Foreign Policy 1946 - 2014

Foreign Policy

1947 - 2014

Three Arguments When Researching Policies, Programs, and AgendasCompared to What?

At What Cost?

Wheres the Hard Evidence?

Highlights of U.S. Foreign Policy1946 - 2014Cold War Containment/Truman DoctrineChinese RevolutionIsrael NationhoodKoreaVietnam Early YearsCuban RevolutionBay of PigsCuban Missile CrisisVietnam EscalationMideast ConflictsDtenteIran Hostage CrisisGrenada

Mideast ConflictsLatin American UnrestFall of U.S.S.R.Operation Desert Shield/Desert StormHaiti & SomaliaKosovo & The Balkans CrisisIraq9/11 & War on TerrorismAfghanistan & IraqIranSyriaUkraine

Casablanca, January 1943From left to right: French General Henri Giraud, FDR, French General Charles de Gaulle, and Winston Churchill

Decisions from the Casablanca ConferenceChurchill convinced FDR to attack Sicily and Italy firstNo decision on a second front in FranceDoctrine of unconditional surrender by the Axis powersStalin was not at the Casablanca conference and became angry over the Allied decisions because he wanted an invasion of France

Teheran, November 1943 First face-to-face meeting between the Big 3Joseph Stalin, FDR, and Winston Churchill

Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill at Tehran

Decisions from the Teheran ConferenceSecond front for May 1944 called Operation OVERLORD. (Became D-DayJune 6, 1944 with 3 million soldiers under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower)Stalin wanted to keep Eastern Europe under Soviet domination; Churchill proposed democratic electionsSought a United Nations

Yalta, February 1945

Decisions from the Yalta Conference Partition Germany into occupation zones, no reparation paymentsStalin insisted on Soviet control over Eastern Europe; agreed to hold free elections in PolandStalin agreed to enter the war against JapanStalin agreed to join United Nations

Roosevelt died April 12, 1945War in Europe ended May 8, 1945

Potsdam, July 1945Clement Atlee, Harry Truman, and Stalin

Decisions from the Potsdam ConferenceTruman learned that the U.S. had successfully detonated an atomic bombAgreed on unconditional surrender for JapanNo agreement over Poland, but Russia occupied it.Truman threatened to cut off aid to Russia. Stalin chose no U.S. aid.

Europe after World War II

National Security Act of 1947BipartisanCreated National Military Establishment led by Sec of Defense with subcabinet departments of army, navy, air forceAlso NSC (pres, head of def depts, Sec of St, etc)Made Joint Chiefs of Staff permanentCreated CIA

Building United NationsApr 25, 1945 50 nations in San Fran draft charterMore members could come in with 2/3 vote of General AssemblyGA would approve budget, get reports from agencies, choose members of Security CouncilSC: permanent session now 15: 10 rotating, 5 perm (US, GB, France, China, Russia) permanent could veto could investigate, send military, refer to International Court of Justice at The Hague, Netherlands

United Nations Votes The Soviet Unions seat is conspicuously vacant as the UN Security Council votes on June 27, 1950, to use force to push North Korean troops out of South Korea.

THE ONSET OF THE COLD WAR

A Former Ally Becomes an EnemyIn the eyes of the west, the Soviet Union was a state dedicated to world revolution and to the overthrow of capitalism everywhere.

Soviets Dominate Eastern EuropeWithout oceans or mountains to protect them from invasion, Soviet leaders felt that they must have friendly countries as neighbors.That meant communist countries.

Cold War StanceChurchill deliveringHis Iron Curtain Speech at WestminsterCollege, Fulton, Missouri1946

The Iron Curtain

The Iron CurtainIn March of 1946, Winston Churchill stated, An iron curtain has descended across the continent.

The Cold War Begins:Issues Dividing U.S., U.S.S.R.Control of postwar EuropeEconomic aidNuclear disarmament

Differences with SovietsUSSR take E Europe against YaltaDont trust US b/c didnt help in WWII, didnt share Manhattan ProjectIron Curtain

TrumanMiddle class childhood, no college, fought in WWI, failed as a tailor, had been a senatorw/in 90 days, replaced most of CabinetWanted: more unemployment insurance, higher min wage, permanent Fair Employment Practices Committee, slum clearance and low-rent housing, development of river valleys, public works

The Truman Doctrine1947--Truman seeks funds to keep Greece, Turkey in western sphere of influenceTruman Doctrine: support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressureDoctrine an informal declaration of cold war against the Soviet Union

Containment1947--George C. Marshall appointed Secretary of StateDean Acheson seeks for U.S. England's former role as arbiter of world affairsGeorge Kennan calls for containment of Russias expansive tendencies

Containment1) statement George Kennan must contain communism Truman Doctrine support free people fighting subjugation2) money Marshall Plan Greece and Turkey fighting communism Truman asked Congress for $400m in aid repair W. Europe suffering from war effects, bad winter, drought, coal shortages, no infrastructure Marshall was Sec of St offered aid even to USSR passed after Czechoslovakia fell to USSR - $13b from 1948-51

Containment, cont3) military NATO Apr 1949 12 nations to start withAttack one, attack allE Europe soon responded with Warsaw Pact

Dividing Germany1948 W zones of Germany mergeApr 1948 blockade of Berlin beganUS airlifted 13,000 tons supplies/day until May 1949W Germ = Federal Republic of GermanyE Germ = Democratic Republic of Germany

The Division of Europe1945--Russians occupy eastern Europe, American troops occupy western EuropeSoviet Union seeks eastern European buffer U.S. demands national self-determination through free elections throughout EuropeStalin converts eastern Europe into a system of satellite nations

Withholding Economic AidRussia devastated by World War II Some Americans seek to influence Russia with Lend-Lease economic aid1945--United States halts Lend-Lease without Russian settlementLeverage lost in shaping Soviet policy

The Marshall Plan, 1947General George C. Marshall (pictured on the right) shaking hands with President Truman.

