Footnotesceuticals Drinking water Food phosphates: questions and answers 10 > 11 How muchfood phosphates Approximately 100,000 tons/ year of food phosphates are used in Europe (EU-25),

�What are food phosphates ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

�Why do our bodies need phosphates ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

�Which foods contain phosphates ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

�Why does the food industry need phosphates ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

�How much food phosphate is used and where ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

�Where do food phosphates come from ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

�Do we get enough phosphate in our diets ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

�How do our bodies control phosphate levels ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

�Are high levels of phosphates in food dangerous ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

�Are levels of phosphates in modern diets bad for the health ? . . . . . . 16

�How do increased diet phosphate levels affect osteoporosis ? . . . . . . . 17

�Do phosphates cause hyperactivity ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

�Further information: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

�Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Contents

Food phosphates: questions and answers 2 > 3

Introduction:What are food

phosphates?Phosphates are inorganic compounds, basedon the element phosphorus (P), combinedwith oxygen to form phosphates (PO4), theform in which phosphorus is present in

nature. Phosphorus is found widely innature, in rocks, soil, and water, and

in all living organisms, mostlyin the form of phosphates.Phosphates are essentialfor plant growth, crops,and human health.

However, phosphates are generallypresent in nature at low levels,because the only primary source isthe slow erosion of rocks.Phosphorus is often thus “ limit-ing ” for plant growth. For this rea-son, human civilisations in the pasthad to make considerable efforts toensure that phosphate supply toagriculture was maintained, by col-lecting and returning animal andhuman wastes to land. Today, manensures phosphorus supply to cropsby extracting phosphates from nat-ural rock, to produce phosphate fertilisers.Food phosphates are also madefrom phosphate rock, after inten-sive purification. Heat combinationwith different mineral salts (sodi-um, potassium, calcium, magne-sium or iron) produces a widerange of specific compounds for dif-ferent purposes. Nearly all phos-phates extracted from rock are usedin fertilisers, detergents or agricul-tural animal feed supplements, andonly around 1% is used by the foodphosphate industry.

Modern diets usually contain large-ly adequate levels of phosphate forhuman health, so food phosphatesare not generally used as a dietaryadditive. They are used for a rangeof purposes including maintainingnatural colours and flavours, aciditybuffering, leavening, stabilisationof texture, shelf-life quality, and asa support for calcium, magnesiumand iron mineral enrichments.In the body, they are broken down tosimple phosphate ions (PO4), thebasic building block of the many dif-ferent biological molecules whichinclude phosphorus. Excess phos-phate is excreted by the kidneyswhen dietary intake exceeds thebody’s needs.Food phosphates have been usedsafely for over 100 years. TheEuropean Union’s Scientific Panelon Dietetic Products, Nutrition andAllergies assessed food phosphatesin 2005 i, within its ongoing studiesof vitamins and minerals. TheCommittee concluded that there isno evidence of adverse effects.


Why do our bodies need phosphates?

Phosphorus is the 6th most abundant element in our bodies ii, present most-ly as phosphates. Phosphates and their compounds are essential for thehealth of all living organisms: man, animals and plants. They are at the cen-tre of all life, as key components of DNA (genes), cell structures, cellularenergy cycles, bones and teeth, and in the capture of the sun’s energy byplants (photosynthesis).Because our bodies constantly excrete phosphates, through the kidneys, it isessential to have a regular adequate intake in our diets.

Phosphates in the human body:

�our bones and teeth (dentin and enamel) are built of calcium phosphate based structures(hydroxyapatite): this accounts for 85% of the phosphorus in our bodies

�phosphorus is also essential for the production of collagen, the fibre which makes up ligaments and tendons, as well as contributing to bone structure, cartilage, skin and the eye

�the structure of each of our cells is based on phospholipid membranes

�the transfer of energy within cells, on which depend all body functions, from thoughtthrough to muscle function and motion, is based on adenosine tri- / di- phosphate metabolism (ADP, ATP)

�our genetic material DNA is based on a deoxyribose – phosphate chain

�phosphorus is a key component of many proteins

�important for acid-base regulation in our bodies (pH balance)

�needed to produce myelin, the covering of nerve and brain cells which allows impulsesto transmit signals (1/3 of the brain’s dry weight is phosphorus fatty acids)

�phospholipids in the blood stop fats depositing on artery walls, and so prevent heart disease

�necessary to enable the body to use certain vitamins (A, D, E, K)

�phosphates are necessary for many other biological processes within our bodies

Phosphorus content:�Human bodyBones 12%Teeth 8%Brain 0.3%Overall 1 - 1.2%�PlantsPlant tissues 0.05 - 1%


Which foods containphosphates?

