limit (O G�ETK L�QW�) of Paul’s birth
labor. O QTHQ�Y means to give form or shape to. Therefore, Paul is using a metaphor to
state that Christ must be shaped in them and his likeness dwell in them. Scholars debate
whether Christ is formed within an individual or in a community (Bruce, 212). Both are
likely, since the Galatians were obviously having internal dissention (4:17; 5:13-6:10),
but Paul also saw Christ dwelling in the individual. Therefore, when Christ indwells
both the community and the individual, Paul would no longer have to labor over them.
13. An Ancient Story as an Allegory For Modern Times – Gal 4:21-5:1
As the trouble-makers are hounding the Galatians with the story of Abraham and
his circumcision, Paul asks those listening to the trouble-makers whether they truly
understand the story or not. Its true meaning reveals the very opposite of what the
trouble-makers purport. In order to show how Abraham’s story actually corroborates
freedom from the Law, Paul demonstrates how Abraham’s story is an allegory for the
battle between works of the Law on one hand and faith and the promise on the other.
He begins by noting that there are two sons born to Abraham, one by a slave and
one by a freewoman. These two sons are Ishmael and Isaac. The Galatians are compared
to Isaac, while the Jews and those under the Law are compared to Ishmael. Ishmael was
born according to the flesh, while Isaac was a child of promise. In this context, “born
according to the flesh” does not mean a ph ysical birth (see note 4.23). In Genesis, God
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promised Abraham a son, but when God was long in honoring his promise, Abraham
took matters into his own hands by taking Hagar to be his wife and laying with her. The
result was the birth of Ishmael. Later on, God told Abraham that the child was not the
child of promise. Ishmael was not conceived in faith because Abraham tried to fulfill
God’s promises with his own actions. Paul is stating that in the same way, those under
the Law are trying to fulfill God’ s promises by their own efforts. Hence, they are
children of the flesh, i.e. children of human effort. On the other hand, Isaac was
conceived when Abraham and Sarah were very old and barren. Isaac was a result of their
faith, when they did not try to conceive by their own efforts, but rather conceived by
God’s help (Gen 21:1 -2). Isaac is like the Galatians because they believe that people are
justified by faith.
Paul expands the allegory to say that the two mothers are two covenants. The
covenant, which corresponds to Hagar, also corresponds to Mount Sinai, which is where
God gave the Law to the Israelites. Thus the covenant, which births its children into
slavery as Hagar did, is the same as the covenant given at Mount Sinai, i.e. the Law.
Thus, Paul is reiterating that the Law yields to slavery. He also states that this covenant
is akin to the present Jerusalem. The modern Jews are still in the covenant that leads to
slavery. On the other hand, Sarah is a covenant which corresponds to Mount Zion (not
mentioned explicitly, but is implicit from the context of the subsequent Isaiah 54 quote)
and the heavenly Jerusalem. This covenant births free children, like Isaac, according to
the Spirit. Paul then quotes Isaiah 54 to suggest that, like Zion during captivity, the
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covenant was barren. With the coming of the Messiah (Isa 53) however, this covenant
will be barren no more and will be enormously populated.
Finally, Paul points out that in the Genesis account Ishmael laughed at Isaac and
persecuted him, which is akin to the trouble-makers and current Jews persecuting the
children of promise, i.e. the Christian church. Paul sees the same attitude that rejected
the promise of God in the Old Testament at work in the modern trouble-makers. God’s
response to Ishmael’s rejection of the promised child, Isaac, is recorded in Gen 21:10,
where God tells Abraham to cast out Ishmael for he shall not be an heir to the promises.
Paul ties this to the Galatian situation by saying that those who wish to be under the Law
should be cast out and not be heirs to the promise. Altogether, Paul’s point is that the
same battle between works and faith has been played out in history, and God has already
given the verdict. He sides with those of faith (Krol).
Anderson has a particularly accurate summary of the allegory,
There is a hint of irony when he asks if they listen to the law, for his interpretation
of the story of the birth of Isaac and Ishmael will turn the straightforward
interpretation of the story on its head. Instead of the Jews being the sons of Isaac
(i.e. the sons of the promise), Paul uses allegorical interpretation to draw the
opposite conclusion. The Jews are the sons of the slave woman, whilst those
living by faith are the sons of the promise. He adds a further prickling thrust by
daring to apply Gen 21:10 to the situation. The obvious implication is that the
Galatians should cast the Judaizing teachers out from their midst.” (Anderson,
172)
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The final exhortation of the allegory comes in the way of an emphatic statement,
which could be viewed as a summary statement for the entire letter, “For freedom, the
Messiah set you free. Therefore stand firm and do not again be subject to a yoke of
slavery.” Paul ties the freedom of Sarah and her offspring to t he Galatians and believers
and states that this freedom is the teleological end for Christians. Christ set us free for
the express purpose of being free. With this freedom in hand, Paul pleads for them not to
return to slavery.
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Table 1. Correspondence Between Elements of the Abraham Story and their Allegorical
Counterparts
Ancient Story Correspondence Ishmael Trouble-makers/Jews
Isaac Galatians/Believers Child of flesh Works of the Law
Child of promise Faith Hagar Mosaic Covenant
Mount Sinai Present Jerusalem
Sarah New Covenant Mount Zion
Heavenly Jerusalem Ishmael mocks Isaac Trouble-makers/Jews persecute Christian
church God commands Abraham to banish Hagar
and Ishmael God commands Galatians to be rid of the Mosaic Covenant and the trouble-makers
Son of promise receive inheritance Those of faith receive justification and the Spirit
4.21 WBR Q��PQ�O QP … VQ�P�PQ�O QP�
In this verse, Paul uses the accusative PQ�O QP twice to refer to two different
concepts. In the first half of the sentence when PQ� O QP is coupled with WBR Q, Paul is using
PQ�O QP as he does in other occurrences of WBR Q��PQ�O QP to mean being under the power and
influence of the Law, to live by its requirements and seek justification through it. In the
second usage, he uses�V Q�P�PQ�O QP to mean the Scriptures, as indicated in the next sentence
when he uses the standard phrase for introducing a Scripture text, IG �ITC RVC K �IC�T
(Longenecker, 207).
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4.22 F W�Q�WKBQW�L�G �UEG P��G=PC �GXM�V J�L�R CK FK �UMJL�MC K��G =PC �GXM�V J�L�GXNG WSG �TC L��
� F W�Q is repeated twice in the Hagar/Sarah allegory. The number two is very
important, showing that there are two separate classes of people, one belonging to the
slave woman (G =PC �G XM�V J�L�R C KF K�UMJL), the other belong to the freewoman (G =PC �GXM�V J�L�
G XNG WSG�TC L). Paul is trying to communicate to the Galatians that there is no gray
intermediate ground; one is either trying to be justified by works of the Law or not. The
Galatians cannot sit comfortably on the fence.
4.23 MC VC��UC �TMC … F K 8�GXR C IIGNK�C L�
One can take the phrase MC V C��UC �TMC to mean simply a natural birth or the natural
process of procreation and F K 8�GXR C IIGNK�C L to mean born somehow specially through the
promise (Longenecker, 208). However, UC �TZ, which Paul pits against the Spirit who
came through the promise (and which he later pits against faith), can have a more
negative connotation. UC � TZ can contain within its meaning lusts and passions for evil
things or potentially even trying to be justified by your own works (see note 5.13).
Therefore, Paul may be stating that Abraham was not living by faith and was lusting after
descendents when he fathered Ishmael with Hagar.
4.24 C XNNJIQTQW�O G PC �
The verb C XNNJIQTG �Y is not found in the LXX and appears only here in the New
Testament. It is found first in Greek literature in Philo. Allegorical interpretation was
common in the rabbinic tradition and in Philo. R. P. C. Hanson gives an accurate idea of
what Paul means when he says he is using an allegory,
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“Paul is not here trying to emancipate the m eaning of the passage from its
historical content and transmute it into a moral sentiment or a philosophical truth,
which is the almost invariable function of Alexandrian allegory…[Rather,] he is
envisaging a critical situation which took place under the Old Covenant (or, to be
strictly accurate, before it but in prefiguration of it) as forecasting and repeated by
a situation under the New Covenant.” (quoted in Longenecker, 209). �
Paul sees F W�Q�F K C SJ�MC K existing in the allegory. It is interesting to note that Paul
sees these two covenants as existing simultaneously because the covenant given on
Mount Sinai corresponds to the present Jerusalem, but the Galatians are members of
Sarah’s covenant, being children of the promise. However, Paul also sees that H agar’s
covenant, which was given on Mount Sinai and is therefore the Mosaic covenant, as
having ended at the coming of Christ (3:19). How can these two accounts be rectified?
Paul probably sees these two covenants occurring on both a cosmic history scale and an
individual spiritual scale. In other words, the Mosaic covenant has ceased on the cosmic
scale because the Messiah has come, but the Mosaic covenant, in practice, remains in the
hearts of men. On the cosmic scale, the new covenant now rules, but on the individual
level, when faith arrives, the new covenant then rules in the hearts of men.
4.26 JB�F G��C �PY�8,G TQWUC NJ�O �
The idea of JB�F G ��C �PY�8,G TQWUC NJ�O was prevalent in Jewish tradition as an
eschatological hope. The heavenly Jerusalem was viewed as a culmination of God’s
redemptive purposes (Longenecker, 213). The idea of the heavenly Jerusalem is
prevalent in the New Testament books written for a Jewish audience (Hebrews and
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Revelation). Therefore, Paul may have been appealing to the Jewish members of the
church by showing how members of the new covenant comprise the heavenly Jerusalem.
Just as Moses received a copy of the heavenly tabernacle and was to pattern the earthy
tabernacle off of it (Ex 25:40), so too Solomon was shown the pattern of the temple from
God (1 Chr 28:19). The idea that Jerusalem was patterned after the heavenly one was
present in extra-biblical literature as well. Therefore, Paul is suggesting that the believers
are members of the new heavenly Jerusalem (Bruce, 221).
4.27 UV GK�TC �
The word UV G K �TC refers to a barren woman. Gen 11:30 states that MC K��J P�5C TC �
UV G K�TC. Therefore, Paul makes the connection between Sarah and the barren woman
referred to in this quote from Isaiah 54:1. In the context of Isaiah the barren woman is
Zion. Therefore, this quote bolsters Paul’s allegory by showing that the barren woman,
Sarah, is Zion.
Excursus – Isaiah 54:1 In Context
Properly understanding why Paul uses this text from Isaiah is crucial for
understanding the Hagar/Sarah allegory as well as the role of the Messiah in history and
the relation of the Galatians to Israel. In chapter 49 of Isaiah, a discussion concerning
what Yahweh calls “My Servant” begins. This Servant of Israel is prophesied to restore
Israel (Is 49:6). Particularly, the section of Isaiah from chapters 49-54 deals with the
restoration of Zion. Yahweh claims that he has not forgotten his people and will restore
them from captivity. In fact, Isaiah even uses the imagery of Abraham and Sarah and
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their barrenness and subsequent numerous offspring to state that Israel, though now
barren under Babylonian captivity, will undergo the same sort of fertility (Is 51:2-3).
Immediately preceding Paul’s quotation of Isaiah 54:1 is Isaiah 53, the famous
passage which addresses the suffering servant on whom Yahweh has caused the iniquity
of us all to fall. In context, the barren one of Isaiah 54:1 refers to Zion who is told to
expand the pegs of her tent for the many offspring that will enter and posses the nations
(Is 54:2-3). Therefore, the Isaiah text says that Zion has been oppressed and has
remained barren, but the suffering servant will come to restore Zion and make it fruitful,
just like Abraham and Sarah were barren but then fruitful. In the allegory, Paul is
equating the Galatians with the fulfillment of this prophecy. Zion, or the Jerusalem
above, was barren but the Galatians/Gentiles/believers are now populating Zion by faith.
Paul sees Jesus as the fulfillment of the suffering servant who has ushered in the
restoration of Zion and Israel, which is the church. In Paul’s mind, the Galatian churches
are the new Israel to whom all the promises were made. This is significant because the
trouble-makers were saying that the Galatians were not members of Israel, but Paul is
saying that the Galatians are the new Israel, the promised restoration of Israel, the Israel
of faith. Any efforts by the trouble-makers to put themselves back into Israel are futile,
because the Galatians are Israel.
Paul’s usage of this passage also reveals that he viewed the coming of the
Messiah as ushering in a new age, an age in which Gentiles are included in Israel. As an
apostle to the Gentiles, Paul sees the cross as opening up the way for Gentiles to be in
Israel (3:14).
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4.29 C XNN8�Y=UR G T�V Q�V G … QW=V YL�MC K��PW�P��
The combination of Y=UR G T�V Q�V G and QW=V YL�PW�P sets forth explicitly Paul’s
comparison of the ancient story of Isaac and Ishmael to draw a comparison to present
times. The Galatians and trouble-makers are the eschatological fulfillment of the feud
that began many years ago in the lives of two men (Longenecker, 216).
4.30 QWX�IC �T�O J��MNJTQPQO J�UG K �QB�WKBQ�L�V J�L�R CK FK�UM JL�O GV C��V QW��WKBQW��V J�L�GXNG WSG �TC L��
In addition to the major thrust of the quote, which is to instruct the Galatians to
cast out the trouble-makers from among them,17 Paul may have also used the quote
because it links the concepts of MNJTQPQOG�Y and G XNG W�SG TQL. The opponents were linking
the inheritance, especially the Abrahamic inheritance, with circumcision, or slavery in
Paul’s mind. This concept is demonstrated by Gal 3:18 which says G K X�IC �T�G XM�PQ�O QW�JB�
MNJTQPQOK�C ��QWXMG �V K �GXZ�G XR C IIG NK �C L. Clearly, the trouble-makers understood JB�MNJTQPQOK�C
to be by law, which Paul is arguing against. Therefore, Paul is turning the requirement
for receiving the inheritance on its head by saying that those who are free are the ones
who receive the inheritance.
4.31 QWXM�GXUO G �P�R CK FK�UMJ L�V G�MPC �CXNNC��V J�L�GXNG WSG �TC L��
Paul concludes his allegory with a call back to his earlier comments concerning
turning from sonship to slavery. He reminds the Galatians that they are children V J�L�
G XNG WSG�TC L�and should not turn back to slavery. If they have received sonship, why would
they want to turn back to the one whom God casts out?
17 See introductory comment for section 13 above.
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5.1 V J��GXNG WSG TK�C �JBO C�L�&TK UV Q�L�JXNG WSG �TYUG P>��
The syntax of V J��G XNG WSG TK �C is very difficult to understand. Because of the
difficulty of the syntax, many textual variants exist in the MSS, versions, lectionaries,
and church father’s quotations. The reading presented above is most likely correct
because all the other variants can be explained as being derived from this variant.
However, V J��G XNG WSG TK�C ^ may be an early scribal error derived from G XR’ �G XNG WSG TK �C, which
means “for freedom.” Other variants have V J��G XNG WSG TK �C�J� which with�V J��G XNG WSG TK�C ^ as a
dative of causality, would mean “through the freedom through which Christ has set us
free, stand firm.” However, the simplest reading indicates t hat freedom is the teleological
reason Christ set us free. The idea of freedom includes freedom from sin, freedom to
enjoy Christ, and freedom from law keeping. Christ set us free for all these ends.
5.1 UV J�MG V G �QW P�MCK ��O J� … G XPG�EG USG �
Paul uses the two imperatives, UV J�MG VG �and�O J�GXPG�EG USG, one positive and one
negative, to exhort the Galatians. The two imperatives make his tone strong as he is
modeling standing firm for the Galatians by opposing the trouble-makers. The trouble-
makers are attempting to push them from the truth of the gospel, and Paul wants them to
stand as a rock-solid cliff that faces the roaring waves.
R C�NK P is used once more to signal a return to former ways as it did in Gal 4:9. The
original \ WIY��F QWNG K�C L to which the Galatians were ensnared was not the Jewish law, but
their pagan religions. Paul states that they are in risk of returning to their former ways by
observing the Jewish law. The former religions and the Jewish law both required them to
do deeds, such as animal sacrifice and rites of purification. From the previous sentence,
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Paul sees Christ as having fulfilled those requirements for men and having set them free.
Therefore, they should not return again to their slavish ways.
14. Exhortation to Freedom – Gal 5:2-12
Once Paul establishes a firm Scriptural argument for why justification by works
of the Law is ineffective, through an allegory for freedom in Christ in the Sarah/Hagar
story, he moves to exhortation and encourages the Galatians to remain free. First Paul,
though he sees circumcision in itself as unimportant (5:6), points out that receiving
circumcision while trying to be justified by the Law is not merely a neutral action, but a
direct affront to Christ’s grace. In fact, when one receives circu mcision in such a
manner, he separates himself from Christ. Previously, being in Christ has been linked
with adoption as sons (3:25-26) and the reception of the promise of the Spirit (3:14).
Receiving circumcision will separate them from these benefits. He also makes clear that
receiving circumcision is not separated from the rest of the Law, but rather it is linked
with perfection in the Law because he says the circumcised are obligated to keep the
whole law (5:3), leaving no room for grace. In opposition to being justified by the works
of the Law, Paul sets forth the gospel as the hope of righteousness by faith and by the
Spirit. In this section, Paul artfully uses the person of his verbs to isolate those seeking to
be justified by works. In referring to those wishing to be circumcised he uses the second
person plural. However, when talking about those in Christ he refers to them in the first
person plural. Paul uses the classic you/we distinction to highlight how they have placed
themselves outside Christ and grace.