The Marshall Plan1947--George Marshall proposes aid for rebuilding European industriesRussia refuses aid 1948--Marshall Plan adopted by CongressPlan fosters western European prosperity

Marshall Plan to Aid Europe, 1948-1952

The Atomic Dilemma1943--nuclear race between U.S., U.S.S.R.1946--Baruch Plan rapid reduction of U.S. military forcegradual reduction favors U.S. atomic monopolySoviet Unionlarger conventional army than U.S.immediate abolition of atomic weapons

The Soviets Developed a Nuclear Weapon, 1949The first successful Soviet nuclear test, August 1949

The Arms Race

NATO, 1949

The Western Military Alliance1949--North Atlantic Treaty Organizationmilitary alliance includes U.S., Canada, most of western EuropeU.S. troops stationed in EuropeNATO intensifies Russia's fear of the West

Israel1947 UN General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab statesMay 14, 1948 Israel declared independenceUS first country to recognize independenceIsrael immediately attacked uneasy peace in May 1949

Converting to peaceBy 1947 military down from 12m to 1.5m by 1950, 600,000Pop soared baby boomHow avoid economic crisis? Unemployment insurance and Soc Sec, GI Bill of Rights (ed, vocational training, loans), private investment

The Berlin Airlift, 1948

The Berlin BlockadeJune, 1948--Russians blockade BerlinTruman orders airlift to supply the city1949--Russians end blockadeU.S. political victory dramatizes division

Berlin Airlift

Communist China, 1949Zhou Enlai (left), Communist Chinese premier and foreign minister, stands with Chairman Mao Zedong and Lin Biao, military commander (right)

ChinaChinese nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek fighting Communists led by Mao Tse-tung (Zedong)Late 1949 Nationalists fled to Formosa (Taiwan) we only recognized them as govt of ChinaUSSR - 1949 explode atomic bomb effects: we build hydrogen bomb, NSC recommend building up our military

Mao Zedong

The Cold War Expands1947--U.S.-Russian arms race acceleratesConflict expands to Asia

The Military Dimension1947--National Security Act Department of Defense unifies armed forcesCentral Intelligence Agency coordinates intelligence-gatheringNational Security Council advises president Defense budget devoted to air power1949--first Russian atomic bomb explodes, U.S. begins hydrogen bomb development

The Cold War in Asia1945--U.S. consolidates hold on Japan, former Japanese possessions in Pacific1949--victory of Mao Tse-tung brings China into Soviet orbitTruman refuses recognition of Communist China, begins building up Japan

The Cold War at HomeNew Deal economic policies underminedFears of Communist subversionRepublicans use anticommunism to revive their party

Truman's TroublesObstacles to Trumans Fair Deal reformsapathetic publicinflationlabor unrest 1946--Republicans win Congress

Truman Vindicated1948--Thomas Dewey versus TrumanTruman thought unelectableSouthern Democrats, Northern liberals desertRoosevelt coalition reelects Truman on domestic issuesRepublicans respond by challenging Trumans handling of the Cold War

The Loyalty IssueFear of Communist subversionTruman administration conducts campaign against subversivesDemocrats blamed for"losing" China to Communism Russia's development of a hydrogen bomb

McCarthyism in Action1950--Senator Joseph McCarthy launches anticommunist campaign Innocent overwhelmed by accusations Attacks on privileged bureaucrats supported by Midwest Republicans attract Irish, Italian, Polish workers to Republicans

The Republicans in Power1952--Eisenhower captures White House for Republican Party July 27, 1953--stalemate accepted in KoreaEisenhower deals passively with McCarthy1954--attack on Army discredits McCarthy who is then censured

(2) Dynamic Conservatism: The Eisenhower PresidencyEisenhowers background and personalityEisenhowers controversial cabinetEisenhowers priority of budget cuttingExtending the reach of the New Deal

Eisenhower Wages the Cold WarEisenhower relaxes tensions with Russia Eisenhowers fearsdebt imposed by defense spending possibility of atomic warfare

The Korean WarJune25, 1950--Communist North Korean forces invade U.S.-influenced South KoreaTruman makes South Koreas defense a U.N. effort, sends in U.S. troopsU.S. routs Korean forces in SouthAttempt to unify Korea draws in ChinaU.S. pushed back to South, war a stalemateResult--massive American rearmament

The Korean War, 1950-1953

General Douglas McArthurGeneral Douglas MacArthur watches bombardment of Inchon from the bridge of the USS Mount McKinley .

The Key Players of the Korean WarHarry Truman President of U.S., 1945-1952Syngman Rhee leader of South KoreaUNDouglas MacArthur Commanding general of U.S. ArmyOmar Bradley Commanding general who replaced MacArthurKim Il Sung leader of North KoreaMao Tse Tung Communist dictator of ChinaStalin Communist dictator of USSR (Russia)

KoreaAfter WWII, US accepted surrender of Japanese in S Korea, USSR in N Kor Korea divided at 38th parallelJune 25, 1950, 80,000 NK cross 38th into SK Truman made two big decisions: fight through UN and dont go to Congress for declaration

Korea, contUN Sec Council met and voted to scold North Korea, then called on members to help SKUSSR not present b/c boycotting due to UN not recog Communist China in place of Nationalist China

Korea, cont350,000 US troops, 500,000 S Korean 14 other nations sent 50,000Gen MacArthur in chargeAfraid it was a distracter, Truman built up defenses in Europe and sent more aid into French-controlled Vietnam

Korea, cont military movementsNK swept through SK until barely hanging on at PusanSept 15, 1950 MacArthur landed new force at Inchon beat NK back across 38thMacArthur got permission from Truman to cross into NK to try to reunify Korea got support from UNGA fought up to Yalu River300,000 Chinese troops swept in, sending UN back to SKMac wants to go into China, threatened China Truman fired him wrong war at the wrong place at the wrong time with the wrong enemy

The two Koreas: Whats the 38th Parallel?Syngman RheeKim Il-SungDomino TheoryCountries will continue to fall to Communism unless its contained (by U.S.)!North KoreaCommunist country,Influenced by ChinaSouth KoreaDemocratic country,Influenced by U.S.A.38th parallel Geographic boundary line which divided the two Korean countries.

The Shifting Map of Korea [1950-1953]

Who was correct: Truman or MacArthur? Why was MacArthur dismissed?

