SOME USEFUL NOTES FOR PAPER 1 TOPICS

2021- 2023

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QUESTION 1: SOURCE-BASED SECTION

THE COLD WAR IN EUROPE Before the end of World War II, the Western European countries and the Soviet Union

began to grow suspicious of each other. The lack of trust and co-operation between the. USA and USSR in particular, led to

what is commonly referred to as the Cold War.

What was the Cold War? The Cold War was a series of mounting tensions between the

two super-powers, each representing differing ideologies.

On the one hand the USA symbolised a capitalist, democratic system and the USSR or Russia, stood for the principles of

communism and a one-party system of government

The struggles between the two sides, the East vs the West, was an indirect conflict and usually at considerable risk to

global peace.

At times, the cold war became 'warm' and threatened to develop into full scale, 'hot' war - but one of the two powers

always backed down at the last minute and thus the cold war

continued for a lengthy period.

Origins of the Cold War After World War II, the Allied Powers had several conferences to discuss the future of

Germany and the reconstruction of Europe. In February 1945, the Yalta Conference was held in the Soviet Union and the following

was decided upon by the Big Three (Russia, USA and Britain): That Germany be divided into four Zones of occupation - Russian,

American, British and French. Berlin, the capital of Germany, which was situated in the Russian

Zone, be divided into four sections, one for each of the 4 major powers.

Countries that were free from Nazi occupation be allowed to hold free elections to decide what type of government they wanted.

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COMMUNISM: is a doctrine that advocates

a classless society and

the means of production belong to the community.

CAPITALISM: is an economic system based on the private ownership competitive market and motivated by profit.

DEMOCRACY: a system of government in which leaders are chosen by the

THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE OF 1945

After Germany surrendered in May 1945, a second conference of the Allied Powers was held in Potsdam near Berlin.

Potsdam Conference, 1945. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Harry S Truman, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference (sometimes known as the Berlin Conference) on July 25th 1945 

lamy.com/stock-photo-potsdam-conference-1945-british-prime-minister-winston-churchill-us-93671010.html?pv=1&stam

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What was the outcome of this conference?

Although the relations between the West and the Soviet Union had become strained, the following agreements were reached at Potsdam (July - August 1945):

The Four Zones of occupation in Germany would each have an army and be ruled by a military governor.

Germany was to be demilitarized and disarmed. Although Germany was divided into Four Zones, it was agreed that it

would remain united.

EXPANSION OF COMMUNIST CONTROL IN EASTERN EUROPE

During World War II, Russia extended its influence and occupied the Baltic republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.

After the end of the war, while Europe concerned itself with rehabilitation of the war ravaged countries, Russia made important territorial advances in Eastern Europe.

Communist governments were established in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, and East Germany.

Elections which were promised in these countries often did not occur and when elections did take place, results that were unfavourable to the communists, were ignored. ,

It was under these circumstances that British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill made his infamous "Iron Curtain" speech at Fulton - Missouri, USA, when he declared the following about the communist advances.

IRON CURTAIN SPEECH"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and eastern Europe. The Communist parties, which are very small in these eastern states of Europe, have been raised to power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control... This is certainly not the liberated Europe we fought to build up. Nor is it one which contains the essentials of permanent peace."

Churchill's speech widened the gap between Russia and the West, but did little to prevent the Russian expansion in Europe.

Definition of Iron Curtain : A symbolic border between the communist bloc and western European countries during the Cold war

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How did the Western Allies react?

The Western Allies (Britain, France and the USA) decided to unite their respective sections of Germany to form the German Federal Republic (August 1949

Russia responded by establishing the German Democratic Republic in October 1949. Hence, the chances of Germany re-unifying were dashed because of the increased East-West tensions.

INVOLVEMENT OF THE USA, BRITAIN AND FRANCE INEUROPE

During both World War I and It, America's foreign policy was one of neutrality. However, when her interests were threatened, she had to change her foreign policy to

one of active participation. At Yalta and Potsdam, Britain and France, looked to the USA for leadership.

Furthermore, the Western Allies looked to the USA for financial as well as military assistance.

Harry Truman who succeeded Roosevelt as President in 1945, introduced his first strategic plan, known as the Truman Doctrine, to combat Communism and assist devastated European countries.

What was the Truman Doctrine?

It was a policy Introduced by the US President to provide military and economic aid to Europe after the Second World War to stop the spread of Communism.

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE

Although introduced in 1945, the origins of the Truman Doctrine can be traced to the attempts by the west to uphold the independence of Greece in 1944. When Britain freed Greece from German occupation, Greece immediately faced the threat of take-over by neighbouring troops from communist satellite states such as Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania.

It was under these circumstances that President Truman announced in March 1947 that America “would support free people who are resisting subjugation by armed or outside pressures." Hence, Truman's doctrine was an attempt to resist Communism

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through economic and military assistance.

An extract from a speech to Congress by Harry Truman, President of the USA, on 12 March 1947 in which he explained the aims of the Truman Doctrine

I believe that it must be the policy of the USA to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation [enslaving] by armed minorities or outside pressures. I believe that our help should be through economic and financial aid. In helping free and independent nations to maintain their freedom, the United States will be giving effect to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.

With the Truman Doctrine in place, the USA provided massive arms supplies and economic aid to Greece. With these resources, Greece was able to defeat the communists.

Turkey, with a similar plight, was also given 60 million dollars to curb communist infiltration.

In June 1947, the American Secretary of State, George Marshall, announced the 'Marshall Plan'

What were the results of the Truman Doctrine?

The communists in Greece and Turkey were defeated and Soviet troops withdrew from Iran.

