Figure 1 - Integrated Publish · The State of Tamil Nadu has a great tradition of heritage and culture that developed over 2,000 years ago and still continues to flourish. This great

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES Volume 1, No 3, 2010

© Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing services Research article ISSN 0976 – 4380

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A deterministic seismic hazard analysis for the major cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu, India

Ganapathy.G.P Assistant Professor (Sr), Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management,

VIT University, Vellore 632 014, Tamil Nadu, India [email protected]

ABSTRACT

As stated in several studies Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state and also it is the fifth largest contributor to India's GDP and the most urbanised state in India. The region has been the home of the Tamil civilization since at least 1500 BC, as attested by numerous archeological sites in and around Adichanallur . Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, grand hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multireligious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Bureau of Indian Standard (2001) categorized Tamil Nadu under Seismic Zones II and III, representing an area of 73% and 27% respectively. It should also to be noted that the major historical and Heritage sites like Mahabalipuram, Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram, Kapaleshwarar temple in Chennai are fall in Zone III of Moderate Hazard (Figure 1). In this connection these heritage sites has to be evaluated for Seismic Risk. As a first step the potential seismic hazard for these sites evaluated based on deterministic approach.

A catalog of historical/instrumental earthquakes/ earth tremors in the state is prepared and used in this paper. The seismic sources have been identified using remote sensing images with limited ground truth verification. Six near potential seismic sources in the region delineated as area sources for seismic hazard assessment based on geological, seismological and geophysical information. Shortest distance from the each seismic source to the major cities of Tamil Nadu measured and the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) at bed rock level is calculated for the six sources with their maximum credible earthquake events using available attenuation relationship formula applicable to Peninsular India. The maximum magnitude associated with these potential seismic sources is in the range of 6.0 to 5.0 in Richter scale and the estimated of Peak Ground Acceleration at the source is 0.212 to 0.078g. The PGA values are estimated from the closest potential source for major Cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu viz., Kapaleshwarar Temple, Mahabalipuram Group of Temples, Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram, Chola group of Temples in Thanjavore and the Mountain Railways of Nilgris calculated. The result of the present study reveals that the seismic hazard in northeastern and western part of the state is closely matching with the Seismic Zonation map published by the BIS. The Mountain Railways is threat to 0.16g by the Nilgiris fault, Chola temple is close to the basement fault which can generate 0.145g to the temples and Kapaleswarar temple sites shows PGA value of 0.107g. However the other sites show lesser PGA value. The sites closer to Chennai city are liable to seismic site amplification these sites have to be studies in detail in future.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adichanallur

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Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Earthquake, Lineament, fault, Peak Ground Acceleration, Seismic Hazard.

1. Introduction

The seismic hazard analysis is concerned with getting an estimate of the strongmotion parameters at a site for the purpose of earthquake resistant design or seismic safety assessment (Gupta, 2002). For generalized applications, seismic hazard analysis can also be used to prepare macro or micro zoning maps of an area by estimating the strong motion parameters for a closely spaced grid of sites. Seismic hazard assessment is essential for carrying out safe and economic design of structures. The deterministic approach for seismic hazard analysis is not well documented in literature, and it is practised differently in different parts of the world and even in different application areas. In its most commonly used form, the deterministic method first assesses the maximum possible earthquake magnitude for each of the seismic sources (important faults or seismic provinces) within an areas of about 300 km radius around the site of a structure of interest. Then, by assuming each of these earthquakes to occur at a location that places the focus at the minimum possible distance to the site, the ground motion is predicted by using an empirical attenuation relation or some other appropriate technique.

Tamil Nadu experienced moderate earthquakes in the past earthquake history of 200 years is well evident from the published literatures. Twelve earthquakes of M>5.0 have occurred in the State for the known history. Bureau of Indian Standard (2002) categorized Tamil Nadu under Seismic Zones II and III, representing an area of 73% and 27% respectively. The major Cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu viz., Kapaleshwarar Temple, Mahabalipuram Group of Temples, Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram, Chola group of Temples in Thanjavore and the Mountain Railways of Nilgris were considered for the present study. Among the five sites four sites are fall under seismic Zone III (Moderate) in Seismic Hazard Map of India (Figure 1). It is very much essential to know the potential seismic hazard of these sites. The present study aims at producing seismic hazard maps in terms of Peak Ground Acceleration for these cultural heritage sites.