On the Battle FrontPicture above: A grief stricken American infantryman whose buddy has been killed in action is comforted by another soldier. In the background a corpsman methodically fills out casualty tags, Haktong-ni area, Korea. August 28, 1950. Sfc. Al Chang. (Army)

End of warJune 24, 1951 Soviet representative to UN proposed cease-fire along 38th Sec of St Dean Acheson acceptedTruce talks lasted two years while fighting continuedEisenhower president before it ended 38th parallel demilitarized zone, repatriation of prisoners33,000 American deaths with 103,000 wounded or MIA SK 1m and NK and Chinese 1.5m

Demilitarized Zone

WHO WON????S KOREA REMAINED FREEContainment had workedKorea badly damagedThe human costStill two separate states todayStill US troops in Korea

THE COST IN HUMAN LIFE

Entanglement in IndochinaEisenhower refuses military aid for French retention of colonial Indochina Victory of Communist Ho Chi Minh prompts intervention to prevent electionVietnam dividedSouth Vietnam under U.S. puppet regime

Containing ChinaTough line against ChinaDrive wedge between China, RussiaStrategy ultimately worksEffects not immediately apparent

Turmoil in the Middle East1956--Nasser nationalizes Suez CanalFrance, England invade EgyptEisenhower wins Middle East trust by pressuring English, French withdrawal1958--Lebanon invites U.S. troops to maintain order

Covert ActionsCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA) used to achieve covert objectives Iran--CIA restores the shah to powerGuatemala--CIA ousts leftist governmentEastern Europe--refused to help East Germans or Hungarians

Waging PeaceOctober, 1957--Russians launch SputnikOctober--U.S., U.S.S.R. agree to suspend nuclear testing in the atmosphereNovember--Berlin blockade threatenedMay, 1960--U-2 incident

(3) Reaction to SputnikSoviets launch Sputnik (October, 1957)American reaction to SputnikNASA created (1958)Project Apollo and the race to the moonNational Defense Education Act (1958)Commission on National Goals

The Reaction to Sputnik1957--Russians launch SputnikAmerican responseNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Defense Education Act--upgrade the teaching of scienceSense of failure, decline by 1960

Eisenhower's Modern RepublicanismEisenhower leaves New Deal intact1954--Democrats regain Congress1956--Highway Act creates interstate highway system stimulates the economy shapes metropolitan growth patterns

The Cuban EconomyEconomy based on sugar cash cropImported to U.S. above market priceEmployed 25% of workforceSeasonal employmentNewest mill built 1925Sugar exports decrease from 20% 10%

An American DependencyPurchased 50% of sugarControlled 40% of productionControlled 90% of utilities & phonesControlled 50% of Railroads80% of imports from U.S.

Fulgencio Batista1952 coup detatCaudillo ruleBacked by militaryEconomy declinesOpposition among middle classLack of eco. OpportunityGovt. repression

The Cuban PublicMiddle class tired of inflation, unemployment and underemploymentPer capita income declined 18% (1952-1954)Standard of living going down

In Cuba, social and economic trends led to a revolution. There, social inequality and heavy U.S. influence led to a revolt that brought communism to this large Caribbean island.The Cuban Revolution

The coming of CastroBatistas CubaA rich country with too many poor peopleBatistas coup stirred discontent, nationalism among poorRevolutionaries under Castro Led unsuccessful attack, 1953; guerrilla war became full-scale revolution, 1955Batista fled 1959; Castro took controlThe Cuban Revolution

The Cuban Revolution

Fidels First AttemptCastro leads rebel attacksJuly 1953Attack failed; rebels captured and executedCastro captured laterDefended himself: History will Absolve meCastro becomes hero to the masses. 26th of July Movement

A New StartCastro and others released May 1955Castro and followers move to Mexico University students protest BautistaMilitary plans overthrow (April, 1956)

Castro ReturnsDecember 1956Landing betrayed and attackedCastro and 11 others escape into Sierra Maestra MountainsBegins building up forcesNot the only anti-Batista groupCatholic Church calls for Batistas ouster (Feb. 1958)

Castros P.R. Campaign1957 Interviews w/ NYTCuban PatriotFighting for democracy and FreedomStrengthens U.S. Image U.S. govt. disturbed by increasing violenceStops arms shipments to Batista regime

Summer 1958Batistas last campaignFlees Cuba January 1, 1959Castro and rebels enter HavanaBegins to socialize economyEstablishes dictatorship

Dedicated Communist or Committed Nationalist?1960

Changes under CastroLimited size of landholdingsNationalized private property, businessesTo ensure he had power to make changesTook full control of governmentTook away freedom of pressResult of radical actions Led Cuba more toward communismLed Cuba toward confrontation with U.S.The Cuban Revolution

U.S. InvolvementCubas move toward communism troubled U.S. leadersViewed Latin America as part of U.S. sphere of influenceWanted to keep communism out of regionCuban Missile Crisis1962, CIA learned Soviet Union building nuclear missile site in CubaPresident John Kennedy ordered naval blockage to keep Soviet ships outWorld came close to nuclear war before compromise, missiles removedOrganization of American StatesSet up shortly after World War II to promote economic, military cooperation1961, U.S.-trained invasion force of Cuban exiles landed at Bay of PigsMission to spark nationwide uprising against Castro; mission failedThe Cuban Revolution

The Cuban Revolution

Eisenhowers ResponseSupport anti-Castro guerilla forcesCIA Assassination plotOrders to U.S. refineries in CubaCancellation of sugar quotaEmbargo on all U.S. exports (1960)Cuts diplomatic ties

JFK versus Nixon on Foreign PolicyBoth candidates were quite similar on foreign policy.Both were anti-communist Cold War politicians and saw communism as the key threat to national security.Both used strong rhetoric against communism.Both supported imperialist U.S. policies in the name of anti-communism. Both saw Castros Cuba as a key issue.Both supported the nuclear arms race, at least in 1960.Both were trapped by their Cold War rhetoric into a militaristic rather than a diplomatic approach to problems.

JFK and Third WorldWhile enlarging the nation's nuclear arsenal, he also backed the military's commitment to new forms of warfare suitable for fighting insurgences in what was becoming known as the Third World.

Kennedy Intensifies the Cold WarJohn F. Kennedy a "Cold Warrior"Kennedy advisors support U.S. hard line against Russia

JFKs Foreign PolicyJFK, like every president since Truman, prioritized foreign policy over domestic policy.JFK goal: expand the empire and protect against communism with a dual approach:1. Peace Corps (reflected his idealism and inspired youth toward self-sacrifice).2. Green Berets (reflected a realistic grasp of the grass roots nature of insurgency, but read by some generals as an attack on the reigning conventional military model).JFKs foreign policy emphasized military containment of communism. He viewed Cuba as the key nearby Cold War battleground.In 1956 Soviet Premier Khrushchev seemingly claimed We will bury you! but the translation was off. A better translation is "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will dig you in." In any event Americans felt deeply threatened by the USSR.

