FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH proceedings · Codes of good management practice (GMP) for the animal feed industry, with particular reference to proteins and protein by-products

FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONSRome, 2004

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PROTEIN SOURCES FOR THEANIMAL FEED INDUSTRY

PROTEIN SOURCES FOR THEANIMAL FEED INDUSTRY

Expert Consultation and WorkshopBangkok, 29 April – 3 May 2002

proceedings

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ISBN 92-5-105012-0

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© FAO 2004

Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry

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Content

Foreword

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Executive Summary

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World Animal Feed Industry - R. Gilbert

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Overview of world feed protein needs and supply – A.W. Speedy

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Protein nutrition requirements of farmed livestock and dietary supply – E.L. Miller

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Practical production of protein for food animals - S.A. Chadd, W.P. Davies and J.M. Koivisto

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Innovative developments in the production and delivery of alternative protein sources for animal feeds with emphasis on nutritionally enhanced crops – D.L. Hard

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Proteins from oilseeds - N. Bajjalieh

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Lysine and other amino acids for feed: production and contribution to protein utilization in animal feeding – Y. Toride

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The role of high lysine cereals in animal and human nutrition in Asia – S.K. Vasal 167

Table of Contents

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Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize (QPM) in animal feed - Guang-Hai Qi , Qi-Yu Diao, Yan Tu, Shu-Geng Wu and Shi-Huang Zhang

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Current livestock production and protein sources as animal feeds in Thailand – M. Wanapat

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Developments in the Indian feed and poultry industry and formulation of rations based on local resources – V. Balakrishnan

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Requirements for protein meals for ruminant meat production in developing countries – R.A. Leng

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Real and perceived issues involving animal proteins – C.R. Hamilton

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Codes of good management practice (GMP) for the animal feed industry, with particular reference to proteins and protein by-products - W.A. McIlmoyle

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The use of food waste as a protein source for animal feed - Current status and technological development in Japan – T. Kawashima

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Livestock production, protein supplies and the animal feed industry in Malawi - A.C.L. Safaloah

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Feed status in Myanmar - M. Kyaw

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Livestock production and the feed industry in Malaysia – T.H. Loh

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Description of developments and issues relating to livestock production, protein supplies and the feed industries of Vietnam – Bui Thi Oanh

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List of participants

349

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The support of the following organizations is gratefully acknowledged:

International Feed Industry Federation 214 Prestbury Road, Cheltenham Glos GL52 3ER, United Kingdom United Soybean Board - USB 16640 Chesterfield Grove Road Suite 130 Chesterfield Mo. 63005 United States International Fishmeal and Fishoil Organisation - IFFO 2 College Yard Lower Dagnall Street St. Albans, Herts. AL3 4PA United Kingdom World Renderers Organization - WRO 801 North Fairfax Street, Suite 207 Alexandria, Virginia 22314, United States

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Foreword

Livestock production is growing rapidly as a result of the increasing demand for animal products. FAO projections suggest that global meat production and consumption will rise from 233 million tonnes (2000) to 300 million t (2020), and milk from 568 to 700 million t over the same period. Egg production will also increase by 30 percent. This forecast shows a massive increase in animal protein demand, needed to satisfy the growth in the human population. Asia is experiencing the world’s highest growth rates in production and consumption of livestock products (meat, milk and eggs). The issues to be addressed are the environmental and feed supply problems arising from the concentration of livestock production. The big increase in animal protein demand over the last few decades has been largely met by the world wide growth in intensive livestock production, particularly poultry and pigs. This is expected to continue as real income grows in the emerging economies. Feed grains are thought to compete directly, or in the use of land, with grains for human consumption and because there is inefficient use of feed and energy in some livestock systems, it is often blamed for this occurrence. However, if efficiency is seen over the entire production chain, and expressed as input of edible human food/output in human edible food, the view of animal production takes on a more positive outlook. Note that 233 million t meat, 568 million t milk and 55 million t eggs produced globally contain more than 65 million t of protein. So while input is higher than output, if improved protein quality on the output side is considered, a reasonable balance emerges. A recent FAO study shows that the increasing use of feed grains has not had an adverse effect on the provision of cereals for human consumption. Indeed, many argue that the production of cereals for feed acts as a global buffer and therefore has a positive effect on global food security. Over the last 30 years, FAO has worked in the field to develop technologies for integrated farming systems appropriate to small producers, particularly in the tropics. For ruminant livestock, urea treatment of straw and the use of multi-nutrient blocks have been shown to greatly improve nutrition of animals fed on low quality roughage diets. Legumes and tree forages have also provided needed protein inputs into cattle, sheep and goat production systems, while benefiting the environment through nitrogen fixation and organic matter.

Foreword viii

These technologies have been combined into integrated farming systems for the small producer. Such improved systems are biologically sustainable and achieve high levels of production, with minimal environmental problems as the manure is recycled or used for biogas production. Undoubtedly, the technologies have contributed to the improvement of income and lifestyle of small farmers and represent an effective approach to sustainable development and poverty alleviation. But the approach has been divorced from the parallel growth of intensive livestock production systems throughout the world, which can be seen as providing the bulk of supply to meet the demand. The challenge is to enable small producers (who are usually the ones applying the more sustainable technologies and integration of farming activities) to have access to a wider market - termed Ruralizing the Livestock Revolution. There is also a need and demand for low cost and simple technologies for livestock and product processing. In recent years and in many countries, public concern about the safety of foods of animal origin has heightened due to problems that have arisen with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), dioxin contamination, outbreaks of food borne bacterial infections, as well as growing concern about veterinary drug residues and microbial resistance to antibiotics. These problems have drawn attention to feeding practices within the livestock industry and have prompted health professionals and the feed industry to closely scrutinise feed quality and safety problems that can arise in foods of animal origin as a result of animal feeding systems. Given the direct links between feed safety and safety of foods of animal origin, it is essential that feed production and manufacture be considered as an integral part of the food production chain. Feed production must therefore be subject, in the same way as food production, to quality assurance including feed safety systems. The industry is ultimately responsible for the quality and safety of the food and feed that it produces. National authorities should provide guidance to industry and this includes codes of practice and standards that the industry must respect. International organizations also have an important role to play in providing information and training which could be used at national level to improve the knowledge and skill of those involved in all areas of the feed industry, including primary producers of feed materials. By doing so, failures in food/feed safety systems can be prevented rather than doing damage. Dialogue among producers of feed or feed ingredients, livestock and aquaculture industries and government should be encouraged as an essential part of the process of elaborating codes of practice for the feed industry. A close partnership between government and the producers will ensure the promulgation of regulations and guidelines acceptable to both parties.

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In view of foregoing issues and production trends, the FAO Expert Consultation and Workshop on Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry was held in Bangkok, Thailand, from 29 April to 3 May 2002. This Consultation included talks by experts on the overview of world protein needs and supply; scientific aspects of protein nutrition of farm animals; local protein resources and supplementation for livestock production; the agricultural alternatives for the production of increased supplies of protein feeds from oilseeds, legumes and by-products; and innovative developments in the production and delivery of protein raw materials. It also included a discussion on the world market and sources of proteins for the animal feed industry: present and future trends, problems and perceptions of feed safety and developments in the feed industry. It is hoped that the output of this meeting would reinforce the partnership not only between government and the producers but all those involved in the feed industry, so that, any farmer would always have a chance to compete in the global market.

Changchui He Assistant Director General and Regional Representative

FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand

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Executive Summary BACKGROUND Domestic animals continue to make important contributions to global food supply and, as a result, animal feeds have become an increasingly critical component of the integrated food chain. Livestock products account for about 30 percent of the global value of agriculture and 19 percent of the value of food production, and provide 34 percent of protein and 16 percent of the energy consumed in human diets. Meeting consumer demand for more meat, milk, eggs and other livestock products is dependent to a major extent on the availability of regular supplies of appropriate, cost-effective and safe animal feeds. Few issues have generated as much public concern in recent times, however, as the protein supply in feeds for livestock production. Not only is the demand for livestock products increasing markedly due to population growth, particularly in the developing world, but feed suppliers also have to cope with increasing safety concerns, epitomized by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad cow disease crisis, associated with the feeding of meat and bone meal (MBM). There is also anxiety about the use of genetically modified crops such as soybean and maize and concern about incidents involving chemical contamination (e.g., dioxin) of feeds. The considerable and increasing demand for animal protein is focusing attention on the sources of feed protein and their suitability, quality and safety for future supply. Consumers in the market are increasingly demanding assurances about food safety and production methods throughout the integrated food chain. Responding to these issues and related prospects for future livestock production, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), with the support of the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF), organized an Expert Consultation in Bangkok from April 29 to May 3 2002 to consider ‘Alternative Strategies and Sources of Protein for the Animal Feed Industry’. The consultation and following workshop were attended by 70 participants from 26 countries, representing developed, developing and transition countries. This Executive Summary highlights some of the key issues raised. These are developed in greater detail in the following papers from contributors, and pose some important questions that still need to be addressed.