2. Cultural Heritage Sites of Tamil Nadu

The State of Tamil Nadu has a great tradition of heritage and culture that developed over 2,000 years ago and still continues to flourish. This great cultural heritage of the state of Tamil Nadu evolved through the rule of dynasties that ruled the state during various phases of history. Many of those rulers were very fond of art and architecture and gave generous patronage to men of letters, sculptors, architects and artists. This saw the Tamil land becoming a hub of many beautiful and amazing monuments, which attract tourists from all over the world to this day. These monuments speak volumes about the artistic skills and excellence of the sculptors and architects of that period. The temples with their towering gopurams and the rock cut temples leave the connoisseurs speechless.



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Figure 1: Map showing the location of the Cultural Heritage Sites of Tamil Nadu State



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2.1 Group of Monuments in Mahabalipuram

This group of sanctuaries, founded by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel Coast in the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant openair reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva.

2.2 Chola Temple in Thanjavore

The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes three great 11 th and 12 th century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. Its 53m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24m vimana and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting (UNESCO 2010).

2.3 Mountain railways of Nilgiris

The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46km long metregauge singletrack railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest technology of the time (UNESCO, 2010).

2.4 Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kancheepuram

Kanchipuram, one of the holiest cities of India is famous for its ancient temples. The grand architecture of these ancient temples clearly indicates towards the south Indian style of temple architecture (Dravidian style). The temples of Kanchipuram were built by different dynasties, each enriching and refining the architecture further. There is a ancient temple dedicated to Goddess Parvati in Kanchipuram. The majestic temple is known as the Kamakshi Amman Temple. Goddess Parvati is worshipped here in the form of Kamakshi or the goddess of Love. The sanctum sanctorum of this temple can be reached by passing through a large mandapam (hall) with decorated pillars ( www.kanchikamakshi.com).

The Pallava kings were great lovers of art, architecture and learning. Therefore, it was their reign, under which the first south Indian ancient stone temples were built at Mahabalipuram. The evolution of the south Indian style is clearly visible in the temples at Mahabalipuram. Later, the Cholas, Chalukyas and Vijaynagar rulers ruled Kanchi. They

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also built many temples and thus taking forward the building activities started by the Pallava dynasty. The later kings built new temples, and renovated the old ones.

The ancient temples in Kanchipuram belong to the south Indian style of temple architecture. The ancient city of Kanchipuram greets visitors with a cluster of temple shikharas (prominent roofs that surmount the sanctum sanctorum of the temples) and gopurams (tall). There are many elaborately carved temple gateways also, belonging to the typical south Indian style of building temples.

2.5 Kapaleshwarar Temple

Kapaleashwarar Temple is an abode of Shiva, located in Mylapore, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The Pallava Nayanamars built this temple around the 7th century CE. Nayanmars sing hymns in this temple. According to the Puranas, Shakthi worshipped Shiva, in the form of the peacock, which is why the name Mylai was given to the area that developed around the temple, as 'Mayil' means Peacock in Tamil.

The age of the temple is the source of much debate. The commonly held view is that the temple was built in the 7th century CE by the ruling Pallavas, based on references to the temple in the hymns of the Nayanmars (which however place it at the shore). It is an example of the beautiful architecture of Pallavas. Further, the architecture of the temple appears to be 300–400 years old. The scholarly view that accounts for the discrepancies is that the original temple was built on the shore at the location of the current Santhome Church but was destroyed by the Portuguese, and the current temple (which is 11.5 km from the shore) was built more recently. A small minority of people believe that the original temple was indeed on the beach, but that the sea has receded over centuries. ( http://en.wikipedia/wiki/kapaleshwarar_Temple).

3. Seismotectonic setup of Tamil Nadu

Detailed knowledge of geology, active faults/lineaments and associated seismicity is required to quantify seismic hazard. The information on past earthquakes gives an idea of the seismic status of a place or region. The study requires a variety of geological and seismological information such as details of epicentres, origin time, focus, depth, and magnitude and fault systems to identify the currently active faults (Tandon 1992). Seismotectonic details have been collected for the study area lies between latitudes 08 o 00’00”N and 13 o 30’00”N and longitudes 76 o 15’ 00”E and 80 o 18’ 00” E.