Flexible ResponseArms buildupconventional armed forcesthe nuclear arsenalSpecial Forces U.S. strength tempts new administration to challenge U.S.S.R.

JFK v Nikita Khrushchev

Crisis over Berlin1961--Khrushchev renews threat again to give Berlin to East GermanyKennedys responseannounce crisis on nationwide televisioncall up the National GuardSoviets retreatBerlin Wall built

JFK and Berlin WallA tense 1961 confrontation with the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev over Berlin was defused only by the Soviets' construction of the Berlin Wall.

1963 Test Ban TreatyIn 1963, Kennedy negotiated a ban on atmospheric nuclear tests and called for a new and more cooperative relationship with Moscow.

Containment in Southeast AsiaKennedy sees Southeast Asia as focus of U.S.-Soviet rivalry support Saigons Diem regimesends 16,000 American military "advisors" November, 1963--coup against Diem Kennedy acceptscoup further destabilizes South VietnamU.S. involvement in Vietnam deepened

Diem AssassinatedIn the Fall of 1963, JFK authorized a coup to topple South Vietnam's unpopular president, Ngo Dinh Diem, who was subsequently murdered by the coup leaders.

JFK and CastroJFK escalated the American drive to unseat Fidel Castro's communist regime in Cuba, first through the disastrous 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion (whose plans he had inherited from his predecessor) and then through a series of covert assassination schemes hatched by the Central Intelligence Agency.

Cuban Missile CrisisIn the defining international event of his presidency, the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy went to the brink of war to pressure the Soviets to remove nuclear missiles from Cuba.

Containing Castro:The Bay of Pigs FiascoKennedy supports anti-Castro forces in exileBay of Pigs invasion a part of 1960 CIA plan under Eisenhower April, 17 1961Invasion1,400 Cuban exiles land without expected U.S. military supportDefeated within 48 hoursKennedy takes responsibility in defiant speech against communist penetration

Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile CrisisOctober, 1962--Soviet nuclear missiles confirmed in CubaPlan to blockade, invade CubaOctober 22--Kennedy informs Americans of Cuban Missile CrisisOctober 28--Khrushchev agrees to remove missiles

Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile CrisisPoliticalKennedys popularity soarsDemocrats gain in Congressional electionsDiplomatic effectsmoderation of the Cold WarRussians begin naval, nuclear buildup

Cuban Missile Crisis

Hiroshima Before and After

Atomic Babies: Birth Defects

Nagasaki

More Unsettling ImagesThe U.S. continued atomic tests and developed the even more destructive hydrogen bomb (H-bomb)Americans were exposed to images of these tests and statistics such as blast radius damage and wind patterns that would spread radioactive fallout

Nuclear World Destruction By the 1950s both superpowers (USSR and USA) had nuclear weapons and, by the 1960s, delivery systems to send them across continents and oceansFor the first time, complete world annihilation became a real possibility

A Feeling of SafetyElaborate systems were developed to give warning before a nuclear attackSome hoped to survive by protecting themselves, and their families, by creating protective shelters to survive the explosion and effects of radiation

Civil Defense Propaganda Spreads Fear and ParanoiaU.S. Civil Defense used ads to try to prepare the public for possible attack and use of sheltersSchool children routinely practiced duck and cover drills where desks would supposedly help provide protection

Duck and Cover Civil Defense Filmhttp://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava11109vnb1Click the hyperlink above to view classic 1950s civil defense film about duck and cover protection from nuclear attack.

Bunker MentalityGovernments, and individuals, searched for a feeling of safety and controlBomb shelters seemed to offer the possibility of surviving a nuclear warPublic and private bomb shelters were built throughout the Cold War

Public SheltersU.S. Civil Defense began assigning basements of public buildings as bomb sheltersSome of these shelters were stockpiled with food, water, medicine, etc.There was never enough shelter space, or supplies, for all citizens

Private SheltersTo protect their families, some Americans built bomb shelters in their homesMany were built in secret to prevent neighbors from trying to come in during attacksIt is estimated that more than 1500 private shelters were built during the Cold War

Shelter ConstructionTo provide maximum protection, most shelters were built below ground with concrete blocksMany were built below patios and driveways to provide extra protectionSome hid the construction from neighbors, claiming to be building swimming pools or remodeling their homes

Shelter SuppliesPublic and private shelters were stocked for a minimum two-week supply of essentialsWaterFoodSanitation facilitiesRadiation metersMedical suppliesRadios, books, games, etc.

Drinking Water

Survival Food

Sanitation Facilities

Geiger Counters to Measure Radiation Levels

Dosimeters to Measure a Persons Cumulative Exposure to Radiation

Medical Supplies

A Brief ChronologyMay, 1962: Khrushchev makes veiled references to a plot (How would the U.S. feel to have missiles pointing at them, as they have missiles pointed at us?)September: JFK and Congress issue warnings to USSR that US will deal harshly with any threats to national securityOctober 14: U2 recon. flight over Cuba spots sites installing nuclear missiles October 15: Presence of missiles is confirmed

The Missiles: One Site

Chronology, ContinuedOctober 16: President Kennedy notifiedOctober 16-22: Secret deliberations on what should be doneOctober 22: Kennedy tells nation his plan for blockade and quarantineOctober 23: OAS endorses naval quarantineOctober 24: Naval quarantine begins and successfully changes course of many Soviet ships

Chronology, ContinuedOctober 25: One Soviet ship challenges naval quarantine; Kennedy lets it passOctober 25: At the UN, Adlai Stevenson directly challenges the Soviet ambassador to admit to the existence of missiles, when the ambassador refuses, Stevenson wheels out pictures of the missile sitesOctober 26: Soviets raise possibility for a deal: if we withdraw missiles will America promise not to invade Cuba?