Because phosphates areessential for life, and arepresent in so many differentbiological functions, they arenaturally present in nearlyall foods.

�% phosphorus (P) by weightGrain products 0.1 - 0.3%Fish and meat 0.2%Milk and dairy products 0.1 - 0.9%Fruit 0.015%Broccoli 0.07%�Phosphorus per servingMilk, low fat, 200 ml glass 200 mgBread whole grain, 1 slice (25g) 65 mgBread, white, 1 slice (25g) 24 mgOat bran, 1 cup, 100g 730 mg1 egg 104 mgLentils, 1 cup, 200g 356 mgFish, 1 fillet, 150g 400 - 450 mgBeef, portion, 150g 260 - 320 mgPeach, 100g 20 mgBanana, 120g 26 mgCola drink, 200 ml 24 - 40 mgOrange juice, 200 ml 33 mgDrinking water (maximum authorised concentration in Europe), 200 ml 0.44 mg�Average dietary intake mg/person/dayTotal average dietary intake 1000 - 1500 mgContribution from added food phosphates 320 mg

Although added food phosphate compoundsare used for a variety of specific purposes toimprove different foods (including meats,cheese and dairy products, cakes and bis-cuits, soft drinks, ...), the contribution ofadded food phosphates to total phosphorusintake is low. In the USA, dietary intake ofphosphorus from added food phosphates isestimated at 320 mg/person/day iii, that is 20-30% of dietary intake of phosphorus fromnatural foods.

Food phosphates are added to foods at verylow levels. Maximum authorised added lev-els can vary from 0.07% up to 4% food phos-phates, depending on application. In prac-tice, levels used are around 0,35% in meat,2,5% in processed cheese, 0,4% in cakes forleavening, or 0,05% in cola drinks for acidityand flavour.

Total phosphorus level in diet thus dependsmore on the type of food being eaten than onthe presence of added phosphates. High pro-tein diets (meat, fish, eggs, cheese ...) willbe high in phosphorus because of their nat-ural phosphorus content.


Why does the food industry needphosphates?

Food phosphates are used in many differentareas of the food industry to improve food prod-ucts. A range of phosphate compounds is avail-able with differing characteristics and func-tions (level of acidity, number of phosphategroups, combined with different minerals ...).

Phosphates are authorised as food additivesworldwide, because detailed studies, con-firmed by decades of widespread use, haveshown them to be safe (USA iv, Europe v). The flexibility and wide range of phosphatesallow the food industry to find and develop thefunctions it needs, adapted to a given foodtype and quality, in order to improve quality oroffer new products to consumers.

For the consumer, food phosphates mean amore reliable quality of food products (stabil-ity of natural flavours and textures) when aproduct cannot be consumed immediately.Without them, many farm products would notlast long enough to reach the consumer.

Furthermore food phosphates offer specific functions without which many processed and consumer-ready foods and preparations would not exist. Food phosphates also bring theassurance of a completely safe food additive, based on natural phosphates and mineralswhich are anyway widely found in foods.

BufferingcapacitySequesteringeffect

Polyanionic functions

Shelf lifeimprovement ofnatural productsLeaveningagents

Texture quality

Ripening ofcheeseAnti-caking

Mineral enrichmentStability andquality of medicinesQuality andsafety

Ensure a stable acidity (pH) of foods and drinks, thuspreserving natural flavour and colourPrevent natural mineral ions in foods from causingdiscoloration or deteriorated flavour (rancidity) during storage or processing Prevent crystals forming in seafoodsMaintain ingredients in suspension or prevent coagulation • Retain natural juices, particularly inmeat and seafood productsImprove the biological stability of foodstuffs, byinhibiting reproduction of certain bacteria, duringstorage before consumptionUsed with sodium bicarbonate to make cakes andpastries “ rise ”, and stay light, during cooking, balancing the alkalinity of the bicarbonateEnable smooth mixing of fats, proteins and moisturein processed cheese, evaporated milk, and other dairyproductsBy improving availability of calcium, facilitate thedevelopment of beneficial bacteria in cheeseImprove the free-flowing properties of powdered ordried foodsProvide fortification of diet or baby foods with calcium, magnesium, iron and phosphorusPhosphates physical and chemical properties makethem effective excipients for a variety of drugs andmedicines in tablet, powder and solution formsFood phosphates are often added to drinking watersupply to prevent lead or other toxic metals being dissolved from pipes and contaminating tap water

