Final Report of the European APT Project Coordinator

Exploring values in Teacher Education – Strategies from a Euro-

pean Partnership for the 21st century? Dr. Bernd Hainmüller, Head of department of Project Management at the Seminar für Lehrer-bildung und Didaktik in Offenburg/Germany - European coordinator of the Comenius 2. 1.

APT - project.

The origins of Potential Analysis

Surprisingly, it is Richard Sennett´s book “The Culture of the New Capitalism” where the origins of

potential analyses are described1: The Military Academy of St. Cyr in France, founded in 1808 and

later named after Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, one of Napoleon´s famous Field Marshals used ap-

praisals for the recruitment of officers. In 1818 Field marshal St.Cyr had became Minister for the

French Navy after an incident, that shook the public: the shipwreck of the French flagship „Medusa“

in 1816 near the coast of Senegal. A royalist nobel captain with no nautical competences (except being

a noble) had caused a disastrous wreckage with the loss of more than 150 french settlers, soldiers and

merchants, who were forced to leave on a raft for the coast. All officers instead took the six life boats

(the captain and his family had one on its own). Then the ropes were cut from the raft. Only 15 people

on the raft survived after 15 days in open sea, having on board only a barrel of red wine. The inquiry

of the Medusa shipwreck lead to the dismissal of the French Marine Minister, who was replaced by

General St. Cyr.2 Until then, the officers of the French armies had been selected from the noble classes

– most important were the titles of their families. St. Cyr went a new way: the potential analysis proc-

ess was open to every one and incorruptible. The candidates got numbers, no names were published

and the exercises had a wide range from calculating the flight of different bullets to exercises, where

value questions were focussed like “leadership” as an officer. Young noble class people, finishing the

appraisals as low achievers, were constantly rejected. Sennett emphasised the fact, that the successful

leavers of St. Cyr formed a new profession: the “professional soldier“. Later, other activities followed

the process of professionalization: Law, Medicine, accountancy, business. Education was nearly the

last field, where appraisals was used: After World War II, when the United States felt the need to bal-

ance the academic loss of bright students in the battlefields of the war, the search started to raise the

potentials of young people from more or less disadvantaged cultural backgrounds. The aim was, to

create new and fresh elite for universities like Harvard, Yale or Stanford. In the late 1960´s some big

companies started to recruit their workers using “assessment centres” (AC). They wanted to know, if a

specific person, who applies for a job, fits into the profile of the work they expected of him. The need

for this approach was obvious: the more complex a workspace is shaped, the less you can rely on what

1 Sennett, R. (2005) : Die Kultur des neuen Kapitalismus, Berlin, p. 88- 103 2 When the French painter Gèricault presented a painting 1819 in Paris named: The „Scene of a Shipwreck“, (now in the Louvre) he was quite aware of the public scandal, that would arise, but he wanted to have a public memory of this Medusa incident

the applicant tells you about his formal qualification and earlier experiences in the field. You need

tools, that allow a more profound and - in the language of humanistic psychology – “deeper” entrance

to the personality of the applicant. Originally, this idea did not come from economists, but from educa-

tionalists and humanistic psychologists in the late 1940´s and 1950´s, when experiential psychology

concentrated in the US with persons like Kurt Lewin3, Max Horkheimer/Theodor Adorno4, Bruno

Bettelheim5 Ruth Cohn, Fritz Perls and others, who had emigrated from german Nazi terror. Although

the Nazis had dismissed the early work of John Dewey6 from the education field in Germany, these

immigrants continued to support his main ideas, which led to a new conversation between Education,

Social Psychology and Sociology. Most of their templates – used extensively in the research at the

Centre for Organizational Learning (OLC) in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – (now

known as SOL – Society for Organizational Learning) have been further developed by scientists like

Carl R. Rogers7, Ed Schein8 , Erving Goffman9, David Kolb10, Peter Senge11 or C.O. Scharmer.12 From

their point of view a shift from commercial organisations to educational institutions was not a huge

step, but it took rather a long time, before these ideas reached the school doors. To put it to a breaking

point: If teachers and their teaching constitutes the core of the educational system by sharpening the

fact, that their performance has a large impact on student performance13 the question must be allowed

if “anyone” can teach or not. Furthermore we have to consider how “abilities” for life and value sys-

tems are constructed, a question, that was raised by Abraham Maslow and is nowadays considered by

Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum14.

The background of the “Appraisal of Potential for Teaching (APT)“ project

It is therefore entirely appropriate for education authorities, policy makers, administrators, and practi-

tioners alike to consider appraisals in early teacher education on the background of potential analysis –

3 Lewin, K. (1935) A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

4 Horkheimer, M./Adorno, Th. (1950): the Authoritarian Character, New York, republished in german 1968 5 Bettelheim, B. (1943) "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 38, 417-452. 6 Dewey, J: Democracy and Education, first published 1916, in Germany published 1930, then blotted out until 1993 (!) when Jürgen Oelkers republished it in german. Oelkers, J: (1993) Demokratie und Erziehung. Eine Einleitung in die philosophische Pädagogik, Weinheim und Basel. Beltz Verlag

7 One of the earliest works about the issue is: The concept of the fully functioning person, in: Psychotherapy: theory, research and Practice, 1963, No. 1, S. 17-26

8 Schein, E. (1995): Kurt Lewin's Change Theory in the Field and in the Classroom: Notes Toward a Model of Managed Learning', Systems Practice. also: http://www.a2zpsychology.com/articles/kurt_lewin's_change_theory_page7.htm 9 Goffman, E.: Face Engagements (in: Goffman E., Behavior in Public Places. Free Press, New York 1963: 83-111).

