Felidae.

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Scientific classification

Kingdom

:

Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Suborder

:

Feliformia

Family: Felidae

G. Fischer de

Waldheim, 1817

Subfamilies

Felinae

Pantherinae

†Machairodontinae

†Proailurinae[2]

Felidae ranges

Felidae is the biological family of the cats; a member of this family is called a felid. Felids are the

strictest carnivores of the thirteen terrestrial families in the order Carnivora, although the three families of

marine mammals comprising the superfamily Pinnipedia are as carnivorous as the felids. The most familiar

felid is the domestic cat, which first became associated with humans about 10,000 years ago, but the

family includes all other wild cats including the big cats.

Extant felids belong to one of two subfamilies: Pantherinae (which includes the tiger, the lion, the jaguar,

and the leopard), and Felinae(which includes the cougar, the cheetah, the lynxes, the ocelot, and

the domestic cat).

The first felids emerged during the Oligocene, about 25 million years ago. In prehistoric times, there was a

third subfamily known asMachairodontinae, which included the "saber-toothed cats" such as the well

known Smilodon. There were also other superficially cat-like mammals, such as the marsupial

sabertooth Thylacosmilus or the Nimravidae, which are not included in Felidae despite superficial

similarities.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Evolution

2   Characteristics

o 2.1   Physical

appearance

o 2.2   Senses

o 2.3   Dentition

o 2.4   Vocalisations

3   Classification

o 3.1   Genetic

classification

o 3.2   Extant species

4   Fossil felids

5   Genera of the Felidae

6   See also

7   Cited references

8   General references

9   External links

Evolution

There are 41 known species of felids in the world today, all of which descended from the same ancestor.[1] This taxon originated in Asia and spread across continents by crossing land bridges. As reported in the

journal Science, testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA by Warren Johnson and Stephen O'Brien of the

U.S. National Cancer Institute demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that

diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations (in both directions) from continent to continent via

the Bering land bridge andIsthmus of Panama, with the Panthera genus being the oldest and

the Felis genus being the youngest. They estimated that 60 percent of the modern species of cats

developed within the last million years.[3]

Most felids have a haploid number of 18 or 19. New World cats (those in Central and South America) have

a haploid number of 18, possibly due to the combination of two smallerchromosomes into one larger

chromosome.[4] Prior to this discovery, biologists had been largely unable to establish a family tree of cats

from the fossil record because the fossils of different cat species all look very much alike, differing

primarily in size.

The felids' closest relatives are thought to be the asiastic linsangs,[5] and at one remove the group

of civets, hyenas, mongooses, and Madagascar carnivores,[6] with whom they share the

Suborder Feliformia. Most felid species share a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting

sweetness. (See "Senses" section.)[7]

Characteristics

Felids are obligate carnivores, requiring a diet of meat and organs to survive. Aside from the lion, wild

felids are generally solitary; feral domestic cats do, however, form feral cat colonies. Cheetahs are also

known to live and hunt in groups. Felids are generally secretive animals, are often nocturnal, and live in

relatively inaccessible habitats. Around three-quarters of cat species live in forested terrain, and they are

generally agile climbers. However, felids may be found in almost any environment, with some species

being native tomountainous terrain or deserts.

Wild felids are native to every continent except Australasia and Antarctica.

[edit]Physical appearance

Felids tend to have lithe and flexible bodies with muscular limbs. In the great majority of species, the tail is

between a third and a half the length of the body, although there are some exceptions (for example,

the bobcat and margay). The limbs are digitigrade with soft toe pads and retractable claws. Compared

with most other mammals, the head of cats is highly domed with a short muzzle. The skull possesses

wide zygomatic arches and a large sagittal crest, both of which allow for the attachment of strong jaw

muscles.[8]

The various species of felids vary greatly in size. One of the smallest is the Black-footed Cat, measuring 35

to 40 centimetres (14 to 16 in) long, while the largest in the wild is the tiger, which can attain up to 350

centimetres (11.5 ft) in length[9] and weigh 300 kilograms (660 lb).

The fur of felids takes many different forms, being much thicker in those species that live in cold

environments, such as the Snow Leopard. The color of felids is also highly variable—although brown to

golden fur is common in most species—usually marked with distinctive spots, stripes, or rosettes. The only

felids to lack significant markings are the lion, puma, caracal and jaguarundi. Many species

exhibit melanism, in which some individuals have an all-black coat.[8] All felids have a "tear stripe", a black

stripe running from the corner of each eye down the side of the muzzle.[10]

The tongue of felids is covered with horny papillae, which rasp meat from prey and aid in grooming.

All felids have retractable claws, although in a few species, such as the cheetah, the claws remain visible

even when retracted. The claws are retracted when the animal is relaxed. They are attached to the

terminal bone of the toe with a tough ligament; when the animal contracts muscles in the toe to straighten

it, the ligament forces the claw outwards.[8] Cats have five toes on their forefeet and four on their hindfeet,

reflecting their reliance on gripping and holding down their prey with their claws.[citation needed]

Senses

Felids have relatively large eyes, situated to provide binocular vision. Their night vision is especially good

due to the presence of atapetum lucidum, which reflects light back inside the eyeball, and gives felid eyes

their distinctive shine. As a result, the eyes of felids are approximately six times more light sensitive than

those of humans, and many species are at least partially nocturnal. The retina of felids also contains a

relatively high proportion of rod cells, adapted for perfectly distinguishing moving objects in conditions of

dim light, which are complemented by the presence of cone cells for sensing color during the day.

However, felids appear to have relatively poor color vision in comparison with humans.[8]This is explained

by the fact that felids see moving objects more "colorfully" than still objects, but in an intact environment,

are unable to distinguish color tones alone (like turquoisecompared to teal, for example).[citation needed]

The external ears of felids are also large, and especially sensitive to high-frequency sounds in the smaller

cats. This sensitivity allows them to locate small rodent prey; cats themselves do not apparently produce

such sounds.[8]

Felids also have a highly developed sense of smell, although not to the degree seen in canids; this is

further supplemented by the presence of a vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth, allowing the

animal to "taste" the air. The use of this organ is associated with the Flehmen response, in which the

upper lip is curled upwards. Most felids are unable to taste sweetness due to a mutated gene in their taste

buds. Exceptions include members of the genera Leopardus and Otocolobus.[citation needed]

Felids possess highly sensitive whiskers set deep within the skin, which provide the cat with sensory

information about the slightest air movement around it. For this reason, whiskers are very helpful to

nocturnal hunters.

Most felids are able to land on their feet after a fall, an ability that relies on vision and the sense of

balance acting together.[citation needed]

Dentition

Felids have a relatively small number of teeth compared with other carnivorans, a feature associated with

their short muzzles. With a few exceptions, such as the lynx, they have the dental formula:  .

The canine teeth are large, reaching exceptional size in the extinct saber-tooth species. The upper third

premolar and lower molar are adapted ascarnassial teeth, suited to tearing and cutting flesh.[8]

The jaws of felids can only move vertically. This prevents them from being able to chew, but makes it

easier for their powerful masseter jaw muscles to hold struggling prey.

Vocalisations

All felids share a broadly similar set of vocalisations, although there is some variation between species. In

particular, the pitch of calls varies, with larger species producing deeper sounds; overall, the frequency of

felid calls ranges between 50–10,000 hertz.

All felids are able to spit, hiss, growl, snarl, and mew. The first four of these sounds are all used in an

aggressive context. The spitting sound is a sudden burst, typically used when making threats, especially

towards other species (such as humans). The hiss is a prolonged, atonal sound used in close range to

other members of the species, when the animal is uncertain whether to attack or retreat. Growling is used

to indicate a willingness to attack, while the higher pitched snarl is used when adopting a defensive

posture.

The mewing sound may be used either as a close-contact call, typically between a mother and kittens, or

as a louder, longer distance call, primarily during the mating season. There is some variation in the

acoustic properties of the mew between different felid species; extreme examples include the whistling

sound made by cougars and the mew-grunt of lions and tigers.

Most felids seem to be able to purr, vibrating the muscles in their larynx to produce a distinctive buzzing

sound. In the wild, purring is used while a mother is caring for kittens. Precisely which species of felid are

able to purr is a matter of debate, but the sound has been recorded in most of the smaller species, as well

as the cheetah and cougar, and may also be found in the big cats.

Other common felid vocalisations include the gurgle, wah-wah, prusten, and roar. The first two sounds are

found only among the Felinae (small cats). Gurgling is a quiet sound used during meetings between

friendly individuals, as well as during courtship and when nursing kittens. The wah-wah is a short, deep-

sounding call used in close contact, and is not found in all species (it is, for example, absent in the

domestic cat).

In contrast, prusten and roaring are found only in big cats. Prusten is a short, soft, snorting sound reported

in tigers, jaguars, snow leopards, and clouded leopards; it is used during contact between friendly

individuals. The roar is an especially loud call with a distinctive pattern that depends on the species. Tigers

and jaguars have a very snarly roar, while the roar of leopards and lions is much more throaty.[citation

needed] Only lions, leopards, tigers and jaguars are truly able to roar, although the loudest mews of snow

leopards have a similar, if less structured, sound.[8]

Classification

Traditionally, five subfamilies have been distinguished within family Felidae based on phenotypical

features: the Felinae, the Pantherinae, the Acinonychinae (Cheetahs), the extinctMachairodontinae, and

the extinct Proailurinae.[2]

Genetic classification

Genetic research has provided a basis for a more concise classification for the living members of the cat

family based on genotypical groupings.[1][11][12] Specifically, eight genetic lineages have been identified:[13]

Lineage 1: Panthera, Uncia, Neofelis

Lineage 2: Pardofelis, Catopuma

Lineage 3: Leptailurus, Caracal, Profelis

Lineage 4: Leopardus

Lineage 5: Lynx

Lineage 6: Puma, Acinonyx

Lineage 7: Prionailurus, Otocolobus

Lineage 8: Felis

The last four lineages (5, 6, 7, 8) are more related to each other than to any of the first four (1, 2, 3, 4),

and so form a clade within the Felinae subfamily of family Felidae.

