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Understanding Organizational Systems,

Structure and DesignINTRODUCTION

In simple terms organization is made of group of people with some specificgoals and objectives. It is defined as relations among components of a system.

Organization structure denotes the components and relations that bind people

working with the organization.

Three pillars of organization are the people, the organization itself (considering it

as a separate entity) and the technology.People issues encompass education, training and attitudes. Organization issues

cover strategy, policy, culture and bureaucracy. Technology issues are hardware,

software, telecommunications and information systems.

Three different levels of organization structure are strategic, tactical and

operational.Strategic level represents decision making level, i.e., the corporate or the top level

of an organization.

Tactical or business level is the middle management level, where strategic

decisions are transformed into tactics to achieve the strategic intents.

Operational level represents the actual implementation level, where first level

employees and workers, execute the tactics, adopting the actions plans.


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ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

Organization structure helps us to determine the authorityrelationships among the members of organization, and hence it

influences the behaviour of individuals, groups and divisions within

the organizations.

Among others, structure of an organization affects the division of

tasks, communication systems, decision making patterns and finally

the way how people relate to each other.

Global competition now requires many organizations to re-define

their structure and even to relocate, taking advantage of state of art

technology and communication support.


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What is an organization?

Organization is essentially a formal structure of people, which is set

up to achieve some defined goals. Commonly we use following

terms to define any organization.

Organization is a group of people who are organized to achieve a

common purpose. It is an entity, a unit or a establishment, which utilises resources to achieve

some common purpose.

It shows a structure of relationship in an enterprise

It is a process, which facilitates to relate tasks and facilities of people

working in an enterprise, to achieve intended goals.

According to Arthur Young to create an organization, we group the

activities, establish authority and responsibility, and describe the

working relationships


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Organization, Organizing and Organization Structure

The term organization is used to refer a social group, which isdeliberately created and maintained to achieve some intended goals.

More specifically it is defined as a formal social group. Also the

term organization is referred as a process of determining activities

that are required to achieve intended goals, creating various roles

and ensuring effective operation of the total system.

Organizing is a management process of identifying; classifying,

grouping and assigning various activities with adequately defined

authority relationships to achieve intended goals.

Organization structure is the outcome of organizing process. It is

a framework of decision-making authority, i.e., a system of

relationships, which govern the activities of the people working in

the organization to achieve some intended goals.


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Systems view of Organization

Organizations are viewed from systems perspectives, as systemsis a collection of parts (or sub-systems), which is integrated to

accomplish the goals and objectives of the organization.

Systems have inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes, with

ongoing feedback among these various parts. If one part of the

system is removed, the nature of the system is changed.

Organization is viewed as a system, as organization is a unitary

whole. It consists of arrangement of activities to achieve itsobjectives.

Systems theory also provides new perspective for managers to

interpret patterns and events in their organizations.


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Attributes of a System

The system is goal oriented.The whole is more than the sum of all parts in asystem.A system is engaged in processing ortransformation of inputs into output.Various components of a system are interrelatedand interdependent.

They interact with each other.A system acts upon its environment and is alsoacted upon by the environment.


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Why Organization is a System?

Organization is a system as it draws input from the environment also and withother resource inputs like; men, materials, machines and knowledge; processesthose and then get the output, i.e., the end product or services. Finally withfeedback in its loop, it again tries to adjust with the environmental requirements.

Why Systems Approach for Organization?

It emphasizes on the dynamic character of business, considering it as a living

organism.

It focuses on the inter-relationship between business and the environment.

It stresses on the changing environment and accordingly adjusts through

managing the change.

It provides information inputs for decision making and managerial control.

It guides formulation of business objectives, which are sustainable, keepingpace with the environment.

It subsumes organization as a whole, considering each unit or department of

an organization as part of the sub-system, which is inter-related and inter-

dependent.

Finally it frames an integrated structure, incorporating each sub-system as partof the total system.


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Components of Organizational Structure

According to Mintzberg (1981), organizational structure is the sum total of the ways

in which it divides its labour into distinct tasks and then achieves coordination

among them.

As Mintzberg believed organization structure is a configuration systems and

relationships, he suggested six components, as illustrated in the figure below:

people in the operating core part of the organization are involved in the production of goodsand services.