Hostility between the USA and the USSR increased. The USA had committed herself to a policy of containment. Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) was set up in September 1947 to link com-

munist parties around the world in common action, in strict obedience to the Soviet Union, and to ensure that they received no aid from the West.

The Russian Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, Andrei Vyshinsky, addressed the United Nations on 18 September 1947. This is an extract from his speech on the Truman Doctrine.

The Truman Doctrine is a particularly glaring example of the way in which the principles of the

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United Nations is ignored. The United States has moved towards giving up the idea of international co-operation and joint action by great powers. It has tried to force its will on other independent countries, whilst at the same time using the money distributed as relief to needy countries as an instrument of political pressure …

What was the `Marshall Plan'?

The Marshall Plan was an economic aid package, which aimed to rebuild the economies of war damaged countries.

Marshall stated that "Our policy is not directed against any doctrine or country, but

against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos." By September 1947. 16 European countries had applied for Marshall Aid, including

Britain and France. Over the next four years, millions of dollars were pumped into Western Europe in an

effort to assist with economic recovery. The economies of the countries began to gradually flourish. Russia became concerned

about the negative impact this would have on the Eastern European countries under her control, who were struggling to sustain their economies.

Russia accused America of embarking on a policy of `dollar imperialism' (America was assisting countries to become financially dependent on her)

In response, Stalin launched the Cominform in September 1947, to assist Russian Satellite States.

What were the consequences of the Marshall Plan?

By September 1947, sixteen European countries had applied for Marshall Aid which included the following countries: Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, West Germany, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Turkey, Iceland and Norway.

These 16 countries set up the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to put the Marshall Plan into action.

Under the Marshall Plan, US Congress approved spending $12 billion dollars to help rebuild Europe. By 1953 the USA had provided 17 billion dollars to help these countries rebuild their economies.

The plan was a success both economically and politically. Malnutrition disappeared in countries involved, industrial output increased and by 1953 Western Europe was flourishing and Communist parties had weakened.

Tension increased between East and West thus intensifying the Cold War.

In 1949, the Molotov Plan was introduced (named after Russia's Foreign Minister) to offer financial assistance to ailing East European Countries

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Extract from a speech by the United States Secretary of State, George Marshall,

in June 1947

Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world.

An extract from a speech to the United Nations General Assembly by Andrei Vyshinsky, Soviet Foreign Minister, on 18 September 1947

The Marshall Plan is merely a variant of the Truman Doctrine. It faces the European countries in need to give up their right to plan their national economy in their own way. This plan is an attempt to split Europe into two camps. An important feature of this plan is an attempt to confront the countries of Eastern Europe with a “bloc” of countries including Western Germany. The intention is to make use of German heavy industry as a base for American expansion in Europe, in disregard of the national interests of the countries which suffered from German aggression.

This is a table, showing in millions of dollars, the countries that received most in

Marshall Aid.

COUNTRY

UN

ITE

D

KIN

GD

OM

FRA

NC

E

WE

ST

GE

RM

AN

ITA

LY

NE

TH

ER

-L

AN

DS

AU

STR

IA

BE

LG

IUM

GR

EE

CE

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

2 700 2 400 1 300 1 300 1 000 550 550 500

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The following cartoon by Fitzpatrick appeared in an American newspaper at the time of the Marshall Plan. The word Europe appears on the shirt of the man climbing up the rope. The rope tied around the tree at the top of the cliff has the words Marshall Plan on it.

This cartoon appeared in the Soviet publication Krokodil and is a Russian view of the Marshall Plan. The word Europe appears on the crumbling house and the figure resting on top of this house represents the USA.

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A German poster, dated 1947, welcomes American financial help. Translated the German words read ‘An open road for The Marshall Plan’. The Zoll/Grenze means customs border.

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THE BERLIN CRISIS, 1948

After the Second World War, the Allies collectively agreed to divide Germany into 4 sectors.

This division led to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany and East Germany.

Berlin, the capital of Germany was also divided into the East and West sectors. West Berlin was situated in the Russian sector and was controlled collectively by the Western Allies. East Berlin was controlled by Russia.

In an attempt to improve economic growth in the Western zones of Germany, in June 1948, the Western powers introduced a new currency, the ' Deutschmark' which replaced the worthless Reichmark.

The improvement of the economy in West Germany and West Berlin alarmed the Communists in the Eastern sector.

Russia responded to the currency reform in West Berlin by imposing a blockade of all roads and canal links between West Germany and West Berlin. The intention was to cut essential supplies and eventually force West Germany to give in to Communist Control. More than 2,5 million people were affected by this blockade.

This was the turning point of the Cold War and was a test to gauge whether the Allies would protect West Berlin.

How did the Western powers react to the Berlin Blockade?

The Western Allies decided to resist and embark on a massive airlift of essential supplies (such as food, fuel, building materials, clothing and medical supplies)

West Berlin's approximately 2.1 million inhabitants had only enough food for 36 days and coal for 45 days. The Western powers had three options available to them. Each of these options had advantages and disadvantages. These three options can be summed up as follows:

Ignore the airlift and drive through the blockade Pull out of Berlin Airlift supplies to West Berlin

The Americans and British gambled on an airlift of supplies to overcome the blockade. The real test was whether the Russians would shoot down their planes. The West

assumed that Russia would not risk this as the Cold War would then become a ’hot' war.

This proved to be true because from April 1948 to May 1949, millions of tons of resources were airlifted to West Berliners.

By May 1949, Russia admitted failure and called off the blockade.

A report by the American Government on the Berlin Blockade in June 1948

On 23 June the Soviet authorities suspended all traffic into Berlin because of alleged technical difficulties… They also stopped barge traffic on similar grounds. Shortly before midnight, the Soviet authorities issued orders to… disrupt electric power from Soviet

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power plants to the Western sectors. Shortage of coal was given as a reason for the measure.