Extant species

The following is the complete list of genera within family Felidae, grouped according to the traditional

phenotypical classification with the corresponding genotypical lineages indicated:

FAMILY FELIDAE[1]

Subfamily Pantherinae

Genus Panthera [Lineage 1]

Lion (Panthera leo)

Jaguar (Panthera onca)

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Genus Uncia [Lineage 1]

Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia)

Genus Neofelis [Lineage 1]

Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

Sunda Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi)

Subfamily Felinae

Genus Pardofelis [Lineage 2]

Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata)

Genus Catopuma [Lineage 2]

Bay Cat (Catopuma badia)

Asian Golden Cat (Catopuma temminckii)

Genus Leptailurus [Lineage 3]

Serval (Leptailurus serval)

Genus Caracal [Lineage 3]

Caracal (Caracal caracal)

Genus Profelis [Lineage 3]

African Golden Cat (Profelis aurata)

Genus Leopardus [Lineage 4]

Pantanal Cat (Leopardus braccatus)

Colocolo (Leopardus colocolo)

Geoffroy's Cat (Leopardus geoffroyi)

Kodkod (Leopardus guigna)

Andean Mountain Cat (Leopardus jacobitus)

Pampas Cat (Leopardus pajeros)

Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)

Oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus)

Margay (Leopardus wiedii)

Genus Lynx [Lineage 5]

Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis)

Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx)

Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Genus Puma [Lineage 6]

Cougar (Puma concolor)

Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi)

Genus Acinonyx[14] [Lineage 6]

Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

Genus Prionailurus [Lineage 7]

Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)

Iriomote Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis)

Flat-headed Cat (Prionailurus planiceps)

Rusty-spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus)

Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus)

Genus Otocolobus [Lineage 7]

Pallas's Cat (Otocolobus manul)

Genus Felis [Lineage 8]

Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bieti)

Domestic Cat (Felis catus)

Jungle Cat (Felis chaus)

Sand Cat (Felis margarita)

Black-footed Cat (Felis nigripes)

Wildcat (Felis silvestris)

Fossil felids

The American Lion was one of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna, a wide variety of very large mammals

that went extinct about 10,000 years ago.[15]

Possibly the oldest known true felid (Proailurus) lived in the late Oligocene and early Miocene epochs.

During the Miocene, it gave way toPseudaelurus. Pseudaelurus is believed to be the latest common

ancestor of the two extant subfamilies and the extinct subfamily,Machairodontinae. This group, better

known as the saber-tooth cats, became extinct in the Late Pleistocene era. The group includes the

genera Smilodon, Machairodus and Homotherium. The Metailurini were originally classified as a distinct

tribe within the Machairodontinae, though they count as members of the Felinae in recent times.[16][17] Most

extinct cat-like animals, once regarded as members of the Felidae, later turned out to be members of

related, but distinct, families: the "false sabretooths" Nimravidae andBarbourofelidae. As a result,

sabretooth "cats" seem to belong to four different lineages. The total number of fossil felids that are

known to science is low compared to other carnivoran families such as dogs and bears. Felidae radiated

quite recently and most of the extant species are relatively young.

Genera of the Felidae

The list follows McKenna and Bell's Classification of Mammals for prehistoric genera (1997)[2] and

Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and Reeder's Mammal Species of the World for extant genera.[1] Pseudaelurus is included in the Felinae as per McKenna & Bell, despite its basal position in felid

evolution. Inconsistent with McKenna and Bell, three additional prehistoric

genera, Miracinonyx, Lokontailurus and Xenosmilus, are listed. Sivapanthera is included in the Felinae (not

Acinonychinae) and Ischrosmilus is included in the genus Smilodon.

†Proailurinae

†Proailurus

Felinae

†Pseudaelurus

†Sivaelurus

†Vishnufelis

†Pikermia

†Abelia

†Nimravides

†Pratifelis

†Adelphailurus

†Metailurus

†Dinofelis

†Dolichofelis

†Sivapardus

†Jansofelis

†Sivapanthera

Acinonyx

†Miracinonyx

Puma

Felis

Prionailurus

Lynx

Leopardus

Leptailurus

Caracal

Profelis

Catopuma

Pardofelis

Pantherinae

†Leontoceryx

†Dromopanthera

†Schaubia

†Viretailurus

Panthera

Neofelis

Uncia

†Machairodontinae

†Machairodus (Late Miocene, Africa, Eurasia, North America)

†Homotherium (Pliocene, Pleistocene; Africa, Eurasia, North America)

†Xenosmilus (Pleistocene; North America)

†Lokotunjailurus (Latest Miocene; Africa)

†Miomachairodus (Middle Miocene; Africa, Asia)

†Hemimachairodus

†Paramachairodus (Late Miocene; Eurasia, Africa)

†Megantereon (Pliocene, Pleistocene; North America, Africa, Eurasia)

†Smilodon (Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene; North- and South America)

Margay

Margay[1]

Conservation status

Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Leopardus

Species: L. wiedii

Binomial name

Leopardus wiedii

(Schinz, 1821)

Margay range

Synonyms

Felis wiedii

The Margay (Leopardus wiedii) is a spotted cat native to Central and South America. Named for Prince

Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied,[3] it is a solitary and nocturnal animal that prefers remote sections of

the rainforest. Although it was once believed to be vulnerable toextinction, the IUCN now lists it as "Near

Threatened".[2] It roams the rainforests from Mexico to Argentina.

Contents

1   Physical characteristics

2   Distribution and habitat

3   Diet

4   Behavior

5   Reproduction and life

cycle

6   Subspecies

7   References

8   External links

Physical characteristics

A margay at Edinburgh Zoo

The margay is very similar to the larger ocelot in appearance, although the head is a little shorter, the

eyes larger, and the tail and legs longer. It weighs from 2.6 to 4 kilograms (5.7 to 8.8 lb), with a body

length of 48 to 79 centimetres (19 to 31 in), and a tail length of 33 to 51 centimetres (13 to 20 in). Unlike

most other cats, the female possesses only twoteats.[4]

The fur is brown in color, and marked with numerous rows of dark brown or black rosettes and longitudinal

streaks. The undersides are paler, ranging from buff to white, and the tail has numerous dark bands and a

black tip. The backs of the ears are black with circular white markings in the centre.[4]

Most notably the margay is a much more skillful climber than its relative, and it is sometimes called

the tree ocelot because of this ability. Whereas the ocelot mostly pursues prey on the ground, the

margay may spend its entire life in the trees, leaping after and chasing birds and monkeys through the

treetops. Indeed, it is one of only two cat species[4] with the ankle flexibility necessary to climb head-first

down trees (the other being the clouded leopard). It is remarkably agile; its ankles can turn up to 180

degrees,[5] it can grasp branches equally well with its fore and hind paws, and it is able to jump up to 12

feet (3.7 m) horizontally.[4] The margay has been observed to hang from branches with only one foot.

Distribution and habitat

The margay is found from southern Mexico, through Central America and in northern South America east

of the Andes. The southern edge of its range reaches Uruguay and northern Argentina. They are found

almost exclusively in areas of dense forest, ranging from tropical evergreen forest to tropical dry

forest and high cloud forest. Margays have sometimes also been observed in coffee and cocoaplantations.[4]

Diet

Margay in Summit Municipal Parque, Panama

Because the margay is mostly nocturnal[6] and is naturally rare in its environment, most dietary studies

have been based on stomach contents and fecal analysis. This cat eats small mammals (sometimes

including monkeys), birds, eggs, lizards and tree frogs.[7] It may also eat grass and other vegetation, most

likely to help digestion. A 2006 report about a margay chasing squirrels in its natural environment

confirmed the margay is able to hunt its prey entirely in trees.[8] However, margays do sometimes hunt on

the ground, and have been reported to eat terrestrial prey, such as cane rats and guinea pigs.[4]

There has been one report of a margay using auditory mimicry to try to lure one of its prey. A margay was

observed to imitate the call of apied tamarin infant while in the presence of a group of adult tamarins,

leading the adults to investigate. While the margay was not successful in catching one of the monkeys,

this represents the first observation of a Neotropical predator employing this type of mimicry.[9][10]

Behavior

Margays are primarily nocturnal, although in some areas, they have also been observed to hunt during the

day. They prefer to spend most of their life in the trees, but also travel across the ground, especially when

moving between hunting areas. During the day, they rest in relatively inaccessible branches or clumps

of lianas.

Like most cats, they are solitary, with the adults only commonly meeting to mate. They are sparsely

distributed even within their natural environment, occupying relatively large home ranges of 11 to 16

square kilometres (4.2 to 6.2 sq mi). They use scent marking to indicate their territory, including urine

spraying and leaving scratch marks on the ground or on branches. Their vocalisations all appear to be

short range; they do not call to each other over long distances.[4]

Margays have recently been discovered to hunt by mimicking the vocalisation of a prey species, Wild Pied

Tamarin (Saguinus bicolor),[11] which has been compared by scientists to tool-use by monkeys.[12]

Reproduction and life cycle

Female margays are in estrus for four to ten days over a cycle of 32 to 36 days, during which they attract

males with a long, moaning call. The male responds by yelping or making trilling sounds, and also by

rapidly shaking his head from side to side, a behavior not seen in any other cat species. Copulation lasts

up to sixty seconds, and is similar to that indomestic cats; it takes place primarily in the trees, and occurs

several times while the female is in heat.[4]

Gestation lasts about 80 days, and results in the birth of only a single kitten (or, very rarely, two), usually

between March and June. The kittens weigh 85 to 170 grams (3.0 to 6.0 oz) at birth. This is relatively large

for a small cat, and is probably related to the long gestation period. The kittens open their eyes at around

two weeks of age, and begin to take solid food at seven to eight weeks.[4]

Margays reach sexual maturity at twelve to eighteen months of age, and have been reported to live up to

twenty-four years in captivity.[4]

Subspecies

These are the currently recognized subspecies:[1]

Leopardus wiedii wiedii, eastern and central Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina

Leopardus wiedii amazonicus, western Brazil, inner parts of Peru, Colombia and Venezuela

Leopardus wiedii boliviae, Bolivia - also known as the "ocelittle"

Leopardus wiedii cooperi, northern Mexico

Leopardus wiedii glauculus, central Mexico

Leopardus wiedii nicaraguae, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

Leopardus wiedii oaxacensis, southern Mexico

Leopardus wiedii pirrensis, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru

Leopardus wiedii salvinius, Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador

Leopardus wiedii yucatanicus, Yucatán

Ocelot

.

Ocelot[1]

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Leopardus

Species: L. pardalis

Binomial name

Leopardus pardalis

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Ocelot range

The ocelot (/ ̍ ɒ s əl ɒ t / ; Leopardus pardalis), also known as the dwarf leopard, is a wild cat distributed

extensively over South America,Central America, and Mexico. They have been reported as far north

as Texas, and as far east as Trinidad and Barbados in theCaribbean.[3][4] North of Mexico, they are found

regularly only in the extreme southern part of Texas,[5] although there are rare sightings in southern

Arizona.[6]

The ocelot is similar in appearance to a domestic cat. Its fur resembles that of a clouded

leopard or jaguar and was once regarded as particularly valuable. As a result, hundreds of thousands of

ocelots were once killed for their fur. The feline was classified a "vulnerable"endangered species from

1972 until 1996, and is now rated "least concern" by the 2008 IUCN Red List.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Etymology

2   Taxonomy

o 2.1   Subspecies

3   Physical characteristics

4   Behavior

5   Reproduction and life

cycle

6   Distribution and habitat

7   As pets

8   References

9   External links

Etymology

The name ocelot comes from the Nahuatl word ōcēlōtl (pronounced [o ːˈ se ː lo ː t ɬ ] ), which usually refers to

the jaguar (Panthera onca) rather than the ocelot.[7][8][9]

Taxonomy

The ocelot's genus Leopardus consists of nine similar species to the ocelot, such as Geoffroy's cat and

the margay, which are alsoendemic to South and Central America. All of the cats in the Leopardus genus

are spotted, lithe, and small, with the ocelot being the biggest of its genus.

