FRANÇOIS, Rastier. 2006.Semantics and Cognitive Research

8/12/2019 FRANÇOIS, Rastier. 2006.Semantics and Cognitive Research

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-rastier-2006semantics-and-cognitive-research 1/34

1

SEMANTICSAND COGNITIVE RESEARCH

François RASTIER

2006





3

TABLE OF O!TE!T"

#ntro$%&tion ............................................................................................. '.

F#R"T "ET#O! *#"TOR+ A! E-#"TEMOLO+

/a'ter # onitie resear&/ .................................................................. '. 111. "oe 'reliinaries ..................................................................... '. 112. T/e eora'/y o onitie Resear&/ ...................................... '. 123. T/e *istoriora'/y o onitie Resear&/ .................................. '. 164. T/e -ost%lates o onitie Resear&/ ........................................ '. 22. T/e T5o -ara$is .................................................................... '. 2

/a'ter ## "takes or Lin%isti&s ............................................................. '. 3

/a'ter ### Fro &on&e't to siniie$ ...................................................... '.

"EO! "ET#O! "EMA!T#" A! ART#F##AL #!TELL#E!E

/a'ter #7 "eanti&s o net5orks ........................................................... '.

/a'ter 7 #A8s oraliss an$ re'resentation o t/e le9i&al siniie$ ...... '.

/a'ter 7# ialo%e an:a&/ine an$ re'resentation o t/e interlo&%tor '.

T*#R "ET#O! FROM -"+*OLO+ TO !E;RO"#E!E"

/a'ter 7## ateori<ation, ty'i&ality an$ Le9i&oloy ............................... '.

/a'ter 7### "eanti& 'er&e'tion ............................................................. '.

/a'ter # Anatoi&al s%=strates o &%lt%res an$ o lan%aes ................ '.

E'ilo%e .................................................................................................... '.

A''en$i9 to t/e se&on$ e$ition T/e F%n&tionalis an$ en$o >'ara$is? ........................................................................................... '.

lossary .................................................................................................... '.

"y=ols an$ a==reiations ........................................................................ '.

Reeren&es ................................................................................................ '.



4



#!TRO;T#O!

1. T/e state o &onitie resear&/ /as eole$ &onsi$era=ly oer t/e ie year 'erio$$%rin 5/i&/ t/is =ook 5as 5ritten. #n Fran&e, as else5/ere in E%ro'e, &onitie resear&//as =een instit%tionali<e$ to a &onsi$era=le e9tent in resear&/ an$ in tea&/in 'roras as5ell. #n$ee$ a oo$ n%=er o resear&/ers, in or$er to o=tain %n$in, /ae o%n$t/eseles o=lie$ to &lai soe alleian&e to its $oinant t/ees an$ orientations.

es'ite t/is ra'i$ 'roress o%r initial oal /as not &/ane$ to e9'lore 5/at &onitieresear&/ &an =rin to t/e so&ial s&ien&es, es'e&ially to lin%isti&s, an$ to eal%ate &onitieresear&/ ro t/e 'oint o ie5 o lin%isti&s. T/is $o%=le 'ers'e&tie /as ena=le$ %s to

orani<e a ast s%=@e&t atter, to%&/in %'on a n%=er o $is&i'lines, in s%&/ a 5ay as to'resent t/e ost i'ortant t/ees 5it/o%t ne&essarily oerin an e9/a%stie treatent oeeryt/in t/at is at stake.

T/e relations =et5een t/e ario%s $is&i'lines enae$ in &onitie resear&/ /aealso eole$ oer t/e last ie years. T/e rise o t/e &onne&tionist 'ro=leati& (&. &/a'. ##)/as =een arke$ =y a stron intera&tion 5it/ t/e ne%ros&ien&es an$ 5it/ net5ork '/ysi&s.#n$ee$ t/ese $is&i'lines /ae a$e $e&isie 'roress. it/in t/e ne%ros&ien&es, t/esea$an&es are 'artially $%e to 'roress in =io&/eistry on t/e one /an$ an$ in &ere=raliaery on t/e ot/er. #n net5ork '/ysi&s, 'roress /as =een a$e =y t/e a''li&ation ostatisti&al e&/ani&s1 an$ in '/ysi&s =y t/e $eelo'ent o s'in lass t/eory.

T/ese iel$s o en%iry are eolin ery ra'i$ly an$ &o%l$ 5ell lea$ to i'ortant$is&oeries. Crar$ To%lo%se or e9a'le /as ela=orate$ a rat/er 'roisin 'arallel @%st

as &lassi&al e&/ani&s, $eelo'e$ in or$er to re'la&e /%an an$ anial or&e, ae rise%ne9'e&te$ly to %ant% e&/ani&s, so too i/t net5ork '/ysi&s, $eelo'e$ in or$er toassist /%an intellien&e2, lea$ to t/eoreti&al %'/eaals o t/e sae anit%$e.

2. "eanti&s itsel /o5eer is not $ire&tly ae&te$ =y t/ese $eelo'ents. O%r aire%ires %s to reain 5it/in t/is ine layer o Bein t/at is t/e sy=oli& (&. infra, &/a'. #, 3an$ t/e e'ilo%e). #t is =y re&oni<in t/e relatie a%tonoy o t/e sy=oli& t/at 5e area=le to se'arate 5or$s ro t/ins an$ $es&ri=e t/e s'e&ii&ity o s'ee&/ an$ o lan%aes5it/o%t =e&oin e=roile$ in re$%&tionist enter'rises 5/i&/ 5o%l$ sit%ate lin%isti&s 5it/ina 'sy&/oloy, a =ioloy, or een a '/ysi&s3.

it/in t/e sy=oli& s'/ere, lin%isti&s nei/=ors 5it/ 'sy&/oloy as 5ell as t/at

=ran&/ o A# 5/i&/ 'ro&esses lin%isti& sy=ols. T/is is 5/y 5e 'ro'ose to $eote t/e last

1 For an intro$%&tion see MC<ar$ an$ !a$al (1DD0), Me%nier (1DD0).2 onne&tionnist net5orks o &o%rse sere t/e o=@e&ties o Artii&ial #ntellien&e (/en&eort/ A#).! A &ase in 'oint is RenC T/o8s semiophysics as $eelo'e$ =y . -etitot (1DD, '. 21)G&onsi$ere$ as t/e at/eati&al s&ien&e o nat%ral lan%aes, t/eoreti&al lin%isti&s is a nat%rals&ien&e, ore a '/ysi&s t/an a loi&G. T/e e9'ression natural languages t/at -etitot %ses $oesnot o=literate t/eir &%lt%ral nat%re.



6

t5o se&tions to t/ese s&ien&es een i 5e also 'erit o%rseles in&%rsions into ot/er$is&i'lines.

3. T/e &on&e't o inter$is&i'linarity t/at 5e are oin to '%t ort/ $iers ro one

$is&i'line to t/e ne9t. #n t/e &ase o a te&/noloy s%&/ as A#, 5e 5ill atte't to st%$y irstly/o5 its &/ara&teristi& orali<ations an$ 'ro&e$%res &an =e %se$ in seanti&s, an$se&on$ly, 5/at seanti&s &an &ontri=%te to t/e a%toati& lan%ae 'ro&essin. #n t/e &aseo s&ien&es s%&/ as 'sy&/oloy an$ ne%roloy 5e 5ill inestiate t/e &orrelates oseanti& '/enoena t/at i/t sere to &orro=orate or i'air o%r /y'ot/eses, 5it/o%tne&essarily e9'e&tin o%r in$ins to ali$ate or $isiss t/e. /ateer ay =e sai$ o%sional &on&e'tions o inter$is&i'linarity, no s&ien&e &an in itsel ali$ate anot/er, sin&eeen i t/ey s/are t/e sae e'iri&al o=@e&t (s%&/ as lin%isti&s, 'sy&/olin%isti&s, an$ne%rolin%isti&s), t/ey $o not /ae t/e sae e'isteoloi&al o=@e&ties an$'res%''ositions.

T/ere ay =e soe interest in eokin t/e iae o a kin$ o ree tra$e =et5een t/es&ien&es i only t/eir =or$ers to%&/e$. B%t t/ese =or$ers are &onstantly o$iie$ =y

s&ientii& 'ra&ti&e an$ in s%&/ a 5ay t/at &onta&t =et5een nei/=orin $is&i'lines is notne&essarily a$e sin&e ea&/ $is&i'line $eines its o=@e&t in a 'arti&%lar 5ay an$&ir&%s&ri=es or it a $istin&t leel o reality. T5o s&ien&es &an o&&%'y t/e sae terrain::or,in *%sserlian ters, $es&ri=e t/e sae layer o Bein::=%t not t/e sae $oain.Trans$is&i'linary t/eoreti&al or%lations are in t/e =est o &ases reional ontoloies or inany eent '/iloso'/ies an$ not s&ien&es.

#n s/ort, t/e irst se&tion o t/is 5ork 5ill &on&ern e'isteoloy in or$er to $eal 5it/ an%=er o &onerent %estions

(i) onitie resear&/ is inter$is&i'linaryH 5/at are t/e ors o t/isinter$is&i'linarity I

(ii) onitie resear&/ takes kno5le$e as its o=@e&t, one o t/e tra$itional o=@e&ts o'/iloso'/y. an a noseoloy =e s&ientii&I

(iii) /at is t/e role o lan%ae in kno5le$e I oes t/is %estion, in&i$entally,&on&ern lin%isti&s I(i) "in&e t/e 'ro=le o eanin /as lon 'reo&&%'ie$ '/iloso'/y, an$ to a

&onsi$era=le e9tent still $oes, 5/at &on$itions are ne&essary in or$er or seanti&s to&onstit%te itsel as a s&ientii& $is&i'line I

4. Ans5erin t/ese %estions re%ires irst o all soe rele&tion on t/e eol%tion o&onitie resear&/. #n or$er to %n$erstan$ t/is eol%tion, one /as to eal%ate re&enta$an&es in t/e iel$ in li/t o t/e ario%s 'ro=leati&s t/at /ae &ontri=%te$ to t/e an$in relation to t/ose 'ro=leati&s t/at t/is sae resear&/ /as ren$ere$ o%t$ate$. T/is%n$erstan$in &annot =e liite$ to an e9aination o resear&/ &on$%&te$ t/ro%/o%t t/e0s, nor een to t/e /al &ent%ry $%rin 5/i&/ o$ern &onitiis $eelo'e$, sin&e inany res'e&ts, &onitie resear&/ to$ay is '%rs%in, or &/allenin, an an&ient '/iloso'/i&tra$ition.

e 5ill &onse%ently ake re%ent reeren&e to t/e /istory o i$eas. ertainly t/e/istory o lin%isti& seanti&s is still =rie an$ &onitie resear&/ is 'ossi=ly een yo%nersin&e it 5illinly &lais not to /ae any /istory at all or at least 'reten$s to /aeina%%rate$ a ne5 era in resear&/. #n o%r ie5 it is 'roita=le to sit%ate t/e %estions t/isresear&/ eokes in a /istori&al 'ers'e&tie. As 5ell, t/e /istory o t/e s&ien&es, ar ro





e'iri&al tra$ition t/at /as al5ays stresse$ t/e tentatie an$ relatie &/ara&ter okno5le$e (5/ereas $oati& rationalis /ol$s at/eati&al tr%t/s as 'araon::an$ =ye9tension analyti&al tr%t/s as 5ell t/at in a&t are ta%toloies::an$ &on&l%$es t/at it &an%n&oer a=sol%te tr%t/s on t/e =asis o t/eir e'isteoloi&ally ne&essary &/ara&ter).

(iii) #t i/t 5ell =e 'ossi=le to %n&oer a nat%ral o%n$ation (in t/e =rain, t/en ineneti& &o$es) or lin%isti& re%larities, =%t t/e s&ientii& 'ro=le an$ interest rest no less::or no ore::5it/ t/e %nity o lan%aes an$ t/eir seanti&s t/an 5it/ t/eir $iersity. Asi$ero t/is one /as to &onsi$er t/e iense $iersity o t/ose e'iri&al o=@e&ts kno5n aste9ts, an$ $o%=t t/at t/ey &an eer =e re$%&e$ to %niersals.

F%rt/erore, t/e lin%isti& an$ non:lin%isti& &onte9t (es'e&ially in seanti&s) is,insoar as it i%res as t/e inter'retant, &onstit%tie o t/e GessaeG. One /as to &on&%r atleast t/at, in a lo=al as 5ell as ore ianent sense, t/e te9t is $eterine$ an$ arke$=y t/e &onte9t in a %ltit%$e o 5ays. #n s/ort, lin%isti& 'eroran&e &onsists o a &ontin%ala$a'tation to a ariety o sit%ations 5/ose 'araeters =etray any a&ile an$ /an$y&al&%lations. "%&/ &al&%lation is ineita=ly r%strate$ =y a al&%lty o a$a'tation (i.e.,sele&tion o en$er, o tone, et&.) t/at in a&t =elons to lin%isti& &o'eten&e or is so

in$isso&ia=le ro it t/at one &o%l$ not iaina=ly 'ro$%&e any G'%reG lin%isti& a&t 5/i&/ isree ro its inl%en&eD.

By =earin t/is a&%lty o a$a'tation in in$ 5e are 'la&in o%rseles in a $e&i$e$lye&oloi&al 'ers'e&tie (in i=son8s sense) oreso t/an in a loi&al one. A ro5in n%=ero resear&/ers enae$ in &onitie resear&/, nota=ly in eronoi&s an$ in ant/ro'oloy($is&i'lines or 5/i&/ &onte9t is not a si'le aria=le), /ae ar%e$ or an$ a$o'te$ t/isery 'ers'e&tie10.