Executive Summary xii

A ‘Livestock Revolution’ Several contributors referred to the strongly demand-led ‘livestock revolution’ that is taking place, as a result of the rapidly growing world population, income growth, increasing urbanization, changes in lifestyles and food preferences. In addition, global drivers for change in certain livestock sectors (such as poultry) include increasing consumer health concerns, the continuing growth of fast food chains and increasing consumption of convenience and processed foods. Further justification, if required, for the FAO meeting is emphasized in some of the following statements from different presenters which highlight pressures on the animal feed industry. These are based on predictions from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) IMPACT (International Model for Policy Analysis of Commodities and Trade) studies on the ‘Livestock Revolution’. Global demand for meat products will increase by 58 percent between 1995 and 2020. Consumption of meat will rise from 233 million t in 2000 to a possible 300 million t by 2020; milk consumption will increase from 568 to 700 million t by 2020, and there will be an estimated 30 percent increase in egg production. Consumption of meat grew three times faster in developing countries than in the developed world between the 1970s and 1990s, much of this is being explained by consumption in Asia. Between 1995 and 2020, about 97.5 percent of the global population increase will be in developing countries, by which time 84 percent of the world’s people (an estimated 6.3 billion) will be living in developing nations. Meat demand in the developing world will double by 2020. Between the mid-1970s and 1995, meat consumption in the developing world rose from 11 kg to 23 kg per person. Two major contributors to this demand were China and Brazil. With China and Brazil excluded, the increase per person was from 11 kg to 15 kg per caput. Global demand for poultry meat will increase by up to 85 percent, beef by 80 percent and pig meat by 45 percent by 2020 (from 1995). The growth of meat and milk consumption in the developing world is predicted to be 2.8 percent and 3.3 percent annually from 1990 to 2020, in marked contrast to 0.6 percent and 0.2 percent in developed countries. Much of the predicted increase in consumption in the developing world will be of poultry and pig meat, as well as milk. The world meat economy has been driven both by the pig sector in China and rapid growth in the global poultry industry. During the last 30 years, the poultry share of total meat consumed has increased from 13 to 28 percent, with the USA, Brazil and Thailand being major contributors

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to production. Future increases in this sector are also likely to be boosted by considerable annual increases in both egg and broiler production in India. Consumption in the developing world is determined by purchasing power, and greater consumption of meat and milk will be stimulated by economic growth and more disposable income in the growing, more prosperous middle class. Livestock Systems Dependency on and the need for external supplies of formulated feed will be influenced by various factors including the nature of the livestock enterprise, local feed alternatives, land and labour availability, the farming system and economics. Chadd and colleagues identified major differences between grazing systems based on indigenous forage, mixed farming utilising crop residues with grazing, and limited imported feeds when required, compared with ‘landless’ (so-called ‘industrial’) systems with a high degree of dependency on purchased feeds. Population and land use pressures in some developing countries are encouraging intensification and the expansion of ‘landless’ systems that result in increasing demands on natural resources and the local environment . Landless systems are exploited particularly for monogastrics, and are most common in developed countries. Such systems are also utilized on occasion for ruminants in both developed countries (e.g., the USA) and developing nations (e.g. West Asia). Intensive, landless, enterprises might have a high degree of dependency on imported feed, requiring continuous supply of large quantities of known consistent quality. Local supplies of home-produced protein, in particular, are often less able to provide such a reliable supply of quality feed. Few detailed comparative studies are undertaken, however, between local and purchased external nutrient sources. There is an increasing trend with large pig and poultry producers to produce and utilize their own feedstuffs in vertically integrated systems. The tendency in Western Europe, due to environmental pressures and animal welfare concerns, is to move away from very intensive production and there are often price premiums for livestock products from more extensive systems. Concerns about pollution from intensive units are focused particularly on water contamination from nitrogen and phosphorus. Feed Supply Gilbert estimates that about 1000 million t of animal feed is produced globally every year, including 600 million t of compound feed. More than 80 percent of this feed is produced by 3800 feed mills, and 60 percent of the world total is from 10

Executive Summary xiv

countries. Feed for poultry is the greatest tonnage, followed by pig and cattle feeds. Although feed production for aquaculture is relatively low (at 14 million t) currently, there is an increasing demand for feed for farmed fish and crustaceans. International trade of raw materials is the key to the global feed industry. Such feeds are formulated and milled locally. The availability of imported protein materials is often essential for local feed manufacture. Historically, the feed industry has also exploited price-supported inexpensive grain that is traded on the global market. Considerable efforts are being made to utilize more diverse local sources of feed ingredients, in particular protein materials, in many developing countries (e.g., India). In some other countries (e.g. Thailand), for poultry enterprises, there is a heavy and increasing reliance on soybean meal and fishmeal.. Increasing concerns are being expressed in some developing countries about the costs of imported soybeans for animal feed formulation. Greater utilization of indigenous feed materials is being encouraged for resource-poor smallholder farmers for increasing ruminant production. For example, Wanapat reports considerable potential for cassava-based products in Thailand. Higher quality ‘protein and energy’ feeds are still encouraged, however, for higher performance and enterprises that are more intensive. Protein use The value of gaining and then applying a much better understanding of protein nutrition for appropriate protein feed formulation for livestock was emphasized by Miller. The importance of an appropriate available energy supply in a balanced diet for efficient protein use by livestock was stressed, a high energy to protein ratio being needed to optimize the use of the protein. Different protein requirements for different species and the effects of age and growth stage of animals were noted. Examples included the greater need for protein in fish diets compared to feed for mammals, and the declining requirement for protein with age. Increased energy used by animals following, for example, exercise or exposure to ‘heat stress’, also reduces the protein requirement in the diet. The difference between ‘essential’, ‘semi-essential’ and ‘conditionally indispensable’ amino acids in relation to protein inclusion in the diet was highlighted. The significance of amino acid balance in feeds, of new amino acid synthesis and protein compensation in diets was explained. The significance of protein influences on the immune system, as antigenic factors and anti-nutrition agents, was also stressed, in addition to animal nutrition effects.

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The amino acid strengths and weaknesses of different protein feed ingredients was described, such as the lysine limitation in maize, and methionine and cysteine limitations in soybean. These are key issues for appropriate protein use and feed formulation. However, amino acid composition revealed by chemical analysis may not correctly identify the availability of these amino acids at tissue level in the animal. The significance of ‘ileal digestibility’ of amino acids for diet formulation, rather than total amino acid content, was emphasized. The significance of microbial protein and its digestion in the small intestine of ruminants was stressed as a balanced and good nutritional supply of amino acids. A large part of the absorbed amino acids are derived from microbial activity in the rumen in ruminants. This supply may be limited, however, by the associated supply of fermented energy. The quantity of protein in a diet may substitute on occasion for protein quality, where perhaps only poorer quality, cheaper feed (e.g., a cereal-groundnut meal mix) is available. Protein use in such diets, however, is often more inefficient and can lead to excessive nitrogen excretion. Protein Sources Sources of protein for animal feeds are many and varied, with considerable opportunities for further diversification and substitutions. More research is required on alternative sources before many of the opportunities can be exploited in practice. Plant Protein Sources Soybean Soybean remains the most important and preferred source of high quality vegetable protein for animal feed manufacture. Soybean meal, which is the by-product of oil extraction, has a high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and a balanced amino acid composition, complementary to maize meal for feed formulation. A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in high performance monogastric diets. A measure of success of this crop is the increase in production of 50 to 60 percent between 1985 and 2000, with most grown in the United States, Brazil and Argentina. Over half of the crop is now, however, genetically modified (GM) mainly for herbicide tolerance. The potential of soybeans for further nutritional quality enhancement was emphasized by Hard and there are prospects for considerable feed benefits, assuming acceptance of GM sources in the marketplace. Currently, Argentina and Brazil are reported to export 60 percent of their

Executive Summary xvi

production and the USA about 16 percent. The market for non-GM soya seems to be growing and may be increasingly important in the future. Comments by Hard and others emphasized the potential of soybeans for continuing improvement and possibly wider adaptation to different growing conditions. Chadd and colleagues mentioned the potential of forage soybeans in a European context, in locations where grain soybeans cannot (at present) be economically produced. Further development and exploitation of soybean genetics may prove the most appropriate strategy in some regions, rather than developing other alternative plant protein sources. In the European Union soybean dominates the protein supply for animal feed and the ban on meat and bone meal has resulted in further imports, reportedly of up to 1.5 million t in 2001. Other oil meal crops There are many different potential oil crops in addition to soybean, each with strengths and weaknesses for protein meal supply. Local adaptation to growing conditions and local availability provide distinct advantages for feed production in many developing countries. A continuous supply of protein meal of known quality can be made available, as is the case with palm kernel cake, the by-product of oil palm production (e.g. in Malaysia and Indonesia). According to Speedy, prospects continue to be good for future oil meal crop production. Global projections show increasing demands for vegetable oils of 2.1 percent per annum for the next 20 years, and a significant increase in demand for oil meals and cakes. Predictions of future land use suggest that the area of oil crops will increase substantially in some developing countries. Oil palm, sunflower and oilseed rape, in addition to soybeans, will dominate and provide much of the future increase. Currently, the major net exporters in the developing world are Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and Argentina, but more oil and protein meal may be retained in future years for their own domestic use. Oilseed rape is grown extensively in temperate regions (e.g., in Canada and the European Union) and provides good protein meal. Although glucosinolates are present and the lysine content is lower than in soybean, it provides a much higher proportion of sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine). Glucosinolates can be removed by breeding and GM types of oilseed rape have been developed. The crop is considered to have a lot of future potential, both for increasing oil content and modifying protein composition. Chadd and colleagues also recommend more studies on the less well known and little grown oil crops such as niger and jojoba, which reportedly have a high crude protein in the extracted cake.