Advantages of food phosphates

�Maintainflavour andfood quality

�Baking

�Dairy products

�Preventsticking

�Health supplements

�Pharma-ceuticals

�Drinkingwater


How much foodphosphates

Approximately 100,000 tons/ year of food phosphates are used in Europe (EU-25), that isapproximately 25,000 tons of phosphorus (P) / year. This can be compared with a totalphosphorus through-flow, just for The Netherlands, of around 600,000 tons P / year vi.

85 - 90% of total phosphate use in Europe goes to fertilisers and agricultural animal feedsupplements. Food phosphates represent approximately 1% and phosphate use in drinkingwater treatment around 0.1%.

is used and where ?

The properties of food phosphates vary considerably, depending on the mineral present,and for products based on the same mineral, e.g.:- monocalcium phosphate serves as a leavening agent in baking to make biscuits tender- dicalcium phosphate is used as a polishing agent in toothpaste- tricalcium phosphate is the conditioning agent in table salt that keeps it flowing freely.

Where food phosphates are usedBakery products Cakes, biscuits, pastries...Meat and poultry products Fresh and cooked hams, chicken and other poultry, burgers,

sausages...Seafood products Frozen fish, shellfish, shrimpsProcessed cheese Spreadable and ready-sliced cheesesDairy products Evaporated milk, creamsPotato products French friesSoups and sauces Ready-to-serve and gourmet sauces and preparationsStarch-based products Ingredients for soups and saucesPowdered foodstuffs Dried soups, dried milk, instant pasta dishes...Beverages, soda and juice products Cola drinks, wines, beers, soft drinksDietery supplements Mineral diet fortifiersPharmaceuticals Tablets, powders, solutionsDrinking water Safety of tap water distribution networks

Where do food phosphates

come from ?Food phosphates are manufactured fromnatural phosphate rock, after intensivepurification. Natural phosphate rockdeposits are found in a number of countriesacross the world, including Morocco, SouthAfrica, Israel, Finland, Kazakhstan and theUSA. The rock used to extract phosphatesfor industry is generally of “ sedimentary ”origin. That phosphorus comes from mil-lions of years of deposits of sea organismsonto ocean beds, which have then beencrushed into rock and raised onto land bygeological events.

Phosphates are extracted from the natural rockeither by dissolving it in acid, or by a thermalfurnace process. The first route produces“ green ” phosphoric acid which is thenintensely purified before use to manufacturefood phosphates. The second route produceselemental phosphorus, which after oxidation isreacted with water to give pure phosphoric acid.

Manufacturers of food phosphates in the European Union:BK Giulini Chemie & Co (Germany) www.bk-giulini.com Chemische Fabrik Budenheim (Germany) www.budenheim-cfb.com Prayon (Belgium) www.prayon.com Thermphos International B.V. (The Netherlands) www.thermphos.com

The different specific phosphate com-pounds available to the food industry arethen produced using a combination of heatprocesses (to condense poly-phosphates)and a variety of different purified food min-erals (sodium, potassium, calcium, magne-sium, iron...), followed by drying, granula-tion and conditioning to enable efficientapplication to foods (homogenous powders,solutions...).


Do we get enough

in our diets ?phosphates

Recommended daily intake of phosphorus (mgP/day)vii

Infants and children (0 - 10 years) 120 increasing to 800 mgP/day10 - 19 years 1,250 mgP/dayAdults 700 mgP/dayPregnant and breast feeding women 800 - 900 mgP/day

Because phosphorus is essential for ourhealth, nature has made us relatively effi-cient in taking it into our bodies. Some 55 -70% of phosphates in our food is effectivelyabsorbed by our digestive system.The minimum daily dietary intake of phos-phorus, necessary to ensure good health, is700 - 800 mg phosphorus (P) / day foradults. The balance between dietary levelsof phosphates and of calcium and otherminerals is also important, as high levels ofone may affect digestive uptake of the other,but with normal diets this is not an issue.

