Four Fundamental Orientations and Resource for the Paper

8/8/2019 Four Fundamental Orientations and Resource for the Paper

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Four Fundamental Orientations (Perspectives)

for Learning Theories

1. Behaviorist Orientation

Behaviorism was founded byJohn B. Watsonin the early part of the 20th Century. This was the

earliest formulation of a coherent theory of learning, at least in modern Western society. A

variety of perspectives emerged over the next few decades, including the work ofThorndike,

Tolman,Guthrie,Hull,Skinner, and others.

From the behaviorist perspective, three assumptions are held to be true. First, the focus was on

observable behavior rather than on internal cognitive processes. If learning has occurred, then

some sort of observable external behavior is apparent. Second, the environment is the shaper of

learning and behavior, not individual characteristics. Third, principles of contiguity and

reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process.

The behaviorist orientation is fundamental to much current educational practice, including adult

education. Skinner believed the ultimate goal of education was to train individuals to behaviors

which would ensure their personal survival, as well as the survival of cultures and the species.

The teacher's role, in this perspective, is to provide an environment that elicits the desiredbehaviors and extinguishes the undesirable ones.

Educational practices which have these notions at their core include systematic design of

instruction, behavioral and performance objectives, programmed instruction, competency-based

instruction, and instructor accountability. Training for skills and vocations is particularly heavily

saturated with learning and being reinforced for "correct responses and behaviors."

2. Cognitive Orientation

Cognitive theories of learning are concerned with processes which occur inside the brain and

nervous system as a person learns. They share the perspective that people actively process

information and learning takes place through the efforts of the learner. Internal mental processesinclude inputing, organizing, storing, retrieving, and finding relationships between information.

New information is linked to old knowledge, schema and scripts.

All the various cognitive approaches emphasise how information is processed. There were some

very early efforts to organize cognitive theories in the late 1900's, but these were usurped by the

behaviorist work being done at that time. It was not until the years after World War II that

cognitive theories began to find their strength.

The Gestalt psychologists were the first to challenge the behaviorist point of view. They criticized

behaviorism for its reductionistic tendencies, and felt it was too dependent on external behaviors

to explain learning. By the mid twentieth century, Gestalt theories and the work ofWertheimer,

Kohler, Koffka, andLewinprovided competition to behaviorism as the only accepted theory oflearning.

Gestalt learning theories emphasized perception, insight, and meaning as the key elements of

learning. The individual was seen as a perceptual organism, who organized, interpreted, and gave

meaning to the events that impinged upon his consciousness. Making sense of events andphenomena was a driving concept. The learner makes sense of things by thinking about them. For

Gestaltists, the individuality of the learner and his internal mental processes is paramount.
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Jean Piaget was influenced by both the behaviorist and the Gestalt schools, and proposed that

one's internal cognitive structures change as a result of developmental changes in the nervous

system and as a result of being exposed to variety of experiences and the environments that

contain them.

Contemporary research into cognitive learning theory focuses on information procession,

memory, metacognition, theories of transfer, computer simulations, artificial intelligence,mathematical learning models, Ausubel, Bruner, and Gagne are all classified as contemporary

cognitive theorists. Each of these theorists emphasized different aspects of cognitive functioning

of the individual and group contexts.

Cognitive theories are quite diverse, but all are unified by the importance of the learner's internal

mental processes. These three pioneering cognitive theorists, Bruner, Ausubel and Gagn also

shared common ideas. They did not emphasize a developmental perspective, as much as Piaget

did. These three theorists were ontemporaries, doing much of their work in the 1960's and 1970's.

Even then, each was recognized as an authority in his field.

Although Ausubel, Bruner and Gagn each took different perspectives on learning, each has

made significant contributions to the overall model of human learning. Ausubel considered theimpact of prior learning and originated the tool called the "advanced organizer". The

behaviourists did not consider the importance of prior learning.

Bruner's work on categorisation and concept formation provided models of how the learnerderives information from the environment. Gagn looked at the events of learning and instruction

as a series of phases, using the cognitive steps of coding, storing, retrieving and transferring

information.

Humanist Orientation

Humanistic theories shift the emphasis to the potential for individual growth in the learner. They

bring the affective functioning of the human into the arena of learning.

Freud's psychoanalytic approach to behavior was a powerful influence on the humanistic learning

theorists. Many of Freud's concepts, such as the subconscious mind, anxiety, repression, defensemechanisms, drives, and transference found their way into the humanistic learning theories.

The humanists rejected the notions of behaviorism that the environment determines learning.

They favored the notion that human beings can control their own destiny, and that humans are

inherently good and desire a better world for themselves and others. Behavior is a consequence of

choice; people are active agents in their own learning and lives, not helpless respondents to forces

that act upon them. Motivation, choice, and responsibility are influences of learning. Life's

experiences are the central arena for learning.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are the two theorists who have contributed most to this

perspective.

Social Learning Orientation

The focus of social learning theories is interactions between people as the primary mechanism of

learning. Learning is based on observation of others in a social setting. Early social learning

theories in the 1940's drew heavily from behaviorism, suggesting that imitative responses, when
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reinforced, let to the observed learning and behavioral changes.

Later, in the 1960's the work of Bandura broke away from the behaviorist views. He was the first

to separate observation of another's behavior from the act of imitation. He postulated that an

observer can learn by observing without having to imitate what is being learned.

Four processes form the cornerstones of observational learning theory. These are attention,retention (memory), behavioral rehearsal, and motivation. All four processes contribute to

learning by observation.

Two other important proponents of social learning theory are Vygotsky and John Seely Brown.

Many useful concepts emerge from the social learning orientation, including motivational

strategies, locus of control, social role acquisition, and the importance of interaction of learner

with environment and other learners.

Learning Theory Bibliography

(Merriam & Caffarella, 1991)
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Four Fundamental Orientations and Resource for the Paper