(i) T/e '/yloenesis o lan%aes, toet/er 5it/ t/eir atten$ant sinii&ations, $oesnot 'reent t/e ro =ein &onsi$ere$ as /istori&al orations (@%st as so&ial'/yloenesis $oes not ann%l t/e /istori&ity o so&ieties). T/is 'oint in a&t 'erits t/einteration o a /istori&al lin%isti&s in or$er to o =eyon$ it in t/e or o a 'an&/roni&lin%isti&s.

6. "&ientii& resear&/ in t/is &ent%ry /as =een arke$ =y a eneral fundamentalismo 5/i&/ &lassi&al &onitiis is @%st one e9'ression. As e9a'les o t/is tren$ one 5o%l$/ae to &ite R%ssell an$ /ite/ea$8s Principia Mathematica an$ *il=ert8s Foundations ofGeometry, in t/e iel$ o at/eati&s #n '/ysi&s, one &o%l$ reer to t/e ;niie$ Fiel$T/eory. T/ese %n$aentalist oeents in t/e /ar$ s&ien&es /ae %ite 'ossi=lyinl%en&e$ ot/er $is&i'lines.

/ateer t/e &ase ay =e, i 5e &onsi$er t/e lie s&ien&es one noti&es or e9a'le arearka=le e9'ansion o t/e iel$ o ole&%lar =ioloy an$ t/e relatie $is&re$itin o&la$isti&s an$ or onoin eorts in t/e area o 5/at reains t/e %ninis/e$ re'ertory o t/e

# Monta%e $eseres &re$it or /ain inente$ t/e notion o index in or$er to a&&o%nt or t/is

ery a&t. T/e ter reers to a se%en&e o aria=les s%&/ as place, time, speaker, listener,deictic moves, possible worlds . . Le5is an$ "talnaker /ae enlare$ t/is list. O &o%rse it is nots%i&ient to =e a=le to re&oni<e t/e e9isten&e o t/ese aria=les in or$er to 'ro$%&e an$ 5itnesst/eir ee&ts...D Es'e&ially in t/e &ase o lin%isti&s.10 For an ant/ro'oloi&al 'ers'e&tie, see "%&/an (1DJ)H or t/e i'li&ations o "%&/an8st/eory, see 7isetti (1DD). T/is 'ers'e&tie /as no ne&essary link 5it/ 'raati&s sin&e t/eree9ists s%&/ a t/in as %niersalist 'raati&sH in a siilar sense, one &o%l$ ention t/eet/no&entris o ri&e, an$ o resear&/ers like "'er=er an$ ilson 5/o ollo5 /i an$ 5/o5rite GAll /%an =eins lie in t/e sae '/ysi&al 5orl$G (1DD, '. 64).



D

s'e&ies11. One i/t een attri=%te t/is 'arti&%lar eol%tion to e&onoi& a&tors a ole&%le&an =e 'atente$. One also /as to ree=er t/at t/e n%=er o liin s'e&ies is $iinis/inra'i$ly.

Een t/e $iersity t/at &/ara&teri<es o%r o5n s'e&ies is %n$eroin a &o'ara=le

eol%tion one @%st /as to t/ink o t/e ro5in %niori<ation o so&ial an$ &%lt%ral 'ra&ti&es'atterne$ on an in&reasinly liite$ n%=er o o$els, an$ t/e $isa''earan&e ea&/ year oa &on$i$era=le n%=er o lan%aes an$ $iale&ts.

F%n$aental resear&/ is &ertainly a $esira=le t/in. F%n$aentalis /o5eerei$ently aors t/eoreti&al re$%&tionis (5/i&/, %nlike et/o$oloi&al re$%&tionis, is5it/o%t @%stii&ation). Finally, it rele&ts an$ een anti&i'ates a 5orl$ 5/ose %alitatieri&/ness is =ein $il%te$.

+et t/e real &/allene or t/e s&ien&es (an$ es'e&ially or t/e so&ial s&ien&es) /as to=ein 5it/ not =ein satisie$ 5it/ t/e notion o t/e G%niersalG::5/i&/ is 're&isely 5/ere

Aristotelian t/inkin 5o%l$ /ae t/e sit%ate$::=%t instea$ seekin to a&&o%nt or $iersity.

J. O all t/e =ran&/es o lin%isti&s, seanti&s is 5it/o%t a $o%=t t/e one 5/ere t/e

'ro=le o $iersity is t/e ost &r%&ial an$ t/e least easily $is&erne$. Broa$ly s'eakinlin%ists /ae eneral or %niersal seanti& t/eories, =%t t/ere e9ists no seanti&s s'e&ii&to 'arti&%lar lan%aes, %&/ less 'arti&%lar $is&o%rses or enres. !eert/eless 5/oeer/as $one translations /as /a$ to &ontent /isel 5it/ less t/an e%ialent ters. An$5/oeer /as enae$ in te9t analysis &annot =%t =e str%&k =y t/e %n're$i&ta=le an$in$einite aria=ility o seanti& relations 5it/in s'e&ii& &onte9ts.

e /ae a$o'te$ a seanti& a''roa&/ t/at 5e &onsi$er to =e t/e ost sensitie to$iersity $ierential seanti&s (&. &/a'. ###). eelo'e$ 5it/in t/e "a%ss%rian tra$ition,$ierential seanti&s /as interate$ soe as'e&ts o t/e &o'onential seanti&s12 &%rrent$%rin t/e 60s =%t /as one =eyon$ it in o%r ie5 're&isely =y &/allenin its 'retensions to%niersalis13, in t/e ai o =ein =etter a=le to a&&o%nt or &onte9t%al an$ te9t%al&o'le9ity.

+et 5it/in t/e rane o 'ro=leati&s t/at seanti&s en&o'asses t/is last /as s%relyre&eie$ t/e least attention =y t/e &onitie s&ien&es, een t/o%/ re&ent $e=ates a=o%tt/e subsymbolic /ae sit%ate$ a n%=er o its t/ees, or e9a'le &onte9t%al ariation an$t/e non:&o'ositionality o eanin, at t/e leel o ental re'resentations.

T/is 'ara$o9i&al sit%ation 5ill ena=le %s to esta=lis/ a link 5it/ 'reio%s $e=ates an$to or%late %estions t/at are not or$inarily raise$ in t/is $oain. Most i'ortantly, o%rinterest 5ill =e to $is&%ss t/e re$%&tion o t/e seanti& to t/e ental, as 5ell as t/erelations =et5een lin%isti& siniie$s an$ &on&e'ts on t/e one /an$ an$ ental iaes ont/e ot/er. By intro$%&in or aintainin t/ese %n$aental $istin&tions 5e 5ill =e a=le to$eine t/e relatie a%tonoy o t/e sy=oli&. T/is en$eaor e9&ee$s t/e &onines oseanti&s stri&tly s'eakin an$ interests seioti&s as a 5/ole.

11 An i$ea t/at is s%ari<e$ 'ere&tly =y a a9i attri=%te$ to a&%es Mono$ G/at is tr%eor =a&teria is tr%e or ele'/antsG.12 T/is e9'ression is a 'artial isnoer &o'onential seanti&s /as neer =een G%niie$G. Ont/e &ontrary, it rele&ts all t/e &ontra$i&tions =et5een t/e &o'etin 'ro=leati&s o t/e 'erio$.13 T/e $e=ate 5as larely o&%se$ on t/e stat%s o seanti& eat%res. o%=t 5as &ast on any&oon ass%'tions &on&ernin t/eir nat%re, in 'arti&%lar 5/et/er t/ey 5ere e5 in n%=er,5/et/er t/ey &onstit%te$ inial or in$iisi=le %nits, an$ o &o%rse, 5/et/er t/ey 5ere%niersals (see Rastier, 1DJ a, &/a'. #).



10

"eioti&s a''ears to =e t/e 'riilee$ $oain 5/ere t/e intera&tion =et5een&onitie resear&/ an$ lin%isti&s as a so&ial s&ien&e is ost &learly 'laye$ o%t. #n$ee$ t/isrelations/i' ay 5ell &/ara&teri<e t/e %t%re o t/e so&ial s&ien&es as a 5/ole an$ also o&onitie resear&/ itsel.

e 5ill also =e le$ in seeral 'la&es to or%late a n%=er o &riti%es &on&ernint/e 'ost%lates o ort/o$o9 &onitiis, an$ een t/ose o &onitie resear&/ oreenerally, 'arti&%larly in res'e&t to t/eir tri'le nele&t o lan%aes, o &on&rete sit%ations ointera&tion an$ in t/e en$ o &%lt%res. T/is nele&t /as not 'eritte$ t/ese $is&i'lines toree t/eseles ro eta'/ysi&al tra$itions.

#n ee&t 5e are 'la&in o%rseles in a $ierent an$ soeties $istan&e$ 'ers'e&tie 5e /ae a$o'te$ t/e 'oint o ie5 o a seioti&s o &%lt%res (an$ /ere t/e seanti&s olan%aes 'lays a 'iotal role) t/at /as yet to =e &onstit%te$ as an a%tonoo%s $is&i'linean$ in$ee$ reains to =e $eelo'e$. #n =ot/ t/eir 'ra&ti&al an$ t/eoreti&al ors, its =asi&&onstit%ents still reain $is'arate in ost o t/e so&ial s&ien&es. #n or$er to sket&/ its'araeters, one 5o%l$ /ae to ret%rn to ant/ro'oloy an$ t/e 5orks o LCi:"tra%ss an$Mars/all "a/lins, to t/e 5orks o assirer in '/iloso'/y, to t/e &o'aratie yt/oloy o

%C<il an$ /ara&/i$<C, in /istory to t/e 5orks o arlo ins=%r, o -anosky, "a9l, an$o=ri&/ in i&onoloy, to "ere in '/iloloy, an$ to t/e seioti& resear&/ o Lotan an$;s'ensky.

For t/e oent 5e 5ill &ontent o%rseles 5it/ entionin t/at &onitie resear&/ asa 5/ole 5o%l$ $o%=tless 'roit ro a reater &onsi$eration o &%lt%ral a&tors, een i onlyto ena=le it to =etter a&&o%nt or t/e s'e&ii&ities o /%an &onitionH an$ also t/at aseioti&s o &%lt%res s/o%l$ a''roa&/ t/e notion o t/e human mind 5it/ 'r%$en&e.onse%ently, o%r 5is/ is to initiate a $e=ate =et5een &onitie resear&/ an$ a seioti&so &%lt%res, not in or$er to o'en a 'olei& =%t in t/e ai o strent/enin t/e relations=et5een t/e t5o $is&i'lines. O%r &on&l%sions a=o%t t/e anatoi&al s%=strata o &%lt%resten$ 're&isely in t/is $ire&tion. #n t/e en$, it is really a %estion o &oin to ters 5it/ t/eo''ositions =et5een nat%re an$ &%lt%re, a&%ire$ an$ innate, 're&isely in or$er to

oer&oe t/e. #t s/o%l$ =e &lear t/at t/is e9&l%$es /asty &lassii&ations, %arrels =et5een$ierent Gs&/oolsG, an$ so'/oori& &onli&ts =et5een 'ara$is. e %st 'ro&ee$ in t/es'irit o resear&/, in t/e /o'e o e9ten$in t/e &ir&le o o%r inoran&e.

"eeral 'arts o t/e 'resent 5ork /ae alrea$y a''eare$ in $ierse '%=li&ations, ort/e ost 'art in s'e&ial iss%es o a n%=er o @o%rnals Langages, J, an$ Histoirepistmologie langage, #, 1. To t/e t/anks # o5e t/e e$itors o t/ese @o%rnals # a$$ ot/ers,'arti&%larly to L!information grammaticale, "ntellectica, t/e #uaderni di semantica, t/e$ulletin de la section de linguisti%ue de la facult des lettres de Lausanne& Finally &/a'ter7# is 'artially re'rinte$ ro y &ontri=%tion to t/e &olle&te$ ol%e 'changes sur laconversation, e$ite$ =y . osnier an$ . Ker=rat.

#t is a 'leas%re to =e a=le to t/ank y rien$s an$ &ollea%es o t/e La=oratoire$8inorati%e 'o%r la C&ani%e et les s&ien&es $e l8inCnie%r, o t/e #nstit%t $es s&ien&es$e la &onition et $e la &o%ni&ation, o t/e La=oratoire $8eronoie '/ysioloi%e et&onitie, o t/e E&ole nationale s%'Crie%re $es tClC&o%ni&ations, o t/e Asso&iation'o%r la re&/er&/e &onitie, an$ o t/e "o&iCtC $8/istoire et $8C'istColoie $es s&ien&es$% lanae. it/o%t t/e # 5o%l$ neer /ae =een a=le to reali<e t/is inter$is&i'linary::an$soeties %n$is&i'line$::st%$y. #n 'arti&%lar # 5o%l$ like to %n$erline y ratit%$e to +es:Marie 7isetti.

An e9&ellent &%sto e9ists 5/i&/ allo5s t/e a%t/or to a$ire t/e 'atien&e o /is 5ieHin y &ase one s/o%l$ also s'eak o a =eneolent in$%len&e t/at =or$ers on ananiity.