Phosphorus is widely present in many foods,so that the average intake in European coun-tries, at 1000 - 1500 mg/person/day, is in factconsiderably higher than these minimumrequirements.The main source of phosphates in our diet isprotein, in particular in meats and dairyproducts. Whole grain cereal products andbreads contain more phosphorus than whiteflour, but much of it is in a form used forstorage in the plant (phytin), which is poor-ly available to the human digestive system.In some particular cases, however, dietaryphosphorus supplements may be necessary. A minority of older women may have phos-phorus intakes below or near dietaryrequirements, and if they are receiving cal-cium supplements to treat osteoporosis(bone wasting) this will reduce digestivephosphate uptake, and phosphate dietarysupplements may also be necessaryviii.

How do our bodies controlphosphate

levels ?Phosphorus (as phosphates) is constantlybeing absorbed by our bodies from foods, andused in the production of bone structure, proteins, cell membranes, DNA and otherbiological molecules. At the same time, phosphates are being released back into bloodby the renewal of bone structure and thebreakdown or metabolism of these molecules.

The concentration of soluble phosphates inour body fluids is critically important forhealth: to supply the many bodily functionsand molecules which need it ; because ofinteractions with calcium metabolism ; andbecause phosphate plays a central role inadjusting the body’s acidity – alkalinity balance (pH buffering). The body fluid phosphate concentration varies in dailycycles, and is regulated by hormones, in particular PTH (parathyroid hormone), and1,25-dihydorxyvitamin D.

These hormones act by transmitting instruc-tions to the kidneys. 80-90% of phosphatepassing out through the kidneys is usuallyre-absorbed taken back into the blood in therenal tubules. Phosphate which is excess to

the body’s needs is not re-absorbed, and so isevacuated to urine.

Scientific evidence, and the experience ofpopulations with different diets, show thathealthy individuals can tolerate phosphateintakes significantly higher than in moderndiets (EFSAi), with the excess being evacuat-ed by the kidneys without adverse effects,but individuals suffering from kidney prob-lems may need to limit phosphorus intakeand to control calcium – phosphorus ratiosin their diet.


Are high levels of phosphates

in food dangerous ?Many studies have been carried out on different food phos-phate products in order to assess their safety as food addi-tives. These studies have consistently shown that phosphatefood ingredients are non toxic, and that they are used in thebody in exactly the same way as phosphates naturally pres-ent in foods. These studies confirm the experience ofdecades of use of inorganic phosphates in foods, without anyrecorded negative effects: phosphates were first used infoods around a century ago, with baking powders and J.L.Kraft’s processed cheese. The only limits to the use of foodphosphates are thus related to general limits of dietary phos-phorus levels.

At very high levels, phosphates can have health impacts,including temporary nausea in humans, and in animal experi-

ments with extremely high doses, kidneydysfunction. These impacts are not rele-vant at the levels of phosphorus found inpractice in foods, with or without addedfood phosphates, and only occur withartificially high phosphate levelsachieved in test studies by deliberatephosphate supplements.

The European Union’s official scientificpanel concluded in 2005 (EFSAi) “ Adverseeffects of excessive phosphorus intake ...were not observed in studies in humans,except in patients with end stage renal dis-ease ” (serious kidney deficiencies).

Upper limits for intake levels for phosphorushave been suggested, by the United NationalFood and Agriculture Organisation and bythe USA and Canada, as levels susceptible toavoid any risk, at 3000 - 5000 mgP/day. Theselimits are considerably higher than dietaryintake.

Germany’s Federal ix Institute for RiskAssessment concluded that “ The riskassessment did not reveal any signs thatsupplementation with a maximum of 250 mgper kg body weight phosphorus as phosphateper day in addition to their customary dietwould lead to clearly adverse reactions inotherwise healthy adults.”

Margin of safety for phosphorus intake in foodsMean daily phosphorus intake (UK, 2003 x) 1260 mgP/dayVery high dietary intake: 97.5 percentile = highest 2.5% of the population (UK 2003) 2110 mgP/dayFood phosphates, daily intake (high estimate based on USA figures) 320 mgP/dayRecommended maximum daily intake (adult) 4000 - 5000 mgP/day


Are levels of phosphatesin modern diets

bad for the health ?

This question does not specifically concernadded food phosphates, which make up onlya minor proportion of total dietary phospho-rus intake (10 - 30%), but rather the generalincrease in high phosphorus content diets.