Subspecies

Certain ocelot subspecies are officially endangered, although the species as a whole is not.[citation needed] The

following are the currently recognized subspecies of Ocelot:[1]

Leopardus pardalis pardalis, Amazon Rainforest

Leopardus pardalis aequatorialis, northern Andes and Central America

Leopardus pardalis albescens, eastern Mexico, southern Texas

Leopardus pardalis melanurus, Venezuela, Guyana, Trinidad

Leopardus pardalis mitis, Argentina, Paraguay

Leopardus pardalis nelsoni, southwestern Mexico

Leopardus pardalis pseudopardalis, Colombia

Leopardus pardalis puseaus, Ecuador

Leopardus pardalis sonoriensis, northwestern Mexico, southern Arizona

Leopardus pardalis steinbachi, Bolivia

Physical characteristics

Profile – taken at the Cincinnati Zoo

The ocelot ranges from 68 to 100 centimetres (27 to 39 in) in length, plus 26 to 45 centimeters (10 to 18

in) in tail length, and typically weighs 8 to 18 kilograms (18 to 40 lb), although much larger individuals

have occasionally been recorded,[10][11][12] making it the largest of the generally dainty Leopardus wild cat

genus. It has sleek, smooth fur, rounded ears and relatively large front paws. While similar in appearance

to the oncilla and margay, which inhabit the same region, the ocelot is larger.

The coat pattern of ocelots can vary, being anything from cream to reddish-brown in color, or sometimes

grayish, and marked with blackrosettes. In many individuals, some of the spots, especially on the back,

blend together to form irregular curved stripes or bands. The fur is short, and paler than the rest of the

coat beneath. There are also single white spots, called ocelli, on the backs of the ears. Two black stripes

line both sides of the face, and the long tail is banded by black.

Behavior

An ocelot at Woodland Park Zoo inSeattle, Washington.

The ocelot is mostly nocturnal and very territorial. It will fight fiercely, sometimes to the death, in

territorial disputes. In addition, the cat marks its territory with urine. Like most felines, it is solitary, usually

meeting only to mate. However, during the day it rests in trees or other dense foliage, and will

occasionally share its spot with another ocelot of the same sex. Males occupy territories of 3.5 to 46

square kilometers (1.4 to 18 sq mi), while females occupy smaller, non-overlapping territories of 0.8 to 15

square kilometers (0.31 to 5.8 sq mi). Territories are marked by urine spraying and by leaving feces in

prominent locations, sometimes favoring particular latrine sites.[11]

Ocelots hunt over a range of 18 km2 (6.9 sq mi), taking mostly small animals, including

mammals, lizards, turtles, and frogs, crabs,birds, and fish.[13] Almost all of the prey that the ocelot hunts is

far smaller than itself, with rodents, rabbits, and opossums forming the largest part of the diet.[11] Studies

suggest that it follows and finds prey via odor trails, but the ocelot also has very good vision,

includingnight vision.

Reproduction and life cycle

Ocelot in Bolivia

Ocelots typically breed only once every other year, although the female may mate again shortly after

losing a litter. Mating can occur at any time of year, and estrus lasts from seven to ten days. After mating,

the female will find a den in a cave in a rocky bluff, a hollow tree, or a dense (preferably thorny) thicket.

Gestation lasts 79 to 82 days, and usually results in the birth of only a single kitten, with its eyes closed

and a thin covering of hair. Litters of two or three kittens also occur, but are less common. The small litter

size and relative infrequency of breeding make the ocelot particularly vulnerable to population loss.[11]

Compared with other small cats, ocelot kittens grow quite slowly. They weigh around 250 grams (8.8 oz)

at birth, and do not open their eyes for 15 to 18 days. They begin to leave the den at three months, but

remain with their mother for up to two years, before dispersing to establish their own territory. Ocelots live

for up to 20 years in captivity.[11]

Distribution and habitat

Moche Ocelot. 200 A.D. Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru

The ocelot is distributed extensively over South America, Central America, and Mexico. They have been

reported as far north as Texas, and as far east as Trinidad and Barbados in the Caribbean.[3][4][14] Countries

in this range are:Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El

Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Panama,Paraguay, Peru, Nicaragua, Suriname, United

States and Venezuela. The cat is likely extinct in Uruguay.[2]

The ocelot once inhabited chaparral thickets of the Gulf Coast of south and eastern Texas, and could be

found in Arizona, Louisiana, andArkansas.[15] In the United States, it now ranges only in several small areas

of dense thicket in South Texas and is rarely sighted in Arizona. On November 7, 2009, an ocelot was

photographed in the mountains of Cochise County, Arizona. This was the first such verifiable evidence of

the feline's presence in the state.[16] In February 2011, the Arizona Game and Fish Department confirmed

the sighting of another ocelot in the Huachuca Mountains of southern Arizona.[17]

The ocelot's continued presence in the U.S. is questionable, as a result largely of the introduction of dogs,

being shot by ranchers, the loss of habitat, and the introduction of highways.[citation needed] Young male ocelots

are frequently killed by cars during their search for a territory.[citation needed]

Ocelots only inhabit areas with relatively dense vegetation cover, although they may occasionally hunt in

more open areas at night. They are found in tropical forest, thorn forest, mangrove swamps and savanna,

at elevations ranging up to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft).[11]

As pets

Salvador Dalí and Babou the ocelot

Like many wild cats, they are occasionally kept as pets. Salvador Dalí frequently traveled with his pet

ocelot Babou,[18] even bringing it aboard the luxury ocean liner, SS France.[19] Musician Gram Parsons kept

an ocelot as a pet in the back yard swimming pool area of his family's Winter Haven, Florida, home during

his teens, in the mid-1960s.[20]

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the ocelot in their art.[21]

Jaguar

Jaguar [1]

Temporal range: Early to

MiddlePleistocene – Recent

Conservation status

Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Panthera

Species: P. onca

Binomial name

Panthera onca

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Jaguar range

The jaguar (  / ̍ dʒ æ ɡ w ɑ r /  or UK / ̍ dʒ æ ɡ ju ː . ər / ; Panthera onca) is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus,

and is the only Pantheraspecies found in the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after

the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends

from Southern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south toParaguay and

northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona (southeast

of Tucson), the cat has largely been extirpated from the United States since the early 20th century.

This spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier

build and its behavioural andhabitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While

dense rainforest is its preferred habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and open

terrains. It is strongly associated with the presence of water and is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline

that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top

of the food chain (an apex predator). It is a keystone species, playing an important role in

stabilizing ecosystems and regulating the populations of the animals it hunts. The jaguar has an

exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats.[3] This allows it to pierce the shells of

armoured reptiles[4] and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of prey

between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.[5]

The jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and

fragmentation of habitat. While international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still

frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although

reduced, its range remains large; given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in

the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including that of the Maya and Aztec.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Etymology

2   Taxonomy

o 2.1   Asian ancestry

o 2.2   Geographical variation

3   Biology and behavior

o 3.1   Physical characteristics

3.1.1   Colour

morphism

o 3.2   Reproduction and life

cycle

o 3.3   Social activity

o 3.4   Hunting and diet

4   Ecology

o 4.1   Distribution and habitat

o 4.2   Ecological role

5   Conservation status

o 5.1   Jaguar in the United

States

6   In mythology and culture

o 6.1   Pre-Columbian

Americas

o 6.2   Contemporary culture

7   See also

8   References

9   Bibliography

10   Further Reading

11   External links

Etymology

It comes to English from one of the Tupi–Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade

language Tupinambá, via Portuguese jaguar.[6] The Tupian word, yaguara "beast", is sometimes translated

as "dog".[7][8] The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning "real" or "true".[6][9]

The first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word

for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. This has been said to derive from theπαν- "all"

and θήρ from θηρευτής "predator", meaning "predator of all" (animals), though this may be a folk

etymology[10]—it may instead be ultimately of Sanskrit origin, frompundarikam, the Sanskrit word for

"tiger".[11]

Onca is the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla dropped for typographical reasons, found in English

as ounce for the snow leopard, Uncia uncia. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L

confused with the definite article (Italian lonza, Old French l'once).[12]

Taxonomy

The jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of the Panthera genus. DNA evidence

shows the lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, snow leopard, and clouded leopardshare a common ancestor, and

that this group is between six and ten million years old; the fossil record points to the emergence

of Panthera just two to 3.8 million years ago.[13][14] Phylogenetic studies generally have shown the clouded

leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is basal to this group.[13][15][16][17] The position of the remaining species varies

between studies and is effectively unresolved.

Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar is most closely

related to the leopard.[17] However, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to

the other species varies between studies.[13][15][16][17] Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as

the European jaguar (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and the American lion (Panthera atrox), show

characteristics of both the lion and the jaguar.[17] Analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the

species' lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records.[18]

Asian ancestry

While jaguars now live only in the Americas, they are descended from Old World cats. Two million years

ago, scientists believe, the jaguar and its closest relative, the similarly spotted leopard, shared a common

ancestor in Asia.[19] In the early Pleistocene, the forerunners of modern jaguars crept across Beringia, the

land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait and connected Asia and North America. These jaguar

ancestors then moved south into Central and South America, feeding on the deer and other grazing

animals that once covered the landscape in huge herds.[19]

Geographical variation

While numerous subspecies of the jaguar have been recognized, recent research suggests just three.

Geographical barriers, such as the Amazon river, limit gene flow within the species.

The last taxonomic delineation of the jaguar subspecies was performed by Pocock in 1939. Based on

geographic origins and skullmorphology, he recognized eight subspecies. However, he did not have access

to sufficient specimens to critically evaluate all subspecies, and he expressed doubt about the status of

several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized.[20]

Recent studies have also failed to find evidence for well-defined subspecies, and are no longer recognized.[21] Larson (1997) studied the morphological variation in the jaguar and showed there is clinal north–south

variation, but also the differentiation within the supposed subspecies is larger than that between them,

and thus does not warrant subspecies subdivision.[22] A genetic study by Eizirik and coworkers in 2001

confirmed the absence of a clear geographical subspecies structure, although they found that major

geographical barriers, such as the Amazon River, limited the exchange of genes between the different

populations.[18] A subsequent, more-detailed study confirmed the predicted population structure within

the Colombian jaguars.[23]

Pocock's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in general descriptions of the cat.[24] Seymour

grouped these in three subspecies.[20]

1. Panthera onca onca: Venezuela through the Amazon, including

P. onca peruviana (Peruvian jaguar): Coastal Peru

2. P. onca hernandesii (Mexican jaguar): Western Mexico – including

P. onca centralis (Central American jaguar): El Salvador to Colombia

P. onca arizonensis (Arizonan jaguar): Southern Arizona to Sonora, Mexico

P. onca veraecrucis: Central Texas to southeastern Mexico

P. onca goldmani (Goldman's jaguar): Yucatán Peninsula to Belize and Guatemala

3. P. onca palustris (the largest subspecies, weighing more than 135 kg or 300 lb):[25] The Pantanal regions of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, along theParaguay

River into Paraguay and northeastern Argentina.

The Mammal Species of the World continues to recognize nine subspecies, the eight subspecies above and

additionally P. o. paraguensis.[1]

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

The head of the jaguar is robust and the jaw extremely powerful. The size of jaguars tends to increase the

farther south they are located.