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To what extent such crops as oil palm, coconut, sunflower, sesame, crambe or cotton (seed) can be utilized for meal inclusion in animal feeds depends to a large extent on what price the processor is able to obtain for the extracted oil. With the exception of soybean, the demand for these particular meals is markedly influenced by their vegetable oil price. This is important for the profitability of intensive livestock enterprises such as poultry production, working on low margins. Protein-rich meal inclusion from oilseed crops currently remains the key; however, to high quality feed supply for intensive enterprise performance. Legumes Legumes are a traditional source of plant proteins for animal feed and their production can provide a range of benefits both on farms and for feed manufacturers. The exploitation of soybean is a classic example of successful development and use. Peas, beans and lupins are exploited as grain crops in temperate farming systems and their production for home-grown protein supply is encouraged (and supported) in the European Union to reduce dependency on imported proteins. Each has strengths and weaknesses for quality protein provision. Lupins, for example, can yield high levels of crude protein but produce grain which is often low in lysine and sulphur-containing amino acids. Chadd and colleagues described work in the tropics and sub-tropics on alternative, better adapted protein sources and reported the benefits of chickpea, cowpea and mungbean for incorporation in poultry diets. The successful exploitation of tropical tree legumes for successful ruminant feeding, in both warmer parts of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa, was also mentioned. The considerable potential of a wide range of leguminous plants for forage use was highlighted for both temperate and tropical agriculture. The need for much more research, however, was emphasized to provide for more successful practical exploitation. The significance of lucerne, the most widely grown forage, and red clover has been highlighted. The value of a wide range of tropical legumes was mentioned, in particular Centrosema spp., Stylosanthes spp. and Leucaena spp., and the potential of other tree legume sources is being recognized. Leucaena leucocephala has been most widely commercialized, and can be hedge-cropped both mechanically and manually, or grazed in situ. It is adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The presence of mimosine, a toxic amino acid, however, limits its use in non-ruminant diets. More research is required to determine the value of many of these legumes for the animal feed industry. More agronomic studies are also required to improve performance, combined with economic analyses of the unit costs of the resultant

Executive Summary xviii

protein. Particular attention will need to be given to protein quality, in addition to protein yield. Further studies will also need to be undertaken with many of these potential legume sources for anti-nutritional factors and toxins. These are dealt with during processing by such practices as de-hulling, heating or solvent extraction. Crop nutritional improvement Quality Protein Maize (QPM) Although cereals play a key role in world agriculture and the global economy, grain typically has low levels of poor quality (unbalanced) protein. However they provide 50 percent of the protein in human diets and, in developing countries, it is reported that 74 percent of dietary protein is obtained from cereals. Rice has low crude protein (CP) (around 7 percent); maize, barley and sorghum have intermediate levels (9 to 10 percent CP); and wheat, oats and triticale have the highest levels (around 12 percent CP). Typically, a high protein content in cereal grain is inversely correlated with crop yield. For animal feed formulation and protein provision, all cereals are deficient in lysine with secondary deficiencies in threonine and trytophan. Classical breeding and selection has not significantly improved cereal protein status. Vasal describes the exciting discovery in the 1960s of high lysine maize mutants (from ‘opaque-2’ and ‘floury-2’ changed alleles), with higher protein quality in the endosperm of grain. Mutants had double the levels of lysine and tryptophan, obtained by suppressing the zein (prolamin) protein fraction. However, the resultant grain was soft and the mutants also required agronomic improvement. Considerable breeding efforts at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) were required to subsequently achieve acceptable QPM hybrids with appropriate hard grain characteristics, involving the opaque-2 gene and identified genetic modifiers of the 02 locus. Vasal reported the release and production of QPM in 22 countries since 1998, including significant adoption in China, India and Vietnam. Vasal also described the further improvement of QPM maize lines through hybrid development programmes, the transfer of the quality protein genes to elite cultivars of standard maize, and the creation of new so-called QPM synthetics (obtained by inter-crossing several inbred lines). Some of the new QPM hybrid lines contain up to 13.5 percent protein and 100 percent more lysine and tryptophan than normal maize. Successful exploitation of improved QPM is described in China where it is being grown on 70,000 ha. The type ‘Zhang Dan 9409’ with 80 percent more lysine and

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tryptophan has up to 15 percent higher yield potential than other maize. Considerable improvements in live weight gain and better feed conversion are reported from poultry feeding trials, and as much as a 3.5 times faster growth rate in pigs fed on QPM. Genetically Improved Crops Enhancing the value of major crops for animal feed use through genetic modification, utilizing both conventional breeding approaches and modern biotechnology, was advocated by Hard. He argued that genetic improvement can give not only better animal performance and health, but also lower feed costs and more affordable livestock protein products. Hard predicts that the next commercial wave of genetically improved crops will focus on ‘output’ traits providing much better feeding values for livestock production. Improvement efforts will focus on protein quality (particularly amino acid balance), better digestibility (especially of fibre and starch) and greater metabolizable energy (from improved oil content), with less anti-nutritional factors (such as phytate). Successful current examples of nutrient enrichment include pro-vitamin A enriched rice, high lysine maize, high oleic acid soybeans and low-phytate maize. Other targets, mentioned by Hard, include high methionine soybeans, high oil maize and low stachyose soybeans, all of which could provide significantly improved feed characteristics and animal performance. An intriguing possibility was mentioned by Hard, that is the possible future development of antibody containing soybeans which, when fed before slaughter, could combat such pathogens as E. coli and Salmonella spp. Hard emphasized the need for greater ‘identity preservation’ of such genetically improved crop feeds to achieve the desired objectives. To what extent these developments will be widely adopted in practice will depend on many factors, including economics and market acceptance. Synthetic amino acids The use of industrially produced amino acids in animal feeds is not new. Synthetic amino acid incorporation in feed has at least a 40 year history. DL methionine was produced by chemical synthesis in the 1950s and 1960s for inclusion in poultry feeds. L-lysine production by fermentation began in the 1960s in Japan, followed by L-threonine and L-tryptophan in the late 1980s. The adoption of modern biotechnology has revolutionized the synthesis process, and has significantly reduced the costs of amino acid production. The exploitation of genetically modified microbial strains has substantially improved

Executive Summary xx

competitiveness. The economics of production has dramatically changed, providing much greater opportunities for synthetic amino acid use. It is persuasively argued that improvements in protein use from animal feeds are required to meet the substantial growth in global demand for animal protein products. The increased substitution of synthetic amino acids for plant protein could provide greater efficiency and effectiveness of protein utilization, but the cost effectiveness of their use needs to be continually assessed. It is suggested that the incorporation of one tonne of L-lysine hydrochloride could save the use of 33 t of soybean meal. Or, if 550,000 t of L-lysine hydrochloride is used globally, it could replace 18 million t of soybean meal, representing about half of the USA soybean meal production. There is potential for considerable impact on current protein supply channels and the types of protein which are now used. It is also argued that greater synthetic amino acid use could reduce nitrogen pollution from animal wastes, as a result of better and more efficient nutrient utilization. Future developments of synthetic amino acid production could apparently include synthetic isoleucine, valine and arginine, thus extending the range of amino acids available for use in feeds. The degree of use would be mainly determined by the economics. Food industry crop by-products Quality protein can be provided sometimes from various crop residues and by-products of food and drink manufacture, such as brewers’ grain and maize gluten meal. These by-products are many and varied, and differ considerably in the value and significance for animal feed protein supply. However, some of these by-products provide a valuable local source of protein which can be inexpensive, accessible and continuously available from the local food industry. Their use can also be regarded as a significant re-cycling opportunity, and more of a closed system for waste disposal. Many of these associations between local farmers and nearby food manufacturers have developed over a long period of time and still continue. Food safety considerations may still dominate this protein supply route, with restrictions on certain by-product materials or their treatment before use in animal feed. Fishmeal The global significance and provision of fishmeal as a protein source is uncertain. Estimates suggest that it is still amongst the ‘big three’ sources of quality protein

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for feed manufacture. Gilbert quotes an annual figure of 316 million tonnes of oilseed protein, 14 million t from animal by-products and 7 million tonnes from fishmeal. Unfortunately, it is reported that fishmeal produced by new processes cannot easily be distinguished from other animal proteins. It needs to be separately identifiable if it is to be excluded from bans on animal by-products such as that imposed by the European Union from 2001. Fishmeal provides a good source of quality protein for monogastrics and an excellent source of by-pass protein for ruminants. Compared with other sources of plant protein and cereals, fishmeal can also provide a good nutritional source of calcium and phosphorus in animal diets. Meal from fish does not seem to have increased in production over the last 20 or so years and Speedy considered that it is unlikely to do so in present circumstances. Many seas, such as the North Sea, are being seriously over-fished, leading to increasing international restrictions on their exploitation to try to conserve and regenerate fish stocks. There are still underlying concerns about the contamination of fish stocks by pollutants dumped in the oceans, leading to fishmeal contamination for example by dioxin. The fishing industry is not particularly well developed in many developing countries, and could perhaps make increased contributions to future fishmeal supply in some regions. The significance of increasing supplies of meal from farmed fish and aquaculture systems is possible and deserves evaluation. On a limited scale, in parts of some countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia, waste fishmeal is utilized for further fish pond production and incorporated into local livestock feeds. Animal By-products Considerable public and political concern about the safety of foods of animal origin has developed in recent years as a result, in particular, of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy problem but also of food-borne bacterial infections, veterinary drug residues and chemical contamination. There has been a total ban on the use of mammalian meat and bone meal protein in feed in the European Union since 2001, which may be lifted in due course for non-ruminant feeds. FAO also recommended a global ban (in 2001) on the feeding of MBM to cattle, sheep and goats. MBM is a protein-rich powder derived from the rendering of animal tissues which previously provided very useful and cost effective protein, complementary to grain for animal feed manufacture, whilst also providing a valuable means of animal by-products utilization. It was previously thought that the rendering processes, involving high temperatures to kill microbes, could provide a safe MBM product. This was challenged, however, after the first

