Fig12_1

Walks alone

Stands alone well

Walks holding onto furniture

Stands holding onto furniture

Sits without support

Bears some weight on legs

Rolls over

1 3 52 74 6 8Age in months

10 12 159 1411 13

Fig16966

Cell with 46 chromosomes(only one chromosomepair is shown here)

First meiotic division (eachchromosome replicates itselfbut doesn’t split; onemember of each pair ofhomologous chromosomesis contributed to each firstgeneration daughter cell)

Second meiotic division (onemember of each pair ofhomologous chromosomesgoes to each new cell)

Sister chromatids split toreinstate a full 46 chromo-somes in each cell

Four gametes, each with 23 chromosomes, are produced

Fig11764

Conception

ImplantationFirstmissedperiod

Secondmissedperiod

OvumZygoteEmbryo

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Weeks since fertilization

Tab12_1

Sensorimotor

Birth–2 years

Preoperational

2–4 years4–7 years

Concrete operational

7–11 years

Formal operational

Over 11 years

Period Activities and Achievements

Infants discover aspects of the world through their sensory impressions, motor activities, and coordination of the two.

They learn to differentiate themselves from the external world. They learn that objects exist even when they are not visible and that they are independent of the infant’s own actions. They gain some appreciation of cause and effect.

Children cannot yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now can think in images and symbols.

They become able to represent something with something else, acquire language, and play games of pretend. Intelligence at this stage is said to be intuitive, because children cannot make general, logical statements.

Children can understand logical principles that apply to concrete external objects.

They can appreciate that certain properties of an object remain the same, despite changes in appearance, and sort objects into categories. They can appreciate the perspective of another viewer. They can think about two concepts, such as longer and wider, at the same time.

Only adolescents and adults can think logically about abstractions, can speculate, and can consider what might or what ought to be.

They can work in probabilities and possibilities. They can imagine other worlds, especially ideal ones. They can reason about purely verbal or logical statements. They can relate any element or statement to any other, manipulate variables in a scientific experiment, and deal with proportions and analogies. They reflect on their own activity of thinking.

Fig12_512_05

(A) (B)

(D)(C)

Fig12045 CONSERVATION OF LIQUID

CONSERVATION OF SUBSTANCE

CONSERVATION OF NUMBER

The child sees two glasses of water and says that both contain the sameamount. The water from one is then poured into a tall, thin glass. Thechild is asked, "Which glass has more water?"

The child sees two identical rows of pennies and says there is the samenumber in each. Then, in one row, they are spread apart. "Do the tworows have the same number of pennies?"

The child sees two identical balls of clay and says that both have thesame amount. One ball is rolled out, making it longer. "Do the twopieces have the same amount of clay?"

Fig7626

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESSES• regulate attention• maintain appropriate

memory processes• initiate strategies for

problem-solving• evaluate potential

response

ENVIRONMENTALSTIMULI(input)

SENSORY REGISTER• stores information

briefly

SHORT-TERM MEMORY• holds limited amounts

of information, which islater forgotten or movedto long-term memory

LONG-TERM MEMORY• saves information

permanently, usingvarious cognitivestrategies

Feeds into Attention

Storage

Retrieval

RESPONSE(output)

InRev12aInRev11cInRev11bInRev11a

MILESTONES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

Maturation of senses

Voluntary movement

Mental representation

Object permanence

Symbolic thought

Intuitive thought

Concrete operationsConservation

Information processing

Age*

3–4 months

12–18 months

18–24 months

4 years

6–7 years

7–8 years

Description

Immaturities that limit the newborn’s vision and hearing are overcome.

Reflexes disappear, and infants begin to gain voluntary control over their movements.

Infants can form images of objects and actions in their minds.

Infants understand that objects exist even when out of sight.

Young children use symbols to represent things that are not present in their pretend play, drawing, and talk.

Children reason about events, real and imagined, by guessing rather than by engaging in logical analysis.

Children can apply simple logical operations to real objects. For example, they recognize that important properties of a substance, such as number or amount, remain constant despite changes in shape or position.

Children can remember about seven pieces of information; they begin to learn strategies for memorization.

Achievement

*These ages are approximate; they indicate the order in which children first reach these milestones of cognitive development rather than the exact ages.

Tab12_2Tab12_1

First year

Second year

Third to fifth year

Sixth year through puberty

Adolescence

Early adulthood

Middle age

Old age

Age Central Psychological Issue or Crisis

Trust versus mistrustInfants learn to trust that their needs will be met by the world, especially by the mother—or they learn to mistrust the world.