Chronology, ContinuedOctober 27: Soviets demand that Americans also withdraw missiles from Turkey; Major Andersons plane is missing over Cuba, presumably shot down; U.S. recon plane strays over Soviet airspacehigh tensionsKennedy tells Khrushchev that he will accept the proposal of the 26th, Kennedy tells his brother to tell the Soviet Ambassador that though the Turkey missiles would not be part of the bargain, they would be removed in timeOctober 28: USSR agrees to withdraw missiles

JFK and CubaConcerned with Cuba as a nearby front of the Cold War. Fidel Castro represented the spread of communism in our own backyard (our own sphere of influence). Would the U.S. - a superpower - tolerate such an event?JFK, somewhat obsessed with Castro, secretly authorized the CIA to kill him. JFK also endorsed the pre-existing CIA plan for a covert invasion of Cuba using Cuban exiles.

Fidel Castro visited the U.S. in 1959 seeking a meeting with the President. He had overthrown the U.S.-supported right-wing dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in January of that year. Castro was a fierce nationalist. Eisenhower rejected his overtures. He then visited Khrushchev and achieved a favorable reception. An alliance was forged.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)In January of 1959 Fidel Castro, leader of the nationalist guerillas, overthrew Fulgencia Batista the U.S. supported right-wing dictator of Cuba.Castro and other Cuban nationalists attacked Batista as too friendly to the American corporate, political and mafia elite.The USSR scored a Cold War victory when Cuba went red, embarrassing the U.S. and setting in motion a response.In 1959, Eisenhower approved plans for a U.S. sponsored invasion of Cuba using Cuban exiles living in Miami. The CIA was over-confident from earlier similar successful overthrows in Guatemala and Iran. Batista placed himself in power (once again) in 1952 in a coup against a democratically elected leader. He suspended Cubas constitution and courted the Americans, who supported his right-wing dictatorship in this era of Cold War rivalry. When Castro ousted Batista, the U.S. set in motion efforts to remove Castro by force.

Bay of Pigs InvasionJFK endorsed the basic CIA invasion plan involving about 1500 Cuban exiles armed and covertly trained by the CIA.The CIA erroneously assumed that Castro was unpopular and unprepared for such an attack. They assumed native Cubans would rise up and join the 1500 exiles to displace Castro.The attack (April 15-17, 1961) was a disaster, embarrassing JFK, who had been in office only about three months. CIA director Allen Dulles, one of the planners, was forced to resign.The attack strengthened regional guerilla movements that claimed that the U.S. was imperialistic. Yankee go home! JFK went on U.S. television to admit his role in the failed invasion. Victory has a hundred fathers but defeat is an orphan.JFK continued covert operations against Castro, and the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis would be the next big confrontation.The Americans funded, trained, armed, and covertly participated in this invasion of Cuba, while initially denying any role and labeling it as an internal conflict. But the truth was too obvious and JFK eventually admitted to his complicity. Earlier, in 1954, the U.S. sponsored a military coup against a democratically elected leader in Guatemala and replaced him with a right wing dictator friendly to United Fruit Company. It was clear that the U.S. was willing to subvert the values of sovereignty and even democracy in the name of anti-communism.

Bay of Pigs InvasionThe willingness of the U.S. elite to invade Cuba (note the moralistic fear of communism) despite their professed support for the sovereignty of other nations revealed contradictions that would haunt the idealistic youth of the early 1960s.Note Attorney General RFKs defense of the legality of the Bay of Pigs. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:JFK.jpgCuban counter-revolutionaries after their capture at the Bay of Pigs in April 1961. American policy makers underestimated the popularity of Castro, just as they misunderstood the significance of nationalism elsewhere across the globe among less developed nations and former colonies. There were implications for Vietnam that would remain elusive to American policy makers, who frequently confused nationalism as the same as communism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)Fidel Castro, coming to power and facing U.S. hostility, sought resources from the USSR. The Soviets obliged.Cuban and Soviet tensions with the U.S. were high. In April, 1962, Castro agreed to allow Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuban soil. They arrived in September.The Soviets knew that the U.S. had already installed nuclear missiles in Turkey (in the Soviet sphere of influence). The Soviets publicly denied they were installing missiles in Cuba.In October, U.S. spy planes discovered the missiles in Cuba.JFK decides to confront the Soviets and Cubans.Aerial photos revealed Soviet nuclear missile sites on Cuban soil. Each superpower regarded its own hemisphere as its backyard and any incursion was a violation of the defacto arrangement between the superpowers.

Cuban Missile CrisisThree military response options were debated by the U.S. National Security CouncilAir attack on the missile basesFull military invasion of CubaNaval blockade of Cuba (quarantine)JFK opted for the naval blockade for the time being, but did not rule out the possibility of an invasion.On October 22, 1962, JFK announced the quarantine.Khrushchev claimed it was illegal and would cause a war.On October 24, about 19 Soviet ships were blocked as the U.S. and Soviets engaged in a furious standoff.

Kennedy and advisors pour over documents and photos of Soviet missiles and missile bases being built on Cuban soil. The ship at left is carrying Soviet weapons toward Cuba.

Cuban Missile CrisisThe crisis deepened when neither side showed any signs they would back down.Castro was convinced a U.S. invasion was immanent and urged a hard line to Khrushchev. This was the closest the U.S. and USSR had ever come to nuclear war.Through difficult and awkward negotiations, the U.S. and Soviets worked out an arrangement.The Soviets would remove their missiles from Cuba and the U.S. would stop the quarantine and promise not to invade Cuba. The U.S. also privately agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey, pending NATO approval.Kennedy meets with advisors.

Cuban Missile CrisisBecause it appeared in the public eye that Khrushchev had backed down, the outcome weakened Khrushchev and strengthened JFK. Khrushchev would remain in power only two more years.The Soviets resolved to escalate their nuclear weapons program.JFKs image as a powerful world leader would rise and JFK learned some dangerous lessons (1) a macho foreign policy works and (2) the CIA and other secret agencies are essential programs.The U.S. military increased its hubris (military solution in Vietnam).Castros position in Cuba was strengthened. Both superpowers resolved to establish good communications with each other to avoid another similar confrontation.The U.S. and USSR created a direct-link red telephone system.Greater U.S. and Soviet diplomacy led to a SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) agreement by 1963.