Executive Summary xxii

case of BSE was diagnosed in 1986 in the UK. By December 1997 ruminant MBM in animal feed was identified as the most likely means of BSE transmission. A new class of infectious agents called prions, with novel modes of replication and transmission, has been discovered. The infection with the BSE agent, a prion, appears to be contracted by the ingestion of nervous or lymphatic tissues in contaminated meat and bone meal feed. Over 180,000 cases of BSE infection have been confirmed in the UK, and more than 1,800 reported from other countries. It is a very serious problem with considerable economic implications. The BSE crisis has focused attention, in particular, on the rendering industry which processes about 60 million tonnes per year of animal by-products. Up to 40 percent by weight of an animal is discarded at slaughter, according to Hamilton, and subsequently rendered into high quality fats and protein. Approximately 25 million tonnes of animal by-products are rendered in North America; 15 million tonnes in the European Union, and 10 million tonnes in South America and Australasia, to provide rendered products worth up to 8 billion US dollars annually. In addition to MBM, rendering produces nutrient rich and easily digestible blood meal, feather meal and poultry by-products for animal feed. These are used in pet foods and aquaculture, in addition to agriculture. Modern rendering processes can and do kill many pathogens but contamination can readily occur subsequently. Hamilton reported considerable advances in feed mill technology for heat treating feed and feed pasteurization is now possible. These developments would seem the way forward for continuing future utilization of rendered protein for feed manufacture and continuing access to these high quality and cost effective protein materials. Current concerns Significant increases in global demand for livestock products will clearly require increasing amounts of feed protein supplies and sources and alternatives will need to be continually reviewed. There would seem to be strong justification for research and development investment into a number of very promising new sources. What is certain is that there will need to be considerable increases in feed manufacture, requiring a thriving, successful and modern feed industry. Safety issues will remain paramount in the mind of consumers following recent food crises, and continuing investment is needed in quality assurance programmes to gain market access for animal products and to retain consumer confidence. There is a growing need for transparency in the animal food chain and continuing vigilance.

Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry xxiii

Greater efforts clearly need to be made to communicate the nature of animal production requirements to the consumer and to project both the animal and feed industry in a positive light. It is clear that there is considerable potential for improving food security and supply by better protein feed provision to livestock, and these opportunities for improvement deserve to be further explored and supported. Insufficient funding support is provided for research and development. There are also insufficient data and shared information to improve supply chains. More investment in research, data accumulation and information sharing between public and private sectors would be particularly valuable. There is also a continuing need, as always, to provide more support to many developing countries to help appropriate future advances of animal production systems and their associated feeding requirement. Protein provision is a key to their future success globally, and deserves continuing attention. Conclusions General Comments • It is clear that the feed industry and others must continue to look for

alternative and enhanced sources of protein for animal feeds. • Co-products produced during processing of crops for food (e.g. vegetable

oil) and industrial uses (e.g. alcohol) will continue to increase and to be a major source of feed protein; co-products from new methods of processing should be fully exploited for animal feed.

• Nutritionally improved crops produced through genetic modification, by both classical breeding and modern biotechnology might hold tremendous potential to provide significant benefits for animal nutrition. Approval processes are needed, however, to assess genetically modified products for safety before they are introduced to the market.

• Nutritionally enhanced crops have the potential to benefit animal health, growth and performance, to reduce feed costs, to make animal protein more affordable, and to add essential protein to animal diets.

• Modern biotechnology is not the only answer to protein supply, but is one of several important ways or tools of securing sustainable protein production.

• While it is recognized that most of the additional supply of animal products may come from intensive poultry and pig production, cattle, sheep and goats are capable of production on feeds that are high in

Executive Summary xxiv

complex carbohydrates and not usable in quantity by monogastrics. They offer considerable opportunities for meat and milk production in developing countries.

• With appropriate management, the abundant crop residues and other fibrous materials that are fed to ruminants can provide for reasonable production levels.

• Extension and veterinary services are considered essential to provide better technology transfer, small farmer support and to encourage further protein crop advances.

• Better technology transfer and small farmer support through improved extension and veterinary services are considered essential to promote integrated farming practices. These include intercropping of cereals, legumes, provision of food, feed, and cash crops, integrated use of locally produced co-products in animal production and, ultimately, increased feed protein supplies and their local utilization.

• More research is recommended in the short and medium term on agronomy and the further development of alternative and novel protein crops. More focused support for longer-term strategies of crop improvement, through both breeding advances and genetic manipulation, is urged.

• More meaningful and greater co-operation is advocated between policy-makers, the feed industry, farmers and researchers to better deliver the future protein supply potential.

Safety issues • The increasing importance of both safety and quality aspects of protein

products is stressed. • Safety of animal feed is of paramount importance and codes of practice

should be developed and increasingly adopted. • Ideally, the adoption of voluntary codes of practice for the feed industry

is preferable to legislation. • Each stage of the animal feed manufacturing process should be subjected

to Good Manufacturing Practices and/or Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles.

• The feeding of ruminant meat meal to ruminants should be banned everywhere because of the BSE risk. If MBM is banned in domestic

Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry xxv

animal feed then exports should also be banned. For countries that cannot enforce a ruminant feed ban, third party auditing is urgently needed.

• There should be full traceability of rendered products, the implementation of a Code of Practice for the rendering industry, as well as good manufacturing practices (GMP) and HACCP. Inspections and checking should be improved and material sources plants should be audited.

• Specialization of feed mills was identified as an important step to avoiding cross-contamination of feed materials, and this is supported by feed industry representatives.

• To ensure safe utilization of fishmeal, cross-contamination with mammalian proteins should be avoided and this should be proved by the development and widespread utilization of tests to differentiate sources of protein.

Environmental issues • Correct protein nutrition is important not only for animal performance,

but also to minimize nitrogen excretion and reduce pollution. • There could be an increasingly serious disposal problem if animal by-

products are not to be used for pigs and poultry, or for aquaculture production.

• The use of legume crops, both grain and forage, and their integration within farming systems should be encouraged to counteract soil erosion and loss of soil fertility.

Information requirements • In national and international statistics, ‘Meat meal’ should be reclassified

into more detailed categories and by species to provide a clearer picture of production, use and trade. The collection of adequate quantitative and qualitative information on supply and trade is required.

• More information is also required on alternative, locally available plants as sources of protein, to clearly identify the reasons for relatively low adoption. A much greater emphasis is recommended for improving plant protein supply in marginal growing environments.

• FAO should set up ‘country profiles’ of feed production by species and feed resources by countries.


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The World Animal Feed Industry Roger Gilbert

Secretary General International Feed Industry Federation

INTRODUCTION It is appropriate to start by identifying just who and what the animal feed industry is. While there are various ways to produce feed for livestock, there are just three broad production and delivery systems involved where farmers ‘take in’ feed to assist them in producing their livestock products - be that dairy or beef cattle, chickens, laying hens, pigs, rabbits, goats and sheep or fish. They are: • commercial operations producing feed for sale; • integrated operations where large pig or poultry producers in particular

produce their own feedstuffs; • co-operative operations where farmers jointly own the feed mill or

production plant that produces the feed they use. These are the sectors that the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF) represents through its National Feed Association members. Unfortunately, the vast majority of countries do not have feed associations and are therefore not represented by IFIF which also represents suppliers to the feed trade, including machinery and raw material producers. What makes the industry similar or different between countries or across borders? For a start the same livestock are fed (often rearing the same genetic stock); the same research and trial results are used to determine what animals need in order to maximise their genetic potential; the same feed formulation software is used to provide ‘least-cost’ diets in order to remain competitive in the market place. And finally the same manufacturing technology is used - the same equipment - and most often the same raw materials. What makes the industry different and why it is that numerous feed mills are maintained within countries is the different cultures and skills that are brought to the business of making feed. Today, fewer than 3800 feed mills manufacture more than 80 percent of the world’s industrial feed.