A map showing the situation of Berlin in the German Democratic Republic and the division of Berlin into four sectors in1948.

What were the results of the Berlin Blockade for the Cold War?

The Western powers saw the lifting of the blockade as a victory. The Soviets suffered a major defeat in this crisis and the division of Berlin became a perman-ent feature of the Cold War.

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It showed the determination of the West to keep the 'doors of democracy' open in a 'sea of communism

East-West relations were strained further and the Cold War got worse. Germany split up. In May 1949, America, Britain and France united their zones

into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) with its capital Bonn. In response, in October 1949, Stalin set up the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), with its capital East Berlin.

It led to the militarisation of West Berlin and paved the way for the first Western regional defence system.

After the Berlin Blockade, both the USA and the USSR began to build up their armies and weapons, resulting in an arms race.

In 1949, the western Allies set up NATO as a defensive alliance against possible Russian 'aggression' and in 1955, the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact an alliance of Communist states. NATO and the Warsaw Pact confirmed the division of Europe into two

camps. . It acknowledged the possible use of force in the Cold War which up to the Berlin crisis, was limited to propaganda warfare.

The Berlin Blockade and airlift marked an important turning point in the Cold War. It also marked the moment when Berlin became a focal point in the Cold War between the two superpowers, the USA and the USSR.

A Soviet commentary on the Berlin Crisis, quoted in P. Fischer, The Great Power Conflict

The crisis was planned in Washington, behind a smokescreen of anti-Soviet propaganda. In 1948 there was danger of war. The conduct of the Western powers risked bloody incidents. The self-blockade of the Western powers hit the West Berlin population with harshness. The people were freezing and starving. In the spring of 1949 the USA was forced to yield…Their war plans had come to nothing, because of the conduct of the USSR.

An extract from a speech made by President Truman of the United States of America, in 1949

We refused to be forced out of the city of Berlin. We demonstrated to the people of Europe that we would act and act resolutely, when freedom was threatened. The Berlin Blockade was a move to test our ability and our will to resist.

The following source comprises two photographs.

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Photograph 1: Shows an East German constructing the wall under watchful eyes of the East German troop.

Photograph 2: Shows American troops patrolling along the Berlin Wall.

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Why did Berlin continue to be a focal point of the Cold War?

Berlin did not only highlight tensions between East and West, but also highlighted the different living and working conditions of those living in Soviet controlled East Berlin and those living in West Germany, which was controlled by the Western powers.

In 1953, following Stalin's death, workers in East Berlin, unhappy with the situation, started demonstrations in which they demanded the following:

Greater political and economic freedom; Union with West Berlin; The end of communism and the withdrawal of Soviet troops.

These demonstrations spread to East Germany, where protesters also demanded union with West Germany.

This uprising was harshly suppressed by the Soviets who executed over six hundred demonstrators. This however did not stop thousands of East Germans fleeing to the West in the hope of a better life and once again differences between East and West were highlighted.

1958 Crisis

In 1958, Berlin once again became the focus of the Cold War. The new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, demanded the West hand over Berlin, which lay in the heart of the Soviet zone, to East Germany.

The Western powers refused to give in to these demands and Khrushchev did nothing to enforce them.

Although, not a major crisis, this incident indicates that Berlin, because of its positioning and the differences in the way it was controlled, would continue to be a bone of contention (source of conflict) between East and West.

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The Berlin Wall – 1961

Berlin continued to be a source of conflict between the Soviet Union and the West. In 1961 John F Kennedy became the new American president; his inexperience seemed to

give the Soviets an opportunity for a foreign policy success. Khrushchev immediately set out to test Kennedy. In June 1961 they met in Vienna where Khrushchev demanded a settlement of the Berlin

problem. In 1961, it was clear that West Berlin, controlled by the Western powers, was much wealthier

than East Berlin, which was under Soviet control. East Berliners, because of the poor conditions in their part of the city, had begun escaping to the West via West Berlin. By June of that year they were escaping at a rate of 500 a day and 30 000 defected to the West during July. This was an embarrassment to Khrushchev who saw West Berlin as a capitalist infection in the heart of East Germany.

He was determined to stop East Berliners from escaping and so on Sunday 13 August 1961, East German troops sealed off West Berlin with road blocks and barbed wire. They then began to construct a concrete wall around the Western zones of the city. This was a high, fortified wall that was manned 24 hours a day b machine-gun posts and searchlights.

As a result of these actions, Berlin was divided into two and overnight its citizens were cut off from family, friends and jobs.

The Berlin Wall stood as a symbol of the divide between West and East, between democracy and communism and led to further tension between the Soviet Union and the Western Powers.

The Western Powers were afraid that the Soviets were planning to seize West Berlin by force and President Kennedy made it very clear that they would fight to protect West Berlin. The building of the wall solved Khrushchev's problem of East Berliners defecting to the West, but his policy of peaceful co-existence with the West was destroyed.

The following extract is taken from A History of Modern Europe1789 – 1981.

.

In August the East Germans began to construct a massive barrier through Berlin to check the flow of refugees from East to West which had reached the rate of 20, 000 a month. The construction of the Berlin Wall aroused intense hostility in West Berlin and there were massive demonstrations. It seemed that there might be a physical assault on the hated barrier. The Berliners were held in check however by their Social Democrat mayor, Herr Willi Brandt, while the Americans and their allies moved tanks up to checkpoints to the East. The Western powers calculated, however, that the Wall was a defensive move rather than one intended to spark off a conflict with NATO.