Autonomy versus shame and doubtChildren learn to exercise will, to make choices, and to control themselves—or they become uncertain and doubt that they can do things by themselves.

Initiative versus guiltChildren learn to initiate activities and enjoy their accomplishments, acquiring direction and purpose. Or, if they are not allowed initiative, they feel guilty for their attempts at independence.

Industry versus inferiorityChildren develop a sense of industry and curiosity and are eager to learn—or they feel inferior and lose interest in the tasks before them.

Identity versus role confusionAdolescents come to see themselves as unique and integrated persons with an ideology—or they become confused about what they want out of life.

Intimacy versus isolationYoung people become able to commit themselves to another person—or they develop a sense of isolation and feel they have no one in the world but themselves.

Generativity versus stagnationAdults are willing to have and care for children and to devote themselves to their work and the common good—or they become self-centered and inactive.

Integrity versus despairOlder people enter a period of reflection, becoming assured that their lives have been meaningful and ready to face death with acceptance and dignity. Or they are in despair for their unaccomplished goals, failures, and ill-spent lives.

InRev12bSOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

Infants form an attachment to the primary caregiver.

Children become more autonomous and no longer need their parents’ constant attention.

Parents actively socialize their children.

Age

Birth–2 years

2–4 years

4–10 years

Relationships withOther Children

Play focuses on toys, not on other children.

Toys are a way of eliciting responses from other children.

Children begin to cooperate, compete, play games, and form friendships with peers.

Relationshipswith Parents

Infants respond to emotional expressions of others.

Young children can recognize emotions of others.

Children learn social rules, like politeness, and roles, like being a male or female; they learn to control their emotions.

Social Understanding

Tab12_3

Preconventional 1

2

Conventional 3

4

Post-conventional 5

6

Stage What Is Right?

Obeying and avoiding punishment from a superior authority

Making a fair exchange, a good deal

Pleasing others and getting their approval

Doing your duty, following rules and social order

Respecting rules and laws, but recognizing that they may have limits

Following universal ethical principles, such as justice, reciprocity, equality, and respect for human life and rights

Should Heinz Stealthe Drug

Heinz should not steal the drug because he will be jailed.

Heinz should steal the drug because his wife will repay him later.

Heinz should steal the drug because he loves his wife and because she and the rest of the family will approve.

Heinz should steal the drug for his wife because he has a duty to care for her, or he should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal.

Heinz should steal the drug because life is more important than property.

Heinz should steal the drug because of the principle of preserving and respecting life.

Fig12_812_09

Per

form

ance

Age 25

Life course

Age 70

Crystallizedabilities

Fluidabilities

InRev12cInRev12bMILESTONES OF ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD

Puberty brings reproductive capacity and marked bodily changes.

Physical growth continues.

Physical growth continues.

Size and muscle mass decrease, fat increases, eyesight declines, reproductive capacity in women ends.

Size decreases; organs become less efficient.

Age

Early adolescence (11–15 years)

Late adolescence (16–20 years)

Early adulthood (20–39 years)

Middle adulthood (40–65 years)

Late adulthood (over 65 years)

Cognitive Changes

Formal operations and principled moral reasoning become possible for the first time (this occurs only for some people).

Formal operations and principled moral reasoning become more likely.

Increases continue in knowledge, problem-solving ability, and moral reasoning.

Thought becomes more complex, adaptive, and global.

Reasoning, mathematical ability, comprehension, novel problem solving, and memory may decline.

Physical Changes

Social and emotional changes result from growing sexual awareness, mood swings, physical changes, conflicts with parents.

An identity crisis accompanies graduation from high school.

People choose a job and often a mate; they may become parents.

Midlife transition may lead to change; for most, the middle years are satisfying.

Retirement requires adjustments; people look inward; awareness of death precipitates life review.

Social Events andPsychological Changes

Fig12548

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0Levinson Gould Erikson

Entering middleadulthood

Midlifetransition

Settling down

Age 30transition

Entering adultworld

Early adulttransition

The midlifedecade

Opening upwhat's inside

"I'm nobody'sbaby now"

Leaving ourparent's world

Ego integrityvs despair

Generativityvs stagnation

Intimacyvs isolation

Late adulthoodtransition

Culmination ofmiddle adulthood

Age 50transition

Beyondmidlife

L12

HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING

Is our personality related to how long we live? (p. 467)

COGNITION AND LANGUAGE

How do we learn to speak?  (p. 280)

MEMORY

What happens to our memories of infancy? (p. 419)

LINKAGESto Human Development