The World Animal Feed Industry

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Despite the strong trends of vertical integration and consolidation within the industry, the world’s 10 largest feed manufacturers produce less than 65 million tonnes per year — less than 11 percent of global feed output. So, the global feed industry still remains broadly based, with many local and regional commercial feed companies as well as specialised firms. The European Feed Manufacturers' Federation (FEFAC) calculated that its members in the European Union, which produce some 120 million t of compounded feed annually, accounts for approximately a quarter of all feed consumed by livestock in Western Europe. Calculating fed production from a livestock base produces a figure of approximately 1000 million t annually. However, IFIF’s best estimate - and supported by Feed International magazine figures - suggests that annual compound feeds production is in the order of 600 million t. Ten countries produce more than 60 percent of the world’s total industrial feed, while 50 countries produce more than 90 percent of the total. Manufactured feeds for poultry are the greatest proportion of tonnage. Next is pig followed by cattle feeds, which are mainly concentrates for dairy cows. Feed products for fish and crustaceans accounts for 14 million t and is growing. In 1999, global per capita feed use was 98 kg/person/year, down on the peak of 105 kg during 1995/1996. This figure modulates depending on improved or declining economic conditions (Table 1). This brief introduction helps put IFIF and the compound feed production system in context with total livestock feeding. In the following sections the three topics covered will be referred to as the three ‘Ps’. They are: protein, population and politics. PROTEIN Protein is the key building block for feed formulation systems. And the international trade in protein materials is central to the industry’s success no matter where production is carried out. Without this trade, the industry would not have the ability to formulate correctly and it would not be what it is today. And respective populations would have less choice and poorer diets as a consequence. Yet with all the modern-day sophistication in trade, transportation, handling, formulation and delivery systems that gets products to livestock growers on a ‘just-in-time’ basis, protein sources are now in trouble.


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TABLE 1 Global population, feed manufacture and per capita use

Year (million tons)

Population feed use

Manufactured feed Per capita (billions) (kg/person)

1975 4.1 290 71

1980 4.5 370 82

1985 4.9 440 90

1990 5.3 537 101

1995 5.6 590 105

1996 5.7 597 105

1997 5.8 605 104

1998 5.9 575 97

1999 6.0 586 98

2000 6.1 591 97

2001 6.2 597 96

Source: Feed International 2002 World Feed Panorama Survey (2001 data). Protein oilseed meals. Soybean meal for example accounts for 75 percent of all protein used in compounded livestock rations worldwide. There is an on-going debate and campaign to reject genetically modified organisms from livestock diets. The livestock feed sector will have to join this debate and win it if it is to have genetically modified organisms (GMO) developments in the future which will improve production and add nutritional advantages that are acceptable to the sophisticated western consumer. It is the affluent west European consumer that is gaining the attention of policy makers in Brussels, and what the European Union does seems to persuade others of the issues. Rendered Animal Products. Meat and bone meal, a long-time traditional ingredient and rich source of amino acids and minerals in livestock feeds worldwide, is banned in the European Union. This is due to the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis and the link to the new variant Creutzfeldt - Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans. Fishmeal. The inability of current testing procedures to distinguish animal by-products now being produced under new processing procedures from fishmeal, has


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led to fishmeal being included in the overall animal protein ban. There is also an underlying concern over dioxin levels in fishmeals. There are other sources of protein, but from the industry’s point-of-view, these are the ‘Big Three’. Within oilmeals, soybean dominates as a protein source. Oilmeals 316 million tonnes Animal by-products 10 million tonnes Fishmeal 7 million tonnes All three proteins are key components in commercially produced livestock rations in all countries, and all these proteins are traded globally. It is the raw materials that travel to the areas in which the livestock, that will consume them, are being farmed. Feed mills in general, are located near the centres of livestock production and seldom does complete feed cross national borders or travel far from the point of manufacture. Feed concentrates on the other hand - where the protein content or the micro-ingredients are expensive and require careful formulation - may be traded internationally and over greater distances, but the volumes in comparison to complete feeds is minute. Yet the industry often feels that governments do not see the importance of the trade in feed raw materials as part of the food production systems. With protein sources facing crisis and projections putting world population on target to reach nine billion by 2050, it is timely for FAO to set up this Expert Consultation. There are two key reasons why the industry should take more than a passing interest in protein sources:

1. It is part of today’s food chain. What consumers say, what they believe about the feed industry and how it goes about its business will effect the livelihoods of all involved, and what happens in one country can have a dramatic impact on the operation of the feed industry in another.

2. Population development - As total populations grow and as incomes rise, consumers will demand more animal products in their diets.

POPULATIONS Every minute there are 251 births and 106 deaths worldwide; giving a net gain to the world’s population of 145 individuals. Over one year that is an increase of 76 million people. The following is a brief review in terms of global population and how that will change over the next two to three decades.

1. Total world population stands at 6.4 billion (6 219 221 150) 2. In 25 years this will have increased to 7.8 billion and to 9.2 billion in

2050


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3. The reason to chose the year 2050 is because it is the projected point at which world population increase begins to tail off and by the end of the century a plateau is reached. The pace of increase also decreases at this point.

Therefore, in terms of feeding people – (and note that protein is only one component in diets, and livestock products make up only a proportion of that) it is what happens over the next 25 years that becomes critical to the future success or failure of the feed industry. Data from the United States Census Bureau show that countries with populations of over 100 000 million will be joined in 25 years time by many developing countries, and all with increasing gross domestic products (GDPs). Their demand for protein can only increase dramatically in the years ahead. David Bossman, President of the American Feed Industry Association and vice President of IFIF, has stated that “we will have to treble our protein production over the next 30 years to meet the growth in demand”. Where do protein supplies come from? Who will have access to protein sources if demand outstrips supply? Will free trade - the traditional supply and demand scenario - continue to work when protein is in short supply? And if there are shortages what price will we have to be paid to secure protein supplies? Many people claim that there is sufficient food in the world today to feed everyone, and it’s just a problem of distributing it. That is not necessarily true and it can be argued that food is best produced close to where it will be consumed. If that is true then it is good news for the feed industry. Move the bulk raw materials, manufacture feed close to animal populations - and presumably those animal populations are close to the populations demanding more livestock products. This scenario will mean that all the countries with populations predicted to expand to more than 100 000 million over the next 25 years will experience rapidly rising planes of protein demand, especially if they have rising GDPs as well. Encouraging people to eat more cereals to combat the problem is not likely to work. It’s a fact that humans prefer animal products in their diet - not just for their essential nutrients but also because they taste good - and the developed world is in no position to deny people in developing countries from graduating from vegetable-based diets to livestock products as their incomes improve. In addition, animals are more efficient in converting all sorts of vegetable products that humans can’t digest into highly-digestible protein. Without adopting biotechnology; without making meat and bone meal safe for use (in those countries where there is BSE in cattle); without convincing the consumer that these protein meals are safe and suitable for use, and without


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convincing consumers and governments alike that the industry is capable of adopting and sticking to safe procedures or that it is indeed a part of the food chain, how can it hope to meet the future demand for animal products - even within national borders? It appears that the larger a country’s population the less likely it is to maintain protein self-sufficiency. For example, following the withdrawal of meat and bone meal from livestock rations in January 2001 for six months, and then extended indefinitely, the European Union’s dependence on imported protein sources went up by over 12 percent. It is interesting to note that prior to the ban, the European Union was just 29 percent self-sufficient in animal feed proteins. Since the ban, that self-sufficiency has decreased to just 25 percent. Other factors, such as the reform of the common agricultural policy (CAP), will also contribute to the falling level of self-sufficiency. To bring population and protein production together in a meaningful way, it is possible to compare the leading countries in terms of population with their respective compound feed output (Tables 2 and 3). Not all reflect a balance between the two and some leave much room for growth, as can be seen when comparing the United States and China for example. TABLE 2

Country Feed production (million tonnes)

Population (million people)

USA 142 275

China 58 262

Brazil 35 172

Japan 23 126

France 23 59

Canada 20 31

Mexico 20 100

Germany 18 82

Spain 17 40

Netherlands 18 16

Thailand 6 61

Source: Feed International 2002 World Feed Panorama Survey (2001 data) and The US Census Bureau


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TABLE 3 Top 10 feed producing countries by region

Region Output (million tonnes)

Asia 1 32.0

Latin America 65.5

European Union 1 16.5

Non-EU Europe 48.5

Middle East/Africa 24.0

North America 1 60.0

Total 5 46.0

Source: Feed International 2002 World Feed Panorama Survey (2001 data). POLITICS BSE, the dioxin crisis in Belgium and various other health scares surrounding the feed industry, particularly in Western Europe have caught the attention of FAO and Codex. Codex Alimentarius responded by setting up a ‘Task Force on Feed’. This Task Force is made up from Codex member country representatives (there is no exclusion and any country can participate) and its objective is to establish a Code of Good Animal Feeding Practice. It has four years in which to do this. It is now in the third year of the process with the latest meeting taking place in Copenhagen in June 2002. This is not a code for the feed industry. It is a code that must be ratified and adopted by Codex member countries and in turn incorporated into domestic legislation. The aim of the code is to provide governments with the information they need to change their national laws to reflect uniform world protection and safety when it comes to health issues involving feedstuffs. This process is well underway and will recommend national association members and others that they adopt processes and procedures that pre-empt and accommodate the eventual changes in national law that will take place. The Task Force has defined the sections of the final Code and has approved a list of definitions for the key words it will be using. An area that took up considerable time at the most recent meeting was whether there should be positive, negative and undesirable substances lists. Discussion has not yet centred on BSE, but there could well be arguments to sideline rendered products from feed rations based on human health safety concerns.