11

Chapter I

COGNITIVE RESEARCH

1. SOME PRELIMINARIES

a) oes t/ere e9ist a &onitie s&ien&e I T/is is t/e i'ression let =y a e5 Aeri&an so%r&es (t/e @o%rnal (ognitive )cience, t/e title o ar$ner8s 5ork *he Mind!s+ew )cience, 1D ). Or a$$itionaly, =y t/is $einition o t/e science of cognition (LeMoine, 1D6 = 23D) Ga $is&i'linary iel$ $eine$ (sin&e 1DJJ) as a%tonoo%s =y irt%e oits o=@e&t an$ =y its o$e o &onstit%tion an$ inolin t/e st%$y o &onitie 'ro&esses ineneral, nat%ral or artii&ialH it is also &/ara&teri<e$ =y t/e intera&tion o a &ertain n%=er o

$is&i'lines aiin to %n$erstan$ &onitie 'ro&esses ($is&i'lines not only in t/e G/ar$Gs&ien&es =%t t/e GsotG s&ien&es as 5ell) &o'%tational an$ &o'%ter s&ien&es, loi&,lin%isti&s, 'sy&/olin%isti&s, &onitie 'sy&/oloy, ne%ro'sy&/oloy an$ t/ene%ros&ien&es, so&ial 'sy&/oloies si&, &o%ni&ation s&ien&es, so&io:ant/ro'oloy,e&onoi&s, systei&s, e'isteoloy. onition, t/e a&t o kno5in, is $eine$ =y t/e entirerane, nat%ral or artii&ial, o o=sera=le &onitie 'ro&esses. onition &annot =e re$%&e$to kno5le$e (t/e latter re'resentin t/e res%ltin 'ro$%&t o a &onitie 'ro&ess)G. T/isa=i%o%s $einition &alls or seeral rearks an$ &larii&ations.

(i) An inter$is&i'linary iel$ s/o%l$ not =e &on%se$ 5it/ a s&ien&e. T/e re&ent /istoryo t/e so&ial s&ien&es 5o%l$ s%est t/at t/eir 'roress /as =een /a'ere$ =y t/eira$/eren&e to 5/at ay =e tere$ a fusional conception o inter$is&i'linarity. #n$ee$ t/eentire /istory o t/e s&ien&es $eonstrates t/at t/ey eole ore =y ission an$

$ierentiation t/an =y %sion. An$ in t/e en$ 5e 5o%l$ =e =etter o to aoi$ t/is rat/er la9%se o t/e 5or$ scienceH 5e =eliee it is ore 'r%$ent, an$ a&&%rate, to %se t/e e9'ressioncognitive research 5/i&/ &o'rises all t/e $is&i'lines st%$yin &onition.

(ii) T/e list o $is&i'lines entione$ =y Le Moine is to say t/e least /eteroeneo%san$ raises a n%=er o %estions &on&ernin t/eir interrelations. Are systei&s an$e'isteoloy s&ien&es or =ran&/es o '/iloso'/y I /at is t/e &onitie %n&tion oe&onoi&s I oes lin%isti&s not =elon to t/e &o%ni&ation s&ien&esI

(iii) T/e insistan&e on natural and artificial &onition, re%ent eno%/ in t/e &onte9to &onitie resear&/, oten lea$s to t/e s%''osition t/at aniate =eins an$ a&/inesi/t =e a=le to t/ink an$ %n$erstan$ in a &o'ara=le 5ay. T/is 'ost%late, sai$ to=efunctionalist , /as =een &alle$ to 'lay a o%n$ational role it is t/e only 'osition t/at ist/o%/t &a'a=le o esta=lis/in any %nity 5it/in an inter$is&i'linary iel$. As s%&/ it

'res%''oses 5/at is in a&t a a9ialist &on&e'tion o si%lation 5/at oes on in ananiate =ein, an$ 5it/in t/e a&/ine t/at si%lates it, are sai$ to =elon to t/e saeor$er o reality.

=) # t/ere $oes not e9ist a sinle &onitie s&ien&e, let %s t%rn o%r attention to the&onitie s&ien&es. #n t/e list @%st &ite$, $oes t/ere e9ist a &onitie s&ien&e in t/e sense otakin &onition to =e its s'e&ii& an$ e9&l%sie o=@e&tI !o s%&/ &ase e9ists. onitionreains an o=@e&t t/at no s&ien&e /as yet =een a=le to $is'ossess o its %s%al '/iloso'/i&rae5ork. e nee$ irst o all to s'e&iy 5/at t/e &onitie &/ara&ter o t/ose &entral



12

$is&i'lines ost oten &ite$ (&o'%ter s&ien&e, &onitie 'sy&/oloy, lin%isti&s) a&t%ally&onsists o.

T/e &onitie as'e&ts (in Le Moine8s =roa$ sense) o computer science &on&ernonly one o its asso&iate$ te&/noloies, naely Artii&ial #ntellien&e14. onitie

'sy&/oloy is a =ran&/ o 'sy&/oloy an$ not an a%tonoo%s $is&i'line. #n 'ra&ti&e it $oesnot st%$y all as'e&ts o &onition (or e9a'le t/e ne%roloi&al leel is =eyon$ its s&o'e).

Beore &onsi$erin %n$er 5/at &on$itions linguistics i/t =e 'la&e$ on t/e list o t/e&onitie s&ien&es 5e %st irst &onsi$er t/e role o lan%ae in &onition.

. THE GEOGRAPH! OF COGNITIVE RESEARCH

eora'/y, one &o%l$ say, $eterines /istory. e &an =ein =y s/o5in /o5 t/erelations/i's =et5een t/ose $is&i'lines t/at are %s%ally in&l%$e$ %n$er t/e /ea$in o&onitie resear&/ are re'resente$ to$ay. T/e st%$y s'onsore$ =y t/e "loan o%n$ation in1DJ on t/e state o art 'ro'ose$ t/e ollo5in $iara

NNNNNN stron inter$is&i'linary link :::::::::: 5eak inter$is&i'linary linkDia"ra# 1

14 A# is ater all not @%st one te&/noloy aon ot/ers. T/e t/eoreti&al a=itions o its o%n$ers, @%stas t/e '/iloso'/i&al $e=ates 5/i&/ s%rro%n$ A# to$ay, attri=%te a %ni%e 'la&e to it, $istin&t root/ers $is&i'lines.



13

!at%rally t/is /aronio%s G&onitie /e9aonG 'ose$ ore 'ro=les t/an it resole$.*o5eer, in &oentin on t/e $iara, t/e a%t/ors eoke$ a 5i$es'rea$ o'inion >/at/as =ro%/t t/e iel$ into e9isten&e is a &oon resear&/ o=@e&tie to $is&oer t/ere'resentational an$ &o'%tational &a'a&ities o t/e in$ an$ t/eir str%&t%ral an$

%n&tional re'resentation in t/e =rain? (1DJ , a&&or$in to ar$ner, 1D 36).

Le Moine /as o%tline$ a ne5er ersion, ore $etaile$ an$ &onsi$era=ly $ierentro t/e /e9aon o $iara 1 (&. 1D6a 1).

(a) y=erneti&s(=) !e%rolin%isti&s

(&) !e%ro'sy&/oloy($) o'%tational lin%isti&s

(e) -sy&/olin%isti&s

Dia"ra#

iara 2 &alls or t/e ollo5in o=serations.

(i) 'pistemology /as Gre'la&e$G '/iloso'/y, a oe t/at $oes not =etter esta=lis/ itss&ientii& stat%s. /ateer t/e &ase, e'isteoloy is sit%ate$ at a $ierent leel t/an t/eot/er $is&i'lines.

(ii) /ereas so&io:lin%isti&s (not re'resente$ /ere) s/o%l$ =e sit%ate$ %n$er t/e/ea$in o lin%isti&s, psycholinguistics is sit%ate$ 5it/in 'sy&/oloy.

(iii) Lastly an$ ost sinii&antly, lin%isti&s is not &o%nte$ aon t/e so&ial s&ien&es.T/is is a ost tellin oission.



14

T/ese /e9aons asi$e, it i/t =e %se%l to 'resent a 'ris o o%r o5n $esina&kno5lein o &o%rse t/at no $iara &an %lly re'resent t/e &o'le9ity o s%&/ a iel$o resear&/. #t is inten$e$ to ill%strate &%rrent inter$is&i'linary relations/i's in$e'en$ently o5/at t/ese $is&i'lines i/t or s/o%l$ =e.

Dia"ra# $

T/e ollo5in &larii&ations are in or$er(1) T/e area &oere$ =y sinals an$ sy=ols is $istin%is/e$ =y eans o a seioti&

o''osition a symbol (a lin%isti& sin or e9a'le) is a %nit &o'ose$ o a siniier an$ asiniie$H a signal is a '/ysi&al entity t/at &an =e inter'rete$ =%t to 5/i&/ no s'e&ii&siniie$ &an =e asso&iate$. #n lin%isti&s, t/e sy=oli& leel &onstit%tes t/e irst arti&%lation







1J

sae 'erio$. T%rin an$ "/annon8s $is&oeries 5ere ateriali<e$ $%rin t/e 5ar 5it/ t/e&onstr%&tion o t/e irst &o'%ters.

(iii) #n 1D43 t/e ne%ro'/ysioloist an$ 'sy&/iatrist arren M&%llo&/ &oa%t/ore$ anarti&le 5it/ t/e yo%n at/eati&ian . -itts entitle$ . Logical (alculus of the "deas

"mmanent in +ervous .ctivity . #n it t/ey $eine$ formal neurons (&onstit%te$ =y eleentary$%al state ele&troni& &ir&%its) orani<e$ into networks &a'a=le o 'ro$%&in Boolean&al&%lations an$ a=le to re'ro$%&e::so t/e a%t/ors t/o%/t::t/e a&tiity o t/e =rain.

/y are t/ese t/ree te9ts still &ite$ I T/e ans5er is t/at t/ey o%tline a 'ro=leati&t/at reains &%rrent to t/is $ay. O &o%rse &onitie resear&/ /as =een inole$ ininn%era=le t/eoreti&al $e=ates oer t/e last ity years =%t t/ese $e=ates /ae al5aysreole$ aro%n$ t/e sae 'ro=leati& %'on 5/i&/ t/e 'ara$is t/at $ii$e resear&/ersto$ay still $e'en$. T/e ollo5in $iara re'resents t/e a@or 'oles o t/is 'ro=leati&

Dia"ra# %

(i) T/e mind is e%ate$ 5it/ rational t/o%/t, an$ rational t/o%/t is &onine$ toloi&al t/inkinH t/e loi& in %estion is i$entiie$ 5it/ Boolean loi&. A&&or$in to t/isrestri&te$ rationalis t/e la5s o t/o%/t are re$%&e$ to t/e 'rin&i'les o i$entity, non:&ontra$i&tion an$ o t/e e9&l%$e$ i$$le.

(ii) T/e *uring machine is a Gt/eoreti&alG a=stra&t a%toaton $eine$ in$e'en$entlyo any aterial i'leentation. #ts %nliite$ ta'e reeals only a strin o eit/er e'tys%ares or s%ares arke$ =y a slas/.

(iii) T/e a&tiity o t/e electronic circuits (relays an$ s5it&/in &ir&%its) is restri&te$ toa &o=ination o t5o %n$aental states eit/er t/e &%rrent is transitte$ or it is not.

(i) T/e a&tiity o t/e brain is liite$ to a sinle &onsi$eration only ne%rons are

treate$ an$ aain in ters o Gall or not/inG (t/ere is or is not a ne%ral $is&/are).

+ote T/e %''er area o t/is $iara &orres'on$s to sy=olsH t/e lo5er area&orres'on$s to sinals.

#t a''ears to %s t/at t/e o%r entities re'resente$ in t/is $iara are =ase$ onrelations =et5een t5o (an$ only t5o) %n$aental states 5/i&/ 'erit t/e ollo5in/ooloation





1D

Dia"ra# &

T/ese t/ree 'oles are 'aire$ into t5o $istin&t an$ interrelate$ 'ara$is.T/e irst 'riilees t/e relations =et5een t/e in$ an$ t/e &o'%terH t/is allian&e 5as

t/e o%n$ation o &lassi&al A# an$ o its '/iloso'/i&al &orrelate t/at 5e &o%l$ &all orthodoxcognitivism 24 (re'resente$ to$ay ost nota=ly =y /osky, Fo$or, -ylys/yn).

T/e o''osin 'ara$i 'riilees t/e relations =et5een t/e =rain an$ t/e &o'%ter.T/e latter is s%''ose$ to ii& t/e o'erations o t/e orer =y eans o 'roras an$een in its ery $esin. #n t/is 'ara$i, 5/i&/ to$ay is &alle$ connectionism, t/e =rain ist/e $oinant 'ole (&. infra, &/a'. ##).

3.2 Periodi0ation

#t is enerally aree$ t/at ollo5in t/e /eroi& 'erio$ o t/e Fo%n$ers o &onitieresear&/ an$ o t/e &onstr%&tion o t/e irst &o'%ters (1D3J:1D4) at least t/ree ot/errelatiely $istin&t 'erio$s &an =e i$entiie$.

(i) (ybernetics 2 (1D46:1D4) re&r%te$ all kin$s o t/eories o &o%ni&ation an$ oinoration, as 5ell as t/eories o re%lation in nat%ral an$ artii&ial systes. On t/e

instit%tional leel, &y=erneti&s o%n$ an a%$ien&e in t/e ;nite$ "tates $%rin t/e ten Ma&y&oneren&es (1D46:1D4), as 5ell as t/e *i9on sy'osi% (1D4). #n 1D4D, t/e 1atio (lub5as o%n$e$ in Enlan$. T/e ollo5in year sa5 t/e oration in -aris o t/e (ercled!tudes cybernti%ues. T/e ter cybernetics is no loner %se$ e9&e't in soe %arters ot/e ne%ros&ien&es =%t its t/eoreti&al interests /ae to soe e9tent =een 'rolone$ =ysystei&s.