The following source gives details of the Wall in figures. It is taken from History for all (pamphlet ‘The Wall’, Press and Information office of land Berlin, 1997).

1. Total length 155 kilometres

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2. Concrete slab wall, approximately 4 metres high 106 kilometres

3. Wire mesh fencing, 3 – 4 metres high 67 kilometres

4. Sentry towers 302

5. Bunkers 20

6. Anti-tank emplacements, up to 5 metres deep 0, 9 kilometres

7. Anti-vehicles trenches 105 kilometres

8. People who escaped over the Wall over 5000

9. People caught trying to cross the Wall over 3 200

10. People killed attempting to cross the Wall over 160

OR

TOPIC 1 - THE COLD WAR

CONTENT FOCUS

Origins of the Cold WarWhy did the Cold War start?Why the ‘Great Powers’ become rivals after 1945?The Berlin Wall

The hardening of attitudesAfter the end of the Second World War, millions around the world looked forward to peace. A new worldwide peace-keeping organisation, the United Nations, was established. Harry S. Truman, the US’s new President, was aware that with their nuclear weapons America held the 'trump card' in the Great Power relations. AS a result their military forces were soon cut in numbers.

It was like a new life. Home ... go back to see my I girlfriend ... plan for what we would do... back in the mountains of Utah ... all the worry just gone ... we disbanded the military very rapidly ... now's the time for peace. Lieutenant Gail Halverson

Taken from The People’s Century, 1996.

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Similarly, America's civilian population also looked forward to peace.

hortly washing machines and other luxuries we've missed will be pouring from the factories at 1942 prices ... and with new cars and

new tyres on the way America will be rolling with a pre-war flourish. Yes. cars, radios, vacuum cleaners, nylons, juicy steaks - it sounds almost like a dream ...

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Extract from post –war cinema newsreel. Taken from The People’s Century,1996.

In contrast, the Red Army which was six million strong, remained ready for war. Russia controlled 100 million East Europeans. What was going on in Poland, Rumania, Hungary and Bulgaria? Was the defeat of Germany the first step in a plan to take over Europe? As Britain and America became more and more worried about Stalin's motives, Winston Churchill wrote the following to the Americans to express concern:

he Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world. A new front must be created against her onward sweep. This front in Europe should

be as far East as possible ... A settlement must be reached on all major issues between the West and East in Europe before the armies of democracy melt.

T

Th is i s wha t a Sov ie t so ld ie r no ted wh i le he se rved in Ber l in i n 1945 .

e were taught that the defeat of Fascism was an important step towards the victory of Socialism all over the world. Since the Red

Army had liberated Eastern Europe sooner or later Socialism would be established. (In Berlin) ... we were called in by our officers and told. 'Listen ... the Germans were not solely responsible for this war, it wasn't just Hitler but the whole imperialist system ... imperialism was responsible and who are the imperialists now? The same allies with whom we fought together against Hitler'.

W

PotsdamThe 'Big Three' met for the last time at Potsdam, near Berlin, in July/August 1945. Even before they met, Truman had made his views on the Soviet Union known.

In the four months since Yalta, the 'Big Three' line-up had changed. Only Stalin remained. Churchill had lost power in Britain and had been replaced by Clement Atlee. Harry Truman, the new President, spoke for America. Stalin remained as secretive and determined as ever. Little was agreed. Relations between America and the Soviet Union got worse. After meeting

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Stalin. Truman wrote down his opinion of him.

Was Truman right to assume that the Russians were planning to conquer the world or were the Soviet actions simply for Russia's self-defence, as Stalin had said? In the East, the Soviet Union stripped Germany of its industries. Millions of Germans were forced out of what now became Poland. Without agreement, the Russians pushed the Polish frontier westwards, deep into Germany and set up a Communist government in Poland. The Atom Bomb became a vital factor. Truman had kept news of the weapon from Stalin until 11 days before its use. America had made it clear that its secrets would not be shared. This increased Russian fears. Might the West attack to destroy Communism? A deadly new era dawned. It was called the Cold War.

The Cold WarThe Cold War first developed in Europe - and in Germany in particular. It was a 'war' because it had two sides: America and her allies against the Soviet Union and her allies. It was 'cold' because there was no direct fighting. But all the other features of warfare existed. There were causes, armies, weapons, tactics, leaders, events and results. The world's two Great Powers feared each other. Each thought that the other wanted to destroy its way of life. This led to hostility, suspicion, quarrels, competition and threats. But neither side dared risk the prospect of ‘hot' war.

During these years each side interpreted the other's actions in its own way. What one side saw as self-defence, the other saw as aggression. Hence the study of the Cold War becomes difficult, because the motives or reasons for certain actions becomes intricate or difficult.Look at the following events/circumstances:

The Iron Curtain Do you think Stalin was justified in creating a ‘buffer zone’ in Eastern Europe? Were the Western Powers right in assuming that Stalin actions was a Soviet

takeover of Eastern Europe? Was the Iron Curtain a symbol of the Cold War?

Containment Why did the USA introduce a policy of containment? How did ‘Marshall Aid’ support Truman’s Doctrine? Interpret the policy of containment.

The division of Germany – ‘containment in action’ How did former allies attempt to assist Germany? In what ways did their actions increase Great Power tensions? Why did Berlin become a flashpoint? Focus on the Crisis in Berlin; Allied action; USSR’s reaction.

Berlin blockade and airlift What do you think it was like to live through the Berlin Airlift? (personal stories) Why was the Berlin Airlift a show of strength amongst the Great Powers? What were the consequences of the Berlin Airlift on Germany and on the Great

Powers?

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Focus on the Berlin blockade and its consequences.