The strategic apex part of the organizations is involved with controlling.

The middle line managers aligns strategic apex with the operating core.

People at the techno-structure core, designs, plan, change or train the operating core. The

support staff provides support to the organization, which is outside of the operating core.

Finally ideology is the traditions and beliefs that make one organization distinctly different


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Types of Organizational Structure

Organization structure can be classified into five different types:

Machine bureaucracy (standardized structure), Professional bureaucracy

Adhocracy or innovative forms Simple or entrepreneurial forms Divisional forms

Each structural form indicates different pattern of behaviour of the organization.

Organizational structure that conforms to machine bureaucracy emphasizes on:

Standardization of work

Centralized decision-making

Limitations of behaviour and procedures for members

Polarization of status (maintaining hierarchies)

Enforce internal and external control on stakeholders

Characteristically such organizations are secretive, narrow-minded, prevent internal

and external cooperation, and rigorously practice insularity (preventing employees

of one department to enter into another). Such organizations promote competition,

and not collaboration among employees.

Very large organizations like; GM and Ford, Tata Steel, Tata Motors, HindustanMotors, etc. are examples of machine bureaucracies.


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Organizations that subscribe to the professional bureaucracy discard

formalizations. Professional people manage such organizations and hence

employees enjoy functional control and less control. Such organizations believe

in employees empowerment and total employee involvement (TEI) and even

they build employees capability to cope with the external eventualities. Freeand open culture promote learning environment, hence such organizations can

also practice knowledge management, competency development, and truly

transform people as good performers.

Organizations with innovative or adhocracy structure emphasize on

developing their distinctive cultural identity. They decentralize their decisionmaking, process, and promote open communication, discussion, negotiation and

interaction among people and divisions. They are more prone to alliance

building behaviour.

The entrepreneurial form or organization structure is simple, as a single

person (usually the entrepreneur himself/herself) directs the activities of thefirm.

The fifth and final type organizational structure is the divisional form. Such

form or organizational structure focuses on autonomous divisions, which,

however, may not always imply decentralization of decision-making. Often this

form of organization structure sparks intra-unit fighting.


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Syndromes of Adhocracy Structure

More organic structure.

Less formalization of behaviour.

Specialization based formal training.

Encouragement of mutual adjustment.

Low standardization of procedures.

Roles are not clearly defined.Selective decentralization

Work organization rests on specialized team; hence they

become the power-centre.

Horizontal job specializationHigh cost of communication

Culture based on democratic and non-bureaucratic work

Cross-departmental task forces.


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Organizational Effectiveness

Effectiveness is the extent of an activity that helps in achieving the long-term goals.

Since we measure effectiveness for specific activity, we can define activity specific

effectiveness is the outcome that support the broader goals of an organization.

To measure the effectiveness, we can use both the qualitative and quantitative tools.

Behavioural parameters like; values, attitudes, skills and behaviour are measured using

qualitative tools.

Value and volume of output changes, customer satisfaction, changes in the

profitability, etc. are measured using quantitative tools.

Organizational effectiveness is the extent to which the organization, as a whole,

achieves its goals optimizing its resources. It depends on the degree of interpersonal

skills, positive attitudes, technical competencies, small group activities, etc., whichtogether contributes to the achievement of organizational goals and objectives.

Organizational effectiveness refers to the corporate management systems that produce

development results of an organization. Among others, an effective organizational

structure helps in achieving organizational effectiveness.


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Systems Theory Principles

Systems theory identifies certain commonalities in systems. Such commonalities are

developed based on certain well accepted principles of systems for organizations.

Behaviour of systems depends on the structure of the organization.Organizational structure determines the various behaviours, and behaviour

determines various events in organizations.

Breaking organizational systems only by responding to the events become more an

effort like addressing to organizational problems, as and when they arise. Such

organizations, characteristically, adopt incremental strategies (short-term) to fix

some events.

Based on the above discussions, we can list the systems principles as under:

Organizational systems follow pattern of events in a cycle.Each pattern of event indicates some specific phases, and at each phase, behaviour of the

organization changes

Systems interpret patterns and events in their organizations

Systems seek balance with the organizational environments

When systems do not interact with their environment, it becomes limited.

A circular relationship exists between the overall system and its parts.