(ii) A'art ro systei&s, t/e &y=erneti& 'ro@e&t 5as in 'art &arrrie$ on 5it/in A#::5/i&/ ren$ere$ it, a&&or$in to soe, o%t:o:$ate i not totally inali$. %rin a seinar atarto%t/ (s%er, 1D6) Marin Minsky 'resente$ a 'a'er later '%=lis/e$ %n$er t/e title)teps towards an .rtificial "ntelligence 26H A. !e5ell an$ *. "ion ae a $eonstration ot/e irst s%''ose$ly intellient 'rora &alle$ LT (or Logic *heorist ) &a'a=le o ana%toati& $eonstration o ario%s t/eores.

T/e resear&/ in A# t/at 5as &arrie$ o%t $%rin t/is early 'erio$ (5/en t/e relations5it/ &y=erneti&s 5ere ore ei$ent) a''eare$ to =e inore$ =y t/ree ain &on&erns to=e&oe less s'e&%latie an$ ore &on&rete =y $eotin itsel to t/e 5ritin o 'roras::

2% T/is ter =ein ins'ire$ =y an e9'ression o ennett8s (highchurch computationalism).2" A ter no $o%=t &oine$ =y !. iener an$ t/e title o /is 5ork (ybernetics (1D4).26 T/e a%t/ors/i' o t/is sloan is &onteste$ =%t it is 'ro=a=ly attri=%ta=le to o/n M&art/y 5/o&reate$ L#"- (A#8s irst 'rorain lan%ae) an$ 5/o o%n$e$ A# la=oratories at M#T (1DJ) an$ at"tanor$ (1D63).



20

'roras t/at 5ere t/o%/t &a'a=le o solin t/eoreti&al 'ro=lesH to atte't to st%$y t/eani'%lation o sy=ols in a reater n%=er o &onte9ts, an$ not si'ly 5it/ res'e&t ton%eri&al &al&%lationH to e9ten$ t/e &a'a&ities o &o'%ters, es'e&ially t/ro%/ t/e&reation o 'rorain lan%aes.

#n Fran&e, t/e irst Fren&/:lan%ae arti&le to inoke A# 5as '%=lis/e$ in 1D62. #n1D66 its a%t/or, a&%es -itrat, $een$e$ t/e irst t/esis in A# eer %n$ertaken in Fran&ean$ t/e ollo5in year /e o%n$e$ t/e irst resear&/ ro%' in t/e $oain.

(iii) T/e irst '%=lis/e$ o&&%ren&e o t/e ter Gcognitive science G sees to $ate ro1DJ (as t/e s%=title o a &olle&tion o 'a'ers e$ite$ =y . Bo=ro5 an$ A. ollins2J )tudiesin (ognitive )cience ). T5o years later a n%=er o &o'%ter s&ientists (R. "/ank aont/e), lin%ists an$ 'sy&/oloists starte$ %' t/e @o%rnal (ognitive )cience. #n 1DJ a re'ort=earin t/e sae title 5as s'onsore$ an$ '%=lis/e$ =y t/e "loan Fo%n$ation. #n 1DJD t/eonitie "&ien&e Asso&iation /el$ its irst eetin 5it/ &onsi$era=le anare. T/e

.ssociation pour la 1echerche (ognitive 5as &reate$ in Fran&e in 1D1 'rin&i'ally on t/einitiatie o . Kayser, .:F. Le !y, an$ A. Lentin.

#t alost sees a &%stoary 'leas%re to sal%te s&ientii& reol%tions on&e eery ie

years. #nitially t/e 'rootion o a s&ien&e o &onition si'ly rele&te$ an in&reasin interestor resear&/ into Artii&ial #ntellien&e, 5/i&/ reains t/e 'riilee$ $oain an$ o&%s o&olla=oration or t/e any $is&i'lines enae$ in &onitie resear&/. o%=tless t/ee9'ression (ognitive )cience , alon 5it/ .rtificial "ntelligence, s/o%l$ =e %n$erstoo$ as ae$eratin sloan. "oe 5o%l$ say 5/at $ieren&e $oes it ake i it8s a sloan as lon asit is e$eratin.

(i) T/ese last years /ae seen a rene5e$ $e=ate 5it/in &onitie resear&/ =et5een&onitiis an$ &onne&tionis. T/e s%=stan&e o t/is $e=ate 5ill =e $is&%ssse$ %rt/er on(&. infra )H s%i&e it to say t/at ort/o$o9 &onitiis /as $een$e$ t/e 'ost%lates o&lassi&al A#, 5/ereas t/ese /ae =een t/e o=@e&t o &riti&is ro '/iloso'/ers =elonin tot/e &onne&tionist s&/ool.

T/e 'ro'onents o t/ese t5o 'ara$is are o''ose$ at eery leelH as a

&onse%en&e 5e are le$ to sti'%late t/e e9isten&e o t5o $ierent /istories. T/e&onne&tionists /ae atte'te$ to re/a=ilitate &y=erneti&s, 5/i&/ a''arently /a$ =een%n@%stly o&&l%$e$ =y t/e $eelo'ent o A#. As .:-. %'%y /as 5ritten GT/ere is a $ee'er

@%sti&e. e /ae seen A# an$ t/e &onitie s&ien&es tire o%t in re&ent years, only to ie=irt/ to a ne5 =ran&/, $%ly =a'ti<e$ 8neo:&onne&tionis8 5/i&/ is not/in ot/er t/an areor%lation o oo$ ol$ &y=erneti&s2 G (1D 14).

By &ontrast, t/e so:&alle$ ort/o$o9 &onitiists /ae %ite $eli=erately =y'asse$&y=erneti&s. eore Miller or e9a'le /as &laie$ t/at G&onitie s&ien&eG 5as =orn on"e'te=er 11 1D6 $%rin an M#T sy'osi% on inoration t/eory.

T/ese /istoriora'/i&al $ieren&es per se are se&on$ary to o%r interests an$ 5e 5illnot $5ell on t/eH as 5ell, een an a&&%rate 'erio$i<ation &annot 'reten$ to =e an /istory.

2. !eert/eless 5/at 5e /ae @%st o%tline$ s/o%l$ ena=le %s to see ore &learly /o5lan%ae /as =e&oe 'roressiely one o t/e &entres o interest or &onitie resear&/.

Lan%ae 5as larely inore$ $%rin t/e 'erio$ o &y=erneti& resear&/H &o'%ters&ientists ee&tiely liite$ t/eseles to n%eri&al &al&%lations. O &o%rse soe lin%istss%&/ as Roan ako=son::'erennial aant:ar$ist::'arti&i'ate$ $%rin t/e Ma&y

2J it/ res'e&t to its =asi& 'rin&i'les, it8s not ne5::as 5itnesse$ =y t/e o''osition =et5een T%rinan$ M&%llo&/ in t/e 1D40s.2 "ee also -. Liet, 1D.



21

&oneren&es an$ in ee&t ako=son la=ore$ 5it/ t/e %s%al inen%ity in t/e /o'es o linkint/e at/eati&al t/eory o inoration to lin%isti& &o%ni&ation. B%t, alas, in ain2D.

/ile not =ein Glin%isti&sG , lan%ae 5as neert/eless t/e &entral o&%s o anarti&le '%=lis/e$ =y T%rin in 1D0 (omputing Machinery and "ntelligence. #n or$er to

ans5er t/e %estion, Gare a&/ines &a'a=le o t/inkinIG, T%rin $eise$ a ae oiitation, a ty'e o er=al test enerally kno5n as t/e *uring test , a&&or$in to 5/i&/ t/e&a'a&ity or t/o%/t 5ill =e re&oni<e$ in any a&/ine t/at /as learne$ to iitate a /%an$ialo%e 'ere&tly (&. inra, &/a'. 7#).

As an o%t&oe o resear&/ in A#, lin%isti&s =ean to ass%e an in&reasinlyi'ortant role in &onitie resear&/ $%rin t/e $e&a$e ro 1D to 1D6. T/is is so notonly =e&a%se G/oskyisG o&&%'ie$ a $oinant 'osition $%rin t/e 'erio$ (/is 5orkre'resents, in t/e stri&test sense, t/e irst &onitiist lin%isti& t/eory), =%t is also $%e to t/eoration o t5o s%=:$is&i'lines asso&iate$ 5it/ lin%isti&s.

T/e irst o t/ese is &o'%tational lin%isti&s 5/i&/ is a =ran&/ o &o'%ter s&ien&et/at s'e&iali<es in t/e a%toati& 'ro&essin o lan%ae. #ts t/ree 'rin&i'le $oains in&l%$et/e analysis an$ synt/esis o s'ee&/, t/e an:a&/ine $ialo%e an$ a%toati&

translation30

.T/e se&on$ is 'sy&/olin%isti&s 5/ose irst ai 5as to %se e9'eriental et/o$s to

test t/e ali$ity o lin%isti& t/eories =%t 5/i&/ later e9ten$e$ its iel$ o inestiation toin&l%$e all 'sy&/oloi&al ors relate$ to t/e a&%isition, %se, an$ loss o lan%ae.

Oer t/e last ten years t/e $e=ates 5it/in &onitie resear&/ /ae =een 'olari<e$aro%n$ t/e %estion o lan%ae. An$ 5/ile t/ese $e=ates soeties is&onstr%e oris/an$le lin%isti&s, t/ey /ae =e&oe o in&reasin interest to lin%ists.

#n t/is &onne&tion it is 'er/a's s%'erl%o%s to re&all t/e ao%s -iaet:/osky$e=ate 5/i&/ en$e$ %' leitii<in /osky an$ Fo$or8s &onitiist t/eses a=o%tlan%ae31. T/irteen years later it is still on t/e iel$ o lan%ae t/at t/e &onitiists /ae&/osen to o%nt t/eir oensie aainst &onne&tionis (&. Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn, 1D,ers%s M&lellan$ an$ R%el/art, 1D6).

3. e nee$ to 5it/$ra5 or a oent ro t/e /istoriora'/ies as 5e &an es%ret/e &%rrently in &onitie resear&/. T/ese 'ara$is rial ea&/ ot/er o &o%rse =%tnonet/eless reain i'li&itly in areeent on t/ree essential 'oints 5it/ 5/i&/ 5e $o notentirely &on&%r.

(i) T/at t/ere e9ists a &onitie s&ien&e an$ t/at lin%isti&s &onstit%tes ones o its'arts. +et, as 5e /ae alrea$y state$, &onitie resear&/ is a %lti$is&i'linary iel$. "%relylin%isti&s 'arti&i'ates in it::to an e9tent yet to =e $eterine$::=%t nat%rally aintains itso5n a%tonoy as 5ell as its o5n s'e&ii& /istory.

2D "ee /is arti&le GLin%isti%e et t/Corie $e la &o%ni&ationG. ako=son 5rites t/at or !or=ertiener t/ere e9ists Gno %n$aental o''osition =et5een t/e 'ro=les 5/i&/ enineers en&o%nter5it/ rear$ to &o%ni&ation an$ t/ose en&o%ntere$ =y '/iloloistsG an$ /e oes on to reark t/att/ere e9ist strikin siilarities an$ &oneren&es =et5een re&ent 5ork in lin%isti& analysis an$ t/ea''roa&/ to lan%ae t/at is &/ara&teri<e$ =y &o%ni&ation t/eory (1D63 J).30 T/e irst syste $esine$ or t/e a%toati& treatent o s'ee&/ $ates ro 1D2 (&a'a=le ore&oni<in ten &o%nt no%ns %ttere$ =y a sinle s'eaker). T/e irst $ialo%e syste $ates ro 1D60(it res'on$e$ to %estions a=o%t =ase=all s&ores).31 "ee Massio -iatelli:-alinari, C$., 1DJD.



22

(ii) T/e o%n$ations o &onitie s&ien&e o =a&k to t/e 1D408s32. +et resear&/ into&onition /as at t/e ery least =een se&%lar::&ertainly as ar as t/e s&ien&es are&on&erne$H an$ ro a '/iloso'/i&al 'ers'e&tie en%iries into &onition are an&ient. T/e/istori&al 'riilee rante$ to t/e 1D408s is only @%stiie$ i 5e sele&t t/e &o'%ter as t/e

t%telary i%re o all resear&/ into &onition.(iii) A soe5/at /asty /istoriora'/y o &onitie resear&/ /as rante$ an e9/or=itant

stat%s to /osky, ot/er lin%isti& t/eories =ein releate$ to t/e rank o 're&%rsors (t/e&ase o t/e neo:raarians a&&or$in to ar$ner 33), i not to t/e $istant =a&kro%n$(Aeri&an Gstr%&t%ralistG lin%isti&s). ar$ner s%ari<es a eneral o'inion in &oentint/at G#n a nontriial sense, t/e /istory o o$ern lin%isti&s is t/e /istory o /osky8si$eas an$ o t/e $ierse rea&tions to t/e on t/e 'art o t/e &o%nityG (1D 1). T/is'riilee is e9'laine$ 5/en 5e re&oni<e t/at /oskyis is e9'li&itly an$ entirely sit%ate$5it/in t/e iel$ o &onitie resear&/. +et it is not @%stiie$ sin&e lin%isti&s is only &on&erne$5it/ &ertain as'e&ts o &onitie resear&/.

Toet/er 5it/ t/e 're&e$in rearks 5e s/o%l$ also in&l%$e t/ree $istin&t tren$s,ea&/ 5it/ its o5n /istory, t/at &ontin%e to t/is $ay 5it/in &onitie resear&/.

(i) T/e relations =et5een lin%isti&s an$ 'sy&/oloy 5ere ore$ $%rin t/e i$$le ot/e last &ent%ry. #n lin%isti&s one 5o%l$ /ae to ention t/e &ontri=%tion o "teint/al, in'arti&%lar /is 5ork Grammatik, Logik und Psychologie 34 (1). #n &onte'orary'sy&/oloy one 5o%l$ /ae to re&all t/e 5ork o 7yotsky an$ a=oe all t/e 5ork o BQ/ler5/ose )prachtheorie reains an %ne%alle$ synt/esis3.