Reaction to the Berlin Crisis: Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact What were the long and short term effects of the Berlin Crisis? Was the establishment of NATO and Warsaw Pact necessary? Focus on NATO and the Warsaw Pact

The Berlin Wall: The Partitioning of Berlin At the end of the Second World War, in 1945, the Allied peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam determined the fate of Germany. It led to the division of the defeated nation into four “allied occupation zones”: The eastern part of Germany went to the Soviet Union, while the western part went to the United States, Great Britain and France.

Although Berlin was located within the Soviet part of the country, it was about 100 miles from the border between the eastern and western occupation zones. The Yalta and Potsdam agreements also split Berlin into four sectors. The Soviet Union took the eastern half, while the other Allied powers took the western part. This four-way occupation of Berlin occurred in June 1945.

A map showing the division of Berlin.

Taken from www.Emerson Kent.com

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The Berlin Wall: Blockade and Crisis West Berlin, a capitalist city lay deep within communist East Germany, “stuck like a bone in the Soviet throat,” according Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. As a result the Soviets began plans to manoeuvre the USA, Britain and France out of the city. In 1948, a Soviet blockade of West Berlin was aimed to cut off the western Allies from the city. Instead of retreating, the USA and its allies began to provide their sectors of the city with essential resources from the air. This came to be known as the Berlin Airlift, which lasted for more than a year. It involved the delivery of more than 2.3 million tons of food, fuel and other goods to West Berlin. Owing to the relative success of the airlift the Soviets decided to call off the blockade in 1949.

After a decade of relative peace and calm, tensions between the Soviet Union and the other Allied powers began to flare up again in 1958. For the next three years, the Soviets were became increasingly embarrassed by the continuous flow of refugees from east to west. It was estimated that nearly 3 million Germans migrated from East to West Germany, since the end of the blockade. Germans migrants included many young skilled workers such as doctors, teachers and engineers. The Soviet Union made many threats but the Allies resisted. Summits, conferences and other negotiations came and went without resolution. Despite this the flood of refugees continued. By June 1961 it was estimated that 19,000 people left the GDR through West Berlin; in July 1961, 30,000 people fled; beginning of August, 16,000 East Germans crossed the border into West Berlin; 12 August 12 - 2,400 Germans migrated which was the largest number of defectors ever to leave East Germany in a single day.

The Berlin Wall: Building the Wall In response Soviet leader Khrushchev instructed the East German government to stop the flow of emigrants by closing its border for good. In about two weeks, the East German army, police force and volunteer construction workers began to construct a makeshift barbed wire fence, this was later followed by a concrete block wall, referred to the Berlin Wall which divided one side of the city from the other. The West was taken by surprise. They threatened to impose a trade embargo against East Germany as a retaliatory measure. The Soviets responded by stating that such an embargo would be answered with the imposition of a new land blockade of West Berlin. The Soviets soon realised that the West was not going to take any substantial action to protest the closing, East German authorities took advantage of the situation and began closing off more and more checkpoints between East and West Berlin. On 15 August 1961, the Soviet authorities began replacing barbed wire with concrete. The wall, East German authorities declared, would protect their citizens from the influence of capitalist culture.

A photograph showing the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.

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Taken from efisherhistory12weebly.com

Before the Berlin Wall was built, Berliners on both sides of the city were free to move around fairly freely: They crossed the East-West border to work, to shop, to go to the theatre and the movies. Trains and subway lines carried passengers back and forth.

After the Berlin Wall was built, it was impossible to get from East to West Berlin. Berliners had to enter through one of three checkpoints: at Helmstedt (“Checkpoint Alpha” in American military language), at Dreilinden (“Checkpoint Bravo”) and in the centre of Berlin at Friedrichstrasse (“Checkpoint Charlie”). Finally, the GDR built 12 checkpoints along the wall. At each of the checkpoints, East German police/soldiers checked and screened all diplomats and officials before they were allowed to enter or leave East Berlin. Only under special circumstances, travellers from East and West Berlin were rarely allowed across the border.

The Berlin Wall: 1961-1989 The construction of the Berlin Wall did stop the flood of refugees from leaving East to West Berlin. It also did not defuse the crisis over Berlin. Although US President was unhappy about the construction of the Berlin Wall he later stated that “a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.” Over a period of time, the East German officials began to replace the makeshift wall with one that was sturdier and more difficult to climb or scale. A 12-foot-tall, 4 foot-wide mass of reinforced concrete was topped with an enormous pipe that made climbing over the wall nearly impossible. Behind the wall on the East German side was a so-called “Death Strip”: a gauntlet of soft sand (to show footprints), floodlights, vicious dogs, trip-wire machine guns and patrolling soldiers with orders to shoot to kill escapees on sight.

Approximately 171 people were killed trying to escape under or around the Berlin Wall. Escape from East Germany was not impossible: from 1961 until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, more than 5,000 East Germans, including 600 border guards managed to cross the border by either jumping out of windows adjacent to the wall, flying in hot air balloons, climbing over the barbed wire, crawling through the sewers and driving through unmanned or unfortified parts of the wall at high speeds.

