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Forming ProcessesChapters 13-16

Forming ProcessesChapters 13-16

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Forming and Shaping ProcessesForming and Shaping Processes

Figure I.7b Schematic illustration of various bulk deformation processes

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Forming and Shaping ProcessesForming and Shaping Processes

Figure I.7b Schematic illustration of various bulk deformation processes

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Characteristics of FormingCharacteristics of Forming

Metal flow through forming and shapingLittle wasteHigher capital costHigher volume neededTooling cost is expensive

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Process VariablesProcess Variables

Starting materialStarting work piece geometryTool or die geometryLubricationStarting temperatureSpeed of operationAmount of deformation

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Dependent VariablesDependent Variables

Force or power requiredNature of material flowMaterial propertiesExit temperatureSurface finish

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OutcomeOutcome

ExperienceExperimentTheory

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Rolling ProcessesRolling Processes

Figure 13.1 Schematic outline of various flat-rolling and shape-rolling processes. Source:After the American Iron and Steel Institute.

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Rolling ProcessesRolling Processes

Set of rollsContinuous or discreteCold or hotVariety of shapes depend on rolling diesPart have uniform and dependable quality2% to 5% dimensional tolerance

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Flat-Rolling ProcessFlat-Rolling Process

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Effects of Hot RollingEffects of Hot Rolling

Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous castings are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.

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Machined and Rolled ThreadsMachined and Rolled Threads

Figure 13.17 (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c) rolled threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.

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Roll ArrangementsRoll Arrangements

Figure 13.3

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Rolling OperationsRolling Operations

Video (Making Steel)StraighteningRing Rolling (video)

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Forging of Metals (ch14)Forging of Metals (ch14)

“Blacksmith” (video)Shaping operationCompressive forcesDies (mid to high cost)Discrete raw materialProcess variable (as above)Hot, warm, or cold

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Characteristics of ForgingCharacteristics of Forging

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Forged ComponentsForged Components

Figure 14.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing-gear components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, made by forging. (c) General view of a 445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press.

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Microstructure of PartsMicrostructure of Parts

Figure 14.2 Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain flow. (a) Casting by the processes described in Chapter 11. (b) Machining form a blank, described in Part IV of this book, and (c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and limitations regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and the economics of production. Source: Courtesy of Forging Industry Association.

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Grain Flow in ForgingGrain Flow in Forging

Figure 14.12 A pierced round billet showing grain-flow pattern (see also Fig 14.12c). Source: Courtesy of LadishCo., Inc.

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Open Die ForgingOpen Die Forging

Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an anvil. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by barreling, as in Fig. 14.3c. (b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.

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Closed Die ForgingClosed Die Forging

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HeadingHeading

Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets. (b) Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.

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Forging vs. Casting CostForging vs. Casting Cost

Figure 14.19 Relative unit costs of a small connecting rod made by various forging and casting processes. Note that, for large quantities, forging is more economical. Sand casting is the most economical process for fewer then about 20,000 pieces.

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Extrusion (ch15)Extrusion (ch15)

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Direct-ExtrusionDirect-Extrusion

Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct-extrusion process.

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Extruded PartsExtruded Parts

Figure 15.2 Extrusions and examples of products made by sectioning off extrusions. Source: Courtesy of Kaiser Aluminum.

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Types of ExtrusionTypes of Extrusion

Figure 15.3 Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral;

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Metal Flow in ExtrusionMetal Flow in Extrusion

Figure 15.6 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with coiling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe (or extrusion) defect.

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Extrusion Temperature RangesExtrusion Temperature Ranges

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Extrusion of Heat SinksExtrusion of Heat Sinks

Figure 15.10 (a) Aluminum extrusion used as a heat sink for a printed circuit board. (b) Die and resulting heat sink profiles. Source: Courtesy of Aluminum Extruders Council.

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Cold-Extruded Spark PlugCold-Extruded Spark Plug

Figure 15.12 Production steps for a cold-extruded spark plug. Source:Courtesy of National Machinery Company. Figure 15.13 A cross-section

of the metal part in Fig 15.12 showing the grain-flow pattern. Source: Courtesy of National Machinery Company.

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Sheet Metal Processes - Ch16Sheet Metal Processes - Ch16

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Process OverviewProcess Overview

Make a variety of parts from sheets of metal by cutting and bending them into shapeExamples

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Sheet-Metal PartsSheet-Metal Parts

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WastebasketWastebasket

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Design with JointsDesign with Joints

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Can ManufactureCan ManufactureFigure 16.31 The metal-forming processes involved in manufacturing a two-piece aluminum beverage can.

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Forming VideoForming Video

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Sheet-Metal Forming ProcessesSheet-Metal Forming Processes

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Engineering ProblemsEngineering Problems

Shape design and materialsSize of equipment (force)NestingMinimum bend radiusSpringbackBend allowance

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ShearingShearing

Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.

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Punch Force Punch Force F = .7TL(UTS) where• T = thickness• L = total length sheared• UTS = ultimate tensile

strengthExample from book• 1 in. dia., 1/8 in. thick,

140,000 psi UTSF = .7*π*(1/8)*140,000

= 19.25 tons

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Die-Cutting OperationsDie-Cutting Operations

Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal.

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NestingNesting

Optimal arrangement of parts on a piece of sheet metal

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Bending OperationsBending Operations

Figure 16.22 Examples of various bending operations.

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Press BrakePress Brake

Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of VersonAllsteel Company.

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Bending TerminologyBending Terminology

Figure 16.16 Bending terminology. Note that the bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the bent part.

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Springback in BendingSpringback in Bending

Figure 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending, and its bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final bend angle to be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).

Ri

Rf

= 4RiY

ET⎛ ⎝

⎞ ⎠

3

− 3RiY

ET⎛ ⎝

⎞ ⎠

+ 1

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Reducing Springback (Dies)Reducing Springback (Dies)

Figure 16.20 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations. Source: After V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.

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Minimum Bend RadiusMinimum Bend Radius

Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions stringers) on cracking as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90 degrees. Note also the narrowing of the top surface in the bend area (due to Poisson effect).

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Minimum Bend RadiusMinimum Bend Radius

Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T ratio and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals. Note that sheet metal with 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself in a process like the folding of a piece of paper without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.

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Bend AllowanceBend Allowance

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Bend Allowance EquationBend Allowance Equation

Length of part when unfoldedLb = α (R + kT), where• k is a constant between .33 to .5• T = thickness of sheet metal• R = bend radius• α = bend angle

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Understanding Bend AllowanceUnderstanding Bend Allowance

(Instructor Notes)

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CAD DemoCAD Demo