3.1 Geology of the Study Area

The Geology of Tamil Nadu State represents a shield inland (85%) and 15% is the basement of the Cauvery basin in the east coast of Tamil Nadu forms the present study area. The shield area of Tamil Nadu consists of charnockites and gneisses with intrusive complexes viz., carbonatite, dolerite, syenite and granite. The Cauvery basin has thick successions of sedimentary formations of Mesozoic to Cenozoic eras. The basin came

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylapore

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennai

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nayanamars&action=edit&redlink=1

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peacock


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into being in the above region as a pullapart following the rift along the eastern continental margin of the Indian sub continent in the early Mesozoic era (Kumar 1983).

3.2 Lineaments and Tectonics

Based on the satellite imagery, 257 lineaments have been identified. On the basis of distribution of lineaments Tamil Nadu has been broadly classified into North and South Blocks in the inland area and Coastal Block in the east coast. The Cauvery river course is the boundary in the inland area between the North and South Blocks (Figure 2). Amongst the selected 257 lineaments, 85% fall in the North Block and 15 % in the South Block (Ganapathy and Rajarathnam ,2010).

Figure 2: Seismic prone lineaments of Tamil Nadu State, India



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In the Coastal Block of Tamil Nadu, the boundary fault recognized on surface separates Crystalline and Sedimentary formations and all others in the Block are of the horst and graben systems. These are identified mainly from gravity and reflection seismic geophysical data. Evidences from drilled wells by Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) confirm their presence also. The regional alignment of the tectonic features is NESW, parallel to the Eastern Ghat trend. The sediment thickness in the depressions varies from 4000 to 7000 metres. The ridges have sediments in the range of 1000 to 2000 metres. The maximum thickness of 7000 metres is in the AriyalurPondicherry depression (Kumar, 1983). These fault systems have commenced developing in Late Proterozoic period with the initiation of the breakup of Gondwana land and characterized by largescale vertical movements (Gopalakrishnan, 1996).

3.3 Spatial Distribution of earthquakes

The information on past earthquakes gives an idea of the seismic status of a place or region. The study requires a variety of geological and seismological information such as details of epicentres, origin time, focus, depth, and magnitude and fault systems to identify the currently active faults (Tandon 1992).

In order to understand the seismicity of Tamil Nadu, data regarding past earthquakes M>3.0 have been collected for a period of around 200 years (1807 – 2009) from various sources (Seismic Array of Gauribindanur, Babha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Karnataka State, National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, India Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi, Bansal and Gupta 1998, Chandra 1976 and 1977, Srivastava and Ramachandran 1985). The details of microtremors with magnitude of 2.03.0 from BARC publications are incorporated for 12 years from 1977 to 1988 (Gangrade et al 1987 and 1989). The maximum number of earthquakes identified from these sources for the present study is 103. Out of the total 103 earthquakes/earth tremors 48, 23, 21, 10 and 1 event have been in the magnitude range of 2.0 – 2.9, 3.0 – 3.9, 4.0 – 4.9, 5.0 – 5.9 and >6.0 respectively. 52 earthquakes (51% of overall) are of M >3 in the past 200 years of seismic history.

The available seismic data have been plotted over a map representing 257 lineaments and the major percentage of the epicentres is aligned along with the NESW and NWSE trend of lineaments. A few of them fall on the EW and NS trend of lineaments. The spatial association of epicenters with lineaments is categorised as seismic prone lineaments. The length of those lineaments is ranged from 10km to 315km.

4. Seismic Hazard Analysis

Seismic Hazard analysis models the occurrence of earthquakes on seismic sources. These sources may range from broad aerially distributed source zones to discrete three dimensional units. The basic algorithm for seismic hazard analysis is created on the premise that the earthquake would occur randomly within a seismic source. The distance



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from the seismic source to the site is obviously important because attenuation would depend on it. In search of the seismic source, the first consideration goes to mapping the known faults or those which could be inferred to exist. Since the faults are spatially distributed in three dimensions, their detailed mapping is critically important for faults close to a site. Spatial pattern of seismicity will help link seismic source zones with faults.