Containing Castro:The Bay of Pigs FiascoKennedy supports anti-Castro forces in exileBay of Pigs invasion a part of 1960 CIA plan under Eisenhower April, 17 1961Invasion1,400 Cuban exiles land without expected U.S. military supportDefeated within 48 hoursKennedy takes responsibility in defiant speech against communist penetration

Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile CrisisOctober, 1962--Soviet nuclear missiles confirmed in CubaPlan to blockade, invade CubaOctober 22--Kennedy informs Americans of Cuban Missile CrisisOctober 28--Khrushchev agrees to remove missiles

Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis (2)PoliticalKennedys popularity soarsDemocrats gain in Congressional electionsDiplomatic effectsmoderation of the Cold WarRussians begin naval, nuclear buildup

Castros RoleNo real role in decision makingApparently out of touch with the situationOct. 26: Aggression imminent/imperialists disregarding world opinionClearly not the caseKhrushchev plays along to some extent but it is clear he disagrees with him (your suggestion would have started a thermonuclear world war)

Soviet DecisionsMotivationsClose the missile gapCurrently far behind U.S. in terms of number of missilesVerbal threats no longer effective with overwhelming evidence of U.S. superiorityProtect CubaReciprocity: The U.S. has missiles pointing at us, lets see how they feel now

Soviet Decisions, ContinuedInability to use the missilesIf fired a missile, repercussions would be severe

Why Khrushchev SettledEffectiveness of naval quarantineConventional inferiority in the Caribbean No possible countermoveOverwhelming world support for the U.S.Other possible reasonsGot what he wanted?No U.S. invasion of CubaU.S. missiles withdrawn from Turkey

The American DecisionIn September Kennedy had stated and Congress had passed a resolution saying that if the Soviet Union placed offensive weapons in Cuba we would not tolerate it.Could we then rely solely on diplomacy? Kennedys thought John could be impeached if he didnt act in accordance with his prior warningsDetermined in first 48 hours of crisis that the removal of missiles was the primary objectiveThis objective effectively ruled out isolated diplomacy, and left two options

The American Decision cont.Option 1 - Air StrikeOn October 17th, President Kennedy made the flat statement that there would definitely be an air strike, at least against the missile sites, and perhaps against wider targets (Bundy 394)Reservations from others, airstrike may be using a sledgehammer to kill a flyLater that day Robert McNamara suggests policy in between diplomacy and an air strike

The American Decision cont.Option 2 BlockadeAdvocated early on by McNamara and Robert Kennedy, blockade would not require instant killing, but critics feared it would not remove the missiles and would allow Soviets time to complete what they already had in CubaDouglas Dillon strengthened blockade argument by suggesting that it would only be a first step, that if Khrushchev did not remove the missiles to lift it, then more could be doneBy Friday the 19th, the committee working on the blockade adapted it into a quarantine, on Sunday Kennedy accepted their plan as the course of action

Could America have acted differently?Could we have used the crisis to remove Castro?Our warnings all along had been against offensive weapons so once that warning is tested if we use it to attack Castro are we sticking to our word?Could we have tried diplomacy before resorting to the quarantine?If we didnt keep secrecy, Khrushchev could have proclaimed defiance, or denounced quarantinethen both countries would be in positions where theyre heading straight for each other and cant just turn back

The Vietnam Dilemma1964--Saigon on the verge of collapse Johnsons initial responserefuse to send American combat forceseconomic aidmilitary adviserscovert actionsAugust 1964--Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War

Johnson Escalates the Vietnam WarHawkish foreign policy continued1965--troops sent to Dominican RepublicDetermined not to "lose" Vietnam to the Communists

EscalationJohnson seeks to avoid diverting resource from Great Society to VietnamU.S. effort intended to bring Hanoi into peace negotiationsPolicy of secrecy and deceit to assure Americans of Vietnams insignificance

Stalemate1968--500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam War of attrition increases American losses, enrages South VietnameseJohnsons tactics fail to win the warAmericans gradually turn against the war

The Vietnam War (cont.)1968My Lai Massacre- A Vietnamese town suspected of harboring enemies was brutally murdered by U.S. soldiers

The Vietnam War (cont.)1968Nixon took office- promised to get America out of the warVietnamization- Bring U.S. troops home and leave the majority of the fighting to the Vietnamese

The Vietnam War (cont.)1971- Pentagon Papers leaked to the pressShowed that the U.S. had deliberately expanded its involvement in Vietnam This was happening while Pres. Lyndon Johnson was telling the American people that the U.S. would not expand its involvement1973- Ceasefire signedU.S. removed all troopsNo provisions for POWs or MIAsWar resumed between North and South Vietnam1975- North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam

U.S. Troop Levels in Vietnam (as of Dec. 31 each year)

Vietnam Undermines Lyndon Johnson1968--Tet Offensive leads to conclusion that Vietnam war cannot be wonMarch--Johnson announces he will not seek another term as president

LBJ: Vietnam Destroys his PresidencyMarch 31 President Lyndon Johnson delivers his Address to the Nation Announcing Steps To Limit the War in Vietnam and Reporting His Decision Not To Seek Reelection. The speech announces the first in a series of limitations on US bombing, promising to halt these activities above the 20th parallel.

In Search of DtenteForeign-policy assumptionsCold War to be managed, not wonAmerica must make a strategic retreatimprove relations with China to neutralize RussiaFebruary 1972--Nixon visits China

In Search of Dtente:Outcome of China VisitFebruary 1972--U.S. recognition of Communist China set in motionMay 1972--Russians sign SALT IApparent mutual desire to reduce Cold War tensions

Ending the Vietnam WarNixons plangradual reduction of American troopsintensify American bombing hard line at the peace talks1970--invasion of CambodiaJanuary, 1973--peace talks conclude with disguised American surrender

The October WarOctober, 1973--Yom Kippur War pits Egypt, Syria against IsraelU.S. supplies weapons to Israel Arab oil nations retaliate with boycottprices of gasoline and home heating fuel rose sharply

The Oil ShocksEffects of soaring oil prices consumer spending plungesrecession by 1974inflation persists through 1970sTax cut aids recovery1979--Iranian Revolution causes second surge in oil prices

The Oil Shocks: Price Increases of Crude Oil and Gasoline, 1973-1985

From Dtente to Renewed Cold WarU.S. international dominance declined sharply in the 1970sInternal and external events weakened foreign policy

Retreat in AsiaApril 1975--North Vietnam captures SaigonU.S. response--evacuation, no aid Subsequent incidents met with caution, restraint

Accommodation in Latin America1977--treaty returns Panama Canal to Panama1979--U.S. refuses aid to Nicaraguan government against Sandinistas Carter assists El Salvador against Marxist rebels