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Information adapted from www.history.com/topics/cold-war

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NOTES FOR ESSAY QUESTIONS

QUESTION 4

EXTENSION OF THE COLD WAR- VIETNAM (2021–2023)

Question focus: Case Study: Vietnam

Stages in the war:

1957–1965 Struggle in Vietnam between the South Vietnamese army and communist-trained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong)

1965 –1969 North Vietnamese - USA struggle (include the nature of the Vietnamese war against the USA)

The War from a Vietnamese and USA perspective The War as a global issue 1969 –1975 USA withdrawal from Vietnam (impact on USA politics’ student

movements)-1945 – Vietnam colonisers -Japan defeated.-Britain handed over Vietnam to France – former colonial power – France returned and tried to establish its authority in Vietnam.-In the north conflict ensued between French and the Vietnimh – the first Indochina War (1946-1954)-May 1954 – Vietminh defeated the French at the fortress of Dien Bien Phu-10 00 French soldiers were captured. A humiliating defeat for France.-Geneva Conference – Britain, France, USA, USSR and China met-Geneva Accords: Vietnam be divided – into two(a) North Vietnam controlled by Ho Chi Minh. (b) South Vietnam capitalist, anti-communist state controlled by Ngo Dinh

Diem.(c) Vietnam elections held in 1956, to unite Vietnam into one independent

state-French withdrew from Vietnam, USA supported South Vietnam-Civil War: Ngo Diem’s government was unpopular and repressive.-A war between Vietnamiese Communits (Vietcong) and the South Vietnamiese army ensued.Vietnamese army was supported by the USA. The domino theory - The USA feared that, with one small push, Communists would topple all the governments in Asia like a row of dominoes.-Vietminh and Vietcong used guerrilla warfare – difficulty in separating guerrillas from villagers – farmers/ peasants.-Vietcong had peasant support as they had Promised Land at the end of the war.

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-Vietcong’s “hit and run strategy” – attack and disappeared in the underground tunnels. -Vietcong were supplied with assault rifles and other weapons by Soviet Union and China. -1962 – USA – introduced - Strategic Hamlets Programme/ Villagisation campaign – idea was to isolate guerrillas from villagers, its base of support. -1963 – Strategic Hamlets Programme policy failed dismally, Vietcong occupied strategic hamlets and captured peasant weapons.

-1963 Students protested, monks burnt themselves – self -immolation in protest against Ngo Diem Dien harsh treatment of Buddhists, Ngo Diem was executed in a military coup by army generals.-1964 Gulf of Tonkin – US government accused North Vietnam of firing on US warships, consequently the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed – it gave US president to take whatever steps necessary to prevent attacks on jet bombers in North Vietnam this lasted for more than three years and caused the Vietcong to re-assess its own strategy.- Failure of the Operation Rolling Thunder against the guerillas-Operation Ranch Hand – USA used a defoliant called Agent Orange to destroy vegetation - Operation Ranch Hand unsuccessful. Destruction of the environment but not Ho Chi Minh Trail -Search and destroy policy – USA aim was to find the enemy and destroy him, this often alienated the peasants from Americans and South Vietnamese.-Tunnel complexes - Vietcong fought back – made booby traps, launched surprise attacks and disappeared in the jungle and into the tunnels. (In Search of History page 57 – tunnel structure)- 1968 The Tet Offensive – Vietcong launched a surprised attack on first day of Tet holiday, although there had been an agreement to observe ceasefire during the holiday. -1968 My Lai massacre – US troops pressurized to raise body count entered a village of My Lai, raped and killed between 347 -504 people. Of all those killed only three were identified members of the Viet Cong.-My Lai massacre – shock and horror around the world and in the USA. Anti-war movements in America became even stronger.- WHAM campaign (winning the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese) signaled the failure of the USA in curbing the spread of communism in Vietnam -Vietnamisation – Richard Nixon – USA president started a process of spending more money aiming and training South Vietnam troops, gradually withdrawing US ground troops letting South Vietnamese to do their own fighting.-1975 – the Vietcong Communists were victorious in the south and captured Saigon.-1976 Vietnam was united under Communist rule into a single republic.-US had been unsuccessful in their mission of saving South Vietnam from falling prey to the Communists.

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OR

EXTENSION OF THE COLD WAR: CASE STUDY VIETNAM (2014-2016)

NOTES: THE VIETNAM WARBackground Vietnam is a country in South East Asia. The people have a culture similar to the Chinese and most people are peasant farmers. The climate is tropical and the main crop that is cultivated is rice. Most Vietnamese are Buddhists.

How the war began

Vietnam was a French colony. In the 1930s revolutionary parties were formed to overthrow the French. Ho Chi Minh led communist freedom fighters, the Vietminh, in the north. France lost control of Vietnam after World War II and Vietnam became independent in 1954. The country was divided in two. North Vietnam was a communist state while South Vietnam was capitalist and had an emperor. People in South Vietnam were very poor and many joined a guerrilla army backed by the communists in the north. This communist army in the south was the Vietcong. There was civil war in Vietnam as the Vietcong fought against the government in South Vietnam.

The Vietcong received aid from communist North Vietnam. This aid was transported along a route known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. At first this was simply a civil war between North and South Vietnam. Then Russia and Communist China began to send aid to the Vietcong. The USA did not want the Russians, her rivals in the Cold War, to gain influence in Asia. The USA was determined to stop communism from spreading.

The domino theory The USA feared that, with one small push, Communists would topple all the governments in Asia like a row of dominoes. The USA was prepared to go to great lengths to stop this from happening and started to send weapons and money to the South Vietnamese government.

Direct American involvement Lyndon B Johnson became US president in 1964. He decided to adopt tougher measures in Vietnam. US bombers were sent to bomb North Vietnam and to cut off the supply routes used by the Vietcong. He also sent US troops to fight openly in the South. President Johnson's action was very popular and 85% of the American population supported it.