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After Paul demonstrates how the reception of circumcision results in separation
from Christ and grace, he recalls the Galatians’ former activities when they were doing
well and not severed from Christ. He then asks who hindered them from the truth. This
reveals that Paul is not sure of the identity of the opponents. However, Paul boldly
declares that the opponents are not from God. He likens the trouble-makers to leaven and
calls upon the same imagery used by Christ that incorrect teaching is like leaven that
works itself through bread, i.e. the church (Matt 13:33, 16:6, 11, 12; Mk 8:15; Lk 12:1,
13:21). These trouble-makers so agitate Paul because they violate the grace of Christ that
Paul declares they will bear the judgment of God and wishes they would castrate
themselves. The section ends with an emotional, albeit humorous, curse that those who
promote circumcision would cut a little farther down and render themselves infertile,
unable to propagate their doctrine and incapable of making disciples.
However, in the midst of his strong words for the trouble-makers, he assures the
Galatians that he expects different behavior. Here we see Paul applying his principle of
faith working through love. He dearly loves the Galatians, and his rebuke and loving
confidence in them in the Lord demonstrates his deep love for them.
5.2 �,F G �GXIY��2C W�NQL�NG�IY�
The emphatic imperative �,F G shows the emotional and forcefulness of Paul’s
following statement which is at the core of his thought in the letter: circumcision, i.e.
justification by works of the Law, and Christ are not compatible. Indeed, G X IY��2C W�NQL,
adds forcefulness to his words by both naming himself and by using the intensive
pronoun with�NG �IY.
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5.2 G XC�P�R G TKV G�O PJUSG ��&TK UV Q�L�WBO C�L�QWXF G �P�YXHGNJ�UG K
In this sentence Paul employs a future more vivid conditional with GXC �P and a
present subjunctive in the protasis and a future indicative in the apodosis. The author of
the future more vivid construction “generally does regar d the conclusion as more likely to
be realized; but even an impossible or dreaded result may be expressed by this form if the
speaker chooses to picture the result vividly and distinctly” (Smyth 2332). Therefore,
Paul is trying to make painfully clear to the Galatians the reality of their actions.
5.3 O C TV W�TQO CK �FG ��R C�NK P�
By the phrase, O C TV W�TQO CK �F G��R C�NK P, Paul indicates that he is repeating the
thought expressed in the preceding sentence. Paul’s restatement of his thought is
evidenced by three observations. First, O C TV W�TQO CK and NG�IY (5:2) have similar meanings
and are in the same tense, mood, voice, person, and number. Second, the word R C �NKP
signals repetition. Third, the first part of both sentences addresses those receiving
circumcision. The restatement of Paul’s idea comes in the latter part of the sentences. In
the first sentence, the latter part of the sentence contains &TK UV Q�L�WBO C�L�QWXF G �P�YXHG NJ�UG K,
while in the second sentence, the latter portion is QXHG KNG�V JL�GXUV K�P�Q=NQP�VQ�P�PQ�O QP�
R QK J�UC K. Therefore, Christ not profiting an individual and being required to keep the
whole law are restated versions of the same idea. Christ has freed those of faith from
having to keep the whole law. Therefore, when Christ profits them nothing they have to
keep the whole law. It can be inferred from this that anyone for whom Christ is no
benefit, i.e. an unbeliever, is obligated to keep the whole law. In Paul’s mind, only in
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Christ does one gain freedom and righteousness. Otherwise, one is bound to the whole
Law and its curse.
Q=NQL denotes something thorough and complete. From the phrase QXHG K NG�V JL�G XUV K�P�
Q=NQP�VQ�P�PQ�O QP�R QK J�UC K it is therefore apparent that Paul viewed that perfection or
keeping of the whole law was necessary to be justified. This truth in conjunction with
Paul viewing the Law as shutting up all under sin (3:22) and him not viewing the Law as
a means of righteousness (3:21) demonstrates that Paul understood that no man could
fully keep the Law and was therefore under a curse and in need of Christ.
5.4 MC V JTIJ�SJV G �CXR Q��&TK UV QW���QK =V KPG L�GXP�PQ�O Y�FK MC K QW�USG ��V J�L�EC �TK V QL�GXZG R G�UC V G ��
Paul uses two aorist verbs and their genitive constructions in a chiastic manner to
emphasize his point (Longenecker, 228).
A. MC V JTIJ�SJV G
B. C XR Q��&TK UV QW
C. QK=V K PG L�GXP�PQ�O Y�F K MCKQW�USG
B’. V J�L�EC �TK V QL
A’. G XZG R G�UC V G
The two forceful damning statements stand at polar opposites of the sentence and
condemn those characterized by the center of the chiasm, those who are being justified by
works of the Law. The parallelism between &TK UV QW and EC �TK V QL in the chiasm further
reveals that Paul defines EC �TK L as being in Christ. He has already linked being in Christ
with adoption as sons (3:26), being justified (2:16), the promise (3:22), and freedom
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(5:1). Thus, EC �TK L is all the things associated with being in Christ and his work on the
cross (3:14).
5.5 JBO GK �L�IC�T�R PG W�O C VK �GXM�R K�UV G YL�GXNR K�F C �FK MC KQUW�PJL�
Here, Paul makes a subtle distinction with his grammar between the means and
the agent for receiving the hope of righteousness. R PG W�O C VK is a dative of means, while G XM�
R K�UV G YL is an agent of means by the preposition G XM (Smyth 1679). Therefore, Paul is
suggesting that the Spirit is the tool one uses for obtaining the hope of righteousness, but
that faith is the agent or the thing capable of producing an effect. Thus, one must receive
F K MCK QUW�PJ by an action, not G�TIC/Law, but R K �UV K L. It is important to note that�R PG W�O C VK
precedes G XM�R K �UV G YL. The Spirit leads the agent of faith in its receiving of righteousness.
5.5 G XNRK �F C �F K MCK QUW�PJL
By using G XNR K �F C, Paul moves to the eschatological realm. Paul uses similar
constructions in his other letters - G XR 8�G XNRK �F K �V J�L�F Q�ZJL�V QW��SG QW� (Rom 5:2) and - G XNR K�F C �
UYV JTK �C L (1 Thes 5:8) (Bruce, 232) to indicate a future expectation on the final day. The�
G XNRK �L sets forth an expectation of righteousness which will come on the final judgment
day. Paul is thus exhorting the Galatians to keep in mind the final judgment day and to
evaluate whether they want their keeping of the Law or Christ’s righteousness to be
judged.
5.6 GXP�IC �T�&TK UV Y��8,JUQW��QW�V G �RG TK VQO J��V K �KXUEW�G K �QW�V G �CXMTQDWUV K�C �C XNNC��R K�UV K L�FK 8�
C XIC�R JL�GXPG TIQWO G�PJ��
In his usual bold manner, Paul makes a striking statement about the Law. He
begins the sentence with G XP�IC�T�&TK UV Y��8,JUQW to signify his theology of being in union
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with Christ and its consequences. In this light, Paul states the QW�V G �RG TKV QOJ��V K �KXUEW�G K �
QW�V G �CXMTQDWUV K�C. In so doing, he has just rendered one of the greatest markers and
distinctions of those under the Law and those under God’s favor, i.e. circumcision, as
meaningless. In effect, the Law does not matter anymore. Why? Faith working through
love is the only thing that matters in Christ. F KC� + genitive denotes agency of�C XIC �R J, or
love, here. This is the first mention of CXIC �R J in Galatians and Paul is beginning the
transition to his ethical instructions of how one should live in light of the gospel. Paul
lays out here the direct connection between R K �UV KL and C XIC �R J. From the earlier narrative
concerning Cephas (Gal 2:11-21), Paul clearly identifies one’s concept of justification
with how one handles his personal relationships. Those seeking to be justified by the
Law divide (2:12-13; 3:17; 5:20-21) while those seeking to be justified in Christ are
unified (3:26-28). By linking R K �UV K L and CXIC �R J, Paul is showing that how one is justified
is directly linked to how one relates to others.
5.7 8( V TG�EG V G �MCNY�L … GXPG�MQ[G P�
Paul uses an athletic metaphor in 8( V TG �EG V G �MC NY�L in conjunction with GXPG �MQ[G P.
G XIMQ�R V Y original meant to break up a road to prevent progress (Bruce, 234). Thus Paul
paints the image of the Galatians running a race and being tripped up. He orders them to
avoid the obstacle and run straight again.
5.8 G XM�V QW��MC NQW�PV QL�WBOC �L��
Paul repeats almost verbatim a construction used in the introduction of the letter,
V QW��MC NG�UC PVQL�WBO C �L (1:6). Both have God as their understood subject. Here he uses the
present form of the verb, MC NQW�PV QL, instead of the aorist of 1:6. Paul is likely trying to
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communicate to the Galatians that God is still calling them even though the message they
are currently listening to, while they are tripped up, is not from God.
5.9 \ W�O J … \ WO QK��
The imagery of \ W�O J issued by the gospel writers refers to the teachings of the
Pharisees (Matt 13:33, 16:6, 11, 12; Mk 8:15; Lk 12:1, 13:21). The gospel writers and
Christ viewed the teaching of the Pharisees to have too much of an emphasis on the Law
and external works (Matt 15:1- 14; 23:1-33). Therefore, Paul seems to use the same
imagery to reveal that the trouble-makers were akin to the Pharisees in focusing on the
external keeping of the Law, whereas Paul focuses much more on the heart with�C XIC�R J in
5:6.
Paul himself also uses the term \ W�O J in 1 Cor 5:6. In that context, \ W�O J is linked
with boasting. Paul there uses the metaphor of the Passover in which festival leaven was
not used. He declares that Christ was the Passover lamb, and therefore Christians
continually celebrate the Passover feast, and therefore leaven should not be in their midst.
Paul may be calling to mind similar imagery and encouraging the Galatians to remove
trouble-makers from their midst.
5.10 G XIY��R G�R QK SC �G KXL�WBO C �L�GXP�MWTK �Y�
Paul employs�WBO C �L, an accusative of respect with G K XL to “denote a thing in respect
to which the verb is limited.” (Smyth 1600, 1603). Thus the Galatians are the objec t of
Paul’s belief. On the other hand, G XP with the dative signifies the metaphorical location or
basis of the verb. Paul is communicating that he has confidence regarding his audience,
but the basis of such confidence is in the Lord. The fickle nature of the Galatians has
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already proved that they are not worthy of confidence, but Christ is a worthy basis of
such confidence for Paul. This confidence is linked with his perception of grace, in
which it is the Lord who calls (Gal 1:6, Rom 9:11) and elects people, i.e. brings about
salvation. This is why Paul can have confidence in the Lord Q=V K �QWXF G�P�C�NNQ�HTQPJ�UG V G.
By trying to be justified by works and thus making their own efforts the basis of
salvation, the Galatians attempt to undermine God’s sove reignty. This is why Paul is so
vicious towards the trouble-makers.
5.10 V Q��MTK �O C �
V Q��MTK �O C likely refers to the future judgment at the second coming of Christ,
because Paul associates judgment with the day of the Lord (Rom 2:5, 16, 2 Tim 4:8).
This calls to mind the judgment hinted at by the hope of righteousness (5:5). Paul wants
the Galatians and the trouble-makers both to recall that Christ is coming to judge the
world. Most particularly, Paul wants the Galatians to know that the trouble-makers (QB�F G ��
V C TC�UUYP … Q=UV K L�GXC �P�J ) stand condemned (DC UV C �UG K �VQ��MTK �O C).
5.11 G KX�R G TKV QO J�P�G �V K �MJTW�UUY��V K ��G �V K �F K Y�MQO C K���
In this sentence G �V K is a critical word because it reveals that someone was at the
time accusing (G �V K �F K Y�MQO C K) Paul of continuing to preach circumcision (R G TK V QO J�P�G�V K �
MJTW�UUY). Some possible explanations include a distorted view of the Titus episode of
Gal 2:3-4, or, if the letter is dated later, a misinterpretation of Paul’s circumcision of
Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). They could have also misread Paul’s approval of believers who
were already circumcised (1 Cor 7:17-20) (Longenecker, 232). In any event, the trouble-
makers were mischaracterizing Paul as a preacher of circumcision.
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5.11 V Q��UMC �PF C NQP�V QW��UV C WTQW�
The term UMC �PF C NQP originally was associated with a trap or something that turns
out to be a trap (Josh 23:13 LXX, Ps 69:22 [68:23 LXX]; 141:9 [140:9]), but later itcame
to mean anything that gives offense or arouses opposition (Longenecker, 232). In Rom
9:30-33, Paul says that the Jews did not obtain righteousness because they pursued it by
works rather than faith. Why? Because they stumbled over the stone of stumbling,
which was a R G �V TC P�UMC PF C�NQW, which is Christ. The next line says that those who have
faith in this R G�V TC P�UMCPFC �NQW will not be disappointed. Therefore, V Q��UMC �PF C NQP�V QW��
UV C WTQW� most likely refers to the offense incurred when an individual is told that their
own merit is not the basis of their salvation, but rather the merit of another who
sovereignly elected them. This evaluation is likely true because the meaningless of
circumcision is the most immediate context. In other words, Paul has just told them their
works and efforts to be right with God are meaninglessness, and this angers people, so it
is a stumbling block for them.
5.12 Q�HG NQP�MCK��C XR QMQ�[QPV CK �
Paul delivers here one of his most sarcastic and vicious comments recorded. Most
modern commentators have taken C XR QMQ�R V Y to mean something akin to emasculation or
castration. The future tense of�C XR QMQ�[QPVC K can be used to express a wish. In
conjunction, with Q�HG NQP, a verb which can express an unattainable wish, Paul probably
recognizes that this is an impractical wish since his statement is so exaggerated (Blass,
359). Initial Greek commentators linked C XR QMQ�[QPV CK with mutilation and the ills of
harming the body. Medieval commentators who worked with the Latin Vulgate
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translated it as being cut off or removed from the church, particularly excommunication
(Longenecker, 234). The most likely translation is that Paul is simply crass and wishes
that the trouble-makers would slip while making the circumcision cut. Although
probably no more than a sarcastic comment is intended, as evidenced by his expression of
an unattainable wish, Paul may have been wishing that their place of fertility would be
removed metaphorically, rendering them unable to have spiritual children of the flesh.
15. Walking By The Spirit Rather Than The Flesh – Gal 5:13-6:10
In his previous evaluation of the Galatian situation, Paul has identified at least two
major errors or outworkings of their attempt to be justified by the Law. One error is that
fleshly indulgences cannot be overcome by lawkeeping, and the second is that attempts to
be justified by works of the Law lead to disunity and discord. In this section, Paul
directly addresses these two errors and exposes them to the Galatians. In addition, he sets
forth the positive counterparts to their errors and demonstrates how justification by faith
leads to unity, love, and the quelling of the fleshly indulgences. In other words, Paul is
laying out the practical implications of the theological truth of justification by faith.
Paul in the previous two sections has made a bid for freedom in Christ and an
exhortation for the Galatians to remain free and not be separated from Christ and grace.
In light of this, Paul warns the Galatians not to use this freedom inappropriately.
Freedom is not to be selfishly motivated. Rather, Paul indicates that freedom in Christ
frees people so that they can be enslaved to one another. He compares the two opposing
images of freedom and slavery in arguing that Christians should not be enslaved to the
Law but rather to each other, which is actually living in freedom. In fact, Paul points out
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that this is the entire purpose and fulfillment of the Mosaic Law. The true Law is the
Law of Christ, to bear one another’s burdens (6:2). He then exhorts them not to devour
one another. From such a caution, it is clear that the Galatians were quite contentious.
As demonstrated by the Peter confrontation (2:11-21), seeking to be justified by the Law
leads to disunity and trying to devour one another. Paul warns them that if they continue
in their ways, discord and strife will mark their ways.
Paul then provides the perfect solution for remaining in freedom, while being
enslaved to one another in love: the Spirit. He demonstrates how the Spirit is opposed to
the flesh. The latter results in “ sexual immorality, impurity, debauchery, idolatary,
sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, wrath, selfishness, dissension, factions, envy,
drunkenness, excessive feasting and things like these” (Gal 5:19 -21). This list can be
divided into corporal evils such as sexual immorality and debauchery along with more
social evils, such as jealousy, strife, wrath, and selfishness. In Paul’s theology there is a
link between external rule making/law-observing and being unable to control fleshly
indulgences. This theology is evidenced by Colossians 3:20-23 where V C ��UV QK EGK�C �V QW��
MQ�UO QW, which Paul has linked with Law-keeping (Gal 4:1-10), are unable to control
fleshly indulgence . Therefore, Paul suggests handling fleshly indulgences and social
discord/evils by a better means, i.e. the Spirit, because currently the Galatians are trying
to combat them by adding rules, which is entirely ineffective. Living by justification by
works means that you judge people based on their performance. This quickly leads to
dissention, competition, and pride as people compare themselves to others. Therefore,
the Spirit is the perfect solution to both problems brought about by justification by works
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of the Law. The fruit of the spirit brings about “love, joy, peace, long -suffering,
kindness, goodness, and gentleness” (Gal 5:22), which address the social errors induced
by justification by works. It also brings about “faith and self -control” (Gal 5:23) which
are able to combat lusts. He also makes a small jab at the Law by pointing out that there
is no law for love, joy, peace and all the fruit of the Spirit. No one can legislate love.