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CONCLUSION This consultation offers a unique opportunity to the feed industry. It allows the issues surrounding the proteins that are used to be reviewed and discussed in an informative way. It helps to explain the role of the industry and the importance of maintaining adequate and unhindered supplies of various protein sources. Too often the needs of the industry are overlooked in countries where feeding livestock more effectively could make a big difference in meeting human nutritional needs. This consultation also offers the opportunity to address some of the perception issues that plague the feed industry and which it has been unable to address individually or in a co-ordinated way in the past. The project will help lay the foundation for meeting the challenge of feeding 7.8 billion people by 2025 and satisfying an eventual world population of 9.2 billion in 2050. However, as the feed industry changes from being a ‘processor’ and ‘transformer’ of agricultural commodities and other raw materials into basic livestock diets, to a sophisticated nutritional delivery system that is very much part of the food chain, it is cognisant on governments to take greater interest in the work that the industry does and to sanction the raw materials that it has to use. As part of the discussion process, it is important that the ‘Three Ps’ are kept in mind. Understand the role of protein in livestock production, keep an eye on population increases and where they are occurring and finally, identify the policies and politics that will help the industry to meet its objectives - whether that includes getting involved in political issues or talking to the consumer about what the industry does and why.

Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry 9

Overview of world feed protein needs and supply

Andrew W. Speedy Senior Officer (Feed and Animal Nutrition)

Animal Production and Health Division FAO, Rome, Italy

THE LIVESTOCK REVOLUTION FAO and other institutions1 suggest that global meat production (Figure 1) and consumption will rise from 233 million tonnes (2000) to 300 million tonnes (2020), and milk from 568 to 700 million tonnes over the same period. Egg production will also increase by 30 percent. These predictions show a massive increase in animal protein demand, needed to satisfy the growth in the human population, and the increasing affluence of the emerging economies. However, much of the growth has been taking place in a relatively small number of countries, including some of the most populous ones, e.g. China, Brazil2. Including these two countries, the per capita meat consumption in the developing countries went from 11 to 23 kg in the 2 decades to the mid-1990s. Excluding these two countries, it went from 11 kg to only 15 kg (Figure 2). Including or excluding China in the totals of the developing countries and the world, makes a significant difference for the aggregate growth rates of meat, though not of milk and dairy products, given the small weight of the latter products in China’s food consumption. It is even suggested by FAO (2000) that there may be an overestimation of China’s meat production.

1 The Livestock to 2020 (Delgado et al., 1999) study used base figures for 1993 and these have been recalculated for the year 2000 based on FAOSTAT data. 2 FAO Economic and Social Department - Global Perspectives: Agriculture: Towards 2015/30, Technical Interim Report, April 2000

Overview of world feed protein needs and supply 10

Meat, Total Production

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Figure 1. Historical and predicted world production of meat in developed and developing countries In particular, the apparently spectacular growth in pig production is very dependent on including China in the statistics (Figures 3 and 4). Pig production in China yields a very different commodity to that found in the West and is currently mainly small scale, although with large overall numbers. It is based on a different system and uses different kinds of feed, although intensive units are developing in the east. If China’s growth in the consumption of pig meat over the last decade of about 2 kg/person/year (leading to the 39 kg of 1995/97) were to continue, the country would soon surpass the per capita consumption of the industrialized countries - an untenable prospect. Therefore, a rather drastic deceleration in growth rate, in China at least, and, given its large weighting, also in the global aggregates, is to be expected.


Meat, Total Production(excluding China)

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Figure 2. Historical and predicted world meat production, excluding China (contrast with data in Figure 1) The world meat economy has been characterized by the rapid growth of the poultry sector (its share in total meat output went from 13 percent to 28 percent in the last three decades) and, in more recent years, the buoyancy of the meat trade (Figure 5).


Pig Meat Production

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Figure 3. Historical and predicted world production of pig meat

Pig Meat Production(excluding China)

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Figure 4. Historical and predicted world production of pig meat, excluding China (contrast with data in Figure 3)


Chicken Meat Production

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Figure 5. Historical and predicted world production of chicken meat

TABLE 1 World export and import of chicken meat

Chicken Meat Exports and Imports

116000United Arab Emirates107403Denmark

124247France109337United Kingdom

195432Germany240905Thailand

212146Mexico268551Belgium

259132United Kingdom415059France

362000Saudi Arabia581063Netherlands

568272Japan906753Brazil

580099Russian Federation372678China, Mainland

799742China, Mainland775005China, Hong Kong SAR

993778China, Hong Kong SAR2613621United States of America

Imports –Qty Mt

Major ImportersExports –Qty Mt

Major Exporters

Although the United States is by far the biggest exporter of poultry meat, it is essential to note the importance of a number of developing and emerging economies in this market, most notably Brazil, but also Thailand. China’s position


is somewhat anomalous, being at the top of both imports and exports, suggesting considerable reprocessing of poultry meat in that country (Table 1). For eggs, there is also a large increase in production which may be expected to continue. Although not an exporter, India, with its very low poultry meat and egg consumption per capita, and a population rivalling that of China, could be thought of as a potential centre of growth for poultry. The poultry sector in India is one of the fastest growing sectors in the country. India is the fourth largest producer of eggs and eighth largest producer of broilers in the world. India's broiler industry is not well organized in the North , but in the South, the producers have come together to form integrated operations. In the egg production industry, thirty per cent is still in the hands of small producers. The whole Indian poultry industry has a turnover of Rs 90 bn (1999) and has set itself a target of achieving a total turnover of Rs 270 bn by 2005. Of the total production of eggs and broilers, the States of Karnataka, Kerala, Andra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the western region of Maharashtra, account for more than 56 percent of total national egg production and similarly 60 percent of the broilers. Tamil Nadus' Coimbatore region alone accounted for more than 30 percent of the total broiler production in 2000. Poultry farming is hampered in northern regions because of cold conditions during certain periods of the year, although Punjab alone contributed more than 6 percent of the total egg production in the country. It is suggested that the Indian poultry sector has the potential to grow at 20 percent per annum over the next 10 years. This arises from the fact that even developing neighbours, such as Pakistan, China and Thailand have annual per capita consumption levels of 2.3, 4 and 9 kg respectively, compared with India at less than 1 kg. A developed country like the United States has an annual consumption of 44 kg per head. A similar situation exists for the egg industry. With the advent of fast-food chains and growing dependence on convenience foods, the processed foods sector, and particularly that of poultry, is expected to have a growth rate in double figures (Figure 6).3 Consumption of milk and dairy products has some way to go before it hits limits. In the projections, there is higher growth in the world milk and dairy sector than in the recent past because of the cessation of declines and some recovery in the transition economies (FAO, 2000) (Figure 7).

3 Source: http://www.indiainfoline.com/sect/poul/ch04.html


Eggs Primary Production

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Figure 6. Historical and predicted world production of eggs.

Milk, Total Production

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Figure 7. Historical and predicted world production of milk

Excluding the transition economies, world demand should continue to grow at 1.6 percent per annum (p.a.) as in the past. China has little influence on the dairy sector because consumption has historically been very low. However, there are signs, particularly in the cities, of a change in this culture and an exponential growth in demand, albeit from a very low base.


Overall, it is quite possible to have an optimistic view of the growth of the livestock industry and its contribution to better human nutrition. But many developing countries and whole regions, where the need to increase protein consumption is the greatest, have not been participating in the buoyancy of the world meat sector. In this category are the regions of sub-Saharan Africa (with very low consumption per capita reflecting the quasi perennial economic stagnation), the Near East and North Africa. Here, the rapid progress of the period to the late 1980s (oil boom) was interrupted and subsequently slightly reversed, due in some respects to the collapse of consumption in Iraq. Similar considerations apply to the developments in the per capita consumption of milk and dairy products. GROWTH IN WORLD ANIMAL FEED The growth in demand for livestock products suggests that there will be a consequent rise in demand for animal feed, not only of cereals but of other feeds and particularly proteins. Data on feed production and consumption are much harder to assemble, and FAO does not have comprehensive information about these important commodities. Such data should be available so that a better picture of the world feed market can be obtained. In the meantime, it is possible to make broad calculations based on assumptions concerning the use of feed for pigs, poultry, dairy cows and other ruminants. The graph below (Figure 8) is calculated from livestock production data, assuming that: • broilers convert at 2:1 and have a 70 percent carcass yield; • egg production has a 2:1 food conversion ratio; • pigs convert at 3:1 and have a 60 percent carcass yield; • 3 litres of milk are produced per kilogram of cow feed.

Obviously, these are very simplified assumptions, given the diversity of production systems. It is impossible to calculate the feed use of other ruminants and this is done here simply to account for the known additional feeds that are used. Such a calculation may be more reasonable at predicting the future trends, given that growth will be mainly in intensive systems. However, the limitations must be noted.


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Figure 8. Projected world growth in demand for animal feed based on existing feed conversion ratios and carcass yields (see text)

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Other feed Cow feed Pig feed Layer feed Broiler feed

Figure 9. Projected growth in world demand for animal feed, excluding that predicted for pigs in China (contrast with data in Figure 8) Again, the position is distorted by the contribution of China to the projected growth in pig production. Excluding China may again give a more realistic view, and it still implies considerable growth (Figure 9).


Indeed, including China has led to a number of ‘profit-of-doom’ scenarios , particularly relating to world cereal demand (Who will feed China? Lester Brown, World Watch Institute, 1999). Predictions by Zhang Ziyi of the Chinese Academy of Science (2001) gave a different view. Not only did he assert that the increase in Chinese pig production would not be based wholly on cereals, but also pointed out that there would be a fall in consumption of processed cereals as the population moved to a more animal based diet (Figure 10).