(ii) T/e relations =et5een lin%isti&s an$ t/e ne%ros&ien&es o =a&k to t/e en$ o t/elast &ent%ry. (i.e., ost nota=ly to t/e 5ork o erni&ke an$ o Li&/t/ei).

(iii) Finally, t/e links =et5een lin%isti&s an$ A# 5ere esta=lis/e$ t/ro%/o%t t/e1D0s.

#n s/ort t/e relations =et5een lin%isti&s an$ t/ese t/ree $is&i'lines or ro%'s o$is&i'lines /ae &ontri=%te$ to t/e esta=lis/ent o a 'ro=leati& or &onitie resear&/.

%. THE POST'LATES OF COGNITIVE RESEARCH

Let %s t%rn o%r attention to 5/at /as &ontri=%te$ to t/is 'arti&%lar i=ri&ation een i itre%ires %s to restri&t o%r o&%s to t/e so:&alle$ G&entralG $is&i'lines& #t sees to %s t/at&onitie resear&/ is =ase$ on t5o 'ost%lates o a '/iloso'/i& nat%re 5/i&/ it /o'es totransor into s&ientii& t/eses.

1. T/e tra$itional $%alis =et5een in$ an$ =rain s/o%l$ =e restri&te$ 'er/a's eento t/e 'oint o $isa''earin. #n ot/er 5or$s t/e in$ an$ t/e =rain 5o%l$ =elon to t/esae Glayer o BeinG or leel o reality. T/is onisti& 'ost%late a''ears to =e aterialist 36.

!2 "ee or e9a'le Ar=i=, onklin, *ill, 1DJ, &/a'. # *he (ybernetic roots of (ognitive )cience&!! G#n t/e 160s an$ 1J0s, in a anner 'arallein t/e /oskian &ir&le a &ent%ry later, a ro%' oyo%n re=els &alle$ t/e 2unggrammatiker (or neo:raarians) atte'te$ to '%t t/e sit%ation inor$er G (1D1DJ).!% A&&or$in to Er5in Es'er, "teint/al $i$ lin%isti&s t/e seri&e o re'la&in loi& 5it/ 'sy&/oloy(&. Mentalism and -b3ectivism in Linguistics, !e5 +ork, Aeri&an Elseier, 1D6).!" #nter$is&i'linary en&o%nters $o not $ate =a&k to yester$ay onsi$er t/e ao%s s'e&ial iss%e ot/e 2ournal de psychologie (1D33).36 e 5ill see /o5eer t/at ort/o$o9 &onitiis aintains &ertain ors o $%alis.



23

+ote T/is i$ea /as o &o%rse =een a&&%se$ o =ein re$%&tionist (ost nota=ly in t/e&riti&iss $ire&te$ at t/e i$ea o +euronal Man). +et re$%&tionis /as less to $o 5it/aintainin t/is 'ost%late t/an 5it/ =ein satisie$ 5it/ it. # atter t/inks, t/en it is t/e a@or'ro=le::one t/at t/is irst 'ost%late leaes in t/e $ark::reains t/e relations =et5een t/e in$

an$ t/e rest o t/e =o$y. As 5ell, t/e a&ile an$ /asty 'arallels oten $ra5n =et5een t/e in$an$ t/e &o'%ter are enerally =ase$ on a &o'lete nele&t o t/e =o$y 5/ile t/e resear&/&on&erns re'resentations, reasonin 'ro&esses, et&., it too oten nele&ts t/e %n$aental'ro=le o 'er&e'tion.

2. Man &an si%late ental 'ro&esses =y artii&ial eans. T/is se&on$ 'ost%late::t/eery 5or$s .rtificial "ntelligence s%ari<e t/e a=i%ities in it::/as =een inter'rete$ inany 5ays.

(i) A inialist inter'retation liits itsel to si%latin o%t'%t 5it/o%t seekin tore'ro$%&e t/e o'erations 5/i&/ enerate t/ese o%t'%t. #n t/e &ase o a an:a&/ine$ialo%e (&, infra, &/a'. 7#) t/is a''roa&/ &an lea$ to e&/olali& systes, t/e ar&/ety'e o5/i&/ reains ei<e=a%8s EL#SAH it &o%l$ also lea$ to ore ela=orate systes &a'a=leo ani'%latin seanti& re'resentations, 5it/o%t t/e or or t/e treatent o t/esere'resentations =ein ne&essarily analoo%s to t/ose o t/e /%an in$ (i.e., inora$8s"*LR;).

(ii) More a=itio%sly, one i/t &on@e&t%re t/at in or$er to 'ro$%&e &o'ara=le o%t'%tone 5o%l$ /ae to =e a=le to si%late t/e ental o'erations 5/i&/ 'ro$%&e t/e::at leastas ar as t/ese ental 'ro&esses are %n$erstoo$. T/is is t/e reason 5/y &o'%ters&ientists t%rn to5ar$ 'sy&/oloists, een ne%ro'sy&/oloists, in or$er to ali$ate t/eir/y'ot/eses. O &o%rse t/ey &an atte't to i'roe t/e 'eroran&e o t/eir systes ont/e =asis o 5/at t/ey kno5 a=o%t ental o'erations 5it/o%t at all 'reten$in to =e a=le tore'ro$%&e t/ese o'erations.

(iii) Arisin ro t/e last 'oint is t/e a9ialist inter'retation o &onitie resear&/8sse&on$ 'ost%late in or$er to si%late &ere=ral %n&tionin as ait/%lly as 'ossi=le, one /asto =e a=le to treat inoration =y eans o net5orks o oral ne%rons. T/is is t/e 'rin&i'le

=e/in$ &onne&tionist o$els3J. T/e =asi& i$ea =ein t/at it is 'ossi=le to re&onstr%&tnet5orks o oral ne%rons =y t/e %se o s'e&ii& 'roras r%n on een a &lassi&al&o'%ter $esin. #n or$er to o =eyon t/is, it is t/o%/t t/at ot/er systes are nee$e$ ore so'/isti&ate$ a&/ines ($esine$ or assie G'arallel treatentsG), or entirely ne5&o'%ter $esins. Een t/e si%lation o &ere=ral atter itsel /as =een iaine$,ollo5in t/e o$el o t/e si%lation o o%t'%t in t/e or o si'le er=al syntas.

As t/e 're&e$in 'oints s/o5, t/ere are t/ree 'rin&i'al 5ays in 5/i&/ t/e notion osi%lation &an =e %n$erstoo$, ea&/ re'resentin an in&reasin $eree o i$elity in t/ere'resentation o ental o'erations t/e irst $eree o i$elity 'res%es t/at t/e&oo'eration =et5een &o'%ter s&ien&e an$ lin%isti&s is s%i&ient, in t/e se&on$ $eree,t/e &olla=oration =e5een lin%isti&s an$ &o'%ter s&ien&e =e&oes ne&essary, an$ in t/et/ir$ $eree, one is o=lie$ to &olla=orate 5it/ t/e ne%ros&ien&es.

3. T/o%/ not t/e o=@e&t o %&/ $is&%ssion, a t/ir$ 'ost%late is enerally a&&e'te$an$ &o%l$ =e &/ara&teri<e$ as Gnoseoloi&alGH a&&or$in to it, kno5le$e is a sy=oli&re'resentation o a ien reality . # one arees 5it/ es&artes t/at t/o%/t &onsists oo'erations on s%&/ re'resentations, an$ 5it/ *o==es t/at reasonin, t/e s%'erior or ot/o%/t, &an =e re$%&e$ to a &al&%lation, t/en a a&/ine t/at o'erates on sy=ols s/o%l$

3J "ee Fel$an an$ Ballar$ (1D2), ottrell an$ "all (1D4), alt< an$ -olla&k (1D), BCro%le(1D), "olensky (1D)H or an intro$%&tion, see o$o%in, 1DD0.



24

=e &a'a=le o reasonin on t/e =asis o &ertain kno5le$e $ata3. T/is /y'ot/esis %n$erliest/e &o'arisons 5/i&/ /ol$ t/at t/e =rain an$ t/e &o'%ter are t5o aterial systes&a'a=le o 'erorin &al&%lations on sy=oli& re'resentations3D.

T/is t/ir$ 'ost%late s%=ten$s t/e 'ro@e&t o si%lation 5/i&/ in$s its e9'ression in t/e

a9ialist ersion o &onitiis::as %&/ in A# as in &onitie 'sy&/oloy:: =ot/ s&ien&es'ro@e&tin t/at t/e tr%e %n&tionin o t/e =rain 5ill =e kno5n on&e it &an =e si%late$ =yeans o sy=ol 'ro&essin a&/ines. #n t/e $oain o lin%isti&s, t/is /y'ot/esis 5o%l$i'ly t/at one 5ill &oe to %n$erstan$ lan%ae an$ /%an lin%isti& a&%lties only i onearries at =ein a=le to a%toati&ally 'ro$%&e an$ en%erate eery raati&al '/rase ineery kno5n (or een 'ossi=le40) lan%ae.

O &o%rse 5e are a5are t/at s%&/ a s%&&in&t 'resentation as t/is is =o%n$ to raise an%=er o %estions o an e'isteoloi&al nat%re. e 5ill e9aine t5o o t/ese 'ossi=le%estions 5it/o%t tryin to treat eit/er o t/e e9/a%stiely.

1) T/e notion o knowledge o &o%rse 'lays a &entral role in &onitie resear&/. +et,een i t/eories o kno5le$e a=o%n$ in t/e /istory o '/iloso'/y, it sees t/at &onitieresear&/ akes ery =roa$ %se o t/is notion 5it/o%t en$eaorin to &learly s'e&iy its

s&ientii& stat%s. For e9a'le, in A# an$ in &onitie 'sy&/oloy t/ere is re%ent %se osemantic networks in or$er to re'resent kno5le$e. *o5eer t/e G&on&e'tsG $eine$ =yt/ese net5orks are si'ly lin%isti& &ontents, an$ it is i'r%$ent to assiilate eanin an$kno5le$e 5it/o%t irst en%irin into t/eir relations. Let %s at least aree t/at t/eserelations are neit/er si'le nor %ne$iate$ (&. infra, &/a'. #7).

#n s/ort, %' %ntil no5 &onitie resear&/ /as orani<e$ itsel on t/e =asis o 5/atreains larely an i'li&it noseoloy.

2) T/e orani<ation an$ re%lation o relations =et5een $is&i'lines 5it/in &onitieresear&/ re%ires ot/er 're&isions. #n t/e irst 'la&e t/e stat%s o t/ese $is&i'lines is%ne%al. e &an 'ro=a=ly aree t/at &o'%ter s&ien&e, &onitie 'sy&/oloy, lin%isti&san$ t/e ne%ros&ien&es erit =ein $esinate$ as s&ien&es, ea&/ or a n%=er o reasons.T/is is not t/e &ase or A#. T/inkin o A# as a s&ien&e 5o%l$ ineita=ly lea$ %s to

'er'et%ate an error t/at to$ay is alost =anal naely t/e =elie t/at a ien 'roraa''li&ation &a'a=le o o'eratin in t/e or o an A# syste is in itsel s%i&ient reason orvalidating t/e t/eoreti&al &on&e'tions 5/i&/ &ontri=%te$ to akin t/e syste o'erationalin t/e irst 'la&e. *o5eer, t/at a ien &on&e't is te&/ni&ally operational $oes notne&essarily ake it operative 5it/in t/e t/eory t/at &reate$ it. Maintainin t/is &on%sion5ill not allo5 &onitie resear&/ to oer&oe t/e technicism or 5/i&/ enineers to$ay are%n@%stly &re$ite$41.

T/e notion o interdiscipline, 5/i&/ !e5ell re&ently a$an&e$ in or$er to &/ara&teri<e A#, ery %&/ s%its t/is o'en:are$ te&/noloyH =%t it s/o%l$ not =e e9ten$e$ to &onitieresear&/ in its entirety. E9'erien&e /as s/o5n t/at t/e inter :, trans :, or meta :$is&i'lines

!# GReason is not/in =%t re&koninG, Leviathan, 161.3D #n A#, t/is is 5/at t/e notion o intellien&e is enerally re$%&e$ to.40 An$ /en&e /osky8s initial a=itions 5ill /ae =een %lille$.41 For e9a'le, a si'le an$ ei&ient syste o &a=alisti& inter'retation is entirely &on&eia=le an$ iti/t o'erate =y t/e 'er%tation o letters or =y t/e &al&%lation o n%eri&al al%es, 5/i&/ areysterio%sly atta&/e$ to t/e. #t reains tr%e t/at t/e ne&essity o intro$%&in an$ 5orkin 5it/&o'%ters /as le$ any $is&i'lines to =e&oe ore rioro%s in t/eir resear&/. T/e &a'a&ity totransor a 'ro=le into a 'rora &an /ae a sinii&ant /e%risti& al%e. O &o%rse, one s/o%l$ not&on&l%$e t/at only 'roraa=le 'ro=les are 'ertinent.



2

are really @%st '/iloso'/ies t/at $are not $e&lare t/eseles as s%&/ an$ it is or 're&iselyt/is reason t/ey are inerior to t/e tra$itional '/iloso'/ies.

&. THE T(O PARADIGMS

4Paradigm clashes4 , as everyone whogoes to cocktail parties knows, are

diffuse confrontations of world views&

erry Fo$or

1. T/e 'ost%lates t/at 5e /ae @%st o%tline$ are %n$aental to t/e e9tent t/at t/eyare s/are$ =y =ot/ rial 'ara$is, so:&alle$ ort/o$o9 &onitiis an$ &onne&tionis42.