Finally, Paul outlines how to correct a brother who is in error. He is especially
careful to qualify that one doing the correcting should be careful not to be tempted to
boast. Paul wants the Galatians to realize that the Spirit is ultimately the one doing the
work, for it is the spiritual one who is to do the correcting. Paul most likely adds this
caution because the trouble-makers were attempting to boast in their correction of others
(6:13). The correction of a brother should be for his sake and not for one’s own end.
Paul also encourages the Galatians to keep doing good and to share all good things with
the one who teaches the word. He reminds the Galatians of the final judgment by
pointing out that whatever one sows he will reap. Even though doing good but not
reaping immediate benefits, one is tempted to grow weary, so he urges them to continue
to do good because they will eventually reap.
Excursus – The Meaning of UUCC ��TZTZ in Gal 5:13-25
In Gal 5:13-25, Paul juxtaposes the R PG W�O C and the UC �TZ. Paul has used UC � TZ eight
times prior to this section and a total of eighteen times in Galatians. However, all but
three of the references before Gal 5:13 have referred to a purely physical or human thing
(Longenecker, 239). In Gal 3:3, UC �TZ was used in a more ethical sense, referring not to
tangible flesh but to an internal power which works evil. Potentially this same type of
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meaning may have been intended in 4:23 and 4:29. After 5:13, UC �TZ seems to take on the
more ethical sense, but in Gal 6:11-18 Paul uses U C �TZ to refer to purely physical things.
Therefore, the precise meaning of UC �TZ in Gal 5:13-25 has been much debated. Since
Paul makes the UC �TZ antithetical to the R PG W�O C, which has a much more
personal/anthropomorphic quality, commentators often wonder if UC �TZ in this context
takes on a more personal quality and refers to things like humanity’s fallen and corrupt
nature or the “old man,” so to speak (Rom 7:14-25).
Paul’s use of the word UC �TZ has led some to believe that Paul was a dualist and
thought that the physical body was evil and needed to be mortified and avoided
(Longenecker, 240). However, in Gal 2:20 Paul states “ The life, which I now live in the
flesh, I live by faith in the son of God who loved me and offered himself on my behalf.”
In this sentence, Paul is living in the flesh by faith. Clearly, his being in the flesh (flesh
in this context referring to the purely physical state of existence) is not opposed to his
living by faith. In other words, Paul does not at all view the physical biomolecules of his
body as evil.
So then, what does Paul mean by UC �TZ in Gal 5:13-26? Let us make some careful
observations. First, UC �TZ is opposed to loving one another (5:13). Second, UC �TZ is
diametrically opposed to the R PG W�O C (5:17), which from Gal 3:6 we have seen is
synonymous with justification by faith on the basis of Paul’s use of MC SY�L. Third, living
by the R PG W�O C, to which UC �TZ is opposed, means that you are no longer under the Law
(5:18). Fourth, UC �TZ produces deeds which are characterized negative ethical behavior.
Fifth, UC �TZ has passions and desires associated with it (5:24). Finally, it is also important
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to note that the use of UC � TZ in chapter 6 refers to circumcision. In Galatians,
circumcision has been the exemplum of the Law and justification by G �TIC.
In light of these observations along with the major thrust of the letter where Paul
is concerned over their efforts to be justified on the basis of their own merit and keeping
of the law, I believe that Paul is using UC �TZ to refer the innate drive of fallen man to
obtain righteousness and right standing before God on the basis of their own merit. This
claim can be substantiated primarily by observations two, three, and six. Under
observation two, the Spirit and the flesh are opposed as are justification by faith and
justification by works of the Law. Therefore, since the flesh is not equal to the spirit,
which equals justification by faith, the flesh equals justification by works of the Law.
Under observation three, Paul states that those of the Spirit are not under the Law. By
implication, those of the UC �TZ would remain under the Law, i.e. subject to its curse. From
4:4, Paul challenges the Galatians not to return to being “under the Law.” In the context,
the Galatians have been returning to justification by works of the Law. Therefore, UC �TZ =
“under the Law” = justification by works of the Law. Under point six, UC�TZ is linked with
circumcision, which has been the catchphrase for or synonymous with justification by
works of the Law. Therefore, these observations and this analysis lead to the conclusion
that Paul uses the term U C �TZ to mean the innate drive of fallen man to obtain
righteousness by his own merit.
5.13 `7O G K�L�IC �T�GXR 8�G XNG WSG TK �C�G XMNJ�SJV G �
Though G XR K � plus the dative can signal the ground or reason of a thing (Blass, 137,
§43.3), Paul often uses G X R K� plus the dative to denote aim (Blass, 137, §43.3). For
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example, GXR K ��G�TIQK L�CXIC SQK �L (Eph 2:10), and QWX�I C �T�G XMC�NG UG P�JBO C�L�QB�SG Q�L�G XR K��
C XMC SC TUK�C ^ (1 Thess 4:7) both denote purpose or aim. Therefore, Paul is not indicating
that the Galatians were called on the basis of freedom, but rather that they are called for
the purpose of freedom.
The phrase `7O G K �L�IC�T�G XR 8�GXNG WSG TK �C�G XMNJ�SJV G is parallel to 5:1 V J��G XNG WSG TK �C�JBO C �L�
&TK UV Q�L�JXNG WSG �TYUG P. It is important to note that in 5:1 the verb was aorist active and
the subject was Christ, while in the second sentence the verb is aorist passive and the
subject is the Galatians. In each case, the Galatians (who are clearly implied in JBO C�L (5:1)
and `WO G K�L (5:13)) were the recipients of the action of the verb. On the other hand, in both
cases, Christ is the one who acts to bring them to freedom. Christ, while not explicit in
5.13, is the implied agent with the passive verb. The freedom that they have received
was not brought about by their own actions but rather by the action of Christ. GXMNJ�SJV G
once again recalls the electing power of Christ and reinforces Christ as the basis of
salvation (see notes 1.6 and 1.15). Since the basis of salvation is Christ’s action and
election, the doctrine of justification by works is a direct affront and complete opponent
to Christ’s power and grace.
5.13 O Q�PQP�O J��V J�P�GXNG WSG TK�C P�G KXL�CXHQTO J�P�V J��UCTMK ���
The verb is missing from the above clause. When a verb is missing there are two
possibilities for obtaining the identity of the implied verb. Often when a verb is absent a
basic or fundamental verb such as G K XO K� or R QK G�Y is implied, in which case the clause is
translated “ Only do not turn your freedom into an opportunity in the flesh.” However,
one can also assume that the verb of the final clause (F QWNG W�Y) is implied in both clauses,
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in which case, the clause would be translated, “Only do not enslave your freedom into an
opportunity for the flesh.” The latter translation is improbable since it is not the
enslavement of freedom that would cause a problem; such would be love. The problem is
that freedom is not checked. Therefore, Paul is likely saying to not make freedom into an
opportunity for the flesh.
5.13 C XHQTO J�P
C XHQTO J� is a word that appears only in Paul’s wr itings in the New Testament.
Originally, C XHQTO J� referred to a military base of operations, but later came to mean an
occasion or opportunity (Longenecker, 239). Therefore, Paul is exhorting the Galatians
to not allow the freedom they have to be the staging point of the flesh.
5.13�C XNNC��F K C��V J�L�C XIC�R JL�F QWNG W�G V G �CXNNJ�NQKL��
Paul here uses C XNNC ��to contrast freedom that results in a launching place for the
flesh with freedom that serves others. It is interesting to note that the outcome of the
freedom of Christ is F QWNG W�Y or being enslaved. How can freedom and slavery be
simultaneous? In Paul’s mind, the freedom of Christ refers to the freedom from both the
curse of the Law and merit righteousness. However, he is trying to qualify that such
freedom does not mean freedom as an obstacle to love, but rather freedom as the basis for
loving. In addition, F QWNG W�Y could mean submission to God’s will (cf. Rom 1:1, 14:18).
Therefore, Paul could be saying that Christ frees us actually to serve and submit to God’s
will.
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5.14 R GR NJ�TYV C K �
Throughout, Paul has been emphatic about the abolishment of the Law. He,
however, seems here to be subtly reintroducing the Law and insinuating that the Law is
still binding on Christians. Previously, he personified the Law as a tutor or pedagogue
which was to guide people to Christ (Gal 3:19-25). Thus the Law was teleological in that
it had a final purpose, which was Christ. By using the verb R NJTQ�Y, Paul conjures up
further teleological imagery as R NJTQ�Y means to fulfill or to bring to completion. Paul is
saying therefore that the whole law is fulfilled or brought to completion by loving your
neighbor as yourself. To truly love your neighbor as yourself, you must be in Christ.
Therefore, the end of the Law is both Christ and loving your neighbor as yourself. The
two are synonymous. Therefore, when a Christian loves his neighbor, he is fulfilling the
Law by practicing what the Law was leading to, i.e. Christ.
5.16 R PG W�O CV K �R G TKR CV GK�V G
Here, Paul exhorts the Galatians to R G TKR C VG K�V G. Literally, R G TK R C VG�Y means to
walk around (LSJ s.v. 1). However, Paul is using R G TKR CV G�Y more figuratively to mean
behave or live (LSJ s.v. 3). Paul is providing the remedy to living by the flesh, which is
to live by the Spirit (R PG W�O C VK). The Spirit is synonymous with being justified by faith
and being in Christ Jesus, and it is also part and parcel with being adopted as sons of
God. The dative R PG W�O C VK can denote both location and instrumentality. Paul is saying
that one must remain in the Spirit, i.e. remain a son of God and in Christ, but the Spirit
must also be the instrument by which one lives. The truth of the gospel about imputed
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righteousness in Christ is thus both a completed truth for a Christian and a weapon with
which a Christian fights the flesh. The Spirit is both a status and a weapon.
5.16 G XR K SWOK�C P�UC TMQ�L�QWX�O J��V G NG�UJV G
The G XR K SWO K�C P�UC TMQ�L refers to desire or innate drive to live by our own merit or
to be justified by works of the Law and not to live by the Spirit and be justified by faith.
By using V G NG �Y with its very teleological or purpose driven sense and the strong double
negative QWX�O J�, Paul is suggesting that living by the Spirit prevents the complete and utter
outworking of the flesh. Living by the Spirit prevents the drive to live by our own merit
from reaching fulfillment in lusts and social evils.
5.17 JB�IC �T�UC �TZ�GXR K SWO GK ��MC VC ��V QW��R PG W�O C VQL��V Q��F G��R PG W�O C �MC VC��V J�L�UC TMQ�L��V C W�V C �
IC �T�C XNNJ�NQK L�CXPV K�MG K V CK��K =PC �O J��C ?�G XC �P�SG�NJV G �VCW�V C �R QK J�V G ��
In the first two clauses, Paul is attempting to show how the Spirit (R PG W�O C) and the
flesh (UC �TZ) are diametrically opposed to one another (MC V C � + genitive). It is interesting
that Paul uses the verb G XR K SWO G�Y instead of G K XO K. I think Paul is trying to draw out the fact
that the way in which these two entities oppose each other is through competing desires.
In other words, the competition is not primarily an intellectual or doctrinal difference, but
a deep-rooted difference in desires. The flesh fights for some worth and merit in the
individual, while the Spirit fights for the merit of Jesus Christ.
The final K =PC clause denotes purpose. The K =PC indicates that the spirit and flesh
are opposed so that when under control of the Spirit, you are opposed to the flesh, so you
do not do what your flesh would like to do. On the other hand, when you are under
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control of the flesh, you are opposed to the Spirit, so you do not do what the Spirit would
like to do (cf. Rom 7:14-25 where Paul expounds further on the opposition).
5.18 G KX�F G��R PG W�O C VK �C�IG USG ��QWXM�G XUV G��WBR Q��PQ�O QP��
R PG W�O C VK �C�IG USG is very similar to R PG W�O CV K �R G TK RC V GK�V G (5:16) and contains
parallel ideas. In other words, in Paul’s mind, to be led by the Spirit means that you walk
with him and conduct yourself by him.
In this sentence, Paul sets up a simple conditional with G KX to indicate that those led
by the Spirit are not under the Law. WBR Q��PQ�O QP as noted before generally means under the
power of the Law (see note 3.10). Since the Galatians have the Spirit, they are no longer
under the power or influence of the Law. They are no longer bound to keep its
requirements by their own efforts, but rather they are free through Christ and his efforts
(5:1,13).
5.19 V C��G �TIC �V J�L�UC TMQ�L�
It is vital to note what Paul does not say in the opening clause. Many have
directly associated UC �TZ with the desire to perform the acts that Paul lists. In other words,
they view UC �TZ as the general evil of men that contains all these facets that Paul lists, i.e.
Dualism or Marcionism. But what does Paul actually say? He says V C ��G�TI C �V J�L�UC TMQ�L.
In other words, the list that Paul generates is not what is contained within the flesh per se,
but rather it is an outworking of the deeds that result from the flesh. The evils are not the
flesh itself. As discussed earlier, the flesh is that which is opposed to the Spirit and
justification by faith. At the root of the flesh is a desire for man to be his own god and
seek his own glory (cf. Rom 1:18-32). This desire manifests itself in trying to be justified
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by works of the Law. Such self-justification thus allows for boasting (6:13-14) and self-
glorification. Paul says that this desire for self-glorification leads to these deeds.
5.19b-21a C =V KPC��G XUV K P�RQTPG K�C ��CXMC SC TUK �C ��CXUG �NIG K C � G KXF YNQNC V TK �C ��HC TO C MGK�C ��G �ESTC K ��
G �TK L��\ J�NQL��SWO QK���G XTK SG K �C K ��F K EQUVC UK�C K ��CKBTG �UG K L� HSQ�PQK ��OG�SC K ��MY�O QK�MC K��V C ��Q=O QK C �
V QW�V QK L��
Here, Paul provides some examples of the deeds of the flesh. The list is not
exhaustive as denoted by MC K��V C ��Q=O QK C �V QW�V QK L. Paul merely names a few prominent
outworkings of the flesh. Most likely these outworkings were particularly evident in the
Galatian churches. Though the listing is randomly arranged, some have tried to organize
them into groups. Such groups were probably not intended by Paul, but they help to see
what particular deeds of the flesh Paul was emphasizing. J.B. Lightfoot (210) has
particularly insightful categories: (1) Sensual passions (‘fornication, uncleanness, and
licentiousness’) (2) Unlawful dealings in things spiritual (‘idolatry, witchcraft’) (3)
Violations of brotherly love (‘enmities, strife, jealousy, outbursts of anger, disputes,
dissentions, factions, envying’) (witchcraft might also be included here since spells were
cast on other individuals) (4) Intemperate excesses (‘drunkenness, revelings’). It is
important to note that the violations of brotherly love category has the most listed. For
Paul, the flesh was evidencing itself most explicitly in the Galatians in the form of
personal animosities.
R QTPGK�C takes the first position in Paul’s list of the deeds of the flesh. Therefore,
just as love takes prominence in the fruit of the Spirit, so sexual sin takes prominence in
the deeds of the flesh. This is probably because from the Jewish-Christian perspective
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sexual sin was rampant in the Greco-Roman world and was a particular issue for the
Galatians.
C XMC SC TUK�C can mean physically dirty, ritually unclean, or morally loose, including
even sexual impurity. In the New Testament, it mostly refers to moral looseness or lack
of purity which separates and individual from God (Longenecker, 254).
C XUG �NIGK C does not appear in the LXX but is linked with sexual perversions and
sensuality. Barclay (31) defines C XUG �NIG K C as “a love of sin so reckless and so audacious
that a man has ceased to care what God or man thinks of his actions.”
G KXF YNQNCV TK�C does not appear in classical writings, the LXX, or Josephus.
However,�G K XF YNQNC V TK �C is derived from G K �F YNQP (cf. LXX Exodus 20:4) used in the Ten
Commandments. In Paul’s usage, the word means worship of an image or a god depicted
by an image as well as eating the food sacrificed to an idol (1 Cor 10:7, 14) and being
greedy (Col 3:5).
HC TOC MG K�C originally referred to dispensing drugs, but had a negative connotation
and was often associated with witchcraft and sorcery as early as Homer. In the LXX,
HC TOC MG K�C was associated with the Pharaoh’s sorcerers (Exod 7:11, 22) or Babylon (Isa
47:9, 12) (Longenecker, 254-255).
G �ESTC K refers to hostilities between individuals or between communities which
could be based on political, racial, or religious grounds.
G �TK L in Greek thought was personified as the goddess Strife who produced war
and destruction. G �TK L is antithetical to G KXTJ�PJ (Titus 3).
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\ J�NQL in the LXX is often associated with a very positive characteristic in an
individual. For example, Phinehas (Num 25:11) was zealous for the Lord. However,
since contained within a negative list, it refers to jealousy (cf. Rom 13:13, 1 Cor 3:3, 2
Cor 12:20).