The study on Seismic Hazard Assessment for the major cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu carried out based on Deterministic Approach. The present study involving three principal tasks 1) Identification of potential seismic sources, 2) Estimation of maximum magnitude (Mmax) and iii) Estimation Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) at each site. The methodology involved is detailed in the following paragraphs.

4.1 Identification of Potential Seismic Sources

The present study prefers the model potential seismic sources as areas in which configuration of each source zone is controlled, mainly by the fault extent, seismogenic crust (a part of the earth crust in which large earthquakes usually nucleates), and mechanism of earthquake faulting or type of active faults.

The potential seismic sources of Tamil Nadu are delineated based on the geophysical and geological characteristics of the seismic sources along with the prevailing fault systems in the region. The association of cumulative number of epicentres of earthquakes or higher magnitude earthquakes on the respective active lineaments/faults has also been considered. Six potential sources have been identified for the present study. These six seismic sources have generated earthquakes in the magnitude range of 5.0 to 6.0 (sources A to G). The details are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Seismic Potential Sources of Tamil Nadu State

Source Name of the Potential seismic sources L C.E Mw PGA

A Lineament on the Northern boundary of Palghat gap (EW) – (No.47)

86 5 6.0 0.212

B Nilgiris lineament (NE) – (No.44) 56 1 5.7 0.160 C Basement fault following the western boundary

of Thanjavore Tranquebar depression (NE SW) – (No. 50)

315 5 5.6 0.145

D Adayar fault (EW) – (No.31) 42 1 5.3 0.107 E Chengam – Alangayam Gudiyattam lineament

(NNE – SSW) – (No .21) 160 3 5.0 0.078

F Adanur Thirukovilur Ponnaiyar lineament (NESW) – (No.26)

45 3 5.0 0.078

Note: For details on fault number in bracket, refer Figure 1. L : Length of the seismic potential source in Km



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CE : Cumulative Number of Earthquakes Mw: Magnitude observed from the historic/instrumental earthquake PGA: Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) in g determined using Mmax

For the present study the rupture width of 20 km was considered assuming that the fault extended to the base of the seismogenic crust. Using create buffer tool in the ArcGIS software buffer was created for a 20km width to the identified 6 seismic sources (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Identified potential seismic sources for the Cultural Heritage Sites of Tamil Nadu



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4.2 Prognosis of Most Credible Earthquake

In deterministic analysis, it is more common to define the maximum earthquake which is reasonably expected as the maximum credible earthquake. This earthquake is based on an evaluation of the processes, which are reasonably expected to be associated with an earthquake source. The maximum magnitude is an important variable in calculating the seismic hazard because it determines the strain energy released in larger earthquakes.

For the sources with the record of large earthquakes (M> 6.0), if the largest earthquake has occurred in a historical timeperiod, the observed largest magnitude is taken as the upper bound magnitude directly, or an increment of 0.5 to 1.0 magnitude unit is added based on frequency and accuracy of earthquake records in the source zone (Mirzaei et al 1999).

In the present study for the largest earthquake which occurred in a historical/ instrumental timeperiod with good accuracy of the recorded event was considered as maximum possible magnitude in the potential seismic sources (Table 1 and Figure 3).

4.3 Estimation of Peak Ground Acceleration

The Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) for Tamil Nadu due to the identified potential sources A,B,C,D,E,& F has been calculated using the attenuation relation developed for South India by Iyengar and Raghukanth (2004). The attenuation relation used to calculate PGA is given below:

ln y = c1+c2(M6)+c3(M6) 2 ln R –c4 R + ln Є (1)

Where y refer to Peak Ground acceleration (PGA) in g, M refer to magnitude and R refer to Hypocentral distance. Since PGA is known to be attributed nearly as a lognormal random variable ln y would normally distributed with the average of (ln Є) being almost zero. Hence with e= I, coefficients for the southern region are (Iyengar and Raghukanth, 2004):

c1=1.7816; c2 = 0.9205; c3 = 0.0673; c4 = 0.0035; (ln Є) = 0.3136 (taken as zero)