422

280268

308317 325

394377 380

38647.1

43.7

16.3

75

25.5

89.5

12.6

20.7

16.6

5. 5

<2 <2 <22.3 2.7

4.2

7.0

13.9

6.14.8

4.13.5

2.51.51.3<1<1<1

87

231

97

131

134142

1950 1960 1970 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1995 1998

year

per

popu

lati

on c

onsu

mpti

on (

g/ye

ar

RG MT EG ML PG

Figure 10. Growth in per capita consumption of grain and animal products in China over the past 50 years In this instance, the projected growth in feed consumption is taken as the best available estimate, but this needs to be greatly improved. Indeed, even in developed countries, the trend over the last 50 years has been in the diversification of feed raw materials used, as well as the global trade in alternatives. This is highlighted in a paper by Verstegen and Tamminga (2001) (The practice of animal nutrition in the 21st Century). They show the ingredients of diets in 1950 and 1988 for pigs and in 1963 and 1988 for laying hens (Tables 2 and 3). They also point out the effects on the nutrition of animals resulting from the use of higher fibre diets and non-starch polysaccharides. This they assert affects protein nutrition, as well as energy nutrition. Finally, Verstegen and Tamminga note the demand for reduction in Nitrogen (and Phosphorus) excretion associated with animal feeding.


TABLE 2 Comparison of compound feed composition for fattening pigs in1950 and in 1988 (Verstegen and Tamminga, 2001)

Compound feed composition (%) for fattening pigs, 50-100 kg live weight.

peastapiocamealalfalfamealcoconut expellerrapeseedmeal, solv. extrsoybeanmeal, solv. extr.hominy feedwheat middlingssugarbeet pulpcane molassesmeat meal tankagefeed fatMineral and vitamin mix

13.337.930.2310.91.4151.77.52.22.51.4

maizebarleyryesorghumgrass mealcoconut expellersoybeanmeal, solv. extr.meat meal tankageMineral and vitamin mix

2017.5301044651.5

19881950

The practice of animal nutrition in the 21st Century, Martin W.A. Verstegen and Seerp Tamminga, WageningenInstitute of Animal Science, NL-6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands. J. M. Bell Distinguished Lectureship Series, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK Canada, September 27, 2001

GROWTH IN PROTEIN FEEDS There may be some divergence from the use of cereals for feed but the need for protein feeds cannot be avoided. Above all, quality protein will be required to satisfy the increase in milk and meat production, particularly as the latter will come mostly from poultry and pigs. The projection given here is again based on the very simple assumption that 15 percent of the feed will be protein feeds. This appears to match the FAO data on production of oil cakes and meals over the period shown. Fish meal data are also available but statistics on the production of meat meals is lacking in FAO (although there are trade data). Indeed, this category is poorly defined in the figures collected from countries and could possibly be misleading, as far as meat-and-bone-meal (MBM) is concerned.


TABLE 3 Comparison of compound feed composition for laying hens in 1963 and in 1988 (Verstegen and Tamminga, 2001)

Compound feed composition (%) for laying hens

maizetapiocapeassoybeans, heat treatedsoybeanmeal, solv. extr.wheat middlingssugar cane molassesalfalfamealfeathermeal, hydrolizedmeatmeal tankagefeed fatMineral and vitamin mix

3510.3101.28.48.333.62549.2

maizesorghumoatssoybeanmeal, solv. extr.sunflowermeal, solv. extrsesame expellermaizegluten feedwheat middlingsbranalfalfamealfishmealMineral and vitamin mix

4013104.552552.52.537.5

19881963

The practice of animal nutrition in the 21st Century, Martin W.A. Verstegen and Seerp Tamminga, WageningenInstitute of Animal Science, NL-6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands. J. M. Bell Distinguished Lectureship Series, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK Canada, September 27, 2001

In any case, the projection based on FAOSTAT data shows a major increase in the demand for oil meals and cakes (Figure 11). Fortunately, the demands for livestock feed are matched by the increasing world demand for vegetable oils. FAO (2000) states that the aggregate growth of world demand and production (in oil equivalent) will continue to be well above that of total growth in agriculture, but at 2.1 percent p.a. in the next two decades, it will be much lower than the 4.0 percent p.a. recorded over the past 20 years. This deceleration will essentially reflect the factors of lower population growth, more and more countries achieving medium-high levels of consumption, and, of course, persistence of low incomes in many countries, limiting their effective demand.


Projected world growth in requirement for protein cakes and meals

0

50

100

150

200

250

1961 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Mill

ion

tonn

es

Figure 11. Projected world growth in protein cakes and meals based on protein feeds making up 15 percent of the feed diet (Source: FAOSTAT) On the production side, the trend has been for four oil crops (oil palm, soybeans, sunflower seed and rapeseed) and a small number of countries, to provide much of the increase in world output. With the lower demand growth in the future and changes in policies (e.g. limits to subsidized production), the future pace of structural change in favour of some of these crops could be less pronounced. The sector accounted for a good part of cultivated land expansion in the past, and in the industrial countries, it made up for part of the decline in cereal area. The projections of land use in the developing countries indicate that oil crops will continue to account for a good part of future expansion of harvested area. The rapid growth in demand of the developing countries was accompanied by the emergence of several as major importers of oils and oilseeds. If the five major net exporters among the developing countries (Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil, and Argentina) are excluded, the others increased their net imports of oils and oilseeds (in oil equivalent) from 1 to 14 million tonnes between 1974/76 and 1995/97. In parallel, however, the five major exporters increased their net exports from 4 to 18 million tonnes, so that the net export balance of all the developing countries increased slightly. In the future, these trends are likely to continue and the net balance of the developing countries would not change much. The developing countries have so far been net exporters of oil meals. This has enabled them to maintain a positive, though declining trade balance in terms of the


value of their combined trade of oilseeds, oils and meals. However, with the development of their livestock sector, the prospect is that their net exports of oil meals could turn into net imports. This is yet another dimension of the above-mentioned trend for some developing countries to turn into net importers of agricultural products. FAOSTAT data are shown in Table 4 and Figure 12. These illustrate the discussion above, concerning the importance of soya beans, oil palm and rapeseed and sunflower. Except for soya, this has further implications for animal nutrition. Fishmeal production has not increased markedly over the last 20 years and is unlikely to do so from conventional sources (given the pressures on world fisheries). The question must be asked as to whether there are alternative sources of fish from developing countries where the industry is poorly developed?

TABLE 4 Production of oil cakes and meals over the past 20 years

34,139,00030,182,00025,146,00022,252,00024,589,120of which USA

14,000,000----Meatmeal

-6,744,8937,124,3856,388,6746,394,999Fishmeal

2,4804,0416,0137,3199,911Cake of Hempseed

1,212,6711,301,9521,251,9931,276,2161,410,352Cake of Linseed

12,508,01312,525,30011,754,48710,821,1569,610,381Cake of Cotton Seed

170,871157,407139,860128,32894,040Cake of Kapok

43,60640,74541,12730,35922,823Flour of Mustard

126,24980,55784,64578,19664,318Cake of Mustard

833,077784,818788,252778,478620,191Cake of Sesame Seed

315,750384,338432,251439,583455,608Cake of Safflower

20,557,80816,913,70812,822,3379,917,8795,808,306Cake of Rapeseed

10,545,01110,299,6889,317,8687,761,2116,203,475Cake of Sunflower Seed

3,323,0542,478,1021,909,4521,286,240760,292Cake of Palm Kernels

1,950,7172,063,7241,976,3901,547,5231,569,214Cake of Coconuts

6,277,9605,999,5174,783,1073,980,4023,563,379Cake of Groundnuts

102,550,32886,771,93968,788,16561,225,08958,286,187Cake of Soya Beans

2,239,9392,113,6511,624,4751,372,064996,984Cake of Maize

4,972,9703,786,6873,525,7532,214,6841,934,836Cake of Rice Bran

169,242,492147,245,276120,127,163103,827,24892,473,472Oil Cakes and Meal

20001995199019851980Item

Production of Oil Cakes and Meals

Animal protein is a major issue. It has contributed a relatively small but significant and high quality part of protein supply. With the ban on the use of


animal protein as feed in Europe and other countries, it raises the following questions:

1. Can alternative sources of protein be found? 2. How will the waste animal protein be dealt with and what will be the

problems of the industry which supplies it?

World production of oil cakes and meals

0

50

100

150

200

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Meatmeal Fishmeal Cake of Hempseed Cake of Linseed

Cake of Cotton Seed Cake of Kapok Flour of Mustard Cake of Mustard

Cake of Sesame Seed Cake of Safflower Cake of Rapeseed Cake of Sunflower Seed

Cake of Palm Kernels Cake of Coconuts Cake of Groundnuts Cake of Maize

Cake of Rice Bran Cake of Soya Beans USA Soya Beans

Figure 12. World production of oil cakes and meals over the past 20 years by type of product. The domination of Soya (darker yellow) is very evident These questions have arisen because of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) which has provoked the whole issue of animal feed safety and its implications for the livestock industry. PROBLEMS OF THE FEED INDUSTRY In recent years and in many countries, public concern about the safety of foods of animal origin has heightened due to problems that have arisen with BSE, dioxin contamination, outbreaks of food borne bacterial infections, and as a result of


growing concern about veterinary drug residues and microbial resistance to antibiotics. These problems have drawn attention to practices within the feed and livestock industries, and have prompted health professionals and the feed industry to closely scrutinise food quality and safety issues. BSE resulted from the appearance of abnormal prion proteins in neural tissues, and is probably transmitted through the ingestion of nervous or lymphatic tissues from an infected animal through contaminated meat and bone meal. The causative agent has proved to be very resistant to normal methods of sterilization and safe rendering of infected tissues. Laboratory identification of this problem in 1994 led to the recognition that the disease was being transmitted to animals by the use of concentrated feed incorporating MBM from infected animals, and consequently the use of MBM in feed preparation was prohibited in the European Union. FAO analysis of trade data showed that such feeds had been exported to other countries and together with exported animals, and other animal products, could represent a means of cross boundary spread of BSE. Although control measures were put in place as a greater understanding of BSE was gained, the disease spread throughout the United Kingdom and across Europe, and at present 20 countries have confirmed cases (including Japan). The risk analyses and strict control measures employed in the United Kingdom have reduced the incidence of BSE, but as yet it has not been eliminated. Meanwhile the spread of BSE to other countries implies that any importer of live animals and MBM from the United Kingdom and other European countries may now have the BSE agent present. The picture resulting from the European Commission Scientific Steering Committee Geographic BSE risk assessment studies (GBR) is shown at Figure 13.