The Quest for Peace in the Middle EastCarters success1978--Camp David Accords 1979--Israeli-Egyptian peace treatyCarters failure1979--Iranian Revolution November--U.S. embassy in Teheran invaded, 58 Americans taken hostageCarter fails to secure hostages release

The Cold War ResumesCarter, Brzezinski shift from Dtentecondemn Soviet human rights abusesnew missile systems deployedincreased aid to China December, 1979--Russians invade Afghanistan

Reagan and the WorldReagan determined to restore America's international positionSteep increase in military spendingAggressive foreign policy

Challenging the "Evil Empire"Reagan: Soviet Union the "focus of evil in the modern world" Unfavorable deals on arms reductionsU.S. response to Russian refusaldeployment of cruise missiles in Europedevelopment of anti-missile systemRussians build up nuclear arsenal

Turmoil in the Middle East1982--Israeli invasion of LebanonInternational responseU.S., France send troops to maintain order PLO evacuates Beirut1984--200 U.S. Marines killed in terrorist bombingU.S. evacuation of Lebanon

Trouble Spots in the Middle East

Confrontation in Central AmericaIntervention against Latin American leftist insurgentsCovert subversion of Sandinistas October, 1983--invasion of Grenada

Trouble Spots in Central America and the Caribbean

Trading Arms for HostagesAdvanced weapons sold to Iran for influence in freeing American hostagesNovember, 1986--Iran-Contra scandalprofit from Iran arms sales to Contrasfunding violates Congressional prohibitionReagan escapes impeachment

Reagan the Peacemaker1985--Mikhail Gorbachev assumes power in Russia 1985-88--Reagan-Gorbachev summits1987--destroy intermediate range missiles1988--Afghanistan evacuatedForeign policy triumphs restore Reagans popularity

The End of the Cold WarJune, 1989--Tiananmen SquareNovember, 1989--Berlin Wall torn down1991-1992--U.S.S.R. dissolved, Communist Party outlawed in Russian RepublicCautious response by Bush

The End of the Cold War

Waging Peace1989--U.S. invasion of Panama August, 1990--Iraq occupies Kuwait January, 1991--Operation Desert StormOutcome of Desert Storm February 24--Iraqi force collapsesBushs approval hits 90%

Clinton and the WorldClinton gives top priority to domestic issuesClinton emphasizes economics rather than geopolitics in world affairsForeign policy drifts for Clinton as for Bush

Global Tensions in the Post-Cold War EraSupports Boris Yeltsin in RussiaFriendly relations with the rulers of ChinaSearch for Israeli-Palestinian compromiseTwice orders cruise missile attacks on Iraq Reliance on Persian Gulf oil increased sharply by 2000

Intervening in Somalia and HaitiSomalia inherited from Bush AdministrationClinton shifts from humanitarian to vague nation-building missionmission ends in fiascoHaitiClinton forces Haitian military rulers to abdicate1994--U.S. troops land unopposedcivilian leaders unable to restore democracy, economy

Halting Civil War in BosniaClinton pursues cautious policy earlySummer 1995--Clinton orders air strikes on Serb forcesOctober 1995--Dayton Accord cease-fire securedaccord divides Bosnia into Muslim-Croatian, Serbian enclaves

The Breakup of Yugoslavia/ Civil War in Bosnia

Saving Kosovo1998--Serbs escalate ethnic cleansing campaign against Albanians in KosovoMarch, 1999--Clinton orders air strikes against Serbian infrastructureMay, 1999--60% of Serb electrical capacity destroyedJune 10, 1999--Serbs agree to evacuate all ground forces from Kosovo

Terrorism: Attack and CounterattackTerrorist attacks kill over 3,000 in New York City and Washington, D.C.Attacks carried out by al-Qaeda terrorist organizationBush declares a war on terrorism and attacks Afghanistan, home of al-Qaeda

Terrorism: Attack and Counterattack (2)2002--Congress creates the Department of Homeland SecurityNew department focuses first on security of airline travelDebate over security versus civil liberties ensuesBushs approval ratings soar

The New American Empire?Bush administration rejects international cooperation in favor of unilateral actionMarch 2003--U.S. invades Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein and his weapons of mass destructionBy April 8 Hussein is deposed and Iraq is under U.S. controlRestoring order and rebuilding the economy proves difficult

The War in Afghanistan

Map of Afghanistan

9/11In September 2001, terrorists from al-Qaeda carried out attacks on targets in the United States, including the World Trade Centre buildings in New York.3000 people died in the attacks

Al-QaedaBelieves that all foreign influences should be removed from Muslim countriesBelieves in creating a new Muslim caliphate (a state with a purely Muslim government)Believes that Christians and Jews are out to destroy IslamDirects attacks mainly at the USA and the UK, but also against countries that have moved away from the true ideals of Islam.

Military Casualties

IraqTimeline

2002-2003 Bush 43 Makes the CaseVP Cheney speech at VFW, August 2002; UN Security Council Res. 1441 (11/02)Congressional Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq, PL 107-243, 10/16/02National Security Adviser Rice, January 2003: mushroom cloud commentSecretary of State Colin Powells United Nations presentation on Iraqi WMD (February 2003)

Iraq, Weekend of July 7, 2007(Washington Post)

Positive Political Developments7/03 Interim Governing Council12/03 Saddam Hussein captured6/04 New government under PM Iyad Allawi takes over1/05 Election of Transitional National Assembly8/05 Shiite and Kurds coalition writes constitution10/05 Constitution approved by referendum12/05 Legislature chosen under constitutionCouncil of Representatives4/06 New government chosen by Council of Representatives

Public Opinion of US Around the World

Source: Pew Global Attitudes Project report, America's Image Slips, But Allies Share U.S. Concerns Over Iran, Hamas, 6/13/06: http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=252

US public opinion turns against the war

Source: Scott Keeter, Trends in Public Opinion about the War in Iraq, 2003-2007, March 2007: http://pewresearch.org/pubs/431/trends-in-public-opinion-about-the-war-in-iraq-2003-2007

The Result of Strategy ShiftFrom Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq, March 2008 DoD Report to Congress, p. 18

The American Century?2003--in spite of recession and international hostility the U.S. is the earths strongest nationTwenty-first century challenges are dauntingThe U.S. must convince the world that liberty and democracy are worthwhile and attainable goals

RecipientMilitary aid (USD Billions) Iraq6.50 Afghanistan5.60[65] Israel2.75[17] Egypt1.75[18] Pakistan1.60[66] Colombia.834[67] Jordan.300[68] Palestinian Authority.100[18] Yemen.070

A map of allies of the United States NATOmember states, including their colonies and overseas possessionsMajor non-NATO allies, plusRepublic of China (Taiwan)Signatories ofPartnership for Peacewith NATO

It is becoming clearer that the West in general and the Obama Administration in particular face the current situation with Russia in part thanks to several false assumptions about 21st century geopolitics. Specifically, it is erroneously assumed that:

Europe is now a stable and secure area that requires less attention from the United States.