The jaguar is a compact and well-muscled animal. Size and weight vary considerably: weights are normally

in the range of 56–96 kilograms (124–211 lb). Larger males have been recorded to weigh as much as

160 kg (350 lb)[26] (roughly matching a tigress or lioness), and the smallest females have low weights of

36 kg (79 lb). Females are typically 10–20% smaller than males. The length of the cats varies from 1.2 to

1.95 m (3.9 to 6.4 ft), and their tails may add a further 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in).[27][28] It stands 63 to 76

cm (25 to 30 in) tall at the shoulders.[29] Compared to the similar coloured Old World leopard, this cat is

bigger, heavier and relatively stocky in build.[20]

Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats, with size tending to increase

from the north to south. A study of the jaguar in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Mexican

Pacific coast, showed ranges of just about 50 kilograms (110 lb), about the size of the cougar.[30] By

contrast, a study of the jaguar in the Brazilian Pantanal region found average weights of 100 kilograms

(220 lb), and weights of 136 kilograms (300 lb) or more are not uncommon in old males.[31] Forest jaguars

are frequently darker and considerably smaller than those found in open areas (the Pantanal is an open

wetland basin), possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas.[32]

A short and stocky limb structure makes the jaguar adept at climbing, crawling and swimming.[29] The head

is robust and the jaw extremely powerful. The jaguar has the strongest bite of all felids, capable of biting

down with 2,000 lbf (910 kgf). This is twice the strength of a lion and the second strongest of all mammals

after the spotted hyena; this strength adaptation allows the jaguar to pierce turtle shells.[4] A comparative

study of bite force adjusted for body size ranked it as the top felid, alongside the clouded leopard and

ahead of the lion and tiger.[33] It has been reported that "an individual jaguar can drag a 360 kg (800 lb)

bull 8 m (25 ft) in its jaws and pulverize the heaviest bones".[34] The jaguar hunts wild animals weighing up

to 300 kilograms (660 lb) in dense jungle, and its short and sturdy physique is thus an adaptation to its

prey and environment. The base coat of the jaguar is generally a tawny yellow, but can range to reddish-

brown and black, for most of the body. However the ventral areas are white.[29] The cat is covered

in rosettes for camouflage in the dappled light of its forest habitat. The spots vary over individual coats

and between individual jaguars: rosettes may include one or several dots, and the shapes of the dots vary.

The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail, where they may merge to

form a band.

While the jaguar closely resembles the leopard, it is sturdier and heavier, and the two animals can be

distinguished by their rosettes: the rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, fewer in number, usually darker,

and have thicker lines and small spots in the middle that the leopard lacks. Jaguars also have rounder

heads and shorter, stockier limbs compared to leopards.[35]

Colour morphism

A melanistic jaguar is a colour morph which occurs at about 6% frequency in populations.

Colour morphism occurs in the species. A near-black melanistic form occurs regularly. Jaguars with

melanism appear entirely black, although their spots are still visible on close examination.

The black morph is less common than the spotted form but, at about six percent of the population,[36] it is

several orders of magnitude above the rate of mutation. Hence, it is being supported by selection. Some

evidence indicates the melanism allele is dominant.[37] The black form may be an example of heterozygote

advantage; breeding in captivity is not yet conclusive on this.

Melanistic jaguars are informally known as black panthers, but like all forms of polymorphism, they do not

form a separate species.

Extremely rare albino individuals, sometimes called white panthers, also occur among jaguars, as with the

other big cats.[32] As usual with albinos in the wild, selection keeps the frequency close to the rate of

mutation.

Reproduction and life cycle

Mother about to pick up a cub by the neck

Jaguar females reach sexual maturity at about two years of age, and males at three or four. The cat is

believed to mate throughout the year in the wild, although births may increase when prey is plentiful.[38] Research on captive male jaguars supports the year-round mating hypothesis, with no seasonal

variation in semen traits and ejaculatory quality; low reproductive success has also been observed in

captivity.[39] Female estrus is 6–17 days out of a full 37-day cycle, and females will advertise fertility

with urinary scent marks and increased vocalization.[38] Both sexes will range more widely than usual

during courtship.

Mating pairs separate after the act, and females provide all parenting. The gestation period lasts 93–105

days; females give birth to up to four cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will not tolerate the

presence of males after the birth of cubs, given a risk ofinfanticide; this behaviour is also found in the

tiger.[40]

The young are born blind, gaining sight after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at three months, but remain in

the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.[41] They will continue in

their mother's company for one to two years before leaving to establish a territory for themselves. Young

males are at first nomadic, jostling with their older counterparts until they succeed in claiming a territory.

Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated at around 12–15 years; in captivity, the jaguar lives up to 23 years,

placing it among the longest-lived cats.[31]

Social activity

Like most cats, the jaguar is solitary outside mother-cub groups. Adults generally meet only to court and

mate (though limited noncourting socialization has been observed anecdotally[40]) and carve out large

territories for themselves. Female territories, which range from 25 to 40 km2 in size, may overlap, but the

animals generally avoid one another. Male ranges cover roughly twice as much area, varying in size with

the availability of game and space, and do not overlap.[40][42] The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and

faeces tomark its territory.[43]

Like the other big cats, the jaguar is capable of roaring[44][45] and does so to warn territorial and mating

competitors away; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild.[46] Their roar often resembles a repetitive cough, and they may also vocalize mews and grunts.[31] Mating

fights between males occur, but are rare, and aggression avoidance behaviour has been observed in the

wild.[43] When it occurs, conflict is typically over territory: a male's range may encompass that of two or

three females, and he will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males.[40]

The jaguar is often described as nocturnal, but is more specifically crepuscular (peak activity around dawn

and dusk). Both sexes hunt, but males travel farther each day than females, befitting their larger

territories. The jaguar may hunt during the day if game is available and is a relatively energetic feline,

spending as much as 50–60% of its time active.[32] The jaguar's elusive nature and the inaccessibility of

much of its preferred habitat make it a difficult animal to sight, let alone study.

Hunting and diet

The jaguar has an exceptionally powerful bite that allows it to pierce the shells of armoured reptiles.

Like all cats, the jaguar is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. It is an opportunistic hunter and its

diet encompasses at least 87 species.[32] The jaguar prefers large prey and will take adult caimans,[47] deer, capybaras, tapirs, peccaries, dogs, foxes, and sometimes even anacondas.[20] However, the cat

will eat any small species that can be caught, including frogs, mice, birds, fish, sloths, monkeys,

and turtles; a study conducted in Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, for example, revealed the

diets of jaguars there consisted primarily of armadillos and pacas.[43] Some jaguars will also take domestic

livestock, including adult cattle and horses.[48]

While the jaguar employs the deep throat-bite and suffocation technique typical among Panthera, it

prefers a killing method unique amongst cats: it pierces directly through the temporal bones of

the skull between the ears of prey (especially the capybara) with itscanine teeth, piercing the brain.[49] This

may be an adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells; following the late Pleistocene extinctions, armoured

reptiles such as turtles would have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar.[32][46] The skull bite is

employed with mammals in particular; with reptiles such as the caiman, the jaguar may leap on to the

back of the prey and sever the cervical vertebrae, immobilizing the target. While capable of cracking turtle

shells, the jaguar may simply reach into the shell and scoop out the flesh.[40]When attacking sea turtles as

they try to nest on beaches, the jaguar will bite at the head, often beheading the prey, before dragging it

off to eat.[50] With prey such as smaller dogs, a paw swipe to the skull may be sufficient to kill it.

Illustration of a jaguar killing a tapir

The jaguar is a stalk-and-ambush rather than a chase predator. The cat will walk slowly down forest paths,

listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually

from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly

peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers, and are probably a

product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping

into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is

such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels.[40]

On killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the

neck and chest, rather than the midsection. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.[40] The daily food requirement of a 34-kilogram animal, at the extreme low end of the species' weight

range, has been estimated at 1.4 kilograms.[51] For captive animals in the 50–60 kilogram range, more

than two kilograms of meat daily are recommended.[52] In the wild, consumption is naturally more erratic;

wild cats expend considerable energy in the capture and kill of prey, and may consume up to 25 kilograms

of meat at one feeding, followed by periods of famine.[53] Unlike all other species in the Panthera genus,

jaguars very rarely attack humans. Most of the scant cases where jaguars turn to taking a human show

the animal is either old with damaged teeth or is wounded.[54] Sometimes, if scared or threatened, jaguars

in captivity may lash out at zookeepers.[55]

Ecology

Distribution and habitat

It has been an American cat since crossing the Bering Land Bridge during the Pleistocene epoch; the

immediate ancestor of modern animals is Panthera onca augusta, which was larger than the contemporary

cat.[23] Its present range extends from Mexico, through Central America and into South America, including

much of Amazonian Brazil.[56] The countries included in this range are Argentina, Belize, Bolivia,

Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica (particularly on the Osa Peninsula), Ecuador, French Guiana,

Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, the United

States and Venezuela. The jaguar is now extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.[2] It occurs in the

400 km² Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, the 5,300 km² Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve in

Mexico, the approximately 15,000 km2 Manú National Park in Peru, the approximately 26,000 km2 Xingu

National Park in Brazil, and numerous other reserves throughout its range.

The jaguar can range across a variety of forested and open habitat, but is strongly associated with the

presence of water.

The inclusion of the United States in the list is based on occasional sightings in the southwest, particularly

in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In the early 20th century, the jaguar's range extended as far north as

the Grand Canyon, and as far west as Southern California.[51] The jaguar is a protected species in the

United States under the Endangered Species Act, which has stopped the shooting of the animal for its pelt.