10 Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. 11 Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline. N.Y.: Doubleday 12 C.O. Scharmer, P. Senge, J.Jaworski, B.S. Flowers (2004): Presence: Human purpose and the Field of the Future, Cambridge, M.A., SoL - Press

13 In recent work, Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain (2000) conclude that teacher quality is the most important within-school factor explaining student performance. See: Rivkin, Steven G., Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain, 2000, Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement, Working Paper 6691 (revised), National Bureau of Eco-nomic Research, Massachusetts. 14 Nussbaum, M. /Sen, Amartya (1993) : the Quality of life, Oxford.

not for selection - very seriously. Current thinking in the area of teacher professional development has

begun to recognize the importance of individual, tacit belief systems, the shape of personality and the

influence, these factors have in the way a person learns to teach, how he teaches his students and how

he reacts in difficult situations in his class room. This creates a much wider horizon then just asking, if

a teacher is good in his subject. The critical role that teachers play is reflected in a wide variety of

OECD activities in recent years15. In addition, OECD took major efforts to build a comparative data

base on teachers16, the Education Committee completed two relevant documents17 and CERI has been

investigating related issues in its programme18 The Education Ministers placed great importance on

teachers in their April 2001 Communiqué19 but their main interest focuses more or less on the need of

lifelong learning, possible shortage of teacher supply in subjects or early language learning. Teacher

students, who may be not sure, if they should enter the teaching profession or not, do not play a major

role in these surveys. On the other side is the suitability for the professional role of the teacher an ur-

gent question in many ways: the reasons, why young people want to become a teacher or the question

of matching the own learning biography and the attitudes towards teaching with the needed require-

ments of the school organisation arises for every teacher student education some more painful ques-

tions: Shall I be a “good” teacher? Can and how do I become a “good” teacher? What kind of potential

should I have or have I developed before finally entering this profession? On the other side school

headmasters ask: How do I get “high quality” teachers? What kind of competence setting must a “high

quality” teacher has developed during his teacher education and training? It is noteworthy, that in

some European States like Germany a teacher as a state employee is - after entering the profession - up

to 35 or more years in the same job. Becoming a teacher here is a real challenge, more or less a “life”

decision. But who knows, how heartily committed to teaching is someone after 20 or 30 years of

teaching? And furthermore: Does the educational environment either support or block the develop-

ment of the potentials for high quality teaching? But there are still more major implications that influ-

ence this decision. The average age of teachers is rising in a number of countries. A teaching environ-

ment, that is near the state of “burn out” is not an ideal platform to enter the profession. In addition,

the salary incentives for teachers have declined substantially in a number of countries in recent years.

Other evidence indicates that, at least in some countries, a substantial share of the teaching workforce

does not even hold a regular teaching qualification, and the proportion of unqualified teachers is strik-

ingly high in some key subject areas (e.g. many subjects in science or languages are taught from peo-

ple, who fill the gap of the failure of regular teacher supply from universities in science and lan-

guages). While many institutions in the field are rather concerned about “objective” needs like making

teaching more attractive as a profession for both present and future teachers or gain a better under-

15 including The Teacher Today (OECD, 1990), High Quality Education and Training for All (OECD, 1992), Quality in Teaching (OECD, 1994), Staying Ahead: In-service Training and Teacher Professional Development (OECD, 1998), and Teachers for Tomorrow’s Schools (OECD & UNESCO, 2001).

16 Education at a Glance (OECD, 2001a) 17 Lifelong Learning for Teachers and Teacher Demand and Supply. 18 Schooling for Tomorrow (OECD, 2000, 2001b, 2001c, 2001d, 2001e). 19 Investing in Competencies for All.

standing of the range of factors that affect the attraction, recruitment, development and retention of

effective teachers, we should not forget the “subjective” factors of future teachers – e. g. their per-

formance level, their communication skills, their attitudes towards teaching, their value system, their

commitment to students, parents, peers etc. To answer some of these questions concerning the teach-

ing person a shift from “implicit” estimations to “explicitly” observable behaviours of the person

teaching, seems to be necessary. This is the background of the APT – Appraisal of potential for teach-

ing approach.

The European perspective of the Comenius 2. 1. Project: “Appraisal of Potential for Teaching“

The strategic goal for the EU up to 2010 is, to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-

based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth, with more and better jobs as

well as greater social cohesion. The Work Programme for Common Objectives in Education and

Training (2001) defines 3 strategic objectives: promotion of active citizenship, social inclusion and

employability- areas which deal directly with the issue of potential analysis.

Key competences like personal fulfilment and development through life (cultural capital), active citi-

zenship and inclusion (social capital) and employability (human capital) are not achievable without a

personal “dive” into the background of both learners and teachers. Learners and teachers depend on

the knowledge or the inside view of each other’s personal competences and value belief system, the

deep roots of the personal inventory of each human being, its history, its social context, its family pat-

tern, its role models , its behaviour patterns inside classrooms. Not knowing each other’s moral, ethi-

cal, social and cultural roots (there may be some more areas which are also influential) will almost

inevitably lead to a “clash of settings” between learner and teacher in the future - but how to prepare

for and handle this scenario? Two steps seem to be necessary:

a) a future teacher, who is unaware of his own competences, values and beliefs cannot deal with dif-

ferent learning settings of his students. He risks short of becoming a zealot in transmitting his or her

own beliefs to the students and tries to indoctrinate the students. At the end of such a dead end lays the

possible clash of values, a road which must lead to an irreversible exhaustion of both teachers and

learners. An excellent scenario for that came into the public in Germany a few months ago: Readers

of Süddeutsche Zeitung, a leading German broadsheet, wondered if it was not some kind of newspaper

hoax, albeit a rather unlikely one in such a serious publication. The headline on March 31st 2006 read:

“Zum ersten Mal geben Lehrer ihre Schule auf” (“For the first time teachers give up their school”).

What had happened? A day before for the first time in Germany’s educational history, the staff of the

Rütli-Hauptschule in the capital of Berlin revealed to the media:

“We are helpless, we don’t know what to do. We are at the end of a one-way street ….There are no

values, which guide our school community. There are no role models to guide us, both teachers and

pupils. We are isolated and desperate. We are drowning in violence, disrespect and ignorance – the

Minister of Education has to secure police protection for our school“.

The political reaction after this declaration was quite obvious: Berlin´s Federal State Education Minis-

ter and some other high ranking persons visited the site of the “crime”, demanded quick solutions and

brought policemen to the school. Since then, a public debate on education in schools has started and

the media presented students from The Rütli School, posing in front of the cameras saying: “We have

beaten them, the dammed teachers – we have won the battle!” It smacked of Pink Floyd’s “Teacher!

Leave those kids alone!” And what of the teachers of the Rütli-School? As state civil servants they

were not allowed to give interviews and were compelled to remain silent on the issue. Some days later

some details about the situation in this school before the crisis found their way to the media: The

school had had no headmaster for quite a long time; the deputy headmaster had been ill for months;

the absentee rate for both teachers and students was quite high. Up to 83% of the pupils at the Rütli

School are of a non-German ethnic identity: many of them Muslims from the Near East, most of them

living in the largely immigrant area of nearby Neukölln. Increasing tensions in this socially deprived

area have been developed over the years and education authorities have been slow to take measures to

deal with the attendant difficulties in the schools. It became increasingly obvious that the situation in

the Rütli School was just the tip of the iceberg.

b) The second possible step would be a clarification of the prevailing value systems in the classroom.