The increasing consumption of meats andprotein-rich foods, may have led to anincrease in dietary phosphorus intake in

Europe, as for example in Germany from1440 mgP/ day in 1973/74,

to 1570 mgP/day in1978/79 and to 1569

mgP/l in 1997/99 (BfRix).

However, unlike for salt, there is no evidencethat this general increase in diet phospho-rus levels is related to health risks. This isbecause body metabolism naturally ensuresphosphorus balance and rapidly eliminatesexcess phosphorus through the kidneys tourine.

What is certain, is that the general increasein dietary phosphorus intakes is mainly theresult of increasing rich diets, with anincreasing content of protein rich foods, inparticular meats, and is not particularlyrelated to added food phosphates. What isalso certain, is that modern diets are - formany people in Europe - increasinglyunhealthy, and when combined with a lack ofexercise, pose real dangers of significanthealth problems and widespread obesity.

The European Scientific Panel on DieteticProducts, Nutrition and Allergies concludedin 2005 that “ There is no evidence ofadverse effects associated with the currentintakes of phosphorus (EFSAi) ”.

How do increased diet phosphates

levels affect osteoporosis ?The structure of bones and teeth is basedupon calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatite).Development of bones, but also their main-tenance throughout life, therefore requiresconsiderable inputs of both of these ele-ments. The calcium phosphate structure isin fact continuously broken down and rebuiltthroughout life. Bone structures also includethe protein collagen, whose productionrequires phosphate.

Osteoporosis is a condition affecting princi-pally the elderly, in particular women afterthe menopause. Symptoms are a loss of cal-cium phosphate from bones, with an overallloss of bone mass, and bones becoming frag-ile and easily broken. This can result from adeficiency in calcium in the diet, but alsofrom hormonal unbalance, because thebreakdown / rebuilding of bone calciumphosphate is hormonally controlled.

The ratio of calcium to phosphate can affectboth calcium uptake in the digestive systemand bone structure maintenance. In humanmilk, the calcium to phosphate ratio is 1.5 to1 (by weight) and this is thought to be theoptimal ratio for infants (EU Directivesrequire a ratio in infant formula of between1.2 and 2.0 to 1).

In adults, however, a number of studies xi

have confirmed that increased phosphoruslevels in diets did not affect calcium uptake,calcium excretion from the kidneys or hor-monal control of bone structure. On the con-trary, insufficient phosphate intake may insome cases be contributing to osteoporosis,and dietary supplements of phosphateshould then be supplied along with the moreusual dietary calcium supplement treatment(Heaneyxi).


Do phosphates

In a number of cases, parents or education-alists have suggested that moving to lowphosphate diet has helped children sufferingfrom “ Attention Deficit Disorder ” (ADD),that is, different forms of hyperactivity, con-centration or behaviour difficulties. In somecases, tests with individual children or smallnumbers of individuals have been reportedwhere a return to a normal diet or the inclu-sion of a phosphate supplement in the dietcaused a temporary return of such problems,when these had apparently been resolved bymoving to a low phosphate diet.

These reports are not based on rigorous sci-entific methods, and scientists and officialbodies xii have expressed doubt as to theirmeaning, suggesting that the improvementsmight be due to other food components ordiet changes, or to modifications in family oreducation environments and attitudes.

Several scientifically controlled medicalstudies xiii, using groups of children identi-fied as having “ ADD ” type problems,showed no improvement related to reduceddietary phosphorus intake. These studies did however show improvements related tobetter child - parent and child - educatorcommunications.

There is no evidence that sensitivity to highdietary phosphorus levels is a general issue.Above all, there can be no doubt that modernsociety needs to reverse the move to dietsincreasingly rich in meats, fats andprocessed food, and to increase instead con-sumption of vegetables, fruit and fibres, aswell as rediscovering the benefits of daily exercise.

cause hyperactivity ?