In 1996 and from 2004 on, wildlife officials in Arizona photographed and documented jaguars in the

southern part of the state. Between 2004 and 2007, two or three jaguars have been reported by

researchers around Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona. One of them, called 'Macho

B', had been previously photographed in 1996 in the area.[57] For any permanent population in the USA to

thrive, protection from killing, an adequate prey base, and connectivity with Mexican populations are

essential.[58] On 25 February 2009, a 118-lb Jaguar was caught, radio-collared and released in an area

southwest of Tucson, Arizona; this is farther north than had previously been expected and represents a

sign there may be a permanent breeding population of jaguars within southern Arizona. The animal was

later confirmed to be indeed the same male individual ('Macho B') that was photographed in 2004.[59] On 2

March 2009, Macho B was recaptured and euthanized after he was found to be suffering from kidney

failure; the animal was thought to be 16 years old, older than any known wild jaguar.[60]

Completion of the United States–Mexico barrier as currently proposed will reduce the viability of any

population currently residing in the United States, by reducing gene flow with Mexican populations, and

prevent any further northward expansion for the species.[61]

The historic range of the species included much of the southern half of the United States, and in the south

extended much farther to cover most of the South American continent. In total, its northern range has

receded 1,000 km (621 mi) southward and its southern range 2,000 km (1243 mi) northward. Ice

age fossils of the jaguar, dated between 40,000 and 11,500 years ago, have been discovered in the United

States, including some at an important site as far north as Missouri. Fossil evidence shows jaguars of up to

190 kg (420 lb), much larger than the contemporary average for the animal.[62]

The habitat of the cat includes the rain forests of South and Central America, open, seasonally flooded

wetlands, and dry grassland terrain. Of these habitats, the jaguar much prefers dense forest;[32] the cat has

lost range most rapidly in regions of drier habitat, such as the Argentinian pampas, the arid grasslands of

Mexico, and the southwestern United States.[2] The cat will range across tropical, subtropical, and dry

deciduous forests (including, historically, oak forests in the United States). The jaguar is strongly

associated with water, and it often prefers to live by rivers, swamps, and in dense rainforest with thick

cover for stalking prey. Jaguars have been found at elevations as high as 3,800 m, but they typically avoid

montane forest and are not found in the high plateau of central Mexico or in the Andes.[32]

Substantial evidence exists for a colony of nonnative, melanistic leopards or jaguars inhabiting the

rainforests around Sydney, Australia. A local report compiled statements from over 450 individuals

recounting their stories of sighting large black cats in the area, and confidential NSW

Government documents regarding the matter proved wildlife authorities were so concerned about the big

cats and the danger to humans, they commissioned an expert to catch one. The three-day hunt later

failed, but ecologist Johannes J. Bauer warned: "Difficult as it seems to accept, the most likely explanation

is the presence of a large, feline predator. In this area, [it is] most likely a leopard, less likely a jaguar."[63]

Ecological role

The adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it exists at the top of its food chain and is not preyed on in

the wild. The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed, through controlling the

population levels of prey such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals, apex felids maintain the

structural integrity of forest systems.[30][64]However, accurately determining what effect species like the

jaguar have on ecosystems is difficult, because data must be compared from regions where the species is

absent as well as its current habitats, while controlling for the effects of human activity. It is accepted that

mid-sized prey species undergo population increases in the absence of the keystone predators, and this

has been hypothesized to have cascading negative effects.[65] However, field work has shown this may be

natural variability and the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone

predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.[66]

The jaguar also has an effect on other predators. The jaguar and the cougar, the next-largest feline of the

Americas, are often sympatric (related species sharing overlapping territory) and have often been studied

in conjunction. Where sympatric with the jaguar, the cougar is smaller than normal and is smaller than the

local jaguars. The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller, reducing the latter's size.[67] This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take

smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes;[30] while both are

classified as near-threatened species, the cougar has a significantly larger current distribution.

Conservation status

A melanistic jaguar

Jaguar populations are rapidly declining. The animal is considered Near Threatened by the International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,[2] meaning it may be threatened with extinction

in the near future. The loss of parts of its range, including its virtual elimination from its historic northern

areas and the increasing fragmentation of the remaining range, have contributed to this status. The 1960s

had particularly significant declines, with more than 15,000 jaguar skins brought out of the Brazilian

Amazon yearly; theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1973 brought about a

sharp decline in the pelt trade.[68] Detailed work performed under the auspices of the Wildlife Conservation

Society revealed the animal has lost 37% of its historic range, with its status unknown in an additional

18%. More encouragingly, the probability of long-term survival was considered high in 70% of its

remaining range, particularly in the Amazon basin and the adjoining Gran Chaco and Pantanal.[56]

The major risks to the jaguar include deforestation across its habitat, increasing competition for food with

human beings,[2] poaching,hurricanes in northern parts of its range, and the behaviour of ranchers who will

often kill the cat where it preys on livestock. When adapted to the prey, the jaguar has been shown to take

cattle as a large portion of its diet; while land clearance for grazing is a problem for the species, the jaguar

population may have increased when cattle were first introduced to South America, as the animals took

advantage of the new prey base. This willingness to take livestock has induced ranch owners to hire full-

time jaguar hunters, and the cat is often shot on sight.[31]

The Pantanal, Brazil, seen here in flood condition, is a critical jaguar range area.

The jaguar is regulated as an Appendix I species under CITES: all international trade in jaguars or their

parts is prohibited. All hunting of jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Belize, Colombia, French Guiana,

Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States (where it is listed as endangered

under the Endangered Species Act), Uruguay and Venezuela. Hunting of jaguars is restricted to "problem

animals" in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru, while trophy hunting is still permitted in

Bolivia. The species has no legal protection in Ecuador or Guyana.[24]

Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism.[69] The

jaguar is generally defined as anumbrella species – its home range and habitat requirements are

sufficiently broad that, if protected, numerous other species of smaller range will also be protected.[70] Umbrella species serve as "mobile links" at the landscape scale, in the jaguar's case through predation.

Conservation organizations may thus focus on providing viable, connected habitat for the jaguar, with the

knowledge other species will also benefit.[69]

Given the inaccessibility of much of the species' range, particularly the central Amazon, estimating jaguar

numbers is difficult. Researchers typically focus on particular bioregions, thus species-wide analysis is

scant. In 1991, 600–1,000 (the highest total) were estimated to be living in Belize. A year earlier, 125–180

jaguars were estimated to be living in Mexico's 4,000-km2 (2400-mi2) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, with

another 350 in the state of Chiapas. The adjoining Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala, with an area

measuring 15,000 km2 (9,000 mi2), may have 465–550 animals.[71] Work employing GPS telemetry in 2003

and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the critical Pantanal region,

compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may

inflate the actual numbers of cats.[72]

In the past, conservation of jaguars sometimes occurred through the protection of jaguar "hotspots".

These hotspots, described as jaguar conservation units, were large areas populated by about 50 jaguars.

However, some researchers recently determined, to maintain a robust sharing of the jaguar gene pool

necessary for maintaining the species, it is important that the jaguars are interconnected. To facilitate

this, a new project, the Paseo del Jaguar, has been established to connect several jaguar hotspots.[73]

Jaguar in the United States

The only extant cat native to North America that roars,[74] the jaguar was recorded as an animal of the

Americas by Thomas Jefferson in 1799[75]. There are multiple zoological reports of jaguar in California, two

as far north as Monterey in 1814 (Langsdorff) and 1826 (Beechey).[76] The coastal Diegueño (Kumeyaay

people) of San Diego and Cahuilla Indians of Palm Springs had words for jaguar and the cats persisted

there until about 1860.[77] The only recorded description of an active jaguar den with breeding adults and

kittens in the U.S. was in the Tehachapi Mountains of California prior to 1860.[76] In 1843, Rufus Sage, an

explorer and experienced observer recorded jaguar present on the headwaters of theNorth Platte

River 30–50 miles north of Long's Peak in Colorado. Cabot's 1544 map has a drawing of jaguar ranging

over the Pennsylvania and Ohio valleys. Historically, the jaguar was recorded in far eastern Texas, and the

northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico. However, since the 1940s, the jaguar has been limited to the

southern parts of these states. Although less reliable than zoological records, native American artefacts

with possible jaguar motifs range from the Pacific Northwest to Pennsylvania and Florida.[78]

Jaguars were rapidly eliminated by Anglo-Americans in the United States, along with most other large

predators. The last female jaguar in the United States was shot by a hunter in Arizona's White

Mountains in 1963. In 1969, Arizona outlawed most jaguar hunting, but with no females known to be at

large, there was little hope the population could rebound. During the next 25 years, only two jaguars were

documented in the United States, both killed: a large male shot in 1971 near the Santa Cruz River by two

teenage duck hunters, and another male cornered by hounds in the Dos Cabezas Mountains in 1986. Then

in 1996, Warner Glenn, a rancher and hunting guide from Douglas, Arizona, came across a jaguar in

the Peloncillo Mountains and became a jaguar researcher, placing webcams which recorded four more

Arizona jaguars.[79]

On November 19, 2011, a 200-pound male jaguar was photographed near Cochise in southern Arizona by

a hunter after being treed by his dogs (the animal left the scene unharmed). This is the last jaguar seen

since another male, named Macho B, died shortly after being radio-collared by Arizona Game and Fish

Department (AGFD) officials in March, 2009. In the Macho B incident, a former AGFD subcontractor

pleaded guilty to violating the endangered species act for trapping the cat and a Game and Fish employee

was fired for lying to federal investigators.[74] None of the other four male jaguars sighted in Arizona in the

last 15 years have been seen since 2006.[80] However, a second 2011 sighting of an Arizona jaguar was

reported by a Homeland Security border pilot in June 2011, and conservation researchers sighted two

jaguars within 30 miles of the Mexico/U.S. border in 2010.[74]

Legal action by the Center for Biological Diversity led to federal listing of the cat on the endangered

species list in 1997. However, on January 7, 2008, George W. Bush appointeeH. Dale Hall, Director of

the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, signed a recommendation to abandon jaguar recovery as a

federal goal under the Endangered Species Act. Critics, including the Center of Biological Diversity

and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, were concerned the jaguar was being sacrificed for the

government's new border fence, which is to be built along many of the cat's typical crossings between the

United States and Mexico.[81] In 2010, the Obama Administration reversed the Bush Administrationpolicy

and pledged to protect "critical habitat" and draft a recovery plan for the species. The U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service is under a court order to develop a jaguar recovery plan and designate critical habitat for

the cats.[74]

In mythology and culture

Pre-Columbian Americas

See also: Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures

Moche Jaguar (300 AD)Larco Museum Lima, Peru

Jaguar warrior in the Aztec culture

In pre-Columbian Central and South America, the jaguar has long been a symbol of power and strength.

Among the Andean cultures, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over

most of what is today Peru by 900 BC. The later Moche culture of northern Peru used the jaguar as a

symbol of power in many of their ceramics.[82][83][84]

In Mesoamerica, the Olmec—an early and influential culture of the Gulf Coast region roughly

contemporaneous with the Chavín—developed a distinct "were-jaguar" motif of sculptures and figurines

showing stylised jaguars or humans with jaguar characteristics. In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar

was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal

household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and a number

of Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar (b'alam in many of the Mayan

languages). The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as

a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar Knights. In Aztec mythology, the

jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca.[40][85]

Contemporary culture

The jaguar and its name are widely used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal

of Guyana, and is featured in itscoat of arms.[86] The flag of the Department of Amazonas, a Colombian

department, features a black jaguar silhouette pouncing towards a hunter.[87] The jaguar also appears in

banknotes of Brazilian real. The jaguar is also a common fixture in the mythology of many contemporary

native cultures in South America,[88] usually being portrayed as the creature which gave humans the power

over fire.

Jaguar is widely used as a product name, most prominently for a luxury car brand. The name has been

adopted by sports franchises, including the NFL's Jacksonville Jaguars and

the Mexican football club Jaguares de Chiapas. Grammy-winning Mexican rock band "Jaguares" were also

influenced by the magnificent animal to choose their band name. The crest of Argentina's national

federation in rugby union features a jaguar; however, because of a historic accident, the country's national

team is nicknamed Los Pumas. The country's "A" (second-level) national team in that sport now bears

the Jaguars name.

A melanistic jaguar loose in a South American city is the central figure in the 1942 novel Black

Alibi by Cornell Woolrich.