SWO QK� means outbursts of rage.�S WO QK � can be both positive and negative in
connotation. In the positive sense, SWO QK � can refer to the ‘spirited’ element of the human
soul. In the negative sense, it is an uncontrolled passion which is akin to anger.
G XTK SG K�C K is derived from a word�G XTK SQ�L meaning hireling or one who does work
for pay. It later came to mean one who was a mercenary and had selfish ambition (Bruce,
249). Therefore, Paul is using it to refer to selfishness.
F K EQUV C UK�C K occurs only once in the LXX in 1 Macc. 3:29 were it talks about
creating a division between those who adhered to the old ways and those who were more
flexible. In other words, it means divisions and problems which justification by works
of the Law would certainly introduce in the Galatian churches (Bruce, 248-249).
C KBTG �UG K L comes from C KBTG �QO CK which means to choose. Later,�C K BTG �UG K L became
associated with a title for ‘philosophical schools’, which then transformed to mean heresy
or faction. Therefore, Paul is referring to factions that are arising in the Galatian church
(Longenecker, 257).
HSQ�PQK is used extensively in the LXX and elsewhere in the New Testament. In
James, it is used to show God’s desire for sole possession of believers. Therefore, it
takes on the negative sense of envy.
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O G�SC K means drunkenness, though in the LXX it could mean both strong drink and
drunkenness.
MY�O QK in classical writings refers to the reveling and orgies that occurred during
celebrations worshipping the gods, especially Dionysus, god of wine. These celebrations
were, therefore, often accompanied by heavy drinking (Longenecker, 257).
5.21�C ?�R TQNG �IY�WBO K�P��MCSY�L�R TQG K�R QP�Q=V K �QKB�V C ��V QKC W�V C �R TC�UUQPV G L�DC UKNG K�C P�SG QW��QWX�
MNJTQPQO J�UQWUK P��
The phrase, C ?�R TQNG �IY�WBO K�P��MC SY�L�R TQG K�R QP, indicates that Paul had spoken this
warning to the Galatians before. Considering that the content of this exhortation did not
appear previously in the letter, Paul is referring to a time of teaching before the letter
writing. The phrase, DC UK NG K�C P�SG QW�, appears only here in Galatians and very few times
in Pauline literature, but is common in the Gospels. The Gospels were written later than
Galatians. Therefore, the phrase�DC UK NG K�C P�SG QW��was probably a common early
Christian term with which the Galatians would have been familiar, and hence Paul uses
this term. It is quite possible that Christ often used this term and that it was propagated
by the disciples.
5.22 `1�F G��MC TR Q�L�V QW��R PG W�O CV Q�L
Paul now gives the list of the Spirit, which is in opposition to the flesh. Though
Paul uses two different words, G �TIC and MC TR Q�L, to start his lists, both basically refer to
the outcomes of their respective genitive. Though they generally mean the same thing,
there are some subtle differences. For the outcomes of the flesh, Paul uses G �TIC, which is
reminiscent of works of the Law and justification by works. Paul is insinuating that
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human effort is central to the outcomes of the flesh. On the other hand, the outcomes of
the Spirit are described as fruit. Unlike G �TIC which is anthropological, in that man does
the work, MC TR Q�L is a word of nature and conjures up the image of a tree bearing forth
fruit. MC TR Q�L is therefore much less centered on man’s actions than G �TIC.
5.22 –23a C XIC�R J�EC TC ��G KXTJ�PJ��O C MTQSWOK�C �ETJUV Q�V JL�CXIC SYUW�PJ��R K�UV K L R TC W�V JL�
G XIMTC �V GK C
Here, Paul provides some examples of the fruit of the Spirit. Just like the deeds of
the flesh, the list provided by Paul is not exhaustive (see note 5.19b-21a). Though Paul
probably has no specific order for the attributes in mind beyond the primacy of love, it is
helpful to categorize the attributes. Once again Lightfoot (212) provides a helpful
categorization. (1) Dispositions of the mind (love, joy, and peace) (2) Qualities affecting
human relations (patience, kindness, goodness; and, though Lightfoot does not include
them, peace, gentleness, and self-control could also be placed in this category) (3)
Principles that guide conduct (faithfulness, gentleness, self-control). Once again, Paul’s
emphasis is on attributes which affect personal relationships. The flesh/justification by
works of the Law destroys relationships; the Spirit/justification by faith establishes
relationships.
C XIC�R J does not appear in classical literature as a noun. However, as the verb
C XIC RC �Y it is attested to as early as Homer. The first appearance of C XIC �R J as a noun is in
the LXX (Ecc 9:6). In the LXX, C XIC �R J and G �TYL are interchangeable. For example,
Ammon’s passion for Tamar is described as C XIC �R J (2 Sam 13:15). In the New
Testament, C XIC �R J most often means divine love, though that meaning is governed by
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context. In Galatians, Paul has used C XIC �R J to refer to the agent through which faith
should work (5:6) and also to brotherly love which is the fulfillment of the whole law
(5:13). Elsewhere in Paul, CXIC �R J refers to God’s love as manifested in Ch rist when he
died on the cross (Rom 5:8). C XIC �R J is Paul’s chief virtue even over faith and hope (1 Cor
13:13) (Longenecker, 260 and Bruce, 252).
EC TC ��simply means joy. Elsewhere in Paul, EC TC � is associated with righteousness
and peace in the Holy Spirit (Rom 14:17) and with being in Christ during affliction (2
Cor 7:4, 8:2) (Longenecker, 261).
G KXTJ�PJ in the Greek world was defined as ‘serenity’, ‘tranquility’, and ‘a quiet
mind,’ and it was associated with the absence of negative things such as pain and trouble.
In Jewish literature, G K XTJ� PJ was viewed to be perfection in relationships among men, a
personal wholeness. In the New Testament, G K XTJ�PJ takes on the connotation of beneficial
relationships among people, but also G KXTJ�PJP�… R TQ�L�V Q�P�SG Q�P�F K C��V QW��MWTK �QW�JBO Y�P�
8,JUQW��&TK UV QW (Rom 5:1). In other words, the atonement of Jesus Christ brought peace
between God and believers where formerly there was wrath and enmity (Longenecker,
261).
O C MTQSWO K�C was used infrequently in the LXX and non-Jewish Greek writings. In
the New Testament, it can mean ‘steadfastness’, ‘patience’, or ‘long -suffering’ (Rom 2:4,
9:22, Heb 6:12). Particularly, O C MTQSWO K �C can take on the sense of endurance during
suffering and persecution.
ETJUV Q�V JL was often used in classical writings to mean ‘excellence’ when the
object was a thing, but when the object was a person it meant ‘goodness’, ‘honesty’, or
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‘kindness.’ In the New Testament, ETJUV Q�V JL primarily means ‘kindness’ which can be
an attribute of God (Rom 2:4, 11:22; Titus 3:4) or an attribute of God’s people (2 Cor
6:6) (Longenecker, 262).
C XIC SYUW�PJ is an abstract substantive of the adjective C XIC SQ�L, which can carry a
range of meanings, including generosity (Bruce, 254). The word C XIC SYU W�PJ itself does
not appear in classical writings, Josephus, or Jewish works, but only in the LXX (Jdg.
9:16; 2 Chr. 24:16; Neh. 9:25, 35, 13:31; Ps. 51:5; Eccl. 4:8, 5:10,17, 6:3, 6, 7:14, 9:18).
In the New Testament, only Paul uses C XIC SYUW�PJ. At the root level, C XIC SY UW�PJ refers to
that which is good (Longenecker, 262).
R K�UV K L is a key word throughout the entirety of Galatians. However, some
commentators have argued that since it is in an ethical list, Paul is most likely referring to
the attribute of faithfulness. This interpretation is likely, but it is interesting to speculate
that Paul sees the Spirit itself as bringing about the faith that justifies. This notion would
hearken back to the idea that the Spirit is synonymous with justification by faith and
would reemphasize God’s active role in salvation.
R TC W�V JL in the LXX meant both ‘mildness’ and ‘meekness’, but it also took on the
connotation of a submissive, teachable spirit. In the New Testament, both of these
meanings are present. Particularly, mildness and meekness are associated with
interactions between people (1 Cor 4:21, 2 Cor 10:1, Gal 6:1, Eph 4:2; Col 3:12, 2 Tim
2:24; Jas 3:13), but also humility in accepting the word of God (Jas 1:21).
G XIMTC �V GK C has the most history of all the terms Paul used. Plato defined G XIMTC �V GK C
as an opposition to the overindulgence of food and sex (Republic 390B, 430E). Aristotle
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defined G XIMTC �V G K C as one who could keep powerful emotions and passions under control.
G XIMTC �V GK C does not appear in the LXX, but occurs three times in the New Testament. It is
best translated as self-control (Longenecker, 263).
5.23 MC V C��V Y�P�V QK QW�V YP�
When Paul says that MC V C ��V Y�P�V QK QW�V YP there is no law, he does not solely mean
that no law exists against these virtues (MC V C + genitive - LSJ s.v. A. II. 4), though this is
definitely true, but also that there is no law that has authority over these things. Hooke
describes Paul’s idea thus: “A vine does not produce grapes by Act of Parliament; they
are the fruit of the vine’s own life; so the conduct which conforms to the standard of the
Kingdom is not produced by any demand, not even Gods’ but it is the fruit of that divine
nature which God gives as the result of what he has done in and by Christ.” (S.H. Hooke
qtd in Bruce, 255).
5.24 QKB�F G ��V QW��&TK UV QW���8,JUQW���V J�P�UC �TMC �GXUV C W�TYUC P�
This idea of crucifixion is very similar to Gal 2:19 where Paul says G XIY��IC � T�F K C��
PQ�O QW�PQ�O Y�C XR G�SC PQP��K=PC �SG Y��\ J�UY��&TK UV Y��U WPG UV C W�TYO C K. In Gal 2:19, the thing
that died was Paul, with the result that he was separated him from the Law since he died
to it. In this sentence, however, the flesh is what was crucified. Therefore, separation
from the Law or no longer being under the Law is akin to crucifying the flesh. Since
being under the Law is associated with justification by works of the Law, this parallel
strengthens the notion that the flesh is linked to justification by works of the Law and the
desire to gain favor based on one’s own merits.
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5.26 C XNNJ�NQWL … CXNNJ�NQK L
A key repeated word in this sentence is C XNNJ�NYP, similar to Paul’s admonition in
5:15 which also repeats C XNNJ�NYP twice. Both of these verses suggest that the Galatian
churches had many internal arguments and factions. Some of these factions must have
been due to the teachings of the trouble-makers. M G PQ�F QZQK also shows that some of the
Galatians were boasting either in themselves or others. From the beginning of chapter 6
it is also evident that there was a fair amount of instruction and correction that was going
on, but not necessarily done in love. Taken together with the internal disputes, the
trouble-makers were probably teaching and ‘correcting’ the Galatians and consuming one
another. Therefore, Paul uses C XNNJ�NYP to remind the Galatians that they are hurting
people close to them. They are not strangers, but C XNNJ�NYP. Paul challenges all of them to
walk by the Spirit and cease from their disputing. This naturally flows into the following
discussion about how to correct a person without boasting in them.
6.1 GXC �P�MC K��R TQNJOHSJ� … WBO G K�L … MC V C TV K�\ GV G
In this sentence, Paul employs a present general conditional, which is
characterized by the subjunctive mood with G XC�P in the protasis, and the present imperative
mood in the apodosis. The present general conditional means that the conclusion holds
true at all times (Smyth, 2337). Therefore, Paul is implicitly letting the Galatians know
that men will for all time be ensnared by sin, but it is always the job of the spiritual ones
to restore them.
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6.1 R TQNJOHSJ��
R TQNCO DC�PY is found throughout classical Greek literature. In the active voice,
R TQNCO DC�PGK P means ‘to anticipate’ or ‘to forecast’, while in the passive voice
R TQNCO DC�PG USC K means ‘to be taken by surprise’, ‘to be taken unaware’, or ‘to be
entrapped’ (Longenecker, 272) Therefore, Paul, by using the passive voice, is showing
that people can be entrapped in a sin and need help in order to be removed and the whole
time be unaware that they are caught.
6.1 G �P�VK PK �R C TC RV Y�O CV K
R C TC�R V YOC appears only here in Galatians and means ‘transgression’ or ‘sin.’
Literally, R C TC �R V YO C means ‘fall beside’ or ‘false step’ which goes nicely with Paul’s
imagery of walking with the Spirit (R PG W�O CV K �R G TKR C VG K�V G 5:16 and RPG W�O CV K �MCK��
UV QK EY�O GP 5:25) (Longenecker, 272). Throughout Galatians, Paul has been
demonstrating how the Law has been abolished. Therefore, it is important to note that
Paul does not use R C TC�R VYO C to mean just those things that break the Law, but rather
more general offenses. In Rom 5:20, Paul says PQ� O QL�FG��R C TG K UJ�NSG P��K=PC �R NG QPC�UJ�V Q��
R C TC�R V YOC. Rom 5:20 thus indicates that the Law increases R C TC�R V YO CV C; it does not
create them. Therefore, Paul does not see R C TC �R VYO C as brought about exclusively by
breaking the Mosaic Law, but rather it includes both the breaking of the Mosaic Law and
more general errors.
6.1 WBO G K�L�QKB�R PG WOC VK MQK�
QKB�R PG WOC VK MQK� refers not to a subset of the Galatian Christians who are somehow
more righteous than others, but rather, in accordance with his perspective in the rest of
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the letter, to those who posses the Spirit (all believers) and are therefore QK B �R PG WO C VK MQK �.
Paul is exhorting all believing Galatians to love their brothers by restoring them
(Longenecker, 273).
6.1 UMQR Y�P�UG C WVQ�P
Paul uses the participle U MQR Y�P, which means ‘to observe’ or ‘to take heed,’ to
remind the Galatians to look to themselves (UG C WVQ�P). The tendency during correction of
another is to focus on them and to ignore one’s own problems (cf. Rom 2:1, 21).
Therefore, Paul is reminding the Galatians that they themselves have problems and that
they must not spend all their efforts fixing the problems of others.
6.2 QW=V YL�CXPC R NJTY�UG V G �V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW��
The meaning of V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW� has been extensively debated among
scholars and commentators. Some understand V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW� to be a new law in
a similar form of the Mosaic law, but rewritten and established by Christ. Others view
V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW��as the rule or principle of Christ for ethical behavior. Clearly,
V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW� is distinct from the Law of Moses as Christ came for freedom
while the Mosaic Law leads to slavery (4:21-5:1). In other words, V Q�P�PQ�OQP�V QW��
&TK UV QW� is not characterized by a codified system of prescriptions and proscriptions, but
rather by the Spirit with all its fruit. It is also important to note the parallel construction
with 5:14 which says R C �L�PQ�O QL�GXP�G BPK��NQ�IY�R G RNJ�TYV C K � The same root verb, R NJTQ�Y, is
present in both. Also, each statement is linked to brotherly love. For the Mosaic Law,
the fulfillment is GXP�V Y��8$IC R J�UG K L�V Q�P�R NJUK�QP�UQW�YBL�UG C WV Q�P (5:14). For�V Q�P�PQ�O QP�
V QW��&TK UV QW�, the QW=V YL indicates that the preceding thought, i.e. bearing one another’s
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burdens, is the means by which V Q�P�PQ�O QP�VQW��&TK UV QW��is fulfilled. Therefore, the
fulfillment of the Mosaic Law is the same as the fulfillment of Christ’s law, i.e. brotherly
love. The two are parallel in this capacity, but, as Paul has argued, the Mosaic Law is
ended along with its slavery while the law of Christ is currently in effect along with its
freedom. The law of Christ has fulfilled the Law of Moses and therefore the Law of
Moses is no longer in effect. V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW� is not a codified set of new laws
introduced by Christ, but rather is the principle of behavior set forth by Christ himself
and embodies the spirit of the Mosaic Law. The Law of Moses, though the intention was
the same, did not have the Spirit and was not able to impart life (3:21); therefore, it led to
being under a curse and slavery. The Law of Christ, however, has the Spirit and Christ
himself who makes men righteous (2:15-16), leading them to freedom and sonship.
6.3 G KX�IC �T�F QMGK ��V KL�GK PC K��V K �O JF G�P�Y�P��HTG PC RCV C��G BC WV Q�P��
By placing verbs of thinking or perception in a conditional - F QMG�Y in the protasis
and HTG PC RC VC�Y (deceive or fool) in the apodosis - Paul indicates that he is concerned
with people viewing a situation improperly. It is common for someone attempting to
change a person to think that he is the agent by which the change is occurring, but, as
evidenced throughout Galatians (especially in 5:22), the Spirit and Christ bring about the
change. Paul is reminding the Galatians that they are nothing (O JF G �P), and they should
keep this in mind while dealing with others. As they disciple and work in the lives of
other believers, they must remember that it is the work of God, not of themselves, in
others’ lives. The trouble -makers were likely erring in this capacity. They thought they
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were correcting people and began to view themselves as God and Christ, i.e. the ones
who change people. Paul is warning against such behavior.