*o5eer t/ese la=els are t/eseles islea$in &onitiis neer really &onstit%te$itsel as an ort/o$o9y, alt/o%/ Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn (1D) 'ortraye$ t/eseles as

&/a'ions o t/e classical 'oint o ie5H yet ery oten %n$aentalists &reate anort/o$o9y in or$er to &onir t/eir lea$ers/i' an$ 'er'et%ate t/eir o5n 5ay o t/inkin.onne&tionis on t/e ot/er /an$ $oes not re'resent a ne5 'ara$i, one 5/ose o&ation5o%l$ =e to s%''lant its 're$e&essor. #n a&t t/e t5o 'ara$is /ae riale$ ea&/ ot/ersin&e t/e nineteen orties, ea&/ in t%rn 'roitin ro t/e ot/er8s $ii&%lties.

#t is 'ossi=le to asso&iate t/ese t5o 'ara$is to t5o $ierent '/iloso'/ies(analyti&al '/iloso'/y an$ '/enoenoloy), as 5ell as to t5o i'li&it ontoloies (oneaorin t/e $is&rete, t/e ot/er 'rielein t/e &ontin%o%s), een to t5o $istin&t 'oeti&s(one s%staine$ =y t/e eta'/or o t/e &o'%ter, t/e ot/er =y t/e eta'/or o t/e =rain).Re&allin t/ese $iisions ay =e %se%l =%t it is also ne&essarily ten$entio%s irstly, t/ereare stron $iisions 5it/in ea&/ &a'H oreoer, %' %ntil no5 a &ertain &on%sion /as$oinate$ t/e $e=ates &on&ernin not only ar%entation =%t also t/e ario%s t/eoreti&al

reeren&es s%one$ =y ea&/ 'ara$i. A 're&ision is in or$er /ere =y cognitivism 5e ean ort/o$o9 &onitiis an$'arti&%larly t/e GM#T s&/oolG t/e ost 'roinent re'resentaties o 5/i&/ reain /oskyin lin%isti&s an$ Fo$or in &onitie lin%isti&s. e s/o%l$ a$$ t/at in or%latin o%r&riti&iss o &onitiis it is not o%r intention to &on$en A# as s%&/.

2. As ar as t/e &onitiist 'ara$i is &on&erne$, &onitie resear&/ a''ears to/ae a &oon o=@e&t kno5le$e. T/is o=@e&t is not /o5eer o t/e sae nat%re as t/eo=@e&t o a 'arti&%lar s&ien&e. #ts s'e&ii&ity is ore t/at o a re&%rrent t/ee (i) onitie'sy&/oloy is 'rin&i'ally intereste$ in t/e analysis an$ treatent o reasonin, in ineren&es=ase$ on kno5le$e, an$ in t/e storae an$ retrieal o kno5le$eH (ii) A# o&%ses on t/e'ro=le o knowledge representation H (iii) lin%isti&s atte'ts to 'ro'ose o$els t/at 5illena=le t/ese tasks to =e reali<e$.

%2 A&&or$in to Anlo "a9on e'isteoloy, t/e ter paradigm $esinates a s&ientii& 'ro=leati&.#n $einin t/e notion o 'ara$i in ie $ierent 5ays, K%/n intro$%&e$ a ter t/at /as =e&oe a'o'%lar reeren&e an$ 5e 5ill not try to $iinis/ its %tility. #s it li&it to$ay to s'eak o t5o 'ara$is IT/e inore$ rea$er 5ill @%$e t/at t/e i$ea is not altoet/er erroneo%s. A&&or$in to a n%=er o'eo'le t/ere are t5o o''osin 'ara$is "ee An$ler, 1D6, inora$ an$ Flores, 1D6,M&lellan$ an$ R%el/art, 1D6, Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn, 1D.





2J

(i) Kno5le$e is no loner $eine$ as an aloerate o re'resentations. #n ot/er5or$s, t/e ieti& t/eory o re'resentation is re@e&te$.

(ii) !ot all kno5le$e is ne&essarily a&&essi=le or &ons&io%s. T/e =rain &annot =eliite$ to t/e &orte9, nor &an t/e nero%s syste =e restri&te$ to t/e =rain.

(iii) All kno5le$e is not a fortiori &on&e't%al. *en&e t/e re%ent eo&ations o a Gs%=:&on&e't%al leelG.

(i) As an e9tension o t/e last 'oint, kno5le$e is not &onsi$ere$ a fortiori to =e o ane&essarily sy=oli& nat%re. Follo5in "olensky8s i'et%s t/ere 5ill =e a ret%rn to t/enotion o a Gs%=:sy=oli& leelG. #n any &ase t/e &onitie s&ien&es, in&l%$in lin%isti&s,&annot liit t/eseles to t/e $es&ri'tion o o'erations on sy=ols.

/ereas t/e arke$ interest o ort/o$o9 &onitiis is or t/e st%$y o reasonin an$or r%le:oerne$ o'erations on sy=ols, &onne&tionis ten$s ore s'e&ii&ally to5ar$st/e 'ro=le o 'er&e'tion (=ioloi&al or artii&ial4). #t &onse%ently rants a ery i'ortantrole to context (in t/e non:lin%isti& sense o t/e ter), 5/i&/ en&o'asses s'atial,te'oral, een intentional $iensionsH eery 'er&e'tion o a '/enoenon is &onsi$ere$&losely $e'en$ent on its enironent. -er&e'tion also $e'en$s on te'oral a&tors an$ in

a&t eoles 5it/ tieH it is also otiate$ =y soe ai (an oranis8s $ries, t/eintentions o an in$ii$%al, or t/e ais o a ien 'rora)46.

it/ &onne&tionis t/e relations =et5een t/e $is&i'lines are also o$iie$ t/ene%ros&ien&es ain &onsi$era=ly in stat%re to t/e $etrient o &o'%ter s&ien&e. As 5ell,t/ere /ae =een &onsi$era=le %'/eaals in &ertain $is&i'lines, nota=ly in A# a&/ines areno loner 'rorae$, t/ey are G&on$itione$GH an$ rat/er t/an 5ritin r%les, one s'e&iiest/e relations =et5een Goral ne%ronsGH res%lts are not o=taine$ (or at least series osy=ols inter'rete$ as res%lts), instea$ one i$entiies sta=le or te'orary a&tiations o&ertain 'arts 5it/in a ien net5ork.

Finally, &onne&tionis8s i'li&it ontoloy is ore a&&%rately 'ortraye$ on t/e o$el o'/ysi&s rat/er t/an loi& an o=@e&t is not &onsi$ere$ to =e a $is&rete entity =earin a%ni%e i$entity =%t instea$ a sin%larity sit%ate$ 5it/in a &ontin%o%s s'a&e an$ &a'a=le o

ininite ariation.

4. #'li&it ontoloies seek t/e s%''ort o e9'li&it '/iloso'/ies. Ort/o$o9 &ontiis/as in/erite$ %&/ ro loi&o:'ositiist '/iloso'/y, nota=ly ro R%ssell, arna', an$ t/eirst ittenstein. An$ i $es&en$an&e is not al5ays &laie$ o%tri/t it is =e&a%se loi&o:'ositiist '/iloso'/y re'resents or ort/o$o9 &onitiis soet/in like G&oon senseG ::t/at 5/i&/ oes 5it/o%t sayinH or e9a'le, t/e si'listi& &on&e'tion o re'resentation t/at5e $es&ri=e$ a=oe in$s its so%r&e in ittenstein8s *ractatus .

T/e relations =et5een t/is '/iloso'/y an$ ort/o$o9 &onitiis are &lose an$ no$o%=t ne&essary. First o all, it 'roi$e$ t/e t/eoreti&al &on$itions ne&essary or t/e $esinan$ $eelo'ent o &o'%ters, 5/i&/ $oinate t/e &onitiist iainary. "e&on$ly, loi&o:'ositiist '/iloso'/y, an$ ort/o$o9 &onitiis ollo5in it, 'ro'ose oral lan%aes as akin$ o sy=oli& i$eal::a a&t t/at is not 5it/o%t &onse%en&es or s%=se%ent &onitiist&on&e'tions o lan%ae.

4 T/is is &lear ro t/e a&t t/at t/e irst ten$s to re$%&e 'er&e'tion to reasonin an$ t/e se&on$ten$s to re$%&e reasonin to t/e re&onition o ors.%& All t/is es&a'es o &o%rse t/e loi&ist strain o t/o%/t intro$%&e$ =y ort/o$o9 &onitiisH an$5it/in so:&alle$ &lassi&al A#, it is 're&isely t/e ost ar$ent a$ersaries o loi&is 5/o /ae &reate$or $eelo'e$ t/ose &on&e'ts $esine$ in t/e ai o a&&oo$atin t/e role 'laye$ =y &onte9t(lin%isti& or not) preferences or ilks, plans or scripts or "&/ank.



2

#n &ontrast t/e 'artisans o &onne&tionis e=ra&e$ &ertain strains o'/enoenoloy4J in or$er to &o=at &onitiis on t/e '/iloso'/i& ront. #n t/is 5ay t/eyollo5e$ *. rey%s8s lea$ in /is ra$i&al &riti%e o A#, an$ =eyon$ t/at, o loi&al 'ositiis.B%t t/e &o=at =et5een t/ese t5o '/iloso'/ies /as lost t/e intensity an$ l%stre o t/e

inter5ar 'erio$. #t is soe5/at 'iti%l to see /o5 inora$ an$ Flores (1D6) seek to %se in$%e s&/olarly anner e9tra&ts ro )ein und 5eit 5it/ t/e intention o creating a ne5&o'%ter design, /o5eer &oen$a=le t/e eort ay =e in t/eory. #nokin *ei$eer int/e /o'es o =ein a=le to i'roe a te&/noloy is to &oit a rat/er $is&on&ertin a&t oisinter'retation.

;nort%nately o%r eneies8 eneies are not al5ays o%r rien$s. *ei$eerian'/enoenoloy is anti:te&/noloi&al, 5/ereas &onne&tionis reains a=oe all a ean o&o'%ter i'leentation. Moreoer, 5/ereas t/e &onne&tionists in$ s%''ort in '/ysi&s (&."olensky8s t/eory o /arony), *ei$eerian '/enoenoloy =y 'rin&i'le re%ses to treatt/e '/ysi&al universe , t/e =rain in&l%$e$ o &o%rse at t/e ery ost it treats t/e /%anworld (t/at is to say, t/e 5orl$ as ar as e9'erien&e ies it eanin). Finally, as ar as'/ysi&s is &on&erne$, te&/noloy is sit%ate$ s%arely on t/e si$e o being , 5/ereas

'/enoenoloy orani<es itsel aro%n$ t/e %estion o $eing .#n s/ort 5/ereas ort/o$o9 &onitiis s/ares &lose ties 5it/ loi&al 'ositiis,

&onne&tionis &annot lay @%st '/iloso'/i& &lai to *ei$eerian '/enoenoloy nor*%sserlian '/enoenoloy or t/at atter. #n ee&t 5/ile t/e trans&en$ental s%=@e&treains t/e &entral o&%s o t/e latter '/iloso'/y, t/e &onne&tionist o$el &alls into%estion t/e &lassi&al '/iloso'/i& &on&e'tion o t/e s%=@e&t (an$ t/%s trans&en$ental'/iloso'/y4).

. T/ese t5o rial 'ara$is /ae $eelo'e$ aro%n$ t5o &ontrastin eta'/ors. For&onitiis, t/e &o'%ter reains t/e eta'/ori&al &enter'ie&e. T/is 'oeti&s o t/e&o'%ter is ery &learly ill%strate$ =y &onitie 'sy&/oloy Gin$ii$%als are s%''ose$ totreat inoration in real time, in se%uence or in parallel H effectuate a te9t on&e it is

compiled H stock inoration in $ierent eories (irt%al eory, =%er eory, si'lereisters, et&.) ... H all t/is 5it/ t/e /el' o a supervisor 5/o allo&ates reso%r&es tospeciali0ed 'ro&essorsG (en/iUre an$ -oitrena%$, 1D, '. 4). !at%rally, t/e ort/o$o9&onitiists are aant:ar$e in t/is res'e&t (&. Fo$or, *he Modularity of Mind , 1D3) an$t/e literat%re on A# is not to =e o%t$one &. *hinking (omputers (Ra'/ael, 1DJ6),(ognitive (omputers ("&/ank, 1D3), Machines who *hink (M&or$%&k, 1DJD).

T/e t/eoreti&al stakes are &onsi$era=le sin&e it is a %estion o re$%&in &onition toa series o a%toati& o'erations &arrie$ o%t on sy=ols, an$ ollo5in ro t/is, ore$%&in &onitie resear&/ to &o'%ter s&ien&e, t/e orer =ein &onstr%e$ erely as at/eoreti&al as'e&t or e9tension o t/e latter. #n t/is sense inora$ 5rites GT/e $esin o&o'%tational systes also /as a t/eoreti&al si$e, 5/i&/ is oten &alle$ cognitive science.T/e sae &on&e'ts o 'rora an$ $ata t/at sere as a rae5ork or =%il$in an$%n$restan$in &o'%ter 'roras &an =e a''lie$ to t/e %n$erstan$in o any syste&arryin o%t 'ro&esses t/at &an =e %n$erstoo$ as t/e r%le:oerne$ ani'%lation osy=olsG (1D3 2).

4J "o:&alle$ e9istential '/iloso'/y (*ei$eer), een e9istentialist (Merlea%:-onty).4 rey%s %ses *ei$eer an$ *%sserl in$ierently in or$er to atta&k A#, $es'ite *ei$eer8s ra$i&al&riti%e o *%sserl8s t/eory o t/e trans&en$ental s%=@e&t (5/i&/ is 're&isely 5/at lea$s /i to re$%&e'/enoenoloy to a '/iloso'/y o Bein).