Focus on the Gulf of Tonkin Incident – 1964 Operation Rolling Thunder Ho Chi Minh Trail Sending of US ground troops - 1965

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American troops in Vietnam The US soldiers sent to fight in Vietnam were very young and they were sent very far from home to fight people with whom they had no argument. They were fighting against the spread of communism, which is very different to the usual war when men fight to protect their homes and families. They faced many problems. Focus on the conditions in Vietnam and US vs Vietnamese tactics The climate in Vietnam is very hot and humid. Most fighting took place in dense

jungles where it was very difficult to see the enemy. The Vietcong used horrific booby traps like punji stakes and trip wires, which made the

task even more nerve-wracking. The Vietcong were a guerilla army. By day they were just like any ordinary

person so it was very difficult to recognize the enemy. American soldiers were not used to fighting a guerilla war where they were attacked unexpectedly by an enemy they could not identify.

The people of South Vietnam resented the American presence in their country. There was much ill-feeling and the Americans called the Vietnamese "gooks."

The Vietcong were very well organised. They constructed underground bunkers where they hid. The local people helped them and supplies were sent from the north by means of the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

American men were conscripted into the army by means of the draft. In the beginning these soldiers were very patriotic and wanted to fight for their country. These are the words of a US army marching song: I wanna go to VietnamI wanna kill a VietcongWith a knife or with a gunEither way will be good fun.But if I die in the combat zoneBox me up and send me homeFold my arms across my chestTell my folks I done my best.Gradually this attitude changed. More and more American soldiers were sent home in body bags and the Vietcong fought with tremendous determination.

The VietcongThese guerrilla fighters were from one of the poorest and smallest nations in the world yet the mighty USA could not defeat them. The Vietcong blended in with the local population and received help from North Vietnam as well as from local villages and Vietnamese peasants. Years of fighting for liberation from the French made them experienced, battle-hardened soldiers. The Vietcong could live in tunnels underground for years on end. They knew the terrain and could march all day on a handful of rice.

When the USA sent troops to Vietnam in 1964, the North Vietnam government sent its own troops to help the Vietcong in the south. Men and supplies moved down the Ho Chi Minh Trail through neighbouring Laos and Cambodia. The Trail was a series of paths through thick jungle.

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1964-1968

When the USA sent troops to South Vietnam, the plan was to attack targets in North Vietnam and to set up bases in South Vietnam. These bases would support the South Vietnamese troops who were fighting the communists. Later the war became offensive (attacking) as the Americans launched search and destroy missions.

To clear the dense jungle, US aeroplanes sprayed a strong herbicide called Agent Orange. This chemical caused the leaves to fall off trees so that the guerrillas could not hide there. The forests were destroyed and the chemicals in Agent Orange caused cancer and birth defects. Both the Americans and Vietnamese are still suffering the consequences. Napalm bombs burnt anything on contact and were dropped on Vietcong hide-outs. Helicopters were used extensively by the US and gave the US forces great mobility.

The war in Vietnam became nasty. The Vietcong set booby traps in the jungle. If you stepped on a toe-popper, a bullet blew off your foot: a punji trap had spikes that would penetrate your boots and pierce your foot. The jungles also hid natural horrors - venomous snakes and leeches. During the monsoon rains the jungle became a nightmare of drenching rain and sticky mud. Leroy Thomson, a veteran of Vietnam, described fighting in the jungle:

‘The Southeast Asian jungle had many smells, most bad. As I pressed my nose into the fetid undergrowth skirting the emergency extraction zone, couldn't help wondering if it was the last thing] would smell. The perspiration coursed down my face and arms while the festering insect bites which covered my body began to itch in unison. The standard issue clothing became filthy and stiff, and during the monsoon it went sodden and chafed against the skin .... Cleanliness was important but impossible to maintain.

Jungle sores, small cuts and insect bites would not heal... the ants were always there, always crawling and always biting.... In the jungle the smell of death soon became mixed with the smell of stagnant pools, rotting vegetation and our unwashed bodies.’

More and more American troops were wounded and killed. Their tactics became more desperate as James Weeks described the orders he was given in 1967:

‘It was explained to us that anything alive in that area was supposed to be dead We were told that if we saw a 'gook' or thought we saw one, no matter how big or small shoot first. No need for permission to fire, it was just an open turkey shoot.... men, women and children, no matter what their ages, all went into the body count.’ Innocent Vietnamese civilians were caught in the crossfire and the number of Americans killed rose dramatically. In 1964, 1 350 US soldiers lost their lives in Vietnam; in 1968, 36000 were killed. Focus on TET Offensive and its impact

American perception of the war changes + Media coverage

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The Vietnam War has been called "the war on the evening news". Night after night on television across the country, people saw rocket attacks and firefights and their aftermath - villages burning, children screaming, wounded American soldiers being dragged out of the jungle by their buddies. It was a war fought by teenagers as the average age of American soldiers sent to Vietnam-was-19 American people began to have serious doubts about their country's involvement in this war.

American politicians were determined to achieve victory and increased number of troops being sent to Vietnam. But there was a limit to the cost and losses of men that the American people would accept. By the late 1960's peace protestors outside the White House were chanting: Hey, hey, LBJ! How many kids did you kill today? Young Americans began to lose respect for their government and students held anti-war protests. Focus on the impact of the protests

1968-1973 Richard Nixon became president in 1968. He ordered raids on North Vietnamese bases, in Cambodia and Laos. This angered the American public and anti-war demonstrations reached a fever-pitch. Nixon could not risk his political career and called for a ceasefire. By March 1973, most American troops had been withdrawn from Vietnam. The South fell into the hands of the communist North and after a decade of fighting, the Americans had achieved nothing and lost much. Focus on Vietnamisation

QUESTION 5

CASE STUDY: CONGO

Case study: The Congo

What were the ideas that influenced the Congo? Political (type of leader, legacies of colonialism, type of government, political stability and

instability) Economic (type of economy) Social and cultural successes/ challenges that the Congo faced (benefits of

independence, education, Africanisation

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

After independence in 1960 J Kasavubu became president and P. Lumumba became Prime Minister.