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Open Systems approach in organization

In todays changing world, open system approach to organization is

considered more relevant.

Open systems approach attributes are; energy, throughput, output, cycles ofevents, negative entrophy, information input, steady or dynamic homeostasis,

differentiation, integration and co-ordination, and equifinal

Cycle of Events is a process in open systems organization, by which it

receives inputs from the environment and then transforms them and generate

output.Negative Entrophy represents ability of the organization to autonomously

repair itself and then survive and grow by importing resources from its

environment and transforming them to outputs.

Organizations through steady or dynamic homeostasis maintain

equilibrium over a period of time.

Through differentiation, organizations develop structures and develop

specialized functions.

Equifinality principle of the open systems organization achieves their

objectives through several different courses of action.

Contd2/-


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Systems engineering approach encompasses technological, organizational and

societal systems. It follows four different stages like; systems analysis, systems

design, implementation and operation.

At systems analysis stage, organization defines the systems, identify differentsub-systems and establish their inter-relationships.

At systems design stage, organization builds the systems model, optimizing

the resources.

At the implementation stage, final design is built, keeping in view various

eventualities, which could cope with uncertainties.

Finally at the operation stage supports are provided to continue with the

designed systems documenting the activities involved, user manuals, trainingetc.

Thus both Systems Analysis and Systems Engineering provide a general way

of thinking about practical situations requiring the creation of a system that

achieves some pre-defined purpose.


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Viable Systems Model, Organizational Cybernetics and Organizational Systems

Viable System Model (VSM) postulated by S. Beer (1979) VSM is an important instrument in the

operationalization of the organizational cybernetics approach.

According to Beer cybernetics is the science of effective organization. A system is said to be viablewhen it is able to adapt effectively to environmental changes, even though such changes are

unforeseen.

VSM thus consists of operation (O) with embedded management (M) and environment (E). It is used

in organization to diagnose different elements, in designing information systems, designing

management structure, etc. Even in designing organizational vision, mission and structure it is used.Therefore, VSM also helps in systematic thinking in organizations.

Thus VSM as an organizational framework of various functions and relationships, creates the

conditions, making use of which, organisations can diagnose the major dysfunctions, and develop

necessary intervention strategies.

Based on his study of organic systems, Beer observed organizational systems can sustain

independent existence despite the operations of Law of Requisite Variety.

The law describes how complexity could operate to overpower a system of management. In

cybernetics, the word variety denotes complexity, which is infinite. Management instead of dealing

with the environmental complexity should create the appropriate operating process, which can interact

with the environment, and sustain its independent existence.


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Operations of the Law of Requisite Variety, according to Beer

exhibit following properties,

Maintenance of identity (every organization must have a purpose and

accordingly should organise its means to achieve the same).

Ability to self repair (organisation should be capable enough to self-

repair to sustain existence).

Self awareness (organization must aware of themselves on what they

comprise).

Self organising (organizational structure should be environment and

context specific).

Self balancing (homeostasis).

Open systems (adaptive to extract information from their environment)


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The model comprises two operating systems that primarily interact

with the external environment and the five attendant systems,

demonstrating specific interrelationships and producing the

properties of variability.

1

Op B

1

Op A

3Control

4

Intelligence

5

Identity

Coordination

2

Audit

3*

Env

A

Env

B

The

Future?

Total EnvironmentMeta

System

OperatingSystem

Viable System

Vi bl d


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Viable systemcontd.

As per the model, System 5 represents the identity, i.e., the total system

purpose and the measures of success. System 5 passes down to System3, i.e., the policies and authority, which govern the overall system

outcomes. System 5 balances the present and the future, external and

internal perspectives, moderating its relationship between systems 3 and

system 4. Change in System 3, influence System 1 (operational systems,i.e., A and management function, i.e., B). System 3 and each of System 1

(A and B) through interactions establish agreements, i.e., managed by

System 2. System 4 examines the external environment and gains the

intelligence about the totality and the future.

Therefore, in VSM, any of the six systems operate with a cybernetic

intervention at any point in time, and in the process ensure that the

organisation become a self-controlling system.

O h t O i ti


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Orchestra Organization

The term orchestra organization is used in open system perspective, as like an open

system organization, an orchestra organization is a complex set of interdependent sub-

systems.An open system organization takes input from the environment, processes those, and

produces output.