In the spirit of the ancient Mayan culture, the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City adopted a red jaguar as the

first official Olympic mascot.[89]

Felinae

Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi)

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Subfamily: Felinae

Genera

Acinonyx

Caracal

Catopuma

Felis

Leopardus

Nimravides

Leptailurus

Lynx

Otocolobus

Pardofelis

Prionailurus

Profelis

Puma

Felinae diversity

Felinae is a subfamily of the family Felidae which includes the genera and species listed below. Most are

small to medium-sized cats, although the group does include some larger animals, such as

the Cougar and Cheetah. The earliest records of the Felinae are ascribedFelis attica from the

late Miocene (9 Ma) of western Eurasia.[2]

Genera

Genus Acinonyx Brookes, 1828

Acinonyx aicha Geraads, 1997 †

Acinonyx intermedius Thenius,

1954 †

Acinonyx jubatus Schreber, 1775 –

Cheetah

Acinonyx kurteni Christiansen and

Mazák, 2008 †

Acinonyx pardinensis Croizet e

Joubert, 1928 † – Giant Cheetah

Genus Caracal Gray, 1843

Caracal caracal Schreber, 1776 –

Caracal

Genus Catopuma Severtzov, 1858

Catopuma badia Gray, 1874 – Bay

Cat

Catopuma

temminckii Vigors & Horsfield, 1827 – Asian

Golden Cat

Genus Felis Linnaeus, 1758

Felis attica Wagner, 1857 †

Genus Leptailurus Severtzov, 1858

Leptailurus serval Schreber, 1776 –

Serval

Genus Lynx Kerr, 1792

Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792 – Canadian

Lynx

Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758 – Eurasian

Lynx

Lynx pardinus Temminck, 1827 – Iberian

Lynx

Lynx rufus Schreber, 1777 – Bobcat

Genus †Miracinonyx

†Miracinonyx trumani

†Miracinonyx inexpectatus

†Miracinonyx studeri

Genus †Nimravides

†Nimravides catacopsis

†Nimravides pedionomus

†Nimravides hibbardi

†Nimravides galiani

†Nimravides thinobates

Felis bieti Milne-Edwards, 1892 –

Chinese Mountain Cat

Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758 –

Domestic Cat

Felis chaus Schreber, 1777 – Jungle

Cat

Felis lunensis Martelli, 1906 † –

Martelli's Cat

Felis margarita Loche, 1858 – Sand

Cat

Felis nigripes Burchell, 1824 – Black-

footed Cat

Felis silvestris Schreber, 1775 –

Wildcat

Genus Leopardus Gray, 1842

Leopardus braccatus Cope, 1889 –

Pantanal Cat

Leopardus colocolo Molina, 1782 –

Colocolo

Leopardus

geoffroyi d'Orbigny & Gervais, 1844 –

Geoffroy's Cat

Leopardus guigna Molina, 1782 –

Kodkod

Leopardus jacobitus Cornalia, 1865 –

Andean Mountain Cat

Leopardus pajeros Desmarest,

1816 – Pampas Cat

Leopardus pardalis Linnaeus, 1758 –

Ocelot

Leopardus tigrinus Schreber, 1775 –

Oncilla

Leopardus wiedii Schinz, 1821 –

Margay

Genus Otocolobus

Otocolobus manul Pallas, 1776 – Pallas's

Cat

Genus Pardofelis Severtzov, 1858

Pardofelis marmorata Martin, 1837 – Marbled

Cat

Genus Prionailurus Severtzov, 1858

Prionailurus bengalensis Kerr, 1792 –

Leopard Cat

Prionailurus iriomotensis Imaizumi,

1967 – Iriomote Cat

Prionailurus planiceps Vigors & Horsfield,

1827 – Flat-headed Cat

Prionailurus rubiginosus Geoffroy Saint-

Hilaire, 1831 – Rusty-spotted Cat

Prionailurus viverrinus Bennett, 1833 –

Fishing Cat

Genus Profelis Severtzov, 1858

Profelis aurata Temminck, 1827 – African

Golden Cat

Genus Puma Jardine, 1834

Puma concolor Linnaeus, 1771 – Cougar

Puma yagouaroundi Geoffroy, 1803 –

Jaguarundi

Jaguarundi

Jaguarundi[1]

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Puma

Species: P. yagouaroundi

Binomial name

Puma yagouaroundi

(Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803)[3]

Jaguarundi range

Synonyms

Species synonymy[show]

The jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi syn. Herpailurus yagouaroundi) is a small-sized wild cat native

to Central and South America. In 2002, the IUCN classified the jaguarundi as Least Concern, although they

considered it likely that no conservation units beyond the mega-reserves of the Amazon basin could

sustain long-term viable populations. It is probably extinct in Texas. Its presence in Uruguay is uncertain.[2]

Etymology and naming

The two color phases were once thought to represent two distinct species; the grey one

called jaguarundi / ̩ ʒ æ ɡ w ə ̍ r ʌ n d i / ZHAG -wə-RUN -dee,[4] and the red one called eyra. In

some Spanish speaking countries, the jaguarundi is also called leoncillo, which meanslittle lion. Other

Spanish common names for the jaguarundi include: "gato colorado", "gato moro", "león brenero", "onza",

and "tigrillo".[5]

Description

Red color phase

In terms of physical appearance, the jaguarundi is perhaps the least cat-like of all the cats. It has a total

length of 53 to 77 cm (21 to 30 in), not including the 31 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) tail, and weighs 3.5 to 9.1

kg (7.7 to 20 lb).[6][7][8]

It has short legs, an elongated body and a long tail, giving it an appearance somewhat like

anotter or marten. For this reason, these animals are sometimes referred to as "otter cats." The ears are

short and rounded. The coat is unspotted and uniform in color, with, at most, a few faint markings on the

face and underside. The coat can be either blackish to brownish grey (grey phase) or foxy red to chestnut

(red phase); individuals of both phases can be born in the same litter.[6]

Distribution and habitat

The jaguarundi is found from southern Texas and coastal Mexico in the north, through central and South

America east of the Andes, and as far south as northern Argentina. Its habitat is lowland brush areas close

to a source of running water, and may include anything from dry thorn forest to wet grassland. While

commonly found in the lowlands, they have been reported at elevations as high as 3,200 metres

(10,500 ft).[6] Jaguarundis also occasionally inhabit dense tropical areas.

Jaguarundis have also been sighted in the U.S. state of Florida since the early 20th century. Here, the

species is thought to beintroduced, but it is not known when the introduction occurred. Their presence in

Florida is said to have been the work of a writer who at some point imported the animals from their native

habitat and released them near his hometown of Chiefland and in other locations across the state. No live

or dead specimens have been found, but there have been many sightings considered credible by

biologists. The earliest of these occurred in 1907, and was followed by various additional sightings

throughout the Florida Peninsula from the 1930s through the 1950s. The first official report was released

in 1942. There were significantly fewer reliable sightings after that, and by 1977 W. T. Neillconcluded in a

report that the population had declined. However, sightings have continued.[9]

There have also been sightings of jaguarundis in the coastal area of the U.S. state of Alabama. This may

be evidence of the Florida population migrating westward.[9]

Behavior

Gray color phase

Jaguarundis are primarily diurnal, being active during the day rather than evenings or night time. They are

comfortable in trees, but prefer to hunt on the ground. They will eat almost any small animal that they can

catch, typically catching a mixture of rodents, small reptiles, and ground-feeding birds. They have also

been observed to kill larger prey, such as rabbits, and opossums; relatively unusual prey include fish and

even marmosets. Like many other cats they also include a small amount of vegetation and arthropods in

their diet.[6]

Although they seem to be somewhat more gregarious than many other cats, willing to tolerate the close

presence of other members of their species, in the wild they are generally encountered alone, suggesting

a solitary lifestyle. Their home range is widely variable, depending on the local environment; individuals

have been reported as ranging over territories of anything from 6.8 to 100 square kilometres (2.6 to 39

sq mi). Like other cats, they scent mark their territory by scratching the ground or nearby branches, head-

rubbing, urination, and leaving their faeces uncovered.[6] They are shy and reclusive, and evidently very

cautious of man-made traps.[9]

Jaguarundis make an unusually wide range of vocalisations, including purrs, whistles, yaps, chattering

sounds, and even a bird-like chirp.[6]

Reproduction

The timing of the breeding season among jaguarundis is unclear; it may be that they breed all year

round. Oestrus lasts three to five days, and is marked by the female regularly rolling onto her back and

spraying urine. After a gestation period of 70 to 75 days, the female gives birth to a litter of one to four

kittens in a den constructed in a dense thicket, hollow tree, or similar cover.[6]

The kittens are born with spots on their underside, which disappear as they age. They are capable of

taking solid food at around six weeks, although they begin to play with their mother's food as early as

three weeks. Jaguarundis become sexually mature at approximately two years of age, and have lived for

up to ten years in captivity.[6]

Taxonomy and evolution

This cat is closely related to the much larger and heavier cougar as evident by its similar genetic structure

and chromosome count; both species are in the genus Puma although it is sometimes classified under a

separate genus, Herpailurus and until recently, both cats were classified under the genus Felis.

According to a 2006 genomic study of Felidae, an ancestor of today's Leopardus, Lynx, Puma, Prionailurus,

and Felis lineages migrated across the Bering land bridge into theAmericas approximately 8 to 8.5 million

years ago. The lineages subsequently diverged in that order.[10]

Studies have indicated that the cougar and jaguarundi are next most closely related to the

modern cheetah of Africa and western Asia,[10][11] but the relationship is unresolved. It has been suggested

that ancestors of the cheetah diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas and migrated back to Asia

and Africa,[10][11] while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself.[12] The outline

of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear (see also American cheetah).

A Jaguarundi in the zoo in Děčín, Czech Republic

Conservation

This cat is not particularly sought after for its fur, but it is suffering decline due to loss of habitat.

The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department has expressed concern that the presence of the Jaguarundi in

South Texas may be imperiled due to loss of the cat's native habitat.[13]

The jaguarundi has been sighted around the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana.[14]

Subspecies

Puma yagouaroundi armeghinoi (Holmberg, 1898) (Western Argentina, Far-Eastern Chile)

Puma yagouaroundi cacomitli (Berlandier, 1859) – Gulf Coast Jaguarundi (southern Texas and

eastern Mexico)

Puma yagouaroundi eyra (G.Fischer, 1814) (Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina)

Puma yagouaroundi fossata (Mearns, 1901) – Guatemalan Jaguarundi (southern Mexico

to Honduras)

Puma yagouaroundi melantho (Thomas, 1914) (Peru and Brazil)

Puma yagouaroundi panamensis (J.A.Allen, 1904) – Panamanian Jaguarundi (Nicaragua to Ecuador)

Puma yagouaroundi tolteca (Thomas, 1898) – Sinaloan Jauguarundi (western Mexico; unconfirmed

sightings have been reported in Arizona and Sonora)[7]

Puma yagouaroundi yagouaroundi (Geoffroy, 1803) -Geoffroy's Jaguarundi (Guyana and

the Amazon Rainforest)[3]

Cougar

.