Congo rulers lacked administration skills (colonial legacy) Mobuto took over (transition) Mabuto was a ditactor, who denounced the idea of multiple leaders and

political parties.

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The Congo was under European colonial rule until the early 1960’s. After holding the multi-party elections at independence, the congo became the

one party state within five years of independence. The Congo emphasized the importance of Africanisation of their political

systems. (regarded democracy as unAfrican and western imposition) Brought back African values of association and rejected Cold War alignments. Mobutuism frustrated the opposition and cemented Mobuto’s power. Mobuto remained president for life between the 1960s and the 1970s. Opposition leaders in the Congo were silenced, imprisoned and in some

cases killed to maintain stability. Mobuto Sese Seko aligned himself with the West.

ECONOMIC DEVELEPMENT

Zairianisation (an economic nationalism replacing foreigners with Zairean nationals) failed due to inexperience, corruption, mismanagement and neglect.

Mobuto Sese Seko created a kleptocracy in which a group of appointed public officials abused their positions for financial gain.

Applications of retrocession (reversal of Zairianisation) Decline in the state infrastructure. Food and other consumer goods became scarce. Mineral wealth was concentrated in the hands of Zaire political elite. Congo failed to diversify its economy (reliant on export goods only) Dependence on foreign aid and loans.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

No Africans were not allowed to make progress politically, economically and socially neither allowed to move from one place to another without permission from police.

Africans were able to develop their own talents. They could now learn about their continent as well as the rest of the world and

there was a revolution in education. Independence in the 1960 inspired Congolese authors with new things. In the 1970s Lesembe Elebe produced plays about striking workers. Mobuto phased out religious instructions in schools and took full control of

education. New schools had been established with small number of educators. All Congolese had to discard their European names and replace them with

African names. Wearing of Western clothes was banned. European personnel were replaced with Zairians who did not have the

required expertise. Much instability ending in the death of Patrice Lumumba.

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The Congo became the centre of conflict between USA and USSR during the Cold War.

After ruling for more than 30 years Mobuto was overthrown by Laurent Kabila in 1997.

Zaire was renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC

QUESTION 6 CIVIL SOCIETY PROTESTS FROM THE 1950S TO THE 1970S

Question focus: The Black Power Movement

Reasons for the Black Power Movement Formation of the Black Panther Party Roles of Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, Huey Newton and other

African American activists Short-term and long-term gains

[BLACK POWER MOVEMENT (2021–2023)]

-Black Power Movement (BPM) grew out of dissatisfaction with achievements of Civil Rights Movement. In spite of Civil rights act and Voting rights Act, the economic situation still remained the same for Black Americans. -African Americans were still segregated, lived in poverty and squalor.-Unemployment was still very high among black youth.-Inadequate public transport made it difficult for black people to take up jobs very far from their homes. -Black schools were of poor quality and lacked resources such as textbooks.-Continued violence and racism directed at black people.-Some African Americans felt that Martin Luther was too moderate and needed a movement that would accelerate the process of change.-Stockley Carmichael and Malcolm X – two notable leaders of the Black Power Movement.-Stokely Carmichael adopted a slogan “Black is beautiful” which promoted pride in being black, promoted African dress, Afro-hairstyles and wanted African Americans to recognise their heritage.-Malcolm X felt that Martin Luther’s idea of civil rights and peaceful protests was naïve and misguided.-Malcolm X argued for the integration of blacks first

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-Malcolm X – most famous speech “the ballot or the bullet” in which he stated while Martin Luther King is having a dream African Americans are having a nightmare”.-BPM members believed that the use of violence was justified to speed up racial equality in America.-BPM members emphasized black pride, restoring black dignity and self-esteem.-Black Power emphasised black culture, traditions and history and urged solidarity with Africa. -Black Power believed in promotion of black interests and black self -help schemes.-Believed in self-sufficient black economy.-Notable achievements of Black Power Movement

Greater racial pride and self-confidence among black people. Black Studies programmes were introduced at universities and college Black voters were mobilised to support black candidates in office. Black political action groups were set up to campaign around specific

issues. Increased black self-confidence, self-perception, and self-esteem A greater sense of solidarity among African American was achieved. A greater sense of ethnic identity also developed over time.

BLACK PANTHER PARTY (BPP)

-Black Panthers Party (BPP) for self-defense was formed in 1966. It was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale.

-Main goal of the Panthers was the protection of blacks from police brutality.

-Panthers had social as well as political goals; they wanted equality in education, housing, employment as well as civil rights.

-BPP members were willing to use violence to achieve what they wanted. Panthers carry loaded firearms in public patrolled the streets and monitor police activities.

-BPP demands and aspirations were reduced into a ten point programme.

-Ten- point programme included among other demands – full employment, decent housing, end of police brutality, an end to murder of African Americans.

-Panthers cared for community needs – they organized Free Breakfast for Children Programme.

-Panthers approached businessmen for donations and organized boycotts of stores that refused to contribute. Food was served in the church halls.

-Panthers ran clinics where adults and children access free medical health.

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-Panthers survival programmes include lessons on self-defence, first aid, drug rehabilitation, classes on politics and economics.

-A tutoring scheme helped black learners succeed at school.

- Panthers’ Black Nationalism philosophy led to anti-white activities.

-Panthers were also involved in criminal activities – drug addiction and extortion

– forcing money out of people in order to raise funds.

-Panthers’ violent confrontation with the police resulted in death of members.

-Huey Newton – co-founder of BPP was convicted of murdering a policeman in 1967.Years later after his conviction was set aside on appeal, he boasted of the killing.

-BPP fell apart in 1980 because of internal disputes and rising legal costs.

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