Indicators of problems with values and teachers competences in most European countries formed the

starting point of our application to the European Commission for a Comenius 2. 1. Project in 2003.

The “Appraisal of Potential for Teaching” (APT) project aimed to support the training of student

teachers by developing, together with six other European institutions of teacher education20, the tools

to help them to identify and explore fundamental attitudes towards the teaching profession. From 2003

onwards exercises and activities were developed and were piloted with student teachers during short-

term intensive training programmes in 2004 and are now being implemented in the seven partner insti-

tutes. These instruments, it was hoped, would provide the student teacher with the opportunity to in-

crease self-awareness through reflection and critical questioning as a starting point for further profes-

sional development and as an “agent of change” in the school.

The proposal simultaneously addressed the needs of two target groups: namely, teacher educators and

student teachers. The so-called ‘process learning’ central to the work we undertook by using these

instruments, affected both groups: if teacher educators know where the learning fields of their students

teachers lie they can change the curriculum and offer individualized training units to bring out the

potential of the student in a holistic manner. This approach also allows for the creation of templates for

20 Estonia (Tallinna Kaülikool); Sweden (Luleå tekniska universitet), Spain (Facultad de Ciencias de la education – Universidad de Granada); UK (Edge Hill College of Higher Education, Ormskirk, Lancashire); Belgium (Provinciale Hogeschool Limburg) and as coordinating unit Germany (Staatliches Seminar für Lehrerbildung und Didaktik Offenburg)

a ‘learning organization’, because the work involved implies both reflection and reflection into action

to be implemented by both sides of the teaching and learning dynamic.

From the beginning it was clear for all partners, that a deeper understanding of personal motivations

entering the teaching profession lies far beyond knowledge of one’s teaching subject. In addition to

highlighting the multi-faceted nature of the teaching profession it was obvious, that the tools, we

wanted to develop in the project, should assist teacher educators in distinguishing the different skills

and competencies on the part of the student teachers with whom they work. They should provide the

student teachers with a more objective, professional diagnosis of their present potential and by bring-

ing it to the surface and helping the students to pinpoint their strengths and learning fields, before they

enter this complex profession.

The project aimed also to gain a wider impact at a European level. The aim of deepening a mutual

understanding of the wider European teacher-training environment can lead to a future scenario, where

agreed European profiles of identifiable attitudes for teaching are available and shared. One could also

argue, that all these efforts are not necessary. As teacher educators our experience runs counter to this

myth: while certain dispositions may be conducive to “good” teaching, we hold that certain skills and

competencies can be developed through well-thought through, reflective processes. In 2003 we were

pleased to report that European Commission’s support for this view resulted in funding of close half a

million euro.

The scientific background of APT

Potential Analysis has always been a traditional field of work for social psychologists. On the other

side the question of values, which influence strongly the education system has been the traditional

field of work for philosophers. The learning environment, which is also responsible for the quality of

teaching and learning, was traditionally the field of work for sociologists. And finally the teaching and

learning process between teacher and learner was traditionally discussed by pedagogues. The APT

project had from the beginning to combine these different scientific worlds in a holistic way. The key

stones concerning the field of social psychology we found in the works of Kurt Lewin. The keystones,

concerning the part of sociology and and organizational changes we found in the works of Ed Schein,

Peter Senge and C. O. Scharmer. The key stones, concerning the field of values we found in the works

of Piaget, Kohlberg and Gilligan. All three of them build the background of our approach. The follow-

ing overview on these three working fields seems to be necessary before we finally come to the results

of the project.

Kurt Lewins field theory – an old, but quite modern way of identifying problems

The social psychological background of the project stems from the field theory of Kurt Lewin. It is

beyond the scope of this article to dive too deeply into Lewin’s theoretical framework; however, it is

necessary to note its key elements. To begin it is important to recognize its roots in Gestalt theory.21

21 Main representatives of this psychoanalytical branch are Fritz /Frederic Perls, Fritz Perls, his wife Laura Perls, Paul Goodman, Ralph F. Hefferline. See: Perls, R. Hefferline, R. F.: Goodman, P. (1990): Gestalt Ther-apy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality. Souvenir Press Ltd.. (A gestalt is a coherent whole. It

For Kurt Lewin behaviour was determined by the totality of an individual’s situation. In his field the-

ory, a ‘field’ is defined as ‘the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interde-

pendent’.22 Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions be-

tween perceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through. The whole psychological

field, or ‘life space’, within which people act has to be viewed in order for behaviour to be understood.

Within this, individuals and groups could be seen in topological terms (using map-like representa-

tions). Individuals participate in a series of life spaces (such as the family, work, school and church),

and these were constructed under the influence of various force vectors. Behaviour is a function of the

field that exists at the time the behaviour occurs, analysis begins with the situation as a whole from

which are differentiated the component parts. Lewin looked especially to the power of underlying

forces (e. g. needs) to determine behaviour and, hence, expressed a preference for psychological as

opposed to physical or physiological descriptions of the field. In this we can see how his work drew

together insights from topology (e.g. life space), psychology (need, aspiration etc.), and sociology (e.g.

force fields – motives clearly being dependent on group pressures). As Gordon W. Allport23 puts it,

these three aspects of his thought were not separable. ‘All of his concepts, whatever root-metaphor

they employ, comprise a single well-integrated system’. Lewin’s task oriented workshops date back to

the summer of 1946, when he, along with colleagues and associates from the Research Centre for

Group Dynamics (Ronald Lippitt, Leland Bradford and Kenneth Benne), became involved in leader-

ship and group dynamics training for the Connecticut State Interracial Commission. They designed

and implemented programmes that looked to encourage group discussion and decision-making, the

trainers and researchers collected detailed observations and recordings of group activities (and worked

on these during the event).

It was this, to a large extent, which gave his ideas their peculiar power. Knowing, that teacher trainers

are powerless to change the bigger underlying social structures, and that they can make little impact on

mental models, beliefs or attitudes, the project chose the only possible solution: Observe task oriented

behaviour by using face-to-face structures. In a clear distinction to assessment centres, where the se-

lection of applicants is the dominant motivation, they relied rather on building up a certain kind of

feedback culture, to which the ordinary person can also rely on.

has its own laws, and is a construct of the individual mind rather than ‘reality’- the modern constructivism has exactly linked in here). 22 Lewin (1951): Field theory in social science (selected theoretical papers). New York , 240.