Parallel Structure – Gal 6:1-3
The parallel structure employed by Paul helps to clarify some of his ideas. From
the structure, it is evident that Paul saw a connection between being spiritual and
fulfilling the law of Christ. As previously mentioned, the law of Christ is not
characterized by rules but rather by the outflow of the Spirit (see note 6.2). The law of
Christ is able to effect life and restoration (MC V C TVK �\ GV G), while the Mosaic law is a death-
bearer (3:10). Also, the nature of the temptation (R G K TC USJ�L) is more explicit because it is
parallel with thinking one’s self to be something, when one is really nothing.
A. WBO G K�L�QKB�R PG WOC VK MQK��MC V C TV K�\ G VG �V Q�P�V QK QW�V QP�GXP�R PG W�O C VK �R TC W�V JVQL
B. UMQR Y�P�UG C WV Q�P�O J��M C K��UW��R G K TC USJ�L��
A’ �8$NNJ�NYP�V C��DC �TJ�DCUV C�\ G V G �MC K��QW=V YL�CXPC R NJTY�UG V G �V Q�P�PQ�O QP�V QW��&TK UV QW�
B’. G K X�IC �T�F QMG K��V K L�G K PCK ��V K �O JFG�P�Y�P��HTG PCR CVC ��G BC WV Q�P�
6.4 V Q��MC W�EJO C
MC W�EJO C is a key word in this sentence because the verb form, MC WEC �QO C K, is later
associated with the trouble-makers (6:13). Therefore, at least a secondary purpose of this
exhortation is to expose the folly of the trouble-makers. The trouble-makers were likely
boasting in their followers and rejoicing in their own power. Paul therefore reminds the
Galatians to consider their own work and not to boast in being teachers of men, for they
themselves are sinful and wicked.
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6.5 G=MC UV QL�IC�T�V Q��K�F K QP�HQTVK�QP�DC UVC �UG K ��
This sentence parallels 6:2 where Paul commands 8$NNJ�NYP�V C��DC�TJ�DC UV C�\ G VG.
C XNNJ�NYP, however, stands in stark contrast to K �F K QP and�G =MC UV QL. Is Paul contradicting
himself? Does he command the Galatians to bear one another’s burden, but then tell
them that they each really bear their own? No, while he commands them to bear each
other’s burdens, he reminds them that ultimately each bears his own. Paul is reminding
the Galatians of the judgment day when each person will be responsible for only his own
actions and not those of others. Therefore, although Paul is encouraging the Galatians to
spur one another along, he is cautioning them to avoid boasting or obtaining their own
glory through others.
6.6 MQK PYPGK�V Y
Most commentators have a difficult time understanding Paul’s flow of thought
since this verse appears to have little connection to his preceding thought. How does
financially supporting workers of the gospel relate to not boasting in one another? The
key to understand this sentence is the connection between MQK PYPG K�V Y and the earlier
8C NNJ�NYP�V C��DC�TJ�DC UV C�\ G VG (6:2), which 6.5 recalled. Paul is merely outlining another
way in which the Galatians can fulfill the law of Christ: by bearing each other’s burdens,
particularly financial burdens (Piper, Weary).
6.7 /J��R NCPC�USG
O J��R NC PC�USG is an introductory formula to a warning. Longenecker (279) analizes
the warning, which is comprised of six units. (1) introductory formula (“Do not be
deceived”); (2) warning (“God is not mocked”); (3) traditional maxim (“whatever a man
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sows, this he will reap”); (4) Flesh/s pirit explanation of the traditional maxim (“the one
sowing into his own flesh, will reap from the flesh corruption, but the one sowing into the
Spirit, will reap from the Spirit eternal life”); (5) Plea to apply the warning (“Do not lose
heart in doing good things”); (6) Another traditional maxim (“we will reap in due time if
we do not grow weary”). It is evident from this analysis that Paul applies traditional
wisdom to the spiritual situation. He also uses an example of nature to corroborate his
point. From creation, it is evident that like begets like. God has designed the world in
this way; do not think it will change for you.
6.7 SG Q�L�QWX�O WMV JTK �\ GV CK
The verb O WMV JTK �\ Y, which means to ‘treat with contempt’ or ‘to mock,’ is a
hapax legomenon in the New Testament, but it appears frequently in the LXX (1 Ki.
18:27, 2 Ki. 19:21, 2 Chr. 36:16, Ps. 79:7, Prov. 1:30, 11:12, 12:8, 15:5, 20, 23:9, Job
22:19, Isa. 37:22, Jer. 20:7, Ezek. 8:17). Of particular interest is 2 Chr. 36:16, where men
mocked God and he smote them with his wrath. Paul recognizes that mocking God is
associated with wrath. In essence, Paul is saying that the justice of God is not
compromised. Those who sow to the flesh will reap not eternal life, but judgment
(Longenecker, 280).
6.8 QB�F G��UR G K�TYP�G KXL�V Q��R PG W�O C �GXM�V QW��R PG W�O C V QL�SG TK �UG K �\ YJ�P�C KXY�PK QP��
Paul makes an absolutely shocking statement when he uses the phrase \ YJ� P�
C KXY�PK QP to signify the result of an individual’s sowing. \ YJ�P�C KXY�PK QP is directly linked
to salvation because in Pauline terms \ YJ� is linked with being in Christ and with
justification (2:19-20). Here, however, Paul links this salvation with an action of the
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believer. In essence, Paul is saying that what the Galatians do with their money and what
the Galatians do with their deeds has a profound effect on their eternal salvation. Is this
not a return to justification by works? John Piper, in a sermon, communicates Paul’s
intention effectively to his congregation in this passage:
I know that for some that sounds like a return to salvation by works which Paul
has demolished in this letter. But it isn't. Works are the attitudes and actions of a
heart that looks to itself for the achievement of virtue or contentment which
expects to be credited for its achievement. Nobody can save himself by such
works. But love is not a work of the flesh; it is a fruit of the Spirit. We are not
teaching salvation by works when we say that in order to enter final salvation you
must bear the fruit of the Spirit. All we are saying is what Paul says in Romans
8:14, "All who are led by the Spirit of God are sons of God." Genuine conversion
to Christ is not a mere human act of calling Christ our Savior. ("Many will say to
me in that day, 'Lord, Lord' … but I will say, 'Depart from me. I never knew
you!"') Genuine conversion is a divine act by which a Spirit of sonship is made to
dwell in our heart (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6) giving us a hatred for sin and a love for
righteousness (Ezek. 36:27) and a confidence in the grace of Christ. We are
converted when we hear the gospel and are moved to forsake our sin and put our
faith in Christ for forgiveness and begin to walk by faith in his promise and
power. There are attitudes toward money and toward the teaching of God's word
which cannot continue to coexist with true saving faith in the all-sufficiency of
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Christ. That's why Paul can say that even though salvation is by grace through
faith, yet there are attitudes and actions which can destroy you (Piper, Weary).
In other words, Paul is reminding the Galatians that what they do has serious
ramifications regarding their salvation. Though salvation is not on the basis of works of
the law, but rather by Christ through the Spirit, those who possess the Spirit will still bear
fruit. True conversion is evidenced by but not based upon works for all men continually
fall short.
6.9 O J��GXIMC MY�O G P … O J��G XMNWQ�O GPQK
G XIMC MG�Y appears in the New Testament six times, but it is absent in classical
Greek, the LXX, and Jewish writings.�G XIMC MG �Y means to grow weary or tired. G XMNWQ�O GPQK
means to give up or give out and is common in Greek writings. G XMNW�QO C K and G XIMC MG�Y are
similar in meaning, though G XMNW�QO C K has a stronger connotation (Longenecker, 282). The
use of both of these verbs reveals that the Galatians were giving up on living by the Spirit
and hence growing weary from it. They are growing weary of the fight of faith (1 Tim.
6:12
2 Tim. 4:7), i.e. living by justification by faith, and are seeking to revert to the easy chair
of their own efforts. Paul appeals to their future hope. Though they may not
immediately see the results of what they sow, they will ultimately reap them. Paul wants
the Galatians to have an eternal mindset and to focus on a future redemption.
6.10 G XTIC \ Y�O G SC �VQ��CXIC SQ�P�
Paul’s exhortation with the verb G XTIC �\ QO C K is striking in light of the fact that he
has been arguing against works of the Law (see note 6.8). Paul’s use of R K �UV K L to
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describe the church as distinct from everyone (O C �NK UV C �F G��R TQ�L�V QW�L�QKXMG K�QWL�V J�L�
R K�UV G YL) reveals that faith not good works is still the important measure in justifying.
However, Paul does see good works as a necessary outcome of the Spirit. The good
works do not justify, but rather God’s grace through faith brings the Spirit and
justification. God’s Spirit then brings about good works. In light of his eloquent and
vicious attack on justification by works previously, Paul wants the Galatians to be clear
that works are not unimportant.
16. Closing Sub-Letter – Gal 6:11-18
Scribes were often employed to write letters for officials. In order to ensure the
authenticity of the letter, the sender would write in his own hand a mini sub-letter as the
subscript. The subscriptions included a modified salutation, body, greeting, and farewell
(Stirewalt, 48). In the sub-letter, Paul essentially recaps the thoughts contained
throughout the entire letter and gives a highlighted summary of his points. In the first
section of the sub-letter Paul summarizes the Galatian problem and states that the trouble-
makers are trying to make a good showing, or win favor, by their deeds done in the flesh.
This fact conjures up not only the idea of circumcision but also the desire to be justified
by works of the Law. Paul then explains to the Galatians that these men were not
motivated by an effort to keep the law like they were suggesting, but rather by a desire
both to avoid persecution and to boast in their own accomplishments. In light of this, the
trouble-makers were likely Jewish Christians who wanted to avoid being persecuted by
their fellow Jews for allowing uncircumcised people to be a part of God’s people.
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Paul, however, contrasts the Galatian problem with a summary of the gospel by
saying that he boasts in the cross of the Lord Jesus Christ, who brought about Paul’s
salvation by his work on the cross (not how Paul does not boast in his own work). In line
with the rest of the letter, Paul, after addressing how he has been justified, moves to the
implications of that justification. In this case, he has been crucified to the world and the
world to him. The world stands for the worldly ways of men, i.e. the flesh. Paul moves
back to ethical instruction when he explains that having been justified, he has died to the
Law and the flesh. Paul then summarizes the heart of the issue. Circumcision or
uncircumcision is no matter, but rather being made new in Christ. This newness is akin
to being adopted as sons and receiving the Spirit.
Finally, Paul ends the body of his sub-letter by reminding the Galatians that those
who walk by boasting in the cross of Christ and who value a new creation over
circumcision will receive peace and mercy. The peace and mercy will ultimately usher
them in to the heavenly realms. The opponents who were preaching that the only way
into the Abrahamic covenant was through circumcision receive one final jab when Paul
states that the Galatians and those who walk by the rule - boasting the cross and not
considering circumcision an issue - are the new true Israel. The Jews are no longer true
Israel, but those in Christ are.
Rounding out the sub-letter and the entire letter, Paul ends with an appeal to the
Galatians to listen to him and not to cause trouble because he has endured much suffering
for the gospel. It is his final emotional appeal, much like his appeal in 4:12-20, for the
Galatians to listen and heed his word. Paul closes with a standard closing of the grace of
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the Lord Jesus Christ being with the Galatians. It is important to note that Paul opens
Galatians with grace and closes Galatians with grace. Paul is reminding the Galatians
from the beginning to the end that the grace of God and the Lord Jesus Christ is of
ultimate importance, and that seeking to be justified by works of the Law is a total affront
and discredit to the grace offered by Christ on the cross.
6.12 G WXR TQUYR J�UC K �GXP�UC TMK���
G WXR TQUYR J�UC K (to make a good showing) coupled with G XP�UC TMK�, which probably
has a more literal meaning, such as flesh, because circumcision is in mind, demonstrates
that the trouble-makers were concerned with external measures. The metaphorical sense
of UC �TZ, i.e. the desire to be justified by works, could also be present here: their attempt
to make a good showing conjures up the idea of justification by their own efforts.
6.12�QW�V QK �C XPC IMC�\ QWUKP�WBO C�L�R G TKV G�O PG USC K �
The phraseology of this sentence echoes JXPC IMC �USJ�R G TKV O JSJ�PC K in Gal 2:3,
where Titus was being forced to be circumcised. In Gal 2:3, compelling him to be
circumcised was a hindrance to his freedom (MC V C UMQR J�UC K �V J�P�G XNG WSG TK�C P�JBO Y�P�J?P�
G �EQO G P�GXP�&TK UV Y��8,JUQW�). In the same way, the Galatian trouble-makers are hindering
the freedom of the Galatians.
6.13 QWXF G��IC �T�QKB�R G TK VG OPQ�O GPQK �C WXV QK��PQ�O QP�HWNC �UUQWUK P
The verb HWNC �UUY originally had a military connotation and meant ‘to guard’ and
later meant ‘to keep or observe.’ If such imagery is in mind, how can Paul possibly
suggest that those who want to observe the Law strictly by circumcision are not keepers
of the Law? In light of this observation, some scholars have even suggested that the
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trouble-makers in Galatia were antinomian. This, however, is highly unlikely
considering Paul’s almost constant polemic against the Law. The most natural
explanation is found in Gal 2:14 where Peter is not a law-keeper himself but is imposing
the requirements of the Law on others. In other words, the trouble-makers exhibit the
same hypocrisy as Peter and Barnabas. Therefore, the trouble-makers were likely Jewish
Christians who in some way no longer kept the entire Law but were pushing for its
requirements to be binding on Galatian converts as a means of righteousness.
6.13 K =PC �GXP�V J��WBO G VG�TC �UC TMK��MC WEJ�UYPV C K
The first appearance of the verb MC WEC �QO C K in Galatians occurs here, but it comes
up again in 6.14. MC WEC �QO C K appears thirty-five times in Paul’s letters and can have either
a positive or a negative connotation as in its two uses in Galatians. The boasting can
refer to a healthy boasting or a wrongful boasting depending on the object. This boasting
can be linked with their desire not to be persecuted since the trouble-makers may have
been boasting about the number of circumcisions they made in order to avoid persecution
from Jews who were accusing the Christians of not following the Law (Acts 21:17-36).
In addition, it is interesting to note that Paul characterizes the Jewish people as boastful
because of their good deeds (Rom 2:17, 23) and also links boasting with works (Eph 2:9).
Since boasting is linked with flesh, it once again corroborates that the flesh is
synonymous with justification by works of the Law.
In this context, UC �TZ is intimately linked with R G TK VG �O PG USCK by K =PC. Throughout
Galatians, circumcision has been linked with works of the Law and attempts to be
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justified by them. Therefore, UC �TZ as used by Paul in chapters 5 and 6 may be linked to
being justified by works of the Law.
6.14 G XO QK��F G ��O J��IG �PQKV Q�MC WEC �USC K �G KX�O J��G XP�V Y��U V C WTY��V QW��MWTK �QW�JBO Y�P�8,JUQW��
&TK UV QW�
It is important to note that the�F G��is adversative and Paul is contrasting the two
objects of MC WEC �QO C K. In the preceding sentence, the object of�MC WEC �QO C K was UC �TZ, while
in this sentence the object is the UV C WTQ�L�V QW��MWTK �QW�JBO Y�P�8,JUQW��&TK UV QW�. In Pauline
literature, the UV C WTQ�L is representative of the entire salvation of Jesus Christ. The
UV C WTQ�L represents the gospel and all its power (1 Cor 1:17-18). In fact, in this sentence,
Paul qualifies the work of the cross as the object through which Paul was crucified to the�
MQ�UO QL. In this context, MQ�UO QL does not refer to the physical world, but to sinful
humanity alienated from God (Longenecker, 295). In other words, the cross of Christ
separated Paul from the evil wicked ways of man. Recall that UV C WTQ�L is contrasted with
UC �TZ, which in chapter 5 resulted in evil deeds. The UV C WTQ�L brought about an alienation
from sinful humanity, while the flesh in chapter 5 brought about wicked deeds.
Therefore since�UV C WTQ�L and UC �TZ are equivalent in function, but opposite in outcome,
once again UC �TZ can be linked with trying to be justified by works of the Law and not by
the cross of Christ, i.e. the work of another.
6.15 QW�V G �IC�T�R G TK V QO J��V K��G XUV K P�QW�V G �C XMTQDWUV K�C �CXNNC��MC K PJ��MV K �UK L��
At the core of his sub-letter, this sentence, with its pithy statement of truth, could
possibly be the best summary sentence of the entire letter. Some have suggested that the
phrase is so concise and brief that it was likely a traditional maxim that was in use by the
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church before Paul composed Galatians (Longenecker, 296). The parallels between 5:6
(QW�V G �R G TK VQO J��V K �K XUEW�G K�QW�V G �CXMTQDWUV K�C �CXNNC��R K �UV K L�F K 8�CXIC�R JL�GXPG TIQWO G�PJ) and this
sentence are striking. The first parts of the two sentences are practically identical, except
that 5:6 contains K XUEW�G K �instead of G XUV K P�. The second parts of each sentence are different,
but a comparison can be drawn between the two because of parallelism. In essence, the
MC K PJ��MV K�UK L is an individual who lives by faith which expresses itself in love. Paul also
uses the term MC K PJ��MV K�UK L in 2 Cor. 5:17 where it is linked with God reconciling us to
himself through Christ. Therefore, in Paul’s theology, the issue of circumcision is of
little importance; rather he is concerned with the gospel of Jesus Christ and the
reconciliation that occurs through his atoning work.