The determined PGA value for the identified six seismic potential sources of Tamil Nadu is in the range of 0.212g to 0.078g. The maximum PGA of 0.212 would be caused by the lineament on the northern boundary of Palghat Gap (Figure 3). The source is about 20km from the Coimbatore City. This lineament has been associated with 5 earthquake incidences in the past 200 year earthquake history and the Maximum magnitude (Mmax) so far generated is 6.0. The trend of the source in east west direction running with a length of 86 km starting from northern part of Kerala state and entering the western part of the Tamil Nadu (Figure 3). The details of PGA for the 6 potential sources are given in Table 1. The estimated PGA at major Cultural heritage sites viz., Kapaleshwarar Temple,



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Mahabalipuram Group of Temples, Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram, Chola group of Temples in Thanjavore and the Mountain Railways of Nilgris due to the six seismic sources are given in Table 2.

To calculate hazard in the area, a grid is formed dividing each degree of latitude and longitude in to three parts. ArcGIS layout tool is used to perform the grid analysis. Each intersection of the grid is measured from the different seismic sources and using MicrosoftExcel the PGA value each point is calculated. By using this method a database was prepared for each seismic source, and contours were plotted for all six seismic source.

To evaluate the combined seismic hazard of Tamil Nadu for the cultural heritage sites due to the potential sources, an attempt was made in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst Software. The PGA of each potential source plotted over the State Digital Administrative Boundary of Tamil Nadu and interpolated for the assigned value to bring out the combined seismic hazard for the Cultural heritage sites (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Map showing the seismic hazard in terms of Peak Ground Acceleration for the Cultural Heritage Sites of Tamil Nadu



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Table 2: Estimated Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) values at major cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu by the different potential seismic sources

5. Discussions

From the available ground truths and literature published so far, the occurrences of various intrusive complexes and 103 epicenters of earthquakes (Magnitudes 2.0 3.0, 3.0 4.0, 4.0 4.9, 5.0 5.9, 6.0 and above) were plotted on those lineament map and 59 seismicprone lineaments/faults were delineated out of the identified 257 lineaments of Tamil Nadu. The N 30 0 50 0 E, N 10 0 40 0 W and east west lineaments are prominent lineament directions.

Out of 59 seismic prone lineaments, 43 lineaments/faults have spatial association with 91 epicentres of earthquakes and the 16 lineaments closely spaced with epicentres. The balance 12 epicentres fall in blind faults zones, so those areas need to be studied in detail. This indicates a positive correlation between distribution of lineament and earthquake occurrences. The distribution of lineaments, epicentres of earthquakes and intrusive complexes confirm that the northern part of Tamil Nadu has a higher seismic activity than the southern part of the State.

The present study involves computation of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) at bedrock level, using the deterministic approach to understand the seismic hazard assessment of Tamil Nadu. The study area was divided into six seismic sources (Table 1 and Figure 4) for which seismic hazard analysis was carried out using the seismicity data of the area from 1807 to 2004.



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The six sources have generated earthquakes in the magnitude range of 5.0 to 6.0 (Sources A to F). Among the six seismic sources, the lineament on the northern boundary of Palghat Gap (Source A) and the Nilgiris lineament (Source B) are capable of producing the observed magnitude 6.0 and 5.7 based on the fault rupture area.

The ground motions were calculated in terms of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) at bedrock level. The estimated maximum PGA from the six seismic sources was in the range of 0.212g to 0.078g (Table 1 and Figure 4). The PGA values are estimated from the closest potential sources for major cultural heritage sites of Tamil Nadu. The mountain railways of Nilgiris will have the highest PGA value of 0.16g due to the Nilgiris fault and the site Thanjavore Chola temples exposed to 0.145g by the basement fault. The site kapaleswarar temple have a PGA value of 0.104g and it is situated in the loose soil sediments.

6. Conclusions

The results of the present study reveal the facts that the seismic hazard north eastern and western part of Tamil Nadu is closely matching with the regional seismic zonation prepared by Bureau of Indian Standard, 2002. However the east southeastern and northern part of the state show higher value because of the adequate earthquake data used until the year 2004 and the frequent earthquake activity in the northern part of the state. The southern part of state shows lower seismic hazard than the other parts of the Tamil Nadu state.