23 in his foreword to Lewin (1948): Resolving Social Conflict - selected papers on group dynamics, ix), New York

Figure 1: The APT Approach using Lewin’s field theory

It was obvious for the APT project, that if we use Lewin’s model for the development of appraisal

tools, we must be aware of the fact, that we cannot shift the whole education field, but only some

small pieces. We had to find the “place” of teacher Training Colleges in the teacher supply pipeline,

where theses tools could be usefully deployed. Goertz et al model gives us a clue. (See figure 2).

Teacher trainers have a lot of influence on future student teachers concerning recruitment to training

programmes and on the shape of the training itself. They can interfere with policies affecting the

programme for teacher education and can decide, through the examination process who will emerge

from the course. It was clear, that after pipe three that there is a magic border, which no teacher train-

ing institute can cross without encountering political implications. But somewhere between the first

three pipes we can try to install a kind of potential analysis, because some kind of behaviour can be

made observable in all three pipes. Furthermore in or between all three pipes some unknown potential

elements of a “teacher personality” are likely to occur and could be indicated at a certain point of their

professional development.

Figure 2: Goertz et al24. Policy model of the teacher supply line.

Scharmer, Schein and Senge: Matching personal aptitudes to organizational require-

ments

Having found in Lewin´s field theory the appropriate “location” for our project, was the next question

the construction of the diagnostic tools: How deep can we, should we, must we dive into someone’s

personality, to give him clear feedback on their strengths and learning fields. Here we adopted the

Water-lily model because before the construction of tools the constructor must be quite sure, what

level of “deep down” he can approach.

Figure 3: The water lily model of potential analysis

24 Goertz, Margaret E., Ruth B. Ekstrom, and Richard J. Caley (1984): The Impact of State Policy on entrance

into the teaching profession, NIoE, Princeton, N. Y.

This model is based on one proposed by Ed Schein25. He argues, that organizations and cultures have a

lot in common. He defines three levels of cultures, which are important for organizations and possible

changes in them:

- Artefacts (visible organisation structures and processes, which are hard to decipher)

- Espoused values (strategies, goals, philosophies – espoused justifications)

- Basic underlying Assumptions (unconscious, taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, feel-

ings – ultimate source of values and action).

Our own working model fits into Schein´s differentiation between different levels of self-shaping in

cultural environments. The assumption is, that any interaction between persons also is multifunctional,

based on a set of different levels of understanding patterns like knowledge, self-image, traits and mo-

tives. A waterline defines the border between “artefacts” (what the other person should see) and

“facts” or assumptions lying underneath the waterline. The picture of the water-lily (you could also

use the image of an iceberg) shows the lovely flowers, but its roots are deep down in the water. By

starting an appraisal of potential analysis with a person, the appraiser must be constantly alert for

changes in mood or feeling on the part of the appraisee, being especially sensitive to issues that may

be threatening to the appraisee leading to a shutting down of the flow of information and interaction.

The goal should be, to create an interaction that will provide information to the appraiser, begin to

build trust so that potentials become visible. Any kind of mistrust against the appraiser leads to the

point that the appraisee automatically turns to a reaction, where his potentials become less visible or

even invisible. Ed Schein quotes about his process: “The goal should be to create an interaction that

will provide information to the change agent, begin to build trust with the potential change target, and

begin to get the change target to think diagnostically and positively about the change project such that

he or she will welcome another interview or interaction because their curiosity or their own energy for

change has been aroused. In a sense the concept of "change target" has to become transformed in the

change agent's mind into a "client" who seeks some help or into a "learner." The change agent has to

become a facilitator of the learning process and the desired change has to be embedded in a "helping

process" that makes sense to the learner”.26

We have to be aware, that this process is from the point of cognition and social reality formation a

slow moving train, like C. O. Scharmer expresses very clearly in his model: To come from

“downloading” (patterns of the past) ” to “seeing with fresh eyes” and “sensing from the field” means

a deep dive a person has to undergo. The appraisal of potential process is located somewhere in be-

tween of “seeing it with fresh eyes” and “sensing from the field – letting go” to become aware of

his/per potentials and learning fields. Scharmers next steps: “presencing” would mean, to connect the

findings of APT to the own personal sources (Who is myself? What is my work? – this is what we do

in the feedback talks), and finally reach a certain level of “performing” – achieve results through prac-

tice and infrastructure in the classroom.

25 Schein, E. : (2004): Organizational Culture and Leadership, 4th edition (e-book); 26 Schein, E. (1996): Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd edition (1996) San Francisco, 134

Figure 4: Scharmers Model of Inflection points of cognition and social reality27

If we take Lewin’s “field theory” as a platform, an appraisal of potential for teaching process cannot

be started without some basic assumptions about the matching of personal aptitudes to organizational

requirements. But again, most of these assumptions are presumptions: people, who want to enter the

teaching profession have implicit mental models (or assumed potentials, what teaching is all about) –

school organizations (e. g. Examination Boards, recruiting headmasters) also have assumed criteria of

qualifications needed, of teaching standards, of desired behaviours etc. – the latter, due to the recruit-

ment process can make them much more explicit than the applicant can. The potential analysis has to

deal with these two different sets of spoken or unspoken requirements of the school organization and

spoken or unspoken self profiles of the applicant. But when it comes to the direct recruitment decision

(or not), it is far too late for both sides, to balance qualification needs with the personal achievements

of the candidate (see pipe 4 figure 2). The earlier, the matching between requirements of the organiza-

tion and the person starts, the better are the possibilities, to identify the potentials for teaching, to find

out about the persons future learning fields and strengths and the earlier one can develop individual-

ized learning strategies or offers from the teacher training institutions for the future teacher.

27 see homepage C.O. Scharmer: http://www.ottoscharmer.com/

Figure 5: APT matching model

But this is more than an easy saying: There is a widespread discussion about the changes of the roles

of teachers. The range of tasks teachers are seen as responsible for has widened significantly. What

are the new job profiles or definitions of core responsibilities that reflect the new “enriched” but also

more demanding profession of teaching? To some old roles, a whole cohort of new responsibility must

be added today, e. g. teaching in multi-cultural classrooms; developing civic and social skills; integrat-

ing students with special needs; providing professional advice to parents; working and planning in

teams; being part of a learning community (within the school and/or in a network of teachers); evalua-

tion and systematic improvement planning; management and shared leadership. It took us a long time

in all the APT partner countries, to get on a common platform, what kind of profile or parts of per-

sonal performance a European teacher needs today. The “Granada Agreement” (named after the APT

meeting there in 2004) was a provisional approach, to come to a certain kind of observable core com-

petences, which we underpinned our diagnostic tools. Among these are:

a) Self organization/self responsibility

b) Role clarification

c) Specific competences for the teaching profession

d) Performance attitudes

e) Leadership

f) Role model function

g) Strategic thinking and acting28

28 One can find the Granada agreement, its indicators and the discussion on core competences on the APT

homepage: https://www.ltu.se/web/pub/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=2802 All materials, including the developed diagnos-tic tools from the seven countries are open to public use.

Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan: The Value question in Education: Is it teachable?

Looking at the seven main core competences above, a teacher should have developed, before working

in the classroom we had to enter the third keystone area of teaching: The Value system. Value educa-

tion has become an increasingly discussed topic in the fields of psychology and education but there is

no evidence to show that it has made an impact in teacher education. Media reports of increases in

violent juvenile crime, rates of teenage pregnancy and suicide have caused many commentators to

declare a “value crisis” in the western society. But this is quite an old theme of our modern society: In

1962 the American sociologist Paul Goodman29 published a book with the title: Growing Up Absurd:

Problems of Youth in the Organized Society. He was among the first to describe a predictable problem

of modern societies: what happens, when young people lose their orientation in society and in their

future? What happens when things become “absurd" for them, because the basis of shared political,

social and cultural values is vanishing and insecure? The French author Jean Baudrillard gave an an-

swer: one result of this scenario can be “the development of singularities”. Globalized complex sys-

tems are shaped by young people into such singularities, - in other words: simplistic solutions to com-

plex situations. Baudrillard asserts that “Caught in their autonomous and exponential logic, all these

parallel worlds are like time bombs”.30 Some of the “time bombs”, that he describes, were also evident

in the media a few months prior to the Berlin school crisis: disaffected young people in the banlieues

of the big French cities used simple tactics as their response to youth unemployment, social exclusion

and marginalisation: Torch your neighbours’ cars and property (More than 7.000 cars were burned in

three weeks!). The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu had predicted this “Firing Back”31 in most of

his publications32. While not all of these social concerns are value related in nature and mostly have

complex origins, there is a growing trend towards linking the solution of these problems to the teach-

ing of “moral”, “ethical” or “philosophical” subjects. This seems to be something of a step back to the

old “character” education, which dominated schools in the 19th century. However, considerations of

the role schools can and should play in the value related development of youth are necessary. Jean

Piaget was among the first psychologists whose work remains directly relevant to contemporary theo-

ries of value related development. In his early writing, he focused specifically on (what he called) the

“moral” lives of children, studying, as he did, the way children play games in order to learn more

about children's beliefs about right and wrong33. According to Piaget, all development emerges from

action; that is to say, individuals construct and reconstruct their knowledge of the world as a result of

interactions with the environment. The second major contributor to moral thinking in young children 2 Paul Goodman (1962) Growing Up Absurd. Problems of Youth in the Organized Society, Vintage 30 Jean Baudrillard (1992): "Global Debt and Parallel Universe" - an essay. See: http://www.uta.edu/english/apt/collab/baudweb.html 31 Pierre Bourdieu (2003) : Firing Back - Against the Tyranny of the Market, translated by Loic Wacquant, New Press 32 Pierre Bourdieu (2000): The Weight of the World - Social Suffering in Contemporary Society, Translated by Priscilla Parkhurst Ferguson, Stanford University Press, Original: La misere du Monde (1993!) 33 For example: Piaget, Jean (1954) Das moralische Urteil beim Kinde, Zürich. Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgement of the child. New York: Free Press.

is their relative social relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between adults and

children, power is handed down from above. The relative powerlessness of young children, coupled

with childhood egocentrism feeds into a heteronymous moral orientation. Piaget concluded from this

work that schools should emphasize cooperative decision-making and problem solving, nurturing

moral development by requiring students to work out common rules based on fairness. This is a direct

rejection of sociologists Emile Durkheim's view of proper moral education34. Durkheim, similarly to

Piaget, believed that morality resulted from social interaction or immersion in a group. However,

Durkheim believed moral development was a natural result of attachment to the group, an attachment

which manifests itself in a respect for the symbols, rules, and authority of that group. Piaget rejected

this belief that children simply learn and internalize the norms for a group; he believed individuals

define morality individually through their struggles to arrive at fair solutions. Given this view, Piaget

suggested that a classroom teacher perform the somewhat challenging task of providing students with

opportunities for personal discovery through problem solving, rather than indoctrinating students with

norms35. Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) modified and elaborated Piaget's work, and laid the groundwork

for the current debate within psychology on value related development.

All approaches on value education from Piaget, Kohlberg or Gilligan have one thing in common: val-

ues are not teachable through a single subject – which we find in some European countries under the

label of “philosophy”, “ethics”, “moral education” or “Values” – this seems to be a thin ice of teach-

ing, because moral behaviour cannot be learnt, but must be lived by both teachers and students as a

part of cultural agreement for learning. And here we come to the crucial question: where and how

teacher trainees can “learn” this behaviour in a true sense? Findings from the OECD Project Attract-

ing, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers, 2004- 2005 (with 25 countries participating and 10

countries visited by review teams) indicate that three broad conclusions emerge from research on stu-

dent teacher learning:

1. Largest source of variation in student learning is attributable to differences in what students bring to

school – their abilities and attitudes, and family and community background. Of those variables which

are potentially open to policy influence, factors to do with teachers and teaching are the most

important influences on student learning. It is difficult to predict who is going to be a good teacher just

by considering the more measurable characteristics of teachers (e.g. qualifications, teaching experi-

ence, and indicators of academic ability and subject-matter knowledge). The report declares clearly

Policy priorities:

- Developing teachers‘ knowledge and skills;

34 Durkheim, Emile: Moral Education. A study in the theory and application of the sociology of education. New York, Free Press 1973. Origin: Émile Durkheim: Erziehung, Moral und Gesellschaft. Vorlesung an der Sorbonne 1902/ 1903. Frankfurt/Main 1984, S. 37-55. Hier zit.n.: Franzjörg Baumgart (Hg.): Theorien der Sozialisation. Bad Heilbrunn 1997, S. 44-55. 35 An excellent contemporary adaptation of Piaget's theory for moral development of young children may be found in De Vries, R. & Zan, B. (1994): Moral Children: Constructing a Constructivist Atmosphere in Early Education, New York: Teachers College Press.

- Developing teacher profiles: Clear and concise standards of what teachers are expected to

know and be able to do;

- Reflect broad range of competencies;

- Provide framework to guide and integrate initial teacher education, certification, induction

and on-going professional development;

- the framework should be evidence-based and reflect student learning objectives and

should be built on active involvement by teaching profession.