2D

T/e a$/erents o t/is 'ara$i &on&eie o t/e in$ in t/e iae o &o'%ter'roras t/%s ena=lin a &orres'on$an&e to =e esta=lis/e$ =et5een t/e o$%larity o&o'%ter systes an$ t/e s%''ose$ o$%larity o t/e in$ (&. Fo$or 4D, 1D3). T/eo$%lar &on&e'tion o lan%ae t/at /as =een 'ro%late$ =y /oskyis an$ 5/i&/ is

a&&e'te$ as &oon sense in A#, nee$s to =e reeal%ate$ ro t/e ollo5in 'oint o ie5i lin%isti& &o'onents are se'arate an$ ollo5 ea&/ ot/er se%entially, is it not =e&a%set/e Gental oranG o lan%ae is &on&eie$ a&&or$in to eta'/ors o t/e &o'%ter rat/ert/an ne%roloi&al a&ts I

Een ore reealin is Fo$or8s airation t/at GT/e only 'sy&/oloi&al o$els o&onitie 'ro&esses t/at see een reotely 'la%si=le re'resent s%&/ 'ro&esses as&o'%tationalG (1DJ 2JH &. also 1DJ). "%&/ &on&e'tions are not rare in &onitieresear&/ an$ 5ill nat%rally /ae an ee&t on any &onse%ent &on&e'tion o lan%ae. T/%ses&lCs or e9a'le 5/o /as assiilate$ a $is&o%rse to a 'rora (&a'a=le oa''li&ations) an$ 'ro'ose$ t/at its inter'retation is &on$itione$ =y a compilation 0.

+ote An$ler also 5rites GA#8s t/esis is $o%=le irst o all a &o'%ter is 'otentially

intellient an$ se&on$ly, t/e /%an in$ ($eine$ as t/e Goran o intellien&eG) is::i its seenro t/e ri/t anle::a aterial an$ a%toati& sy=oli& syste, t/at is to say, ore or less a&o'%ter. e s/o%l$ s'e&iy t/at t/is %tteran&e is ar ore 're&ise, an$ t/%s ore risky =%t att/e sae tie ore 'roisin, t/an t/e an&ient 'ro'osition a&&or$in to 5/i&/ t/e =rain is aa&/ineG (1D6 46).

*o5eer, t/e airation, een i it is i'li&it, t/at t/e =rain %n&tions like a &o'%ter $oesnot a''ear to %s to /ol$ any 'roise or %rt/erin resear&/. Asi$e ro t/e a&t t/at t/e/y'ot/esis r%ns &o%nter to =asi& a&ts, it also s%''oses as resole$ 5/at /as yet to =e'roen1... T/e a&t t/at /%an intellien&e /as =een a=le to $eleate soe o its tasks to&o'%ters $oes not @%stiy any analoy &on&ernin t/eir &oon %n&tionnin, %&/ less t/eirstr%&t%re.

Let %s re&all t/at t/e str%&t%re an$ %n&tionnin o 'resent:$ay &o'%ters $esine$ oreneral %sae are =asi&ally t/e res%lt o &/oi&es a$e in t/e orties an$ =ase$ on t/e ais

(essentially ilitary) an$ te&/noloi&al &onstraints o t/e 'erio$. Een on !e%ann /isel5ante$ to see t/e $eelo'ent o systes ot/er t/an t/ose to 5/i&/ /is nae 5as lent::systes it 5o%l$ not /ae =een any less rat%ito%s to &o'are to t/e /%an =rain.

A &lassi&al &o'%ter is essentially &o'ose$ o a sinle arit/eti&al an$ loi&al %nit(A.L.;) 5orkin in se%ential as/ion, an$ o a se'arate eory, entities 5/ose o'erations are$e'en$ent on 'roras an$ $ata. Re&ent 'roress in a'/asioloy, an$ a=oe all in &ere=raliaery, /as le$ resear&/ers to reise 5/at 5as t/o%/t to =e kno5n a=o%t t/e lo&ali<ation o&ere=ral %n&tions, es'e&ially in relation to t/e a&tiity o t/e &orte9H one &an not 're&iselysit%ate in t/e =rain the eory, nor anyt/in t/at 5o%l$ &orres'on$ to an A.L.;.

%$ An$ sin&e G&o'%tation 'res%''oses a e$i% o &o'%tation a re'resentational systeG(ibid& ), /e &on&l%$es t/at t/ere e9ists a lan%ae o t/o%/t t/at $es'ite a''earan&es /as no

$eina=le relation to a&t%al lan%aes. #ts role, in relation to t/e =rain, is to =e a lan%ae:a&/ine ort/e &o'%ter."0 G . linguistic discourse appears as a program capable of specific applications, 5/i&/ is&onstr%&te$ =y an en%n&iator an$ a$$resse$ to a /earer. T/e latter %st &all %'on a &o'ilation'rora 5/ose %n&tion it is to &onstr%&t &onitie re'resentations o t/e ie$iate $is&o%rse, an$t/is 5it/ t/e /el' o intere$iary (etalin%isti&) re'resentationsG (1DJ, '. 34).1 As i an /a$ &on&eie$ t/e &o'%ter in /is o5n iae an$ as i t/e &o'%ter rele&te$ t/isiae 'ere&tly. T/is s'e&%lar ee&t is &lear in t/e &ase o ro=ots. An$ ro=oti&s, not 'reo&&%'ie$ =yt/e yt/s o s&ien&e i&tion, /as 'roresse$ =y o'tin or sol%tions t/at are $e&i$e$ly non:ant/ro'oor'/i&.



30

!e%rons /ae rea&tion ties s%'erior to t/e illise&on$ 5/ereas e9istin &ir&%its are&a'a=le o 'ro&essin $ata a=o%t one illion ties aster. On t/e ot/er /an$, =e&a%se &o'le9transorations &an =e o=taine$ in e5er t/an a /%n$re$ illise&on$s 5e &an say t/at t/ey areo=taine$ in e5er t/an a /%n$re$ %nits o tie. By &ontrast, si%lation 'roras in A# ty'i&ally

re%ire illions o tie %nits. T/%s, relatiely s'eakin, t/e =rain a&/iees res%lts ra'i$lyalt/o%/ t/e inoration itsel is 'ro'aate$ slo5ly. T/e &o'%ter on t/e ot/er /an$ is &a'a=leo treatin inoration ra'i$ly =%t it /as to treat it or a lon tie in or$er to a&/iee, rossoo$o, &o'ara=le res%lts. Lastly an$ ost i'ortantly, t/e $istin&tion =et5een 'rora an$aterial(een relatii<e$ =y firmware ) $oes not a''ly to t/e /%an =rain 5/i&/ &on&eies itsstrateies in a %ni%ely a%tonoo%s anner, an$ 5e i/t een ent%re to say, &on&eies itso5n 'roras.

To t/is &o'%tational re$%&tionis, &onne&tionists /ae ans5ere$ =y a$o'tin ane%ral eta'/or. For e9a'le, R%el/art, *inton an$ M&lellan$ assert t/eir 'oeti&s ery&learly G e 5is/ to re'la&e t/e >&o'%ter eta'/or? as a o$el o in$ =y t/e >=raineta'/or? as a o$el o in$G (M&lellan$ an$ R%el/art, 1D6 J). #n a&t, in A# t/e&onne&tionist o&a=%lary a=o%n$s 5it/ ters =orro5e$ ro ne%ro'/ysioloy, s%&/ as

activation, inhibition, formal neurons, et&. As a &onse%en&e o t/e a$ira=le si'li&ity o&onne&tionist systes t/e eta'/or o t/e =rain in$s itsel &onsi$era=ly 5eakene$ t/eo&%s on ne%rons::G5ire$G &ells 'ar e9&ellen&e::entails a nele&t o lial &ells 5/i&/ areore n%ero%s an$ entirely %n&tionalH t/ere is also a total nele&t o t/e /oronal =rain5/ose a&tiity &annot in any 5ay =e re$%&e$ to t/e si'le 'ro'aation o ele&tri&al sinals.#n s/ort, t/e iae o t/e =rain t/at is 'resente$ is =asi&ally an o%t$ate$ &ari&at%re.

*ere aain &onne&tionis a''ears as &onitiis8s &o'li&it o''osite its'ra&tioners2 re%se, i only t/ro%/ t/eir &/oi&e o eta'/ors, to a$it t/e 'ra&ti&al an$t/eoreti&al a%tonoy o t/e &o'%tational a''roa&/ sin&e 5/at t/ey seek is ane9'eriental ali$ation o t/eir '/iloso'/i& 'res%''ositions =y eans o &o'%teri'leentation.

T/e /istory o t/e s&ien&es is teein 5it/ eta'/ors i not/in else t/ey sere to

sti%late t/eoreti&al innoationsH t/ey also &ontri=%te to %n&oerin @%st 5/at is at stakei$eoloi&ally. /at is i'ortant is neer to &onsi$er t/e satisa&tory, t/at is to say, as&a'a=le o leitii<in t/eories per se 3.

T/e &onitiist eta'/or mind )))Vcomputer an$ t/e &onne&tionist eta'/orcomputer )))Vbrain &an =e rea$ toet/er so lon as one is rea$y to &on&e$e t/at attert/inks, an$ se&on$ly, t/at t/e =rea&/ =et5een in$ an$ =rain s/o%l$ =e &lose$. /at t/eno t/e re&i'ro&al &o'arison brain W)))Vcomputer I T/is eta'/or reeals t/e se&ret&o'li&ity =et5een t/e t5o 'ara$is, t/e sinle $ieren&e =ein t/at &onitiis 5ants tot/ink o t/e =rain in t/e iae o t/e &o'%ter an$ &onne&tionis t/e &o'%ter in t/eiae o t/e =rain4.

6. T/e oriin o t/is G&o'li&ityG &an =e tra&e$ to t/e e9tention o t/e notion oinformation t/at 'resi$e$ oer t/e $eelo'ent o &y=erneti&s. #n ren$erin /oae to

&y=erneti&s, .:-. %'%y s%ari<es 'ere&tly its %n$aental analois Gin a &ertain

2 it/ soe =rilliant e9&e'tions, s%&/ as "olensky (1D), 5/o /as $eonstrate$ 5/y&onne&tionist o$els &annot =e sai$ to =e ne%ral.3 es'ite inston Go'%ter eta'/ors ai$ t/inkin. ork 5it/ &o'%ters /as le$ to a ri&/ ne5lan%ae or talkin a=o%t /o5 to $o t/ins an$ /o5 to $es&ri=e t/ins. Meta'/ori&al an$ analoi&al%se o t/e &on&e'ts inole$ ena=les ore 'o5er%l t/inkin a=o%t t/inkinG (1DJJ, '. 3)4 T/is is 5/y &onne&tionists like Fel$an an$ Ballar$ @%$e$ t/e to =e G$raati&ally $ierentG(1D2, '. 20). B%t 5/ere is t/e $raaI An$ 5/y not a&kno5le$e t/at are stri&tly in&o'ara=leI



31

sense, yet to =e $is&oere$, t/ere is &o%ni&ation =et5een t/e ne%rons o ne%ral an @%st as t/ere is &o%ni&ation =et5een e=ers o t/e sae so&iety, or %rt/er t/atGinorationG &ir&%lates 5it/in a &o'%ter @%st as it $oes =et5een an an$ &o'%ter, or5/y not, @%st as it i/t =e a=le to &ir&%late, in 'er/a's t/e not too $istant %t%re, 5it/in a

so&iety o a&/inesG (1D D:10). One is le$ to &on&e$e, as An$ler $oes, t/at at t/e eryost t/ere are t5o sorts o information GTo o%r kno5le$e t/ere are t5o arieties t/e=ioloi&al an$ t/e artii&ialG (An$ler, 1D6 21).

T/e t5o &onitie 'ara$is are t/%s &onronte$ 5it/ t/e sae $ilea. Eit/er t/eo%n$ational &on&e't o information =e&oes a rat/er a%e notion $esinatin all ors o&o%ni&ation, an$ een ore =roa$ly, o intera&tion (een at t/e =ioloi&al leel), in5/i&/ &ase &onitie resear&/ risks eetin t/e sa$ ate o a &ertain seioti&s (5/en it lett/e $oain o sins in or$er to ent%re onto t/e terrain o t/e Geneti& &o$eG, an$ een&/eistry itsel), or t/e &on&e't o information anaes to &onsere its te&/ni&al &ontent(in o''osition to redundance ) an$ so reain 'ertinent or ele&troe&/ani&al re&e'tors 5it/a &al&%la=le &a'a&ity. #noration &on&eie$ in t/e se&on$ &ase &an only =e $es&ri=e$%sin t/e lan%ae o at/eati&al '/ysi&s. +et as An$ler @%stly rearks, G5/at &o%l$

'ossi=ly @%stiy t/e s%''osition t/at t/e ty'e o inoration t/at a ien oranis &/oosesto e9&/ane 5it/ its enironent &an also =e ie5e$ as a mathematically rulegoverned&oni%ration o enery e9&/anes IG (1D6 6)H an$ oreoer, o discrete %anta oenery 5/ose re%en&y &an =e &al&%late$ I T/ese notions /ar$ly &on&%r 5it/ t/e a&t%alstate o kno5le$e in =ioloy.