6.16 MC K��Q=UQK �V Y��MC PQ�PK �V QW�V Y�UV QK EJ�UQWUK P�
Paul used the verb UV QK EG �Y earlier to order the Galatians to walk by the Spirit
(5:25). Therefore, we may see some parallel for Paul between walking by the Spirit and
walking V Y��MC PQ�PK �. MC PY�P�means ‘rule’ or ‘principle’ and clearly refers to the maxim of
6:15. Therefore, making circumcision a non-issue is one practical way to walk by the
Spirit.
6.16 G KXTJ�PJ�G XR 8�C WXV QW�L�MC K��G �NG QL�MCK��G XR K��V Q�P�8,U TC J�N�V QW��SG QW��
Much debate has centered around how to construe this clause. The main question
is whether Paul is referring to two groups of people (those who walk by this maxim and,
distinctly, Israel) or only one.
The scholars who think Paul is referring to two groups construe the verse in two
different ways. The first group construes G K XTJ�PJ and G �NG QL to go with both groups, and
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they see the MC K ��before�G XR K��as dividing C WXV QW�L, i.e. the Gentiles, and 8, UTC J�N�V QW��SG QW�;
thus they render the sentence “peace and mercy be upon them and the Israel of God.”
The second group divides up G KXTJ�PJ and G �NG QL, rendering the sentence “peace upon them
and mercy even upon the Israel of God.” In other words, Paul is asking for mercy upon
the unbelieving Jews who were not yet Christians (Longenecker, 297-298). Of the two-
group hypothesis, the latter rendering is the most natural and consistent with Galatians.
However, the one-group hypothesis provides a much more satisfying construing
of the sentence. In this view, V Q�P�8,UTC J�N�V QW��SG QW� and C WXV QW�L are viewed as the same
group, and Paul is merely renaming ‘them’ as ‘the Israel of God’. This method best
explains the second MC K�. The first MC K ��links GK XTJ�PJ and G �NG QL as the subjects of the clause.
The second MC K ��could then be taken to mean ‘even’ (see Smyth 2869 and 2869a).
Construing the sentence in this manner would also explain why Paul repeats�G XR K��as part
of the renaming construction. Also, the phrase V Q�P�8,UTC J�N�V QW��SG QW� is more consistent
with the one-group hypothesis because the addition of V QW��SG QW� gives “Israel” a more
spiritual sense. In Romans 9:6, Paul denotes two kinds of Israel, the external Israel by
lineage and the spiritual Israel which are the elect who trust in Christ. By adding�V QW��
SG QW� Paul is probably qualifying which Israel he is referring to, i.e. the spiritual Israel
comprised of the elect.
Rendering the sentence by means of the single-group hypothesis also corresponds
more accurately with the rest of Galatians and Paul’s theology. By renaming the
Galatians Israel, Paul is calling the Galatians the true Israel. Throughout the letter, Paul
implies that the trouble-makers have been attempting to say that the Galatians were
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outside of Israel and needed to be circumcised in order to be included. With Paul saying
that that they who walk in the way of the Spirit are the Israel of God, he is showing the
Galatians that they are already Israel and do not need to receive circumcision in order to
enter it. To divide the Galatians and Israel when he has emphasized their unity
previously in the letter (3:28) would render Paul inconsistent. Paul’s perception that the
believers in Christ are the new Israel who receive the promises of Israel is crucial to
understanding Paul’s intention in Galatians (see Chapter 5.5).
6.17 G XIY��IC �T�V C��UV K�IO C VC �V QW��8,JUQW��G XP�V Y��UY�O C V K��O QW�DC UVC�\ Y��
The term UV K �IO C VC in ancient society referred to religious tattooing or slave
branding (Longenecker, 299). The�UV K �IO C VC here most likely do not refer to actual
tattoos or brandings, but rather to the wounds and scars he received as an apostle of Jesus
Christ. F.F. Bruce makes an insightful observation when he notes that V C ��UV K�IO C VC �V QW��
8,JUQW��indicates the Paul serves another. Bruce likens this sentence to Paul’s defense of
his ministry in chapters 1 and 2. In other words, since Paul is bound to another and
serves him, his gospel is not from himself, and he wants no one to trouble him, for in
reality the instigator is troubling with Christ Jesus (Bruce, 275).
6.18 `J�EC �TK L�
It is significant to note that Paul closes with EC �TK L. Though it is a standard closing
for Paul, the word still carries much significance. The fact that this is the standard
Pauline closing reveals it is of the utmost importance. Therefore, the presence of EC �TK L in
the closing reveals that grace is at the heart of Paul’s gospel and life. The grace is free
and unmerited, as demonstrated by its other uses in Galatians.
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Chapter Five - Interpreting Pauline Theology in Galatians
1. Introduction
Galatians is Paul’s angriest and most aggressive letter. Paul is so angry that he
declares a curse upon his opponents, and he wishes that they would cut off their genitals
(Gal 5:12). Needless to say, Paul’s style of writing is thus polemic. By nature, polemical
writing presupposes two different ideologies that are opposed to one another. In
Galatians, Paul’s theology chara cterized by grace and faith is opposed to one
characterized by works of the Law. These two worldviews have as the object of their
contention inclusion with God and his people. The concept of inclusion with God and his
people is comprised of two components: F K MC KQUW�PJ (justification – see section 4 below)
and the covenant between Yahweh and man. In reality, these components are so
intricately intertwined that they are truly the same issue. The two theologies differ on
how justification and inclusion in the covenant are accomplished. Therefore, I will
explore how these two views, grace and works of the Law, address the issue of
association with God and his people, and how Paul persuasively argues for grace/faith as
the correct and truthful means to this end.
2. Works: GG ��TTIIC�C�PPQQ ��OOQQWW
The phrase G �TIC �PQ�O QW (literally “works of law”) is at the heart of the theology of
Paul’s opponents. Paul uses this phrase six times to characterize them and their theology
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(Gal. 2:16, 3:2, 5, 10).18 In the scholarly literature, two differing perceptions have arisen
concerning G �TIC �PQ�O QW. The classical, Reformed perspective understands G � TIC �PQ�O QW to
refer to one’s own efforts in regard to the Law (Luther, 128 -129, xxiv-xxviii). A more
modern, “New Perspective” notion i s that G �TIC �PQ�O QW refers particularly to ‘“identity
markers,” such as circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath, which separate Jews from
Gentiles (Schreiner, 51). For the New Perspective, however,�G �TIC �PQ�O QW is not limited to
just “identity markers,” b ut includes the whole Law which brings separation from the
Gentiles (Dunn, 360). In other words, when Paul uses G �TIC �PQ�O QW in association with
justification, he is arguing against justification on the basis of being Jewish or following
the practices (i.e. those laid down in the Laws of the Old Testament) that distinguish Jew
from Gentile. Therefore, the crux of Paul’s problem with the Law according to the New
Perspective would be summarized in Galatians 2:14, where Paul’s major contention with
Peter is that Peter is not associating with Gentiles, not that he is trying to achieve
salvation by his own works.19
There are some objections with the New Perspective interpretation of G �TIC �PQ�O QW.
First of all, according to the New Perspective approach, Paul’s contention with G �TIC
would be limited to the separation of Jew and Gentile that the Mosaic Law brings. On
the other hand, the Reformed perspective would view G �TIC more generally to mean
“deeds that are performed” and G �TIC �PQ�O QW to mean “deeds or ac tions demanded by the
18 Paul also uses the phrase MN OQPRTS�U NVMW XY[Z�N S�\�] ^ Y to describe his opponent’s theology in Gal 5:19. 19 The New Perspective contends that Paul took issue with the “socially delimiting function of ‘works’.” The works of the Law operate as signs of group membership and therefore Paul took issue with them. “I t surely cannot be denied that Paul resisted works of the law because other believers insisted on circumcision and restriction of table fellowship in respect of Gentile believers.” (Dunn, 360)
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Mosaic Law” (Schreiner, 52). In other words, the Reformed perspective would hold that
Paul’s contention with G �TIC is broader and encompasses the separation it brings, but also
includes deeds done to merit righteousness. The Reformed perspective appears more
consistent with Paul’s usage of G �TIQP. When Paul uses G �TIQP in isolation, it is clearly
related to man’s efforts and deeds, and is not related to any separation that it brings. For
example in Romans 9:11-16, Paul says that God loved Jacob and hated Esau, but not on
the basis of doing good or bad. Paul then says God’s election of Jacob was QWXM�G XZ�G �TIYP,
but rather on his calling. Jacob’s election also did not depend on “the man who wills or
the man who runs.” Very clearly in this passage, God’s election and G �TIC are
incompatible. There is no hint of Jew/Gentile separation issues since both Jacob and
Esau were circumcised covenant members. Therefore, Paul’s contention with G�TIC is that
they are opposed to God’s free, un merited election, and not merely with the social
separation that G �TIC bring. Paul makes this explicit in Romans 11:6, where he says, “But
if [God’s choice of grace] is by grace, it is no longer on the basis of works, otherwise
grace is no longer grace.” Once again, in context, the election is differential only between
Jews. There is no Jew/Gentile distinction issue.
In Romans 2:6, Paul notes that God will judge each MC V C��V C��G �TIC �C WXV QW�. He then
expands upon and explains this verse. In the following verses, a cognate verb of G �TIQP is
associated with general moral conduct by humans, both Jews and Gentiles, as there will
be punishments for MC V G TIC \ QO G�PQW�V Q��MC MQ�P (“doing evil” 2:9) and blessings for
G XTIC \ QO G�PY�V Q��C XIC SQ�P (“doing good” 2: 10). Therefore, here G �TIC are in reference to
general moral conduct, not to separation of Jew and Gentile. It is also interesting to note
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that G �TIC �is practiced by both Jews and Gentiles, not just Jews seeking to exclude
Gentiles. Parallel instances may be found throughout Paul’s letters (e.g. 2 Cor. 11:15;
Rom 11:6; 13:12, Gal 5:19). From such instances, I argue that G �TIC refers primarily to
general human deeds or actions and not specific deeds which separate Jew and Gentile
(Schreiner, 52).
Second, though the New Perspective proponents acknowledge that G �TIC �PQ�O QW
refers to the whole Law, they say it focuses on “identity markers”(Dunn, 358). Such a
conclusion is inconsistent with usage of G �TIC �PQ�O QW in both Pauline literature and Second
Temple Jewish literature.20 Though the phrase G �TIC �PQ�O QW is not found in the LXX, the
Hebrew equivalent (ma‘���y tôrâ or ma‘���yw battôrâ) is found in the Qumran texts.
The phrase shows up in the Community Rule (1QS) of Qumran (5:21; 6:18) in which the
Essenes pledge to “return to the law of Moses according to all that he commanded” (1 QS
5:8 in Schreiner, 53). This text also lists a number of the laws without any special
emphasis on those laws which separate Jew and Gentile. Therefore, from Second Temple
literature, G �TIC �PQ�O QW refers to all deeds prescribed by the Law and not just a select few.
So also, Paul does not refer to specific aspects of the Law when he uses the phrase G �TIC �
PQ�O QW. In Romans 3:28, Paul uses the phrase EYT K �L�G�TIYP�PQ�O QW and then immediately
goes on in Romans 4:1-6 to discuss works that are general, the works that one does to
earn a wage. Paul links� G �TIC with earning, rather than “identity markers.” No mention is
made of specific laws. Paul’s thought flows right from �G �TIC �PQ�O QW into general works,
20 Though Dunn argues that Second Temple Jewish literature also focused on “identity markers” (Dunn, 354-358).
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even works concerning earning something. Therefore, G �TIC �PQ�O QW refers to all the deeds
of the Law, not just specific ones.
Finally, the New Perspective notion that G�TIC �PQ�OQW is only concerned with
aspects of the law which make a distinction between Jew and Gentile is incompatible
with the rest of Galatians. The New Perspective argues that Paul was deeply concerned
with acts such as circumcision, which would bring a division between Jew and Gentile
(Dunn, 353, 454). However, this is not true, for Paul is indifferent to circumcision. In
Galatians 5:6, he says, “For in the M essiah Jesus circumcision means nothing nor
uncircumcision, but faith worked out in love;” and again in 6:15, he says, “ For neither
circumcision nor uncircumcision is anything, but a new creation is.” His concern is not
with the identity markers, but with faith in love and a new creation. His only concern is
with those who would compel Christians converts to be circumcised, symbolic of
compelling them to be subject to all of the Jewish Law of the Old Covenant, because
such compulsion is an affront to God’s free gift of grace. The New Perspective
inaccurately characterizes G �TIC �PQ�O QW and therefore inaccurately characterizes the
position of Paul’s opponents. G �TIC �PQ�O QW refers to deeds performed by men in general.
His opponents’ theology is therefore c entered on man’s own actions as redemptive and
views everything through that lens.
3. Grace: EECC ��TTKKLL and RKRK ��UUVKVKLL
The theology set forth by Paul is in direct contradiction with that of his
opponents. For the opponents, redemption is based upon the deeds and actions of men.
Grace or EC �TK L is, however, the foundation of Paul’s worldview. Though E C �TK L appears
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only seven times in Galatians,21 it is essential to Paul’s theology. Grace is not in the
forefront of Galatians because Paul is addressing his opponents’ position, i.e. works of
the Law, which is the negation of EC �TK L. Galatians 1:6, however, demonstrates that
election by grace is at the core of the gospel. There, Paul says that the Galatians have
turned from God, who called them by grace, to another gospel (G =V G TQP�G WXC IIG �NK QP).
Therefore, God’s election by grace is for Paul the true version of the gospel, and works of
Law, conversely, are the other, false gospel (Q?�QWXM �G �UV K P�C�NNQ 1:7).
Every instance of EC �TK L in Galatians reveals God or Jesus Christ to be the author
or source of grace. God is the agent of grace. And therein is the core of the difference
between the two theologies of Paul and his opponents: who is the acting agent, man or
God? Moreover, EC �TK L is associated with MC NG �Y in Galatians 1:6 and 1:15, which Paul
uses to refer to the sovereign election of individuals by God apart from works. Similarly,
Romans 9:12 states that God loved Jacob and hated Esau “though the twins were not yet
born and had not done anything good or bad, so that God’s purpose according to his
choice would stand, not because of works, but because of him who calls” ( QWXM�G XZ�G �TIYP�
C XNN8�GXM�V QW��MC NQW�PV QL). Moreover, in Romans 9:12 and Galatians 1:6 and 1:15, Paul
uses the substantive form of the participle (V QW��MC NQW�PV QL, V QW��MC NG�UC PV QL, and QB�MC NG�UC L
respectively), which underscores God as agent. Therefore, when Paul uses MC NG�Y in
Galatians, he is reminding the Galatians that they are turning from the gospel which tells
them that their works play no part in their salvation. In fact, God chose whether or not
21 The verbal cognate of _�` acb�d9e , _�`�bfd a�gTh7i�`�d , appears in Galatians 3:18, which brings the total to eight words of grace.
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they would be in Christ on the basis of his free will and not on the basis of human choice.
Galatians 1:15 implies that EC �TK L is in effect even before one is born (QB�C XHQTK �UC L�OG �GXM�
MQK NK�C L�O JV TQ�L�O QW�MCK ��MC NG�UC L�F KC ��V J�L�EC �TK V QL�C WXV QW�), and thus grace could not be
contingent on works of man, but only on God. Galatians 2:9 solidifies the argument that
EC �TK L is not something earned by man, since it is described as given (V J�P�EC �TK P�V J�P�
F QSG K�UC �P).22 In Romans 11:6, Paul states explicitly that “if grace were received by works,
grace would no longer be grace” ( G K X�F G ��EC �TK VK ��QWXMG �V K �G XZ�G�TIYP��G XR G K��JB�EC �TK L�QWXMG �V K �
IK �PGV C K �EC �TK L). For Paul, the very essence of grace is that it is a free gift from God and
not the effort of man.
In addition to EC �TK L being received as a free gift from God and Christ Jesus on the
basis of sovereign election, Paul associates EC �TK L with the reception of righteousness
(F K MC KQUW�PJ) through Christ. In Galatians 2:21, Paul argues that keeping the Law is not
essential because life is in Christ. He caps the chapter in 2:21 by stating that he does not
nullify the EC �TK L of God because righteousness is not through the Law. The implication
is that EC �TK L means righteousness through Christ. This notion is corroborated by
Galatians 5:4 which states that those seeking to be justified by the law have fallen from
EC �TK L and have been severed from Christ. This falling from EC �TK L is contrasted in
Galatians 5:5 with waiting for the hope of righteousness.23 Therefore, Paul sees EC �TK L as
part of free, unmerited election that pertains to how one obtains righteousness or
justification.
22 Note the repeated article makes the participle attributive. 23 The hope of righteousness is through faith and the Spirit (Gal 5:5).
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4. Justification and Righteousness: FFKKMMCCKKQQUUWW��PPJJ
Thus we can see why Paul was so angry in his letter. The G �TIC �PQ�O QW worldview
is man-centered and seeks the honor and glory of the individual performing the deeds and
not that of Christ and God. The EC �TK L worldview, on the other hand, acknowledges
Christ and God the Father as the agents of salvation, and it recognizes both the
helplessness of man and the need for God to infuse a foreign righteousness. In Galatians,
the battleground for these two worldviews or ideologies is the concept of association with
God and his people. This can be subdivided for analysis into justification and inclusion
in the covenant. I will first analyze justification and return to the covenant issue later
(see section 5 below).