These priorities are not quite new – a lot of work is already underway in these areas. What was new

was the last named priority:

- Broadening the criteria for teacher selection: The selection criteria for new teachers need to be

broadened to ensure that the applicants with the greatest potential are identified.

- Teacher appraisal to occur within a framework provided by profession-wide agreed statements of

standards of professional performance.36

Developing potential analysis in teacher education - findings of the APT - Project

The identification of the greatest potential was exactly the work, the seven European teacher Training

Institutions did between 2003 and 2006. The distribution of “skills” of the teaching profession depends

to a large extent on initial and in-service teacher education. As might be expected, research shows that

good teachers need a sound conceptual and practical understanding of the subjects they are teaching

(naturally!) as well as the pedagogical knowledge and skills to present material in a well-structured

way, to motivate students, assess their progress, adjust their teaching to individual student needs, but

also taking a tough stance on minority rights, on religious beliefs, on racist declarations and attitudes,

on the likes and dislikes of students. How can all teachers – and not just the most motivated – be en-

couraged to challenge such questions, which arise daily in each classroom – far from subject-matter

content? Teacher education is under a challenge as a result of the changing role of the teacher. The

range of tasks teachers are expected to have responsibility for has widened significantly, for example:

teaching in multi-cultural classrooms; developing civic and social skills; integrating students with

special needs; providing professional advice to parents etc. And so on goes the list, but can we concen-

trate on the basic problems? Pertti Kansanen and colleagues37 identified four main important dilem-

mas, identified by these teachers, which occur as problem for nearly every teacher in today’s class-

rooms:

- Matters related to teachers´ work (like how to deal with the pupils; how to punish particular pupils;

how to deal with confidentiality; how to deal with loyalty to other teachers

36 Chapter 5 , see: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/35/48/35004188.pdf 37 Kansanen, P., Tirri, K., Meri, M., Krokfors, L., Husu, J., & Jyrhämä, R. (2000): Teachers Pedagogical Thinking, chapter 9: Teacher´s Moral dilemmas, p. 90-101, New York

- Pupils´ work moral (like how to deal with negative attitudes towards learning and schoolwork; how

to deal with physical and verbal harassing)

- The rights of minority groups (like how to deal with cultural conflicts in which religion is a key fac-

tor; how to deal with participation in some subjects like music and sports; how to find the right bal-

ance between adapting to the Finnish culture and pupils own ethnic identity;

- Common rules in schools (like how to deal with smoking; how to handle participation of pupils in

decisions concerning school rules).

Finnish educationalists are well known for their straightforward and reflective thinking in pragmatic

ways of dealing with issues. Indeed teacher educators dealing with the new roles of teachers cannot or

should not saddle student teachers with the burden of new roles, which cannot be accomplished in one

single teacher generation. But the underlying demand is still: Where is the preparation for future

teachers to deal with this multiple-shift of paradigms in at least these four important fields of teaching?

The APT project partners experienced different training strategies which can lead to enhancing sensi-

tivity for the development of core competences and role clarification of future teachers. The following

tools, which have been developed so far base on the three keystone areas, we have already described.

Using Ed Schein´s water lily model as the platform of the approaches in the participating countries,

each partner had to keep in mind the different social, cultural and educational backgrounds in his home

country – that is why the development, the piloting and finally the implementation of the diagnostic

tools went in different ways. The range differs from more “objective” approaches like in Germany (the

appraisees were not involved in the developing of tools to very “subjective” approaches like in Swe-

den, where the student teachers were largely involved in tools for their own good. The same situation

appears with the different tools itself: Very “subjective” tools like from Spain, concentrating on the

persons “life story” and educational biography compared with very “objective” tools like the Estonian

ones. Some project partners preferred a mix of methods with more structured and less structured tools

like in UK, Ireland and Belgium. The following overview shows the different approaches:

Potential clarification is a process, to lift up internalised potentials from Invisibility to Visibility (Waterlily model, adopted from Edgar Schein)

The overview describes the dialectics of potential clarification in two ways: like a water-lily, which

has its roots deep down in the ground, every person has its own potentials. These potentials have been

developed in early socialisation, through experiences, traumatic situations, basic assumptions, defeats

or disappointments, myths, heroes and maybe many more factors. What people show upon the surface

– at the water line - are artefacts of these inner beliefs In other words: I show you what I want you to

see. The process of lifting up these deep roots is shown on the right hand side of the model: Potential

clarification by using several diagnostic tools, which the APT project has developed and piloted in the

last three years with student teachers in the participating European countries:

1. Creating dilemma situations from the classroom and discuss them. (Kohlberg´s idea and Kan-

sanen´s focus on four main patterns). This is one of the contributions of the Irish partner of APT.

2. Creating high stake situations of action in a group, where communication skills are only one

vital part of possible solutions – the other parts are value related behaviour (e. g. Project Adventure

exercises38 or Potential Assessments. The German APT partner, who has developed and implemented

38 See: http://www.pa.org/

artefacts

Waterline

Traumatic situations

Defeats..

Myths…

Experiences…

Basic Assump-tions…

3. Role play exercises

2. High stake situations

1. Dilemma situations

Potentials become visible by:

“Lifting” Tools

10. Electronic portfolio

9. Teacher´s growth supporting activities

8. Individual Development plans

7. APT workshops

6. Educational Wall building

5. Dialogical thinking in Polarities

4. Life Stories

Potentials become in-visible

such workshops in their teacher education curriculum, points out, a lot of extra qualification is neces-

sary for these exercises in risk-taking and chance).

3. Creating role-playing exercises to sensitise student teachers to professional dilemmas and related

strategies to make professionals aware that their actions affect others – one of the exercises developed

by our UK Partner.

4. Narrative “Life stories”, where early experiences with value questions are linked with actual prob-

lems in the class rooms - bringing to the fore the students’ own voices. The Spanish partner developed

three different approaches to life story analysis:

External analysis (the interpretation is conducted by an evaluator/teacher, etc.);

Self-analysis (carried out by individual) and

A dialogical model as a cooperative approach (the philosophy behind is to make the implicit explicit

as a collaborative task.

The analysis requires the collaboration of teacher to elicit the sense and coherence. It enables the stu-

dent (writer) to distance him/herself from own life, while allowing the teacher to get a close look at

it39)

39 Pineau & Le Grand (1993) Les Histoires de vie: p. 100-2

5. Creating exercises of thinking in polarities – in three steps: Firstly individual marking, where

someone personally locates themselves on the line, secondly the same task in pairs, thirdly in the peer

group.