Further information: �What are phosphates ?

http://www.phosphatefacts.com

�What is phosphorus ?http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/phosphorus.html

�European Food Safety Authority Opinion, 2005:http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/nda/nda_opinions/1098_en.html

�German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Opinion, 2005:http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/238/use_of_minerals_in_foods.pdf

�Phosphorus contents of different foods (USDA National Nutrient Database):www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/sr17a305.pdf

�Whole Foods Market, the world’s leading retailer of natural and organic foods:http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/wholebody/ingredients/phosphates.html

�European Food Phosphate Producers Association:http://www.cefic.be/Templates/shwAssocDetails.asp ?NID=5&HID=22&ID=29

�Federation of European Food Additives, Food Enzymes and Food Culture Industries (ELC): http://www.elc-eu.org/

�European Chemical Industries Council (Cefic), “ responsible care ” initiative:http://www.cefic.be/Templates/shwStory.asp ?NID=471&HID=8

�Companies manufacturing food phosphates in Europe:BK Giulini Chemie & Co (Germany) www.bk-giulini.comChemische Fabrik Budenheim (Germany) www.budenheim-cfb.comPrayon (Belgium) www.prayon.comThermphos International B.V. (The Netherlands) www.thermphos.com

http://www.phosphatefacts.comhttp://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/phosphorus.htmlhttp://www.efsa.eu.int/science/nda/nda_opinions/1098_en.htmlhttp://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/238/use_of_minerals_in_foods.pdfwww.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/sr17a305.pdfhttp://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/wholebody/ingredients/phosphates.htmlhttp://www.cefic.be/Templates/shwAssocDetails.asp ? NID=5&HID=22&ID=29http://www.elc-eu.org/http://www.cefic.be/Templates/shwStory.asp ?NID=471&HID=8www.bk-giulini.comwww.budenheim-cfb.comwww.prayon.comwww.thermphos.com

Footnotesi EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) «Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products,

Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the tolerable Upper IntakeLevel of Phosphorus», adopted 1 July 2005www.efsa.eu.int/science/nda/nda_opinions/catindex_en.html

ii Hydrogen 63%, oxygen 25% (including body water content), carbon 9.5%, nitrogen 1.4%, calcium0.33%, phosphorus 0.22%

iii Calvo MS and Park YK (1996), J Nutr 126:1168S-1180S.iv US Federal (FDA) legislation (sec. 182.1810) v EU legislation Directive 1995/2vi «Phosphate recovery from animal manure the possibilities in the Netherlands», Van Ruiten

Adviesbureau/Projectbureau BMA, November 1998http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/departments/mineralogy/research-groups/phosphate-recovery/VanRuiten.pdf

vii D-A-CH (2000) Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung, Österreichische Gesellschaft für Ernährung,Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Ernährungsforschung, Schweizerische Vereinigung fürErnährung: Referenzwerte für die Nährstoffzufuhr. 1. Auflage, Umschau Braus GmbH,Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt/Main.

viii «Phosphorus Nutrition and the Treatment of Osteoporosis», R. Heaney, Mayo Clin Proc, January2004, n°79, pages 91-97http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/Abstract.asp?AID=650&UID=&Abst=Abstract

ix BfR German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung) «Use ofMinerals in Foods Toxicological and nutritional-physiological aspects», 2005http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/238/use_of_minerals_in_foods.pdf

x EVM (2003) Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals. Phosphorus. Safe Upper Levels for Vitaminsand Minerals. United Kingdom, May 2003, p. 293-298.

xi Spencer H, Menczel J, Lewini I, Samachson J (1965). Effect of high phosphorus intake on calciumand phosphorus metabolism in man. J Nutr 86: 125-132. Heaney RP and Rafferty K (2001).Carbonated beverages and urinary calcium excretion. Am J Clin Nutr 74: 343-347. Grimm M,Muller A, Hein G, Funfstuck R, Jahreis G (2001). High phosphorus intake only slightly affectsserum minerals, urinary pyridinium crosslinks and renal function in young women. Eur J ClinNutr 55: 153-161. Whybro A, Jagger H, Barker M, Eastell R. (1998). Phosphate supplementation inyoung men: lack of effect on calcium homeostasis and bone turnover. Europ J Clin Nutr 52: 29-33.

xii German Ministry for Health 1978.xiii «Influence of food stuffs on the behaviour of children with attention-deficit and hyperactivity

disorder. Studies to verify the efficiency of psychological therapies and phosphate-variednutrition», Verlag für Medienpraxis und Kulturarbeit Ludwigshafen, H. Preis, 1999 http://www.uni-landau.de/fb8/fb_inhalte/mitarbeiter/preis/preis.htm

xiv See http://www.homeschoolmath.net/teaching/add-adhd-diet.php

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Footnotesceuticals Drinking water Food phosphates: questions and answers 10 > 11 How muchfood phosphates Approximately 100,000 tons/ year of food phosphates are used in Europe (EU-25),