A. The Terminology:��FFKKMMCCKK-cognates
When talking about justification, Paul uses the verb F K MCK Q�Y, translated “to
justify,” and the noun F K MC K QUW�PJ, often translated “righteousness.” 24 Traditionally, the
interpretations of the F K MC K-cognates have divided into two camps. The Roman Catholic
position bases its understanding of the F K MC K-cognates primarily on the definitions of
F K MCK QUW�PJ and F K�MC K QL.jlk
They thus associate these words with the quality of life lived
in ethical dimensions, i.e. that one is righteous or just. Protestants, on the other hand,
identify the F K MC K- cognates more with the meaning of the verb F K MC K Q�Y. F K MC K Q�Y was
often used as a legal term, which had the sense of acquittal. A man was justified when
the court found him innocent; he was declared righteous. They see the cognates as
24 I translate m�n5o7p�n9q$r�s t�u�v as “righteousness” because it is broader in scope than “justification,” allowing for the encapsulation of the forensic and ethical meanings of m�n5o�p�n9qTr*s t�u�v . 25 An adjectival form meaning “righteous” or “just” used in Gal 3:11.
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forensic, declaratory, or “imputed” (Longenecker, 84). In other words, justification
refers to the imputation of Christ’s foreign righteousness to the believer, i.e. one is made
righteous or is justified.26 J.A. Ziesler argues that Paul uses F K MC K Q�Y in the forensic,
Protestant meaning, but uses the noun F K MC K QUW�PJ and the adjective F K �MC K QL in both
forensic and ethical senses (cited in Longenecker, 85). Paul’s double usage demonstrates
how he perceives the forensic declaration as associated with and leading to the ethnical
dimension of F K MCK QUW�PJ and F K �MC K QL.
I follow the definition that F K MCK QUW�PJ (justification) is transferred righteousness
or the foreign righteousness of Christ being imputed to a person. The next point to
consider is what Paul sets forth as the means of justification. Paul’s basic argument is
two-fold. First, he argues that salvation and association with God and his people have
never been by works of the Law, but rather by faith. His second prong of attack is that
the Law itself is unable to justify because no one is able to keep the Law, and it,
therefore, places people under a curse instead of providing them with righteousness.
B. Justification by faith
Paul makes the first point of his argument by using the example of Abraham, the
very man whom his opponents were using to support their case. As in the American
court system, precedence lends authority to arguments, so Paul cites Abraham’s faith,
which was reckoned to him as righteousness (Gen 15:6). This reckoning of
righteousness occurred before God instituted the covenant of circumcision (Gen 17:10-
26 For a thorough defense of w�x5y�z�x9{ |�} regarding the imputed righteousness of Christ refer to Counted Righteous in Christ by John Piper.
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14). Therefore, the precedence of obtaining righteousness lies with faith and not the
work of circumcision.27 Just as faith preceded circumcision in Abraham’s life, so too
faith preceded the Mosaic covenant and therefore has precedence over works of the Law.
Abraham’s descendents were God’s chosen people for 430 years before God gave the
Law to Moses and the Israelites (Gal 3:17).
Paul also uses another facet of Abraham’s life to argue for justification by faith.
Paul notes that the gospel was preached to Abraham in order that he would be a blessing
to the nations (Gal 3:8). Paul correlates the promised blessing of Abraham with the Spirit
in Galatians 3:14. Just as faith preceded circumcision and the Law, so also the promise
of the Spirit preceded circumcision and the Law. Paul develops this precedent by
explaining the role of the Spirit in the believer’s life. In Chapter 4 of Galatians, Paul
links the Spirit with the believers’ adoption as sons, and, later in Chapters 5 and 6, Paul
links the Spirit with faith that leads to righteousness (5:5) and with positive ethical deeds.
The intimate association of faith and the Spirit is also seen in Galatians 3:1-5, where Paul
clearly implies that the hearing of faith is how the Spirit is received. The Spirit is also
opposed to the works of the flesh (Gal 5:16-18), which exclude those who practice them
from the kingdom of God and salvation. The Spirit is the agent of grace that is given by
God and Christ to effect faith (Gal 4:6)28 and good works (Gal 5:22-25). Thus, the Spirit
leads to righteousness or justification by faith which results in the deeds necessary to
27 Circumcision comes to be used symbolically of the Law in general. See Chapter 4 note 5.3 where Paul sees circumcision as linked with the entire Law. 28 God sent forth the Spirit, effecting sonship. Sonship or being sons is linked with faith in Gal 3:7. Those who are of faith are sons of Abraham, i.e. sons of God.
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inherit the kingdom of God. It had been promised long before and therefore has greater
authority than circumcision and the Law as a means to inherit the kingdom of God.
C. Not by Works
Once Paul demonstrates in Galatians 3:6-9 that justification by faith had
precedence, he turns in Galatians 3:10 to attacking works of the Law as a means of
justification. His primary argument is that the Law is beyond human ability to fulfill
completely, and therefore it is unable to impart righteousness or life (Gal 3:21). The first
appearance of the notion that the Law’s requirements are unattainable is in Galatians
2:15-16. Paul states that G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW�QWX�F K MC KYSJ�UG V C K �RC�UC �UC �TZ. Here, Paul is
intentionally paraphrasing Psalm 143:2 (LXX 142:2) which says QWX�F K MC K YSJ�UG V C K �
G XPY�R K Q�P�UQW�R C�L�\ Y�P (Nothing living shall be justified before you). In Psalm 143, David
is pleading with God not to judge him, for he knows that no man is righteous and
therefore all stand condemned. Paul apples this principle to the Law by affixing the
phrase G XZ�G �TIYP�PQ�O QW (Thielman, 125).29 In other words, Paul once again uses Old
Testament precedence to establish the authority of his argument. Here, he applies that
precedent to the Law to support the idea that the Law is incapable of justifying (Gal 3:10-
12).
Paul uses this same method, appealing to the Old Testament, in Galatians 3:10-
12. Here, he argues that the Law brings a curse instead of the anticipated righteousness.
First, he quotes Deuteronomy 27:26, a surprising choice because it appears to support his
29 Paul also substitutes ~�� �c��� for �$� �l� because Paul has a different meaning for � � � � than mere existence. For Paul, � � � � is linked to justification. The introduction of ~�� �c��� reinforces that a fleshy existence will not yield justification.
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opponents’ side: “Cursed are all who do not obey all the things which have been written
in this book of the Law, to do them.” On the surface, this seems to say that those who
follow Paul’s idea that Christians do not need to observe the Law are under a curse.
However, Paul turns the quotation on its head by presupposing that no one is able to obey
the Law fully. Indeed, at the end of Galatians (6:13), Paul accuses his opponents, the
die-hard law-keepers, of failing to keep the Law themselves. If no one is able to keep the
Law, and those who cannot are cursed, then certainly everyone who is under the
jurisdiction of the Law is cursed. Paul makes it clear that believers are not under a curse
because Christ took their curse (Gal 3:13) and because the believer is not under the Law
(Gal 3:25, 4:21).
Following the quotation from Deuteronomy, Paul concludes that since
justification by full observation of the Law failed, the opposite, justification by faith,
must be true. Paul substantiates his point through another Old Testament quote, this one
from Habakkuk 2:4: “The righteous will live by faith” ( `1�F K �MC K QL�GXM�R K�UV G YL�\ J�UG V C K).
Thus, the Old Testament positively asserts that righteousness is by faith as well as the
converse, that cursedness is under the Law.
Paul then turns to show that the Law is not of faith. Leviticus 18:5, part of the
Law itself, requires that the one practicing the requirements of the Law live by them. Just
as the righteous man lives by faith (i.e. is justified by faith), so also the one practicing the
Law lives by Law (i.e. is under the Law for justification). That the Law is unable to
justify was already demonstrated in Galatians 3:10-11. Since the Law cannot justify, and
faith is the true justifier (Gal 3:11), the Law cannot be of faith. Leviticus 18:5 and the
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surrounding text (Lev 18:1-5) also demonstrate that the Law requires external actions
because the verb ‘to do’ ( R QKG �Y) is repeated five times. The requirement for action in
Paul’s logic means that the Law is unable to justify because Paul has a lready presupposed
that humans are unable to do all the required actions. This presupposition is seen in
Galatians 5:3, where Paul notes that those receiving circumcision, i.e. practicing the
Law, are under obligation to keep the whole law. This obligation is not a positive state
since Paul equates it with being cut off from grace and Christ (Gal 5:4). Therefore, Paul
sees obligation to the whole Law as negative because no man is righteous or good. Paul
makes this presupposition explicit in Romans 3:10 - 1WXM�G �UV K P�F K�MC K QL�QWXF G��G K �L (“There
is no one righteous”) - and expands upon it in Romans 3:9-20. Therefore, the Leviticus
18:5 quote shows two things. First, the Law is a separate justifying power from faith, and,
since the righteous live by faith, the righteous cannot also live by the Law. Second, the
Law requires complete practice, which no one can do, so the Law is unable to justify.
Overall, Paul argues against justification by works of the Law because Paul
perceives that the Law is not able to be kept perfectly. The Old Testament pronounces a
curse on those who are unable to keep the Law and also positively states that the
righteous live by faith. Therefore, works kill because of their insufficiency; hoever by
faith one truly lives.
D. From Law to Christ
The greatest function of the Law, and the one that Paul spends the most time
addressing, is to guide the Jews and others to Christ. The Law served as a guide in four
capacities. First, the Law shut everyone up under sin, so that God could be merciful.
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Second, the Law shut everyone up under sin, that they might see their need for
redemption and turn to Christ. Third, the Law kept everyone under custody, so they
would not destroy themselves. Fourth, the Law functioned as a pedagogue to teach them
and to lead them to Christ.
First, Paul says that the Law shut everyone up under sin for the specific purpose
that the promise might be given to believers (Gal 3:22). UWIMNG K�Y (shut up) is “ used
metaphorically to mean that no escape [is] possible from the condemnation that the law
pronounced on those who sinned” (Thielman, 132). The passive form of ‘to give’ ( F QSJ�)
indicates that God is doing the giving. In other words, the Law condemned people and
placed them under sin so that Christ might give himself for them (Gal 1:4). God
condemned and judged people for the very reason that he might give them the promise,
i.e. have mercy on them in Christ.30
That the Scriptures shut people up under sin could also be taken to mean that the
Law condemned everyone to sin so that they would see their own condition. Paul says in
Romans 3:20 that the Law came to bring knowledge of sin. God was gracious in
condemning people so that they could see their sin and turn to the solution, Christ.
The Law also served to keep custody over people in order to bring them to Christ.
The Law served to contain people from wandering too far. In Galatians 3:23, Paul uses
the verb HTQWTG �Y, which means ‘guard, keep watch over, or protect.’ The Law acted as a
30 I acknowledged that sin and the need of justification was in place before the giving of the Law. The Law does not create sin, but rather increases it (Rom 5:20-21). However, sin is not imputed where there is no law (Rom 5:13). Therefore, the coming of the Law allowed for sin to be imputed and the world to be held accountable (Rom 3:19) to sin, so that Christ could have mercy on them.
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shepherd, who guarded the Israelites. The Law kept their sin from expanding so violently
that they would self-destruct.
Finally, Paul compares the Law to a pedagogue (Gal 3:24-25). Most
immediately, he is referring to a pedagogue’s role to discipline in order to tr ain the
Israelites because that is most in line with the Law shutting people up under sin.
However, the pedagogue imagery provides a broader view as to the purpose of the Law.
Just as a pedagogue was to help the child learn his lessons, the Law also taught the Jews
many things about the Christ. The Law outlined how sacrifice was necessary for sins so
that they could understand Christ’s sacrifice. The Law outlined the role of a priest so that
they could understand Christ’s priestly role. The Law depicte d the year of Jubilee when
the captives were set free so that they could understand the ultimate year of Jubilee when
Christ set the captives free (Lev 25:10-18). The Law described the tabernacle and temple
so that they could understand how they were the new temple of God in Christ. In other
words, the entire Law was geared to point to Christ, and in this way it served as a
pedagogue to lead them to Christ.
There are other instances of the Law’s pedagogical nature in Galatians. In
Galatians 2:19, Paul states, “Through the law, I died to the law in order that I will live to
God.” In Paul’s life the Law brought about a death. This verse is essentially a summary
of Galatians 3:22-25. “Through the Law” is equated with recognition that the Law shuts
up everyone under sin. “Died to the Law” is equated with no longer being under a tutor,
and “living to Christ” is equated with the Law leading to Christ so that one may be
justified by faith. In other words, Paul sees the Law shutting up people under sin and not
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providing righteousness. In fact, he sees the Law leading to a curse, which pushes people
to accept the grace of Christ and his righteousness because the Law cannot provide it.
A medical analogy is very helpful for summarizing the nature and purpose of the
Law. Sin is like cancer. Those who do not know they have cancer do not know that they
need a doctor. The Law is like a physician. The Law reveals the sin in order that people
might realize that they need help in Christ. However, Paul does not stop here. The Law
even brings about the cancer. Therefore, the Law serves as both the carcinogen and
physician, which informs the patient of their cancer or sin so that they may receive the
chemotherapy, i.e Christ’s righteousness.
E. An Affront to Grace
The fundamental reason that no one is justified by works of the Law is that works
are an affront to God’s grace. Paul makes this explicit in Galatians 5:4, where he says
one has fallen from grace if one tries to be justified by works of the Law. As discussed
previously, grace is free and unmerited (see Chapter 5.3). When one tries to be justified
by what is done, grace is no longer grace. God’s grace and his Son’s gracious act on the
cross are also intimately tied to his glory (Gal 1:3-5). Therefore, justification by works of
the Law is a challenge to his glory. Glory is God’s chief end, and for Paul all of man’s
actions should be done to this end (1 Cor 10:31; Edwards). Therefore, works of the Law
are an affront to the grace of God by trying to obtain glory for our own actions instead of
relying on Christ and giving him the glory. Paul, therefore, denounces works of the Law.
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F. Why the PPQQ ��OOQLQL?
By stating that the Law is not for justification, Paul has made his situation more
difficult. The Law is prominent in God’s Word and in God’s interaction with man, and
thus it is a major focus of the Old Testament. If the Law is so important, and now he is
saying it is not useful for justification, then why did God institute the Law in the first
place? Paul carefully answers this question by showing that the Law did have many
gracious purposes, but none of them was for justification.
First, Paul says that the Law was added V Y�P�R C TC DC �UG YP�EC�TK P���
(“for the sake of
transgressions” - Gal 3:19). Theilman states that this phrase is so ambiguous and broad
that it could encompass placing limits on sin, revealing sin, punishing sin, and even, in
light of Romans 5:20, increasing sin (132). Paul’s most direct meaning is probably
punishing sin since he has just stated nine verses earlier that the Law brings about a curse
(Gal 3:10). He will proceed in the letter to pronounce judgment on those who do not
follow it (Gal 5:4). The Law functions even more to reveal sin in that Galatians 3:24
describes the Law as a tutor who would teach the people of sin. Later, Paul once again
uses the Law to show the Galatians how they do not love one another (5:14). The
limiting of sin can be seen in that the Law functions as a guardian (3:24). The Law did
not let people stray indefinitely, but it was in place to guide them to the cross. Romans
5:20 also reveals that Paul saw the Law as actually bringing about the increase of sin. So,
31 Here, ��� �c�f��� is prepositional and unrelated to grace. I have thus not included it in my count of eight grace words.
185
EC �TK P could mean ‘for the sake of’ in the sense that the Law was brought in to support
transgressions, i.e. to increase them. Therefore, the Law served many good functions.
Thus, Paul effectively argued for grace and faith as the basis for justification. He
appealed to the precedence of faith and the Spirit over the Law, to the ineffectiveness of
the Law at providing righteousness and its bringing of a curse, to the temporary teaching
role of the Law, and to its contrary nature to grace. Together these arguments support the
notion that justification is not by works of the Law, but rather that the Law is from God
and served a gracious purpose, just not justification.
5. Inclusion in the Covenant
The other facet of the trouble-makers’ argument, complementary to justification,
is inclusion in the covenant. Scholars often make a direct correlation between
justification and inclusion in the covenant (Dunn, 388). However, while justification
refers to the legal imputation of Christ’s righteousness, which is necessary for inclusion
in the covenant, justification is not entirely synonymous with the covenant. The
opponents argued that inclusion in the covenant comes from observation of the Law and
from circumcision. To be made sons of Abraham, the Galatian Christians must take on
the signs of the covenant. In response, Paul argues for the cessation of the Old Covenant
and the institution of the New Covenant. Paul argues that believers are the new Israel
and that the inauguration of the New Covenant and the time of redemption promised by
Jeremiah and the other prophets has come.