6. Creating Educational wall building

The Belgian partner experienced this with the following 20 statements:

1. A teacher must always be at the disposition of parents and the pupils.

2. A teacher must prepare the pupils for their exams.

3. A teacher must focus on the pupils’ study method.

4. A teacher must pay attention to the pupils’ social skills.

5. Pupils must trust their teacher.

6. My teaching should reflect the various cultures and nationalities in my class.

7. A teacher must care for the pupils’ emotional well- being.

8. A teacher must be acquainted with the fashion and trends of young people.

9. A teacher is always a good methodologist.

10. A teacher should focus on the process rather than the product.

11. A teacher must regularly take in service training.

12. A teacher must “radiate” authority.

13. Dealing with bullying issues is more important than teaching a subject.

14. The teacher must make sure the pupils like his classes.

15. A teacher must meet the needs of boys and girls.

16. A teacher has communicative skills (active listening, I- message)

17. A teacher organises all kinds of activities that relate to his subject.

18. A teacher is environment- minded (sorts out garbage, has a lunchbox)

19. A teacher must be fair minded to his pupils

20. A teacher must be comical to his pupils

21. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

22. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Task:

Individually build a wall with the bricks by ranking these declarations:

- 6 bricks as foundation

- 5 bricks for the second layer

- 4 for the third

- 3 bricks for the fourth layer

- Do not use the two bricks that are left.

- Two empty bricks for values you personally think highly of!

7. Assessment centres idea used for potential analysis

In Germany the teacher training College in Offenburg has developed so far four different types of

tools. These are offered to the students as options at the start of the final probationary period (i.e. 18

months' prior to them entering the teaching profession).40 The first tool is a standardized entrance in-

terview I, where we have constructed a set of questions, which deal with knowledge, skills and abili-

ties that the students have acquired during their university studies. Entrance Interview II, held one year

later, should demonstrate a learning curve when we revisit the answers from Entrance Interview I and

compare them with Entrance Interview II. Our early attempts revealed some flaws to our approach:

for example discrepancies occurred between the meaning the students took from certain questions in

the interviews and the meaning we had intended. We subsequently developed a face-to-face interview

to tease out the meanings and understandings of either side. With the help of a question sheet, in a face

to face interview therefore, we ask the students about their school career, learning biography, visions

and missions, etc. The answers are written down by the interviewer, signed by the interviewee and

then taken to his own portfolio. This instrument was a partial success – many students appreciated the

personal contact – while others may have felt intimidated by the tutor/student power dynamic and may

therefore have kept their answers vague as a result. The third instrument is the APT workshop, which

is still offered on a voluntary basis. For one and a half days - mostly Friday afternoons and Saturdays a

group of six student teachers are guided to a room we refer to as the “backstage area” which a so-

called “backstage” person, a tutor or another student supervises. The students are given exercises,

which they can prepare within a certain timeframe. They are then called on to present the results in

another room to six observers, from the college staff but tutors that they do not know. The observers

are specially trained for their observation, especially regarding the distinction between “observing”

and ”judging” and the technique of “observing” and the somewhat challenging task of simultaneously

observing and taking notes. The three or four exercises range from individual work (e. g. present for 5

minutes yourself to your new teacher colleagues) working with a partner (e. g. present to the depart-

ment your plans for an outdoor stay of 5 days) and group work (e. g. plan and present to your col-

leagues your ideas for an Open Day in the school. The exercises are watched by the observers in their

preparation and their presentation and are always derived from a possible educational context the stu-

dent teachers would experience. After these exercises, the students being observed are given the

chance to de-brief and they arrange a date (ideally allowing for a delay of a couple of days) for the

individual feedback from the tutor/observer. The real work then starts for the observers group. In the

follow up session among the observers group comprises of three sections:

a) an immediate “gut-reaction” response which is noted and put aside, b) a discussion of the student’s strengths c) a discussion of the student’s learning fields

Only b) and c) are later reported to the person as the statement of the observer group.

40 An overview on the different teacher education systems in the APT partner countries is also on the APT

homepage.

8. Creating individual plans for the development of teacher competence. This was the Swedish

APT approach. Students had an opportunity to apply for participation in the project. 10 students with

different profiles from the middle of the program were recruited. During 1.5 years seven seminars

during 1, 5 hour each were offered and certificated. An overview highlights the very Swedish ap-

proach:

Individual plan for development of teacher competence

Continuous evaluationPresent Aims - situation desirable

competenceAnalysis

Means to reach the aims

The possibility to international exchanges and contacts to other European Teacher Training Institutes

was also embedded in this approach. The development of the individual development plan had to be

documented in individual logs.

9. Creating examples of teacher growth supporting activities

The Estonian approach included similar questions like the Swedish. It focuses on the new role of

teacher and teacher education by implementing structural features, which include initial training,

induction year and in-service training. The main aims were:

Continuous self-reflection, development of skills

Being an agent of change

Fellowship and cooperation with different associated groups

Innovation

Ability of integration

Ethical responsibility

The estonian tools can be seen as a mixture of tools which were adopted from own findings, other

partners and fit into the estonian teacher training system. The german Entrance Interviews and the

Face to face Interviews were used in the selection of teacher trainees, to reflect upon the choice of

input, feedback, courses,teaching practice, seminars,log-writing

Re fle k ti v e

th ink i n g

Revision and developmentof the plan

candidates for the future profession. A development portfolio for supporting teacher training was

based on the swedish approach. The implementation of an „electronic portfolio” – based on another

approach from Belgium - will extend the teacher growth supporting activities.

These are only some examples of the developed diagnostic tools. Further details of each are available on the APT homepage41 and in the following chapters of this book.