Cougar[1]

Temporal range: Middle

Pleistocene to recent

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Felidae

Genus: Puma

Species: Puma concolor

Binomial name

Puma concolor

(Linnaeus, 1771)

Subspecies

P. c. cougar - North

America

P. c. costaricensis -

Central America

P. c. capricornensis -

eastern South America

P. c. concolor - northern

South America

P. c. cabrerae - central

South America

P. c. puma - southern

South America

Also see text

Cougar range

The cougar (Puma concolor), also known as puma, mountain lion, mountain

cat, catamount or panther, depending on the region, is a mammal of the family Felidae, native to the

Americas. This large, solitary cat has the greatest range of any large wild terrestrial mammal in

the Western Hemisphere,[3] extending from Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes of South America. An

adaptable,generalist species, the cougar is found in every major American habitat type. It is the second

heaviest cat in the Western Hemisphere, after the jaguar. Although large, the cougar is most closely

related to smaller felines and is closer genetically to the domestic cat than to true lions. Like the smaller

felines, the cougar is nocturnal.[4]

A capable stalk-and-ambush predator, the cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Primary food sources

include ungulates such as deer,elk, moose, and bighorn sheep, as well as domestic cattle, horses

and sheep, particularly in the northern part of its range. It will also hunt species as small as insects

and rodents. This cat prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking, but it can also

live in open areas. The cougar is territorial and persists at low population densities. Individual territory

sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always

the dominant species in its range, as when it competes for prey with other predators such as

the jaguar, grey wolf, American Black Bear, and the grizzly bear. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids

people.Attacks on humans remain fairly rare, despite a recent increase in frequency.[5]

Because of excessive hunting following the European colonization of the Americas and the continuing

human development of cougarhabitat, populations have dropped in most parts of its historical range. In

particular, the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century,

except for an isolated sub-population in Florida. However, in recent decades, breeding populations have

moved east into the far western parts of the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. Transient males have

been verified in Minnesota (where one was shot and killed),[6] Wisconsin,[7] Iowa,[8][9] the Upper Peninsula of

Michigan, and Illinois, where a cougar was shot in the city limits of Chicago[10][11][12] and, in at least one

instance, observed as far east as Connecticut.[13][14]

Naming and etymology

With its vast range, the cougar has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of

the indigenous Americans and in contemporary culture. The cougar has numerous names in English, of

which puma and mountain lion are popular. Other names includecatamount, panther, mountain

screamer and painter. Lexicographers regard painter as a primarily upper-Southern U.S. regional variant

on "panther",[15] but a folk etymology, fancying a resemblance between the typically dark tip of its tail and

a paintbrush dipped in dark paint, has some currency.

The cougar holds the Guinness record for the animal with the highest number of names, presumably due

to its wide distribution acrossNorth and South America. It has over 40 names in English alone.[16]

"Cougar" may be borrowed from the archaic Portuguese çuçuarana, via French; the term was originally

derived from the Tupi language. A current form in Brazil is suçuarana. It may also be borrowed from

the Guaraní language term guaçu ara or guazu ara. "Puma" comes, via Spanish, from the Quechua

language.[17][18][19]

Taxonomy and evolution

Although large, the cougar is more closely related to smaller felines.

Close-up of face.

The cougar is the largest of the small cats. It is placed in the subfamily Felinae, although its bulk

characteristics are similar to those of the big cats in the subfamily Pantherinae.[1] The family Felidae is

believed to have originated in Asia approximately 11 million years ago. Taxonomic research on felids

remains partial and much of what is known about their evolutionary history is based on mitochondrial

DNAanalysis,[20] as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record,[21] and there are significant confidence

intervals with suggested dates. In the latest genomic study of Felidae, the common ancestor of

today's Leopardus, Lynx, Puma, Prionailurus, and Felis lineages migrated across the Bering land

bridge into the Americas approximately 8 to 8.5 million years (Mya) ago. The lineages subsequently

diverged in that order.[21] North American felids then invaded South America 3 Ma ago as part of the Great

American Interchange, following formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The cougar was originally thought to

belong in Felis (Felis concolor), the genus which includes the domestic cat. As of 1993, it is now placed

in Puma along with the jaguarundi, a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight.

Studies have indicated that the cougar and jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern cheetah of

Africa and western Asia,[21][22]but the relationship is unresolved. It has been suggested that the cheetah

lineage diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas (seeAmerican cheetah) and migrated back to Asia

and Africa,[21][22] while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old Worlditself.[23] The outline

of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear.

Recent studies have demonstrated a high level of genetic similarity among the North American cougar

populations, suggesting that they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group. Culver et

al. suggest that the original North American population of Puma concolor was extirpated during

the Pleistocene extinctions some 10,000 years ago, when other large mammals such as Smilodon also

disappeared. North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars.[22]

Subspecies

Until the late 1980s, as many as 32 subspecies were recorded; however, a recent genetic study

of mitochondrial DNA[22] found that many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a

molecular level. Following the research, the canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition)

recognizes six subspecies, five of which are solely found in Latin America:[1]

Argentine puma (Puma concolor cabrerae) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma (Marcelli, 1922);

Costa Rican cougar (Puma concolor costaricensis)

Eastern South American cougar (Puma concolor capricornensis) 

includes the previous subspecies and

synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni and nigra;

North American Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) 

includes the previous subspecies and

synonyms arundivaga, aztecus, browni, californica, coryi, floridana, hippolestes, improcera, kaibabe

nsis, mayensis, missoulensis,olympus, oregonensis, schorgeri, stanleyana, vancouverensis and you

ngi;

Northern South American cougar (Puma concolor concolor) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi, incarum, osgoodi, soasoaranna,

sussuarana, soderstromii, suçuaçuara and wavula;

Southern South American puma (Puma concolor puma) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor (Gay,

1847), patagonica, pearsoni and puma (Trouessart, 1904)

The status of the Florida panther, here collapsed into the North American cougar, remains uncertain. It is

still regularly listed as subspecies Puma concolor coryi in research works, including those directly

concerned with its conservation.[24] Culver et al. themselves noted low microsatellite variation in the

Florida panther, possibly due to inbreeding;[22]responding to the research, one conservation team suggests

"the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver et al. and the proposed

change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time."[25]

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

Cougar skull and jawbone

Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family. They are the fourth largest cat[26] and adults

stand about 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) tall at the shoulders.[27] Adult males are around 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long

nose to tail and females average 2.05 m (6.7 ft), with overall ranges between 1.5 to 2.75 m (4.9 to 9.0 ft)

nose to tail suggested for the species in general.[28][29] Of this length, 63 to 95 cm (25 to 37 in) is comprised

by the tail.[30] Males typically weigh 53 to 100 kilograms (115 to 220 pounds), averaging 62 kg (137 lb).

Females typically weigh between 29 and 64 kg (64 and 141 lb), averaging 42 kg (93 lb).[31][32][33] Cougar

size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles.[3] The largest recorded cougar was shot

in Arizona and weighed 125.5 kilograms (276 pounds) after its intestines were removed, indicating that in

life it could have weighed nearly 136.2 kilograms (300 pounds).[34] Several male cougars in British

Columbia weighed between 86.4 and 95.5 kilograms (190 to 210 pounds).[35]

Although cougars resemble thedomestic cat, they are about the same size as an adult human.

The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp

and hold large prey. It has five retractable claws on its forepaws (one a dewclaw) and four on its hind

paws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey.[36]

Cougars can be almost as large as jaguars, but are less muscular and not as powerfully built; where their

ranges overlap, the cougar tends to be smaller than average. Besides the jaguar, the cougar is on average

larger than all felids outside of the Old World lion and tigers. Despite its size, it is not typically classified

among the "big cats", as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus ofPanthera.[37] Compared to "big cats", cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations

outside of the mother-offspring relationship.[38] Cougars sometimes voice low-pitched hisses, growls, and

purrs, as well as chirps and whistles, many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats. They are

well known for their screams, as referenced in some of their common names, although these screams are

often misinterpreted to be the calls of other animals.[39]

Rear paw of a cougar

Cougar coloring is plain (hence the Latin concolor) but can vary greatly between individuals and even

between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on

the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings

on their tails;[31] juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks.[29] Despite anecdotes to the

contrary, all-black coloring (melanism) has never been documented in cougars.[40] The term "black

panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and

leopards.[41]

Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family.[31] This physique allows

it great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5.4 m (18 ft) is reported for the

cougar.[42] Horizontal jumping capability from standing position is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20

to 40 ft). The cougar can run as fast as 55 to 72 km/h (35 to 45 mi/h),[43] but is best adapted for short,

powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to

evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.[44]

Hunting and diet

A successful generalist predator, the cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to

large ungulates (over 500 kg). Like all cats, it is an obligate carnivore meaning it needs to feed exclusively

on meat to survive. The mean weight of vertebrate prey (MWVP) was positively correlated (r=0.875) with

puma body weight and inversely correlated (r=-0.836) with food niche breadth in all America. In general,

MWVP was lower in areas closer to the Equator.[3] Its most important prey species are various deer

species, particularly in North America; mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and even large moose are taken

by the cat. Other species such as Bighorn Sheep, wild horses of Arizona, domestic horses, and domestic

livestock such as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas.[45] A survey of North

America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida Panther

showed variation, often preferring feral hogs and armadillos.[3]

Shown eating. Cougars are ambush predators, feeding mostly on deer and other

mammals.

Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed that elk, followed by mule deer, were the cougar's

primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's gray wolves, with whom the cougar competes for

resources.[46] Another study on winter kills (November–April) inAlberta showed that ungulates accounted

for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some

cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species.[47]

In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size

mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the capybara. Ungulates accounted for only 35%

of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar

has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.[3] Other listed prey species of the cougar

include mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but

this is rarely recorded in North America.[3] Not all of their prey is listed here due to their large range.

Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees,

across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a

suffocating neck bite. The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong

bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground.[36]

Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for

females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at

around 15 months.[31] The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over

a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is a non-scavenger and will rarely consume prey it

has not killed; but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California,

suggesting more opportunistic behavior.[48]

Reproduction and life cycle

Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half to three years of age. They typically average

one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive life,[49] though the period can be as short

as one year.[31] Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is

approximately 91 days.[31] Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,[43] but this is uncertain

and polygyny may be more common.[50] Copulation is brief but frequent. Research has also found that

chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity in addition to in the field.[51]

Cougar cubs

Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their cubs, and have

been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between

one and six cubs; typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter

dens. Born blind, cubs are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at

around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting

kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own.[49] Kitten survival rates are just

over one per litter.[31] When cougars are born, they have spots, but they lose them as they grow, and by

the age of 2 1/2 years, they will completely be gone[52]

Young adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and

sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high mortality amongst cougars that

travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars (intraspecific

competition).[49] Research in New Mexico has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than

females, were more likely to traverse large expanses of non-cougar habitat, and were probably most

responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches."[53]

Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10; a female

of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island.[31]Cougars may live as long as 20

years in captivity. One male North American cougar, named Scratch, was two months short of

his 30th birthday when he died in 2007.[54] Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease,

competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. Feline

immunodeficiency virus, an endemic HIV-like virus in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar.[55]

Social structure and home range

Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults

meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk.

Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000

square kilometers (58 to 386 sq mi) with female ranges half the size.[43]Other research suggests a much

smaller lower limit of 25 km2 (10 sq mi) but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 (500 sq mi) for males.[49] In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the

northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km2 (300 sq mi).[56] Male ranges may include or overlap with those

of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict

between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks,urine,

and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves

and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.[44]

Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.[49] One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of

215 km2 (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance.[53] Research has shown cougar abundances

from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100 km2 (38 sq mi).[31]

Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are

most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he

may be killed by his father.[56] When males encounter each other, they hiss, spit, and may engage in

violent conflict if neither backs down.[50]Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive

encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established

individuals.[57]

Ecology

Distribution and habitat

The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas. Its range spans 110 degrees

of latitude, from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes. It is one of only three cat species, along

with the bobcat and Canadian lynx, native to Canada.[36] Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to

virtually every habitat type: it is found in all forest types as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts.

Studies show that the cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in

open areas.[2] Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.[44]

Cougar, photographed in the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, Arizona

The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range (with the exception of Florida)

in the two centuries after European colonization, and faced grave threats in the remainder of its territory.

Currently, it ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces

of Alberta,Saskatchewan and British Columbia, and the Canadian Yukon Territory. There have been widely

debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America.[58] DNA evidence has suggested its

presence in eastern North America,[59] while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous

reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to eastern Canada.[60] The Quebecwildlife services

(known locally as MRNF) also considers cougar to be present in the province as a threatened species after

multiple DNA tests confirmed cougar hair in lynx mating sites.[61] The only unequivocally known eastern

population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered. There have been unconfirmed sightings

in Elliotsville Plantation, Maine (north of Monson); and in New Hampshire, there have been unconfirmed

sightings as early as 1997.[62] In 2009, the MichiganDepartment of Natural Resources confirmed a cougar

sighting in Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[63] Typically, extreme-range sightings of cougars involve young

males, who can travel great distances to establish ranges away from established males; all four confirmed

cougar kills in Iowa since 2000 involved males.[64]

On April 14, 2008, police shot and killed a cougar on the north side of Chicago, Illinois. DNA tests were

consistent with cougars from the Black Hills of South Dakota. Less than one year later, on March 5, 2009, a

cougar was photographed and unsuccessfully tranquilized by state wildlife biologists in a tree

near Spooner, Wisconsin, in the northwestern part of the state.[65]

The Indiana Department of Natural Resources used motion-sensitive cameras to confirm the presence of a

cougar in Greene County in southern Indiana on May 7, 2010. Another sighting in late 2009 in Clay

County in west-central Indiana was confirmed by the DNR.[66]

On June 10, 2011, a cougar was observed roaming near Greenwich, Connecticut. State officials at the time

said they believed it was a released pet.[67] On June 11, 2011, a cougar, believed to be the same animal as

the one observed in Greenwich, was killed by a car on the Wilbur Cross Parkway in Milford, Connecticut.[68] When wildlife officials examined the cougar's DNA, they concluded that it was a wild cougar from the

Black Hills of South Dakota, which had wandered at least 1,500 miles east over an indeterminate time

period.[69]

South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources (IUCN) lists the cat in every Central and South American country.[2] While specific state and

provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern

range.[70]

The cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining

trend.[2] U.S. state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting cougar populations have

rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000.[71] California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested,

between 4,000 and 6,000.[72]

Ecological role

Paw of a puma

Front paw print of a cougar. An adult paw print is approximately 10 cm (4 inches) long.[73]

Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild, although conflicts with other

predators or scavengers occur. TheYellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to

study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive brown bear

appears dominant, often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their

kills. One study found that brown or American black bears visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone

and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses. Bears gained up to 113%, and cougars lost up to

26%, of their respective daily energy requirements from these encounters.[74]

The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more

powerful than the gray wolf, a solitary cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines.

Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of fourteen wolves

killing a female cougar and her kittens. Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been

reported killed by cougars.[75] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by

dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research

in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.[76] One researcher in

Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising

kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."[77] Both

species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to

suppress their numbers.[46]

In the southern portion of its range, the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory.[78] The jaguar tends

to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size and also further

reducing the likelihood of direct competition.[3] Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a

broader prey niche and smaller prey.[79]

As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain, the cougar impacts the population of prey

species. Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For

example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population ofmule deer, a favored cougar prey,

was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon white-tailed deer was increasing.[80] The Vancouver Island marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar

population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation.[81] Nevertheless, there is

a measurable effect on the quality of deer populations by puma predation.[82][83]

In the southern part of South America the puma is a top level predator that has controlled the population

of Guanaco and other species since prehistoric times.

Hybrids

Pumapard, photographed in 1904

Main article: Pumapard

A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a cougar and a leopard. Three sets of these

hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg,

Germany. Most did not reach adulthood. One of these was purchased in 1898 byBerlin Zoo. A similar

hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma.

Hamburg Zoo's specimen was the reverse pairing, the one in the black-and-white photo, fathered by a

puma bred to an Indian leopardess.

Whether born to a female puma mated to a male leopard, or to a male puma mated to a female leopard,

pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism. Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents. They have

a puma-like long body (proportional to the limbs, but nevertheless shorter than either parent), but short

legs. The coat is variously described as sandy, tawny or greyish with brown, chestnut or "faded" rosettes.[84]

Conservation status

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) currently lists the cougar as a "least concern" species. The cougar is

regulated under Appendix I of theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora (CITES),[85] rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts.

Cougar conservation depends on preservation of their habitat.

In the United States east of the Mississippi River, the only unequivocally known cougar population is

the Florida panther. Until 2011, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) recognized both

an Eastern cougar (claimed to be a subspecies by some, denied by others)[86][87] and the Florida panther,

affording protection under the Endangered Species Act.[88][89]Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed

both designations into the North American cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,[1] while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists.[24] The most recent

documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003.[90] In March, 2011, the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct. However, with the taxonomic

uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as well as the possibility of eastward migration of cougars

from the western range, the subject remains open.[91]

This uncertainty has been recognized by Canadian authorities. The Canadian federal agency

called Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada rates its current data as "insufficient" to

draw conclusions regarding the eastern cougar's survival, and says on its Web site "Despite many

sightings in the past two decades from eastern Canada, there are insufficient data to evaluate the

taxonomy or assign a status to this cougar." Notwithstanding numerous reported sightings in Ontario,

Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, it has been said that the evidence is inconclusive: ". . . there

may not be a distinct 'eastern' subspecies, and some sightings may be of escaped pets."[92][93]

The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, cougar hunting was

prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras,

Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and Uruguay. The cat had no reported legal

protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, andGuyana.[31] Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United

States and Canada, although they are protected from all hunting in the Yukon; it is permitted in every U.S.

state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. Texas is the only

state in the United States with a viable population of cougars that does not protect, in some way, its

cougar population. In Texas, cougars are listed as nuisance wildlife and any person holding a hunting or a

trapping permit can kill a cougar regardless of the season, number killed, sex or age of the animal.[94] Killed animals are not required to be reported to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Conservation

work in Texas is the effort of a non profit organization, Balanced Ecology Inc (BEI), as part of their Texas

Mountain Lion Conservation Project. Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is

'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots the cat from the tree at close range. The cougar

cannot be legally killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual

is declared a public safety threat.[72] However statistics from the Department of Fish and Game indicate

that cougar killings in California have been on the rise since 1970s with an average of over 112 cats killed

per year from 2000 to 2006 compared to six per year in the 1970s. The Bay Area Puma Projectaims to

obtain information on cougar populations in the San Francisco Bay area and the animals' interactions with

habitat, prey, humans, and residential communities.[95]

Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal, environmental

degradation and habitat fragmentation, and depletion of their prey base. Wildlife corridorsand sufficient

range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations. Research simulations have shown that

the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km2(850 sq mi) or more. As few as one to four new

animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence, foregrounding the importance

of habitat corridors.[96]

On March 2, 2011, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declared the Eastern cougar (Puma concolor

couguar) officially extinct.[97]

Relationships with humans

In mythology

The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of

the Americas. The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar, and the

animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people. The Moche people represented the puma often

in their ceramics.[98] The sky and thunder god of the Inca, Viracocha, has been associated with the animal.[99]

In North America, mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hocąk

language ("Ho-Chunk" or "Winnebago") of Wisconsin and Illinois[100] and theCheyenne, amongst others. To

the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the wail of the cougar was a harbinger of death.[101] The Algonquins

and Ojibwas believe that the cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked, whereas it was a sacred

animal among the Cherokee.[102]

Livestock predation

During the early years of ranching, cougars were considered on par with wolves in destructiveness.

According to figures in Texas in 1990, 86 calves (0.0006% of a total of 13.4 million cattle & calves in

Texas), 253 Mohair goats, 302 Mohair kids, 445 sheep (0.02% of a total of 2.0 million sheep & lambs in

Texas) and 562 lambs (0.04% of 1.2 million lambs in Texas) were confirmed to have been killed by

cougars that year.[103][104] In Nevada in 1992, cougars were confirmed to have killed 9 calves, 1 horse, 4

colts, 5 goats, 318 sheep and 400 lambs. In both cases, sheep were the most frequently attacked. Some

instances of surplus killing have resulted in the deaths of 20 sheep in one attack.[105] A cougar's killing bite

is typically applied to the back of the neck or head, differing greatly from the throat bite used by coyotes

and indiscriminate mutilation by feral dogs. The size of the tooth puncture marks also helps distinguish

kills made by cougars from those made by smaller predators.[106]

Attacks on humans

Mountain Lion warning sign.

Due to the expanding human population, cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited

by humans. Attacks on humans are rare, as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not

generally recognize humans as prey.[5] Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the

cat habituates to humans or is in a condition of severe starvation. Attacks are most frequent during late

spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory.[73]

Between 1890 and 1990, in North America there were 53 reported, confirmed attacks on humans,

resulting in 48 nonfatal injuries and 10 deaths of humans (the total is greater than 53 because some

attacks had more than one victim).[107] By 2004, the count had climbed to 88 attacks and 20 deaths.[108]

Within North America, the distribution of attacks is not uniform. The heavily populated state of California

has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities.[72] Lightly populated New Mexico reported an attack in 2008, the first there since 1974.[109]

As with many predators, a cougar may attack if cornered, if a fleeing human stimulates their instinct to

chase, or if a person "plays dead". Standing still however may cause the cougar to consider a person easy

prey.[110] Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact, loud but calm shouting, and

any other action to appear larger and more menacing, may make the animal retreat. Fighting back with

sticks and rocks, or even bare hands, is often effective in persuading an attacking cougar to disengage.[5]

[73]

When cougars do attack, they usually employ their characteristic neck bite, attempting to position their

teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and

sometimes fatal.[5] Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed

research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victims–and almost all fatalities–were children.

The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia,

particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense.[107] Preceding attacks on

humans, cougars display aberrant behavior, such as activity during daylight hours, a lack of fear of

humans, and stalking humans.[111] There have sometimes been incidents of pet cougars mauling people.[112][113]