Efficient interactions with the environment and various subsystems, in an open

system, determine the success of an organization.

When the organization is efficient, it not only considers relationships and reciprocal

influences between the organization and its environment, it even considers extending its

sphere beyond the formal boundary, through an efficient boundary spanning sub

systems.

Boundary spanning subsystems play the buffering role to account for external

organizational uncertainty.

Processes or throughput, in a typical orchestra organization are specialized functions,which are distinct and interdependent. Even the coordinating function is considered as

throughput, as it helps in the goal of achieving the output. The job of coordinating in

orchestra organization could be both formal and informal.

Depending on its structure and the use of physical space, an orchestra organization

may emphasize more on informal coordination. It, however, depends how they organizetheir human resources.

Ch Th


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Chaos TheoryChaos theory studies the complexity of world to identify principles to understand the

organizations.

The theory of chaos deals with the structure of turbulence, i.e., study of unpredictable

complex systems. Edward Lorenz of MIT (quoted in Hilborn, 2004), a meteorologist,

simulating the weather pattern given a visual presentation to explain the theory of chaos

as under:

The picture resemble to a butterfly, hence it is also known as the `Butterfly effect.

"The Butterfly Effect" refers to the discovery that in a chaotic system, it is theoretically

possible that slight change would make no difference whatsoever, but when the system

is unpredictable at a certain stage, the future may unfold quite differently, depending

upon what little difference occurred.

The application of chaos theory to management depicts organizations as complex and

unpredictable because of the relations among constituents of a system.

Ch t i ti f h ti t f ll


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Characteristics of a chaotic system are as follows:

It is sensitive to initial conditions: A complex system reacts to different variables

at the outset in unpredictable ways. Even starting with the same, exact or slightly

different variables in a model will not result in the same outcomes, if the system iscomplex.

Same context may not hold good again and again: In a complex system, there

is never the same context twice. Hence in organizations, a team with essentially

identical personnel and similar characteristics will never perform exactly the same,which means that a system is never exactly the same. In organization, a strategy or

decision will never be made twice even with the same context.

Set of values and strange attractors:: In chaos theory same set of values

migrates over a time in a given system. It means attractors (set of values) in chaostheory act as the influence of gravity. Attractors can be a single fixed point, a

collection of points, a complex orbit, or an infinite number of points. In

organization, attractors, i.e., the set of values, cause the behaviour, which alter over

time, depending upon the social, economical, or other forces that drive the system

at a given point of time and how they interact.Contd..2/-

Ch i f t l Lit ll f t l f th t i i d d t f


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Chaos is fractal: Literallyfractal means a curve or surface that is independent of

scale. Any segment, if magnified in scale, appears identical to the whole curve. In

the management analogy, it is assumed that different levels of organization

resemble others, like a fractal in the managerial hierarchy. A form of social

structures can be examined in relation to characteristics of the whole system at the

macro and micro levels.

Theory of bifurcation: Bifurcation is the sudden appearance of qualitatively

different solutions to the equations for a nonlinear system as a parameter is varied.

In an organization, two different patterns (groups) can emerge to address an issue

differently, as complexity increases. This is often recommended as a source of

creativity.

Organizations are complex and adaptive systems that have behaviours similar to those

found in nature--different stages of stability and chaos.

Rather than control in organization, a manager is prompted to take advantage of its

complexity. Theorists in management and social organization now believe that

organizations are also non-linear dynamic systems, having the same characteristics as

natural phenomena.

The organization is often seen as complex adaptive system comprised of the formal and

shadow systems, and in this way the analogy is made between chaos in natural systems

and the social organization.

Socio Technical Systems Thinking


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Socio-Technical Systems Thinking

Pioneered by the Tavistock Institute of London, as per the model the technical sub-system

consists of the devices, tools and techniques, which transform inputs to outputs to enhance the

economic performance of the organization.

The social system consists of employees, their knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and needs.

Integrating technical and social sub-systems, according to this model, organizations develop the

desired structure.

Technical sub-systems, therefore, consist of technology and tasks, and social sub-systems consist

of structure and people.

A schematic representation of the model based on Bostrom, Heinen and Stephen (1977), which

suggest developing management information systems, integrating social and technical sub-

systems.

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