Conclusions

Changes in society, globalisation and the media are variously blamed for the “loss” of core compe-

tences at both an individual level and societal level. The APT project took the view that such an ans-

wer is too simplistic. Potentials cannot “get lost”, but they can change and “old” potentials can disap-

pear and be replaced by others. To act as change agents in schools teachers need to adopt new roles,

which vary widely from the old roles as information providers to learning moderators. One of the new

roles needed is competence clarity in dealing with diversity in today’s classrooms. The precondition of

understanding values and belief systems of students from different social, cultural or religious back-

grounds is for example the reflection of one’s own value and belief system. Every new teacher enter-

ing the profession nowadays should be provided with tools that create a deeper understanding of their

personal motivations entering the profession, in addition to a deep reflection about one’s own personal

competences, his value and belief system. These aspects of good teaching, especially issues like atti-

tudes, behaviour and value clarity are competences that lie far beyond the knowledge of subjects. They

cannot be “downsized” to ethical subjects in the school curriculum. They form part of a process, which

can deeply influence the future of young students. The only way of implementing the training of these

competences in different European teacher training systems is the acceptance of a variety of ap-

proaches. The APT project shows that tools could not just be “exported” or “imported”. They must be

adjusted to the political, social and cultural background of the given school system and the teacher

education system. We have experienced diversities, not singularities and by doing this widespread

scenery of possible approaches has been found, piloted and implemented. Everyone one of us as a

practitioner of teaching has from his old school days kept in mind one or two persons, who were

“good teachers” (or “bad teachers”) in the true sense towards us as students. No one can dare to say,

what exactly were the “good” or the “bad” things of these individual teachers – their behaviour in the

class room, their attitudes towards the students, their inner beliefs or their ethical background. Poten-

tial analysis is one way, to identify the potential for teaching. We all know, that potential is not an

objective and measurable term. Capable teachers are not necessarily going to reach their full potential

in settings that do not provide appropriate support or sufficient challenge and reward. Without a stimu-

lating work environment, without a school management and leadership who show interest and critical

friendship in valuing and supporting teachers, even the best teacher trainees may find after some time,

that they cannot fulfil their potential. The water lily model shows, what happens then, especially in

41 www.ltu.se/aptproject

education systems, where teachers are lifelong tied up to their profession: teachers show some “arte-

facts” of teaching, but their potential forms part of an inner emigration and is used for other purposes

than teaching. The victims then are clearly the children, who need the highest quality teaching – for

our and their future. To bring potential analysis into the education system is a small step forward, in

the words of Goethe: Die Menschen scherzen und bangen sich an den Lebensrätseln herum, wenige

kümmern sich um die auflösenden Worte42. The African adage "It takes a whole village to raise a

child" brings us to the crucial point: The educational “village” or “community” for raising both teach-

ers and learners potentials can be parents, teachers, headmasters, school assistants, teacher educators,

social workers, caretakers, school nurses, if they are guided by child-centred values, attitudes and

competences – because: “The first sensation, which an infant gets, is for him the universe”.43

References:

Sennett, R. (2005) : Die Kultur des neuen Kapitalismus, Berlin

Lewin, K. (1935): A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Horkheimer, M./Adorno, Th. (1950): The Authoritarian Character, New York, republished in german

1968

Bettelheim, B. (1943) "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations," Journal of Abnormal

and Social Psychology 38, 417-452.

Dewey, J: Democracy and Education, first published 1916; newly published by Oelkers, J: (1993)

Demokratie und Erziehung. Eine Einleitung in die philosophische Pädagogik, Weinheim und Basel.

Beltz Verlag

Rogers, C. R. (1963) The concept of the fully functioning person, in: Psychotherapy: theory, research

and Practice, No. 1, S. 17-26

Schein, E. (1995): Kurt Lewin's Change Theory in the Field and in the Classroom: Notes Toward a

Model of Managed Learning', Systems Practice

Goffman, E.: (1963) Face Engagements (in: Goffman E., Behavior in Public Places. Free Press, New

York

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.

Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline. N.Y.: Doubleday

Scharmer, C.O., Senge, P., Jaworski, J., Flowers, B.S. (2004): Presence: Human purpose and the Field

of the Future, Cambridge, M.A., SoL - Press

Rivkin, Steven G., Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain, (2000), Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement, Working Paper 6691 (revised), National Bureau of Economic Research, Massachusetts. Nussbaum, M. /Sen, Amartya (1993): The Quality of life, Oxford.

OECD (1990): The Teacher Today, Paris

42 Goethe, An Schiller, 12.7.1801; people make jokes and discuss the riddles of life, only a few care for the sus-pending words. 43 William James, Talks to teachers, 1890

OECD (1992): High Quality Education and Training for All, Paris OECD (1994), Quality in Teaching, Paris OECD (1998): Staying Ahead: In-service Training and Teacher Professional Development, Paris OECD & UNESCO (2001): Teachers for Tomorrow’s Schools, Paris OECD (2001) Education at a Glance, Paris CERI (OECD 2000): Schooling for Tomorrow EU Education Ministers (2001): Investing in Competencies for All. Perls, F., Hefferline, R. F.: Goodman, P. (1990): Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Hu-man Personality. Souvenir Press Ltd.. Lewin (1951): Field theory in social science (selected theoretical papers). New York Allport G. W. ((1948): Resolving Social Conflict - selected papers on group dynamics, New York

Goertz, M. E., Ekstrom, R. B. andCaley R. J. (1984): The Impact of State Policy on entrance into the teaching profession, Princeton, N. Y.

Schein, E.: (2004): Organizational Culture and Leadership, 4th edition (e-book); Schein, E. (1996): Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd edition (1996) San Francisco Piaget, J. (1954) Das moralische Urteil beim Kinde, Zürich.

Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgement of the child. New York: Free Press.

Durkheim, E. (1973): Moral Education. A study in the theory and application of the sociology of edu-

cation, New York, Free Press

Durkheim, É. (1984): Erziehung, Moral und Gesellschaft. Vorlesung an der Sorbonne 1902/ 1903.

Frankfurt/Main

Baumgart, F. (1997) : Theorien der Sozialisation, Bad Heilbrunn

De Vries, R. & Zan, B. (1994): Moral Children: Constructing a Constructivist Atmosphere in Early Education, New York, Teachers College Press. Power, C./ Higgins, A./Kohlberg, L. (1989): Lawrence Kohlbergs approach to moral education, New York Oser, Fritz/Althof Wolfgang (2001): Die gerechte Schulgemeinschaft: Lernen durch Gestaltung des Schullebens, in: Edelstein, Wolfgang/Oser, Fritz/Schuster, Peter (eds): Moralische Erziehung in der Schule, 2001 Nucci, L., Weber, E. (1991) "The domain approach to values education: From theory to practice In W. Kurtines & J. Gewirtz (Eds.) Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development (Volume 3: Applica-tions), New York Nucci, L. (1989) "Challenging Conventional Wisdom About Morality: The Domain Approach to Val-ues Education." In L. Nucci (Ed.) Moral Development and Character Education: A Dialogue, Berke-ley, Mc Cutchan. Gilligan, Carol (1982): In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, New York. Nodding, Nel (1992): The challenge to care in schools" New York: Teachers College Press Kansanen, P., Tirri, K., Meri, M., Krokfors, L., Husu, J., & Jyrhämä, R. (2000): Teachers Pedagogical Thinking, New York Pineau, R. , Le Grand, S. (1993) Les Histoires de vie, Paris