Russia is willing to be a credible and responsible partner for the West and that Putin can be trusted.

The world is sufficiently safe that real military capability is no longer a requirement for global influence.

As recent events have demonstrated all too clearly, these false assumptions have translated into policy choices on both sides of the Atlantic that have encouraged Russias current behavior. These choices and their consequences include:

The U.S. disengagement from Europe in almost every policy area.

The removal of more than 10,000 U.S. troops from Europe in just two years. For the first time in 70 years, there is not a single American tank available for combat operations in Europe. The few that are currently in Germany are there only for training.

A U.S. Navy that will soon be the smallest since World War One, an Army that will be the smallest since before World War Two, and an Air Force that will be Americas smallest everat a time when Russian defense spending has increased 31 percent since 2008 and European defense spending has decreased by 15 percent.

A unilateral self-disarmament of Europe that has left many European countries incapable of defending themselves. Only four out of 28 NATO members (the U.S., the United Kingdom, Estonia, and Greece) spend the required 2 percent of GDP on defense.

A so-called Russian reset that has yielded no benefits at all either for America or for the Administration. On issues where Russia has shown a degree of cooperation, as with Afghanistan, it has done so only because it has a national interest at stake.

Nothing indicates that Russia is on a path to reform. Democratic freedoms are in retreat, corruption is endemic, and the future is bleak. The same failings of the Soviet Union a quarter of a century ago are starting to reappear in Putins Russia today. While the Russian economy is still growing, it continues to rely on the export of hydrocarbons, other raw materials, and weapons. Russias population is declining due to aging, rampant alcoholism and drug addiction, widespread disease, and low fertility rates. Expressions of ultranationalism are on the rise, fortifying the governments quest for a new sphere of influence. What the West is witnessing today is not a resurgent Cold War Russia, as commentators frequently claim, but an Imperial Russia. Putins behavior is like that of the Russian Tsars who built the Imperial Russian Empire nation by nation, khanate by khanate, and kingdom by kingdom.

In the eyes of Russians at the time, the 17th and 18th century territorial gains that in part defined Imperial Russia were regarded not as annexations but as taking what was already theirs. At the time, Russias imperial conquests were popularly characterized as acts of liberation of fellow Orthodox Christians from Polish Catholic rule.[7]Take out the religious dimension and replace it with the need to protectto paraphrase Vladimir PutinMoscows fraternal ties with ethnic Russians and we have a similar situation.Today. just as in the 19th century, Russias leaders see themselves as taking what is already theirs. Whether it is Transnistria, South Ossetia, Abkhazia, Crimea, the creation of the proposed Eurasian Union, the Customs Union with Belarus and Kazakhstan, or what amounts to the suzerainty of Armenia in all but name, the empire is being rebuilt.

These are the countries that hate America most.3. Lebanon > Disapproval rating:71.0% > GDP per capita:$15,832 (66th highest) > Unemployment:N/A > Life expectancy:80 years (tied for 23rd highest) 2. Pakistan > Disapproval rating:73.0% > GDP per capita:$3,144 (48th lowest) > Unemployment:6.7% (47th lowest) > Life expectancy:66 (46th lowest) 1. Palestinian territories > Disapproval rating:80.0% > GDP per capita:N/A > Unemployment:N/A > Life expectancy:73 years (95th highest) 4. Yemen > Disapproval rating:69.0% > GDP per capita:$2,348 (38th lowest) > Unemployment:N/A > Life expectancy:63 years (38th lowest) 5. Iraq > Disapproval rating:67.0% > GDP per capita:$7,132 (79th lowest) > Unemployment:N/A > Life expectancy:69 years (57th lowest)

9. Tunisia >Disapproval rating:54.0% > GDP per capita:$9,447 (90th highest) > Unemployment:16.7% (12th highest) > Life expectancy:75 years (tied for 47th highest)8. Iran > Disapproval rating:56.0% > GDP per capita:$12,804 (78th highest) > Unemployment:13.2% (18th highest) > Life expectancy:73 years (72nd highest) 7. Slovenia >Disapproval rating:57.0% > GDP per capita:$27,417 (36th highest) > Unemployment:10.3% (33rd highest) > Life expectancy:80 years (tied for 23rd highest) 6. Egypt > Disapproval rating:57.0% > GDP per capita:$6,553 (76th lowest) > Unemployment:13.0% (20th highest) > Life expectancy:71 years (82nd highest)

*Bettmann/Corbis227766*Herman Landshoff

334488*Library of Congress

55*Hartford Courant

99101011111212131315151616171718181919202021211414**********22222323242425252626c33-f007.jpgAssociated PressNikita KhrushchevThe Soviet premier speaks on the problem of Berlin, 1959.*AP Photoc34-f005.jpgCorbis U997560The Berlin WallA West Berlin couple looks over the newly constructed Berlin Wall to communicate with family on the other side, visible in the open window on the upper right side of the apartment building. The Berlin Wall both physically divided the city itself and served as a wedge between the United States and the Soviet Union.c34-f001.jpgNational ArchivesKennedy vs. NixonJohn F. Kennedys poise and precision in the debates with Richard Nixon impressed viewers and voters.c34-f006.jpgNational ArchivesThe Cuban Missile CrisisOn October 14, 1962, a surveillance plane revealed both missile launchers and shelters in San Cristbal, Cuba..c34-f013.jpgCorbis BE082134The Tet OffensiveDuring the 1968 Tet offensive, many Vietnamese were driven from their homes during the bloody street battles. Here, civilians approach U.S. Marines with a white flag, following a lull in fighting.Public outraged when Pentagon Papers came out, only added fuel to the protestors fireCeasefire was not the end of the war between North and South Vietnam, eventually North won

Documents

Foreign Policy 1946 - 2014