The resultant combined seismic hazard due to the identified seismogenic sources of the state reveals that there would be an extra attention required in for the eastsoutheastern and northern part of Tamil Nadu in the future research studies. The major cultural sites mountain railways of Nilgiris, Chola Temple of Thanjavore and Kapaleswarar temple of Chennai have higher peak ground acceleration values. The Kapaleswarar temple situated in the thick alluvial sediment, this site may have higher amplification during even moderate earthquake, a detailed microseismic zonation study is required for this site.

Acknowledgement

The author acknowledges all facilities provided by Mr.G. Viswanathan, Chancellor, VIT University, Vellore, India. The constant encouragement given by Prof.S.K. Sekar, Director, Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management, VIT University, Vellore, India is gratefully acknowledged. The author thankful to Dr.S.Rajarathnam, Director, Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management, Anna University, Chennai for his valuable guidance.



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7. References

1. Bansal B.K., and Gupta S, 1998, A glance through the seismicity of Peninsular India, Journal of Geological Society of India, Vol. 52, pp.67 80

2. Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS): 1893, 2002, Indian Standard, Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi

3. Chandra U, 1976, Focal mechanism of Koyna, India earthquake of 1967 December 10, Geophysics Journal, Vol. 46, pp.247 251.

4. Chandra U, 1977, Earthquakes of Peninsular India – A SeismoTectonic Study, Bulletin of the seismological Society of America, Vol.67, No.5, pp. 1387 1413.

5. Ganapathy G.P. and Rajarathnam S, 2010, Use of Remotesensing and Seismotectonic Parameters to Identify Seismogenic Sources of Tamil Nadu State, International Journal of Applied Engineering Research Volume 1, No1, 2010, pp 5976.

6. Gangrade B.K., Prasad G.G.V., Unnikrishnan E., Chandrasekar B., Subbaramu K.R., and Sharma R.D , 1989, Earthquakes from Peninsular India: Data from the Gauribindanur seismic array, from the period January 1987 to December 1988, B.A.R.C. 1454.

7. Gangrade B.K., Prasad G.G.V., and Sharma R.D, 1987, Earthquakes from Peninsular India: Data from the Gauribindanur seismic array. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay, B.A.R.C., 1347 and 1385.

8. Gopalakrishnan K, 1996, Lineament tectonics and its relation to seismic activity in Tamil Nadu, India, Proceedings of the International Conference on Disasters and Mitigation, Anna university, Vol. I, pp. A119 A125

9. Gupta I.D, 2002, The State of the art in seismic Hazard Analysis, ISET journal of Earthquake Technology, paper no. 428, Vol.39, No.4, December 2002, pp.311 346.

10. Iyengar R.N and Ragukanth S.T.G, 2004, Attenuation strong ground Motion in Peninsular India, Seismological Resaerch Letters, 75, 4, pp 530540.

11. “Kamakshi Amman temple”, www.kanchikamakshi.com, accessed on 14 October 2010

12. ”Kapaleshwarar Temple”, http://en.wikipedia/wiki/kapaleshwarar_Temple, accessed on 18 October 2010.

http://www.kanchikamakshi.com/

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13. Kumar S.P, 1983, Geology and hydrocarbon prospects of Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery Basins, In: Petroliferous Basins of India, L.L.Bandari and B.S. Venkatachala, Ruby Kumar S. Nanjunda Swamy, Pomila Gargga and D.C.Srivastava. A Himachal Times Group Publication (Energy Division) Dehra Dun, Vol. VI, No.4, pp 57 65.

14. Mirzaei N., Mengtan Gao., & Yuntai Chan, 1999, Delineation of potential seismic sources for seismic sources for seismic zoning of Iran, Journal of Seismology, Vol.3, pp 17 – 30.

15. Srivastava and Ramachandran. K, 1985, New earthquake Catalogue of earthquakes for Peninsular India during 18391900 Mausaum 1985, Meteorological Office Report, New Delhi

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17. UNESCO (2010), http://whc.unesco.org/, accessed during February,2011.

Documents

Figure 1 - Integrated Publish · The State of Tamil Nadu has a great tradition of heritage and culture that developed over 2,000 years ago and still continues to flourish. This great