In both Jewish and Pauline theology, the concept of a covenant or F K C SJ�MJ is very
important (see Chapter 4, note 3.15). From the allegory in Galatians 4:21-31, it is
186
evident that Paul believes that there are two covenants (Gal 4:24). One covenant is
associated with the Law and slavery, while the other is associated with the Spirit, the
promise, and freedom. Paul saw the current Jews as under the slavish covenant (Gal
4:25) and the believers under the free covenant (Gal 4:26). Immediately, we can see that
Paul is arguing for a different marker of inclusion in this new, free covenant. The Spirit,
not circumcision is the marker of inclusion. This can be demonstrated by the fact that
Paul states that the inheritance of the covenant is based upon the promise (Gal 3:18).
Earlier in Galatians 3:14, he described the promise as the promise of the Spirit.
Therefore, the covenantal marker is based on the Spirit, not the Law, i.e. not
circumcision. Also, Paul describes the sons of God as having the Spirit. Therefore, the
sons of God are not those who are circumcised, but rather those who possess the Spirit by
faith (Gal 3:7).
The fact that there are two covenants is very important for understanding how
Paul views the Galatian community. Unlike his opponents, who believe that there is only
one Mosaic covenant, Paul is arguing that the New Covenant promised by Jeremiah
(31:31) is in effect along with the redemption and eschatological age prophesied by the
other prophets.32 Paul perceives the arrival of the Messiah (Christ) as a significant
eschatological event. From Galatians 1:4-5, it is evident that Paul viewed history to be
divided into different ages. Paul’s temporal language ‘until’ (Gal 3:19), ‘before’ (3:23),
32 Paul makes no reference to the New Covenant in Galatians. Paul, however, refers to the � ���T���9��� ����9���$� ���7� in 1 Cor 11:25 and also in 2 Cor 3:6. In 2 Cor 3, Paul contrasts the Old and New Covenants. Here,
the New Covenant is characterized by the Spirit and liberty. Therefore, the spiritual covenant in Galatians is the New Covenant.
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and ‘now’ (3:25) reveal that Paul perceived a major shift in history with the arrival of
Christ. The objects of all these temporal words pertain to the Messiah, i.e. the seed
(3:19), and faith (3:23, 25). Therefore, the arrival of the Messiah ushered in a new era
and covenant, one characterized by the Spirit and freedom. The coming of the Messiah
ushered in the age of the promised redemption.
Paul argues in several ways for the view that the Galatians and all Christians are
the new, eschatological, redeemed Israel. He draws upon the image of “the seed,” the
allegory of Abraham’s children, the faith of Abraham, the reception of the Spirit, the new
exodus, the adoption as sons, and freedom from slavery.
First, Paul presents a complex linguistic argument concerning the seed from
Genesis 15:5. Paul notes that V Y��UR G�TO C VK is singular and concludes that since there are
many descendents of Abraham, the singular term must therefore refer to one special
descendent, i.e. Christ. Since the believer is one with Christ through baptism and faith,
those in Christ are Abraham’ s seed (Gal 3:29). Just as Christ is the seed, so the believer
is also the seed of Abraham. Faith, rather than circumcision, becomes the seal of the
covenant, i.e. it defines who comprises the seed of Abraham (Thielman, 131).
Second, Paul links the Christian community to Abraham through this faith. The
faith of the Christian is MC SY�L (just as) the faith of Abraham (Gal 3:6). Abraham’s faith
was reckoned to him as righteousness (Gal 3:6), and so also was the Galatians’ faith
reckoned to them as righteousness (Gal 2:16). Therefore, it is those of faith who are
Abraham’s sons, i.e. members of the covenant. Instead of circumcision being the linking
factor between Abraham and an individual, Paul is making faith the linking factor. Just
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as faith distinguished Abraham and his descendents as God’s people for 430 years before
the Mosaic covenant, so now it distinguishes the New Israelites in the post-Mosaic
covenant.
Third, the Galatians have received the Spirit, the sign of the promised, restored
Israel. The Spirit indwells the hearts of the believer (Gal 4:6) and leads them to perform
the fruit of the Spirit. Jeremiah had prophesied that in the New Covenant God would put
the Law within the Israelites and write the Law on their hearts (Jer 31). Ezekiel also
prophesied that in the age of restoration, Yahweh would give his people one heart (Ezek
11:19). Paul recalls this image as he invokes the unity of believers in Galatians 3:26-28.
Ezekiel also prophesied that God would restore Israel and put a new Spirit within them
(Ezek 11:19, 36:26-27; 37:1-14). Further the prophet Joel prophesied that God would
pour out his Spirit in the days of restoration and deliverance. However, the gift of the
Spirit was not limited just to Israelites, but applied to all mankind (Joel 2:28-29). Paul
also believed that the Spirit came to both Jew and Gentile, as evidenced by the fact that
the Gentile Galatians had received the Spirit (3:1-5). Therefore, Paul views the coming
of the Spirit as a sign of the restored Israel and as a sign of the believers’ inclusion in the
covenant (Theilman, 135).
Fourth, the Galatians have undergone a new exodus and are therefore the new
Israel. Circumcision, which marked out Old Israel, is no longer needed to be included in
the covenant. Like his other references to the exodus, Paul uses the paradigm of the
exodus as a negative event, not a positive one (1 Cor 10:1-13). When Israel was in the
midst of its exodus, wandering in the wilderness, they quickly turned from following the
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true God to serve a false idol, the golden calf. Paul uses this same imagery with the
Galatians as he accuses them of quickly turning from the true gospel to follow a false one
(Gal 1:6). By using such phraseology, Paul communicates that the Galatians are the new
Israel, but one which is suffering the same fate as the old Israel since they are about to
turn back to idols, i.e. justification by works of the Law. Paul makes the parallel between
works of the Law and idolatry specific in Galatians 4:1-11 (Theilman, 136; see Chapter 4
note 4.9).
Fifth, Paul argues for the Galatians as the new Israel because they have been
adopted as sons by God. All throughout the Old Testament, Israel is referred to as God’s
son. In Exodus 4:22, Israel is referred to as God’s fir stborn and son. Hosea 11:1-11 also
describes Israel as God’s son whom he raised tenderly. Therefore, when Paul declares
that the Galatians are sons of God in Christ (Gal 3:26), he is indicating that the Galatians
are a new Israel (Thielman, 136-137). Also, elsewhere in Paul’s letters, Christ is referred
to as the firstborn of God (Rom 8:29). By inclusion in Christ (Gal 3:27-28), the Galatians
are also God’s firstborn, i.e. Israel.
Sixth, the end of slavery for the Galatians because of their association with Christ
also indicates that they are the new, restored, redeemed Israel. Though the freedom from
slavery to which Paul most immediately refers is freedom from the curse of the Law, the
freedom from slavery can be important in a broader scope. Post-exilic and second temple
writings refer to foreign domination as slavery. For example, the Israelites called
themselves slaves while they were under the rule of Cyrus (Ezra 9:9, Neh 9:36). The
eschatological, redeemed Israel was promised freedom from slavery (Isa 61:1, Jer 30:8).
190
By showing that the Galatians are free in Christ, Paul demonstrates that the Galatians
fulfill the promise of restored Israel and are no longer in slavery (Thielman, 137-138). A
defining portion of the Mosaic covenant was God’s rescue of the Israelites from slavery.
When Yahweh gives the Law or the Old Covenant to Moses and the Israelites, his
starting point is his rescue of the Israelites from slavery (Ex 19:3-6). Therefore, the
freedom/rescue from slavery provided by Christ is the starting point for the New
Covenant as well. Moses also prophesied that Israel would be sold into slavery for their
disobedience to the Law (Deut 28:48, 68). Here, more directly the Law and slavery are
linked because failure to keep it leads to slavery. Now that the Galatians are free in
Christ, they are no longer enslaved to the Law. They are the new Israel which is under a
new covenant and is free.
Finally, Paul directly calls the Galatians Israel in Galatians 6:16: “ peace be upon
them and mercy even upon the Israel of God.” Though the syntax of the sentence is often
debated, the most natural reading means that Paul views the Galatians as Israel (see
Chapter 4 note 6.16). At the conclusion of his letter, Paul makes it explicit that the
Galatian believers are the Israel of God and no circumcision is necessary to be included
in the covenant.
Therefore, in an effort to combat the trouble-makers who were arguing that the
Galatians needed circumcision to be included in the covenant, Paul, through direct and
implicit argumentation, depicts the Galatians as the true Israel because of their
association with Christ. He also shows how the coming of the Messiah ushered in a new
age and with it a new covenant that superceded the old. In Paul’s mind, the Mosaic
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covenant had ended because the promised seed had come. There was no need to return to
the Old Covenant to be part of Israel and God’s people because those in Christ marked
the new true Israel.
6. Conclusion
The Galatian churches were the battlefield for a conflict between two
fundamentally different worldviews. In one, salvation (justification and inclusion in
God’s covenant) was governed by man’s efforts and works of the Law, while in the other
salvation was derived from grace and was centered on faith and the Spirit. Paul argues
for justification by faith. He demonstrates that faith and the Spirit have precedence over
works of the Law. He points out the failure of Law-keeping to obtain righteousness. He
redefines those in the covenant as those who possess faith. He argues that only through
faith is the Spirit received, freedom won, adoption gained, an exodus made, and a
promise to Abraham’s seed obtained. Therefore, in light of these gains, the believer is
the true Israelite and has the signs of the New Covenant, spiritually rather than
physically. Overall, Paul’s letter to the Galatians is an elegant polemic that stands for
grace and the sufficiency of Christ against those who seek to reduce salvation to a work
of man.
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Appendix
Annotated Outline
I. Salutation (1:1-2) a. Authors (1:1-2a)
i. Paul (1:1) – writing not by agency of man ii. The Brethren with Paul (1:2)
b. Recipients – churches of Galatia (1:2) II. Prayer (1:3-5)
a. Request (1:3) b. Grounds for request (1:4) c. Purpose (1:5)
III. Desertion of the Gospel (1:6-9) a. Amazement at desertion from God of grace (1:6) b. Cause of desertion – distorters (1:7) c. Preachers of different gospel accursed (1:8-9)
IV. Paul not a man-pleaser (1:10-24) a. Declaration as bond-servant of Christ, not pleasing man (1:10-12)
i. Rhetorical question of man-pleaser (1:10) ii. Gospel by revelation (1:11-12)
b. Historical Defense (1:13-24) i. Before Conversion (1:13-14)
ii. Conversion (1:15-16a) iii. Limited Interaction with Reputed Men following conversion (1:16b-
24) 1. Arabia and Damascus (1:16b-17) 2. Jerusalem - Meeting of Cephas and James (1:18-20) 3. Syria and Cilicia (1:21) 4. Unknown to churches in Judea (1:22-24)
V. Confirmation of Paul’s Gospel and Apostleship by others (2:1 -10) a. Paul submits gospel to men of reputation (2:1-2) b. Response to Titus (2:3-5)
i. Not circumcised (2:3) ii. Opposition of false brothers (2:4-5)
c. Confirmation of Paul’s Gospel (2:6 -9) d. Remember the poor (2:10)
VI. Confrontation of Peter (2:11-21) a. Description of problem (2:11-13) b. Confrontation (2:14-21)
i. Hypocrisy (2:14)
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ii. Justification by faith (2:15-16) iii. Exception to justification by faith (2:17-18) iv. Crucified with and life with Christ (2:19-21)
VII. Justification by faith alone (3:1-5:12) a. Reception of Spirit by works or faith? (3:1-5)
i. Who bewitched you? (3:1) ii. Receive Spirit by works or faith? (3:2)
iii. Perfected by Spirit or flesh? (3:3) iv. Suffering in vain? (3:4) v. Working miracles by works or faith? (3:5)
b. Example of Abraham (3:6-9) i. Righteousness by faith (3:6)
ii. Sons of Abraham by faith (3:7) iii. Gentiles included (3:8) iv. Blessings of Abraham by faith (3:9)
c. Curse of the Law (3:10-14) i. Under Law is cursed (3:10)
ii. No justification by law, but righteousness by faith (3:11-12) iii. Jesus took our curse (3:13) iv. Blessing of Abraham (3:14)
d. Covenant of Promise not invalidated by Law (3:15-18) i. Immutability of the covenant (3:15)
ii. Promises to Abraham’s seed, Christ (3:16) iii. Law doesn’t invalidate covenant (3:17) iv. Inheritance by promise alone (3:18)
e. Why the Law? (3:19-29) i. “Because of transgressions” (3:19)
ii. Law by mediator (3:19b-20) 1. Through angels by mediator (3:19b) 2. Mediator is not one, God is one (3:20)
iii. Law contrary to promises? (3:21-23) 1. Life/righteousness not by law (3:21) 2. Shut up under sin, so promise to those who believe (3:22-23)
iv. Law as tutor (3:24-27) 1. Law lead to Christ, to be justified by faith (3:24) 2. No longer under tutor (3:25)
a. Because sons of God by faith (3:26) b. Because baptized in Christ (3:27)
v. Christ, the promise, is universally available by faith (3:28-29) 1. All one is Jesus (3:28) 2. All descendents of Abraham, if Christ’s (3:29)
f. Sonship in Christ (4:1-10) i. Heir as a child (4:1-3)
1. Heir as child no different from slave (4:1-2)
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2. We are those children (4:3) ii. Christ’s adoption (4:4 -7)
1. Christ born under Law to redeem us from Law (4:4) 2. We received adoption as sons (4:5)
a. Spirit cries “Abba, Father” (4:6) b. No longer slave, but son, and heir (4:7)
iii. Why return to the Law? (4:8-10) 1. Not known by God, slaves (4:8) 2. Now known why return? (4:9) 3. How returning? (4:10)
a. Days b. Months c. Seasons d. Years
g. Historical/Emotional Appeal of Paul (4:11-20) i. Labor in vain (4:11)
ii. No animosity towards Galatians (4:12-16) 1. I preached because of bodily illness (4:13) 2. You didn’t despise (4:14) 3. Where is that blessing you gave? (4:15) 4. Enemy by truth? (4:16)
iii. Being sought negatively (4:17-20) 1. Seek to shut you out (4:17) 2. Good to be sought commendably (4:18) 3. Why are you like this (4:19-20)
h. Bondwoman/Freewoman allegory (4:21-31) i. If want Law, why don’t you listen to it? (4:21)
ii. Two Sons (4:22-23) 1. Son of bondservant born through flesh (4:23a) 2. Son of freewoman born through promise (4:23b)
iii. Allegory/Two Covenants (4:24-31) 1. Mount Sinai (4:24-25)
a. Slaves (4:24) b. Hagar (4:24) c. Present Jerusalem (4:25) d. Children in slavery (4:25)
2. Jerusalem above (4:26-27) a. Our mother (4:26) b. The barren has become populated by work of Christ
(4:27) 3. We are Isaac, children of promise (4:28)
a. Like Isaac, persecuted by Ishmael, sons of flesh (4:29) b. Cast out Ishmael (4:30) c. We are children of free woman (4:31)
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i. Freedom versus slavery (5:1-12) i. Christ for freedom (5:1)
ii. Circumcision (5:2-6) 1. If received circumcision (5:2-4)
a. Christ no benefit (5:2) b. Under obligation to whole Law (5:3) c. Severed from Christ (5:4) d. Fallen from grace (5:4)
2. Faith (5:5-6) a. Hope of righteousness (5:5) b. (Un)Circumcision nothing, but faith (5:6)
iii. Why not obey truth? (5:7-12) 1. Not from God (5:8) 2. Pervasive (5:9) 3. Encouragement to follow Christ and grace (5:10) 4. Stumbling block (5:11) 5. Destruction of those troubling (5:12)
VIII. Outworking of the Gospel of Grace (5:13-6:10) a. Love (5:13-15)
i. Freedom for love, not flesh (5:13) ii. Law equals love neighbor as self (5:14)
iii. You will be consumed if you devour one another (5:15) b. Spirit versus Flesh (5:16-25)
i. Opposition of Flesh and Spirit (5:16-17) ii. Those in Spirit not under Law (5:18)
iii. Deeds of Flesh (5:19-21) 1. Deeds (5:19-21a) 2. Won’t inherit the Kingdom of God (5:21b)
iv. Fruit of the Spirit (5:22-24) 1. Aspects of the fruit (5:22-23) 2. Flesh crucified in Christ (5:24)
v. Living by spirit, walk by it (5:25) c. Bear each other’s burdens (5:26 -6:10)
i. Don’t be boastful (5:26) ii. Restore each other (6:1-2)
iii. Examine yourself in the process (6:3-5) 1. Don’t think highly of self (6:3) 2. Boast only in self (6:4) 3. Bear own load (6:5)
iv. Share good things with teacher (6:6) v. Reap what you sow (6:7-10)
1. Sow flesh, reap corruption of flesh (6:8a) 2. Sow Spirit, reap eternal life (6:8b)
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3. Will reap in time, so do good to all people, esp. household of God (6:9-10)
IX. Sub-Letter/Boasting (6:11-16) a. Emphasis (6:11) b. Reasons for supporting circumcision (6:12-13)
i. Afraid of persecution (6:12) ii. To boast in your flesh (6:13)
c. Paul boasts in Christ (6:14) d. Final summary (6:15-16)
i. Circumcision/uncircumcision is nothing, but new creation (6:15) ii. Live by this, gain peace and mercy (6:16)
X. Ending (6:17-18) a. I will not be troubled by these men (6:17)
Blessing (6:18)