T/is &on&e't o inoration, 5/i&/ =ot/ 'ara$is s/are, is at t/e =asis o t/eir&oon functionalism. -%tna (1DJa) $eine$ t/e notion o %n&tionalis6 =y &onsi$erint/at A# 5as on t/e 5ay to reali<in its =asi& 'ro@e&ts. *en&e a&/ines &o%l$ in$t/eseles ineste$ 5it/ Gintellient %n&tionsG an$ =e &a'a=le o t/inkin. Be&a%se t/ereal i$entity =et5een en an$ a&/ines 5as $eee$ not to resi$e in t/e hardware ,-%tna t%rne$ /is attention to t/e software all =eins &a'a=le o intellien&e, i.e.a&/ines, en, een Martians, s/o%l$ =e &a'a=le o 'erorin t/e sae sorts o

programs

J

. #n t/is sense %n&tionalis 'roi$e$ t/e 'ossi=ility o in$in a noel sol%tion tot/e 'ro=le o t/e relations =et5een in$ an$ =o$y.T/e notion o %n&tionalis 5as or a tie rearka=ly 'o'%lar $o%=tless =e&a%se it

'eritte$ resear&/ers to ie a t/eoreti&al or%lation to A#8s 'res%''ositions. An$ o&o%rse ort/o$o9 &onitiis &laie$ stake in it, ost nota=ly in t/e 5ork o -ylys/yn an$Fo$or (on&e a st%$ent o -%tna). -artly =e&a%se t/ey s/are$ t/e o=@e&ties o &lassi&al

A#, an$ only $ier ro it =y t/e eans o si%lation a$o'te$, t/e &onne&tionists 5ereneer a=le to &riti&i<e %n&tionalis in a &onin&in 5ay.

F%n&tionalis, alt/o%/ Fo$or rerains ro it, ei$ently reor%lates a tra$itional$%alis. Trans'ose$ onto t/e '/iloso'/i& 'lane, t/e $istin&tion =et5een soft an$ hardre'eats t/e se'aration o in$ an$ atter, not in a eneral 5ay =%t %n$er seeral kin$s o

T/is G'roraG is not yet o%t$ate$ sin&e, a&&or$in to %'%y, it 5as an i'ortant 'art o t/eGtransersal str%&t%re o t/e entre !ational $e la Re&/er&/e "&ientii%e (!R") 5/ose an$ate5as to 'roote t/e G&o%ni&ation s&ien&esG G.6 !ot to =e &on%se$ 5it/ %n&tionalis in t/e sense %se$ =y . aes.J *e nele&ts anials::as al5ays in t/ese kin$s o $e=ates. /y s/o%l$ t/e sea sl% =e re%se$t/e &o'%tational eta'/or (t/e a'lisia $ear to t/e ne%ros&ien&es) I o%=tless =e&a%se it is$e'rie$ o intellient =e/aior, in t/e restri&te$ sense o t/e ter, t/at is to say, reason. +et,tra$itionally, reason is one o t/e so%l8s attri=%tes. As or t/e ental states o a&/ines, t/e rea$er5ill =e rate%l i not/in ore is sai$.



32

o''osition =et5een or an$ s%=stan&e (or aterial s%=strat%). #n ee&t, t/e Gintellient%n&tionsG t/at are inoke$ /ae to $o 5it/ rational a&tions or =e/aior, =%t t/e rational isi$entiie$ 5it/ t/e oralD.

F%n&tionalis is &onse%ently a kin$ o oralis60, t/at is to say, one o t/e

=ran&/es o i$ealis. Re%sin Aristotle8s eleant sol%tion o &laiin or ianent tos%=stan&e, t/e &onitiists aintain a $%alis 5/i&/ oes =a&k to t/e -latoni& tra$ition.T/e noelty /o5eer /as to $o 5it/ t/e a&t t/at Reason, '%re or, trans&en$s t/eo''osition =et5een t/e nat%ral an$ t/e artii&ial.

"aint T/oas o A%inas aire$ t/at GT/e rational so%l is t/e or o anG ()umma*heologica #, 1, D ). -roessin a kin$ o o$less s&/olasti&, t/e ort/o$o9 &onitiists /ae'are$ t/e so%l $o5n to a sinle attri=%te, reason, an$ air t/at t/e Gintellient %n&tionsGare, &onsi$ere$ ro t/e 'oint o ie5 o t/eir oral rationality, &oon to =ot/ an an$&o'%ters. #n s/ort, reason is t/eir &oon ro%n$ an$ not erely t/e e9&l%sie asset oan61.

T/e $%ality =et5een or an$ s%=stan&e is /ooloate$ to ot/er $%alities t/e in$an$ t/e =o$y on t/e one /an$, t/e sy=oli& an$ t/e '/ysi&al on t/e ot/er ('arti&%larly in

Fo$or an$ -ylys/yn). Fro t/ese &leaaes a''ear one o ort/o$o9 &onitiis8s a'orias t/e $%alis t/at it san&tions =ars any &orres'on$an&e =et5een t/e sy=oli& 62 an$ t/e'/ysi&al. *en&e Fo$or8s &lai o Get/o$oloi&al soli'sisG an$ -ylys/yn8s o=seration oan irre$%&i=le rit =et5een t/e &onitie (internal) an$ t/e '/ysi&al (e9ternal) (&. 1D4 166:16J). *e sees %ite @%stly in t/is rit an Ge9treely serio%s 'ro=leG. onitiis /asreally no eans o eriyin 5/et/er or not ental re'resentations are a$e%ate to 5/att/ey are s%''ose$ to re'resent (5/ereas kno5le$e is &lassi&ally $eine$ as adae%uatiorei et intellectus ). #t t/%s in$s itsel 5it/o%t any &riterion o tr%t/, an$ t/e asso&iate$soli'sis siniies t/e ineita=le o%t&oe o its i$ealisti& $%alis. orrelatiely, t/elan%ae o stan$ar$ '/ysi&s t/at &onitiis %ses to $es&ri=e t/e 5orl$ is in&a'a=le o$es&ri=in 5/at is salient or a ien s%=@e&t, nor is it a=le to resole t/e 'ro=le o'ertinen&e (in t/e =roa$ sense o t/e ter).

#t 5as in t/e /o'e o solin soe o t/ese $ii&%lties t/at &ertain &onne&tionists (&."olensky, 1D) 'ro'ose$ t/e i$ea o a subsymbolic level t/at is s%''ose$ to 'lay a

T/e se'aration =et5een or an$ s%=stan&e is a re&%rrent t/ee in -latoni& '/iloso'/y (ore9a'le, Fi&ino $eine$ /eaen as Ga sel:s%i&ient or 5it/o%t s%=stan&eG). T/is se'aration&ertainly /a$ an inl%en&e on t/e /ristian tra$ition or 5/i&/ '%re ors 5ere t/o%/t to =e ors o&elestial #ntellien&e.D T/is ery &oon re$%&tion is a t/reat to t/e so&ial s&ien&es o=lie$ in 'ra&ti&e an$ in t/eory to'roess a rational $is&o%rse t/ey in$ t/eseles &alle$ %'on to 'ro$%&e oral &al&%lations::lestt/ey lose t/eir %n$in.60 7isetti rearks t/at Gin a sense, eery s&ien&e is 8%n&tionalist8. #t is an ineita=le o%t&oe o anyoral a''roa&/ ... t/at seeks to $is&oer t/e essen&e o t/ins =y 5ay o an o=@e&tiely arti&%late$

&/ara&teri<ation. T/ere are t/%s stron &/an&es t/at t/e res%ltin &/ara&teri<ation a''lies to a&ateory o nat%ral or artii&ial =eins, een i$eal ones, %&/ aster t/an t/e one t/at %n$ertook t/est%$yG (1DD0 20D). B%t not all s&ien&e %ses a oral a''roa&/. As 5ell, /o5 $oes one anae tose&%re t/e $es&ri'tie a$e%a&y o a s&ien&e to its o=@e&t i t/e oral a''roa&/ lea$s t/e resear&/erto e9&ee$ t/e o=@e&t I /at or e9a'le 5o%l$ =e t/e al%e o a raar o t/e Taan lan%aet/at 5o%l$ also $es&ri=e =ay (an Ari&an lan%ae) or an&ient as&on I61 For in t/e sense o A%inas takes t/e attri=%tes o =ein into a&&o%nt an$ nota=ly 5/at is'e&%liar to it (/ere it is reaon).&2 By symbolic 5e ean not t/e lin%isti& =%t rat/er t/e ental states s%&/ as t/ey are or%late$in a ental lan%ae.



33

e$iatin role =et5een t/e sy=oli& an$ t/e '/ysi&al on t/e one /an$, an$ t/e sy=oli&an$ t/e =ioloi& on t/e ot/er. T/e ort/o$o9 &onitiists a'tly retorte$ t/at t/e s%=sy=oli&5as =%t an aatar o t/e sy=oli&. it/o%t oin into t/e $etails o t/e $e=ate, s%i&e it tosay t/at t/ese 'ro=les /ae yet to re&eie satisa&tory sol%tions larely =e&a%se t/e

&onne&tionists a$/ere to a %n&tionalis t/at is in$isso&ia=le ro A#8s 'rora an$&onse%ently t/ey /ae not =een a=le to ela=orate an alternatie to ort/o$o9 &onitiis8st/eory o sinii&ation.

T/is t/eory o sinii&ation rearti&%lates 5/at is in a&t a tra$itional $%alis. For -latoan$ or Aristotle (at least as /e /as =een inter'rete$ =y neo:'latoni& '/iloso'/ers s%&/ as-or'/yr%s, Aoni%s an$ Boet/i%s), t/e sin::or at least 5/at 5e 5ill aree to &all =y t/atnae::in$s itsel s'lit on one si$e is t/e siniier, =elonin to t/e aterial or$erH on t/eot/er si$e is t/e &on&e't 5/i&/ =elons to t/e irre$%&i=le or$er o t/e in$. T/e /%r&/Fat/ers::an$ o&tors::ost nota=ly Orien an$ "aint A%%stine, reinor&e$ t/is se'aration=y eans o t/e -a%linian o''osition =et5een t/e letter an$ t/e in$, t/e orer =ein o&o%rse o a aterial nat%re63.

T/is an&ient $iision is rearti&%late$ =y t/e &onitiists in t/ree $ierent =%t

&o'leentary 5ays (i) =y t/e se'aration =et5een sin (i.e. siniier) an$ &on&e't H (ii) =yt/e se'aration o seanti&s an$ synta9, synta9 =ein %n$erstoo$ as t/e orani<ation osiniiers an$ seanti&s =ein &onstr%e$, in a entalist 'ers'e&tie, as t/e inter'retation(in t/e loi&al sense) o t/ese siniiers =y eans o &on&e'ts H (iii) lastly, sin&e &on&e'tsare t/eseles orani<e$ in a ental lan%ae, t/e $iision =et5een Ge9teriorG lan%aean$ ental lan%ae si'ly trans'oses t/e $iision =et5een siniier an$ &on&e't to a/i/er leel. e 5ill e9aine t/is in reater $etail in &/a'ter 3.

J. Far ro =ein a =ran&/ o 'oeti&s or '/iloso'/y, &o'%ter s&ien&e $oes not 5orkon eta'/ors =%t on t/e str%&t%re an$ or o $ata str%&t%res. #n t/e en$ t/e &onrontation=et5een t/e t5o 'ara$is &an =e re$%&e$ to t5o &o'etin o$es o $ata or inoration'ro&essin (i'lyin $ieren&es in eans o i'leentation, an$ soon, in $esin ty'es

an$ ar&/ite&t%re

64

).#n t/e 'rea&e to t/e ost re&ent e$ition (1D iii) o t/eir &ele=rate$ Perceptrons(1D6D), Minsky an$ -a'ert 'ro'ose t/e ollo5in list o o''ositions

symbolic connectionist logical analogical serial parallel discrete continuouslocali0ed distributed hierarchical heterarchical leftbrained rightbrained

As lon as 5e aree to ret%rn t/e &ere=ral /eis'/eres to t/eir ri/t%l 'la&e, t/is list'ortays 5ell eno%/ t/e 'rin&i'al $ieren&es =et5een t/e t5o kin$s o treatent6.

&! For a ore a'le $is&%ssion see Rastier, 1DJ a, &/a'. 7###. "ee as 5ell Orien -n thePrinciples, #, 1, 1:2 Git/o%t a $o%=t t/e letter $esinates &or'oreal realities, t/e mind intellle&t%alones t/at 5e also &all s'irit%alG.64 onne&tionist systes are still i'leente$ on a&/ines t/at 5ere &on&eie$ or ot/er ty'es oa''li&ation.&" it/ one reseration alt/o%/ re%ently %se$ =y &onne&tionists (i.e., alt< an$ -olla&k, 1DHM&lellan$ an$ R%el/art, 1D6), t/e ter parallelism nee$s to =e &lariie$ =e&a%se it $esinates



34

A so&ioloy o t/e iel$s o &o'%ter s&ien&e an$ A# is no sooner eoke$ t/an'ra&ti&al &on&erns are inoke$ &onne&tionis 5ill not /ae irly esta=lis/e$ itsel %ntil itis &a'a=le o $eonstratin a s%'erior ei&ien&y in a 5i$e rane o a''li&ations. #t seest/at t/e ains 5ill likely =e a$e in t/e $oain o a%toati& 'er&e'tion66. O &o%rse one 5ill

/ae to enisae an$ 'roote a reater s/arin o tasks or e9a'le, it is $ii&%lt toiaine an inasion o &onne&tionist &al&%lators onto t/e &ons%er arket H an$ not only as/arin =%t a 'ea&e%l &o/a=itation t/at t/e s%a==les =et5een 'ara$is /ae only a$eore $ii&%lt.

an a$an&e$ or o se%entiality. Far ro es&a'in alorit/i&s, 'arallelis &onstit%tes t/e en$ ot/e en$.66 #t is at least in t/is area t/at inestent is /eaiest, 'arti&%larly in ilitary 'roras enae$ in

Documents

FRANÇOIS, Rastier. 2006.Semantics and Cognitive Research