GEOGRAPHICAL BSE RISK ASSESSMENTHIGHLY UNLIKELYTO PRESENT A RISK

UNLIKELY BUT RISKCANNOT BE EXCLUDED

LIKELY TO PRESENT ARISK EVEN IF NOTCONFIRMED OR LOWLEVEL RISK

RISK CONFIRMED AT A HIGH LEVEL

Figure 13. World risk of contamination from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). (Source: European Commission Scientific Steering Committee Geographic Assessment) The inevitable conclusion is that BSE has spread from the United Kingdom to the rest of Europe, and thence to other countries, notably those of Central and Eastern Europe. The extent to which it has spread but remains latent is impossible to determine. The trade matrix of MBM during the 1990s suggests that other countries may have imported the infective agent.


0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

Afr-N Am-CAm-N

Am-SAsia-E

Asia-SEEur-E

Eur-UK

Eur-W

N&M-East

Oceania

Am-NAm-SAsia-EAsia-SEEur-UKEur-WOceania

Importer

Exporter

Metric tons

Trade matrix of MBM 1996-99

Figure 14. Trade matrix of the export and import of meat and bone meal (MBM) in the period 1996 to 1999 This position is one of the primary reasons for debate on alternative protein sources for the animal feed industry. However, the issues of rational use of MBM and the consequences for the industry should also be addressed. Given public pressure, it is obvious that human health and safety considerations must be paramount. BSE is not the only concern with respect to zoonotic diseases in which animal feed can be implicated. Other, numerically greater problems include: Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, avian influenza H5N1, Trichinella spiralis, mycotoxins, veterinary drugs and chemical contaminants. FAO is concerned to implement the relevant standards and guidelines of the Codex Alimentarius which relate to the safety of animal feed in these matters. Relevant Codex standards include: • Contaminants and Toxins in Food • Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for Pesticides, etc. • Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for Veterinary Drugs • International Code of Practice for Control of the Use of Veterinary Drugs • Aflatoxins in Raw Materials and Supplemental Feeding Stuffs for Milk

Producing Animals • Labelling of Pre-Packaged Foods


and the forthcoming Code of Practice for Good Animal Feeding (Codex Ad Hoc Inter-Governmental Task Force on Good Animal Feeding). To this may be added the issue of environmental pollution, particularly by intensive livestock. In Europe, there is a demand for reduction in Nitrogen (and Phosphorus) excretion, which has implications for animal nutrition, particularly in the use of protein feeds. CONCLUSIONS A number of trends may be discerned in the livestock and feed industries. There is a continuing rise in the demand for animal products and particularly those from poultry and pigs. There is a concomitant rise in the need for animal feeds and particularly oil cakes and meals. At the same time, there is increased public concern about contaminants and health, and demand for safety, regulation and traceability. Globalization of trade affects all countries, and of particular note is the increased production and export of poultry meat from developing countries. But there is also trade in other meats, including beef, and increased world commerce in feed raw materials. The collection of good quality data relating to world market forces and the availability of proteins for the feed industry should be addressed. Innovative developments in the feed industry should be sought with a view to providing alternative sources of proteins and new amino acid technologies. Feed safety should also be high on the agenda and proposals should consider a worldwide Code of Practice for the production of proteins for the feed industry. REFERENCES Brown, L.R., 1995. Who Will Feed China? Worldwatch Institute, Washington DC. Delgado, C., Rosengrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. and Courbois, C., 1999.

Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution. Food, Agriculture and the Environment paper 28. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC.

FAO, 2000, 2001. FAOSTAT. http://apps.fao.org/default.htm FAO, 2002. World Agriculture: towards 20015/2030. Summary Report. Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Verstegen, M.W.A. and Tamminga, S., 2001. The practice of animal nutrition in the

21st Century, Wageningen Institute of Animal Science, NL-6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands. J. M. Bell Distinguished Lectureship Series, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK Canada, September 27, 2001.


Protein nutrition requirements of farmed livestock and dietary supply

E.L. Miller Nutrition Laboratory

Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine University of Cambridge - UK

This review examines energy–protein interrelationships, protein requirements of poultry, pigs, fish and ruminants, including the need for indispensable amino acids measured as ileal true digestible amino acids. The effects of processing on protein quality for monogastrics and ruminants are summarised. The effects of dietary proteins on the immune response, as sources of nutrients other than amino acids and of anti-nutritional factors are also considered. Adequate energy must be supplied by the diet to make efficient use of dietary protein. The optimum energy density varies with species, digestive system, age and environment. In the ruminant, sufficient nitrogen and rumen degradable protein must be supplied to maximise bacterial fermentation, energy digestibility and feed intake. For young, fast growing animals and high yielding lactating animals, aim to feed high-energy diets ad libitum to maximise production potential of animal protein. In older or less productive animals lower energy diets may be used to achieve maximum protein deposition or secretion without excess fat deposition. Include just sufficient protein with a good amino acid balance to support maximum protein deposition at the highest possible efficiency. Surplus protein may increase protein deposition through enhanced protein turnover, reduced efficiency of retention, greater N excretion and pollution, but with reduced net energy, less fat deposition and improved carcass composition. Protein requirements, expressed as a percentage of diet or as a protein-energy ratio, decline with age in growing animals. Phase feeding multiple diets with decreasing protein content reduces environmental pollution. Fish have lower energy requirements and require a greater protein: metabolizable energy (ME) ratio. For mammals and birds, express amino acid requirements and feed values as true ileal digestibility. For fish, faecal values suffice or can be estimated using faecal digestibility in mink or ileal digestibility in chicks. Choose protein supplements to provide amino acids that complement amino acids of basic (usually cereal) energy sources. In ruminants, the supplement should provide undegradable but intestinally digested amino acids to complement

30 Protein nutrition requirements of farmed livestock and dietary supply

microbial protein. Methionine (or methionine + cystine) and lysine are first or second limiting. Protein requirements are reduced, with less pollution, by selecting proteins and amino acid supplements to approach the ideal protein pattern, but specifying maximum levels for excess amino acids will increase cost. Determine marginal response to amino acid supply to calculate target amino acid level in feed. Mild heating in the presence of reducing sugars or aldehydes results in loss of available lysine with little change in digestibility. Mild to moderate heating causes loss of sulphydryl groups, formation of disulphide cross links, racemisation of L to D-aspartic acid and reduced digestibility of all amino acids. Moisture content during heating is critical in both losses of available lysine and of sulphydryl groups. Mild processing gives best digestibility for monogastric animals and is especially important for young mammals and fish. Ruminant feeds benefit from more severe heat treatment and special processing to reduce protein degradability when amino acid composition is well balanced. Growth under commercial conditions is often less than under good experimental conditions, reflecting challenges to the immune system. Dietary proteins can both cause and affect an immune response. Dietary proteins may need special processing to reduce antigenic factors. The presence of dietary fibre, phytic acid or tannins in protein feeds reduce amino acid digestibility, increase endogenous N loss and the energetic cost of intestinal protein synthesis with consequent reduction in growth rate. ENERGY-PROTEIN INTERRELATIONSHIPS The utilization of dietary proteins must be put in the context of the available energy supply. Energy is the main driving force of metabolism. If energy is limiting dietary protein will be used inefficiently as another source of energy instead of being converted into body protein. Figure 1a shows the response of growing pigs given diets in which the amount of protein, with a constant amino acid profile, was varied while maintaining a constant energy supply by replacing starch with protein. In addition, the diets were given at three levels of feeding which increased both the protein and energy supply in a fixed ratio. Increasing protein from low and limiting levels at constant energy increased protein deposition in the carcase until energy limited the response. Giving more feed increased the energy supply and allowed the response to dietary protein to continue until the new energy level again became limiting. This will repeat until the genetic potential of the animal or some other factor limits further protein accretion.


Figure 1a. Relationship between increasing protein intake of constant amino acid composition and protein deposition in the carcass of pigs between 20 and 45 kg live weight. The same feeds were fed at three fixed levels of feeding, low, moderate and high. Source: Campbell et al., 1985 Increasing the protein level also reduced the fat deposition in the carcass, indicating less net energy, even though metabolizable energy (ME) was maintained constant (Figure 1b).

Figure 1b. Relationship between increasing the intake of protein (having a constant amino acid composition) and fat deposition in the carcass of pigs between 20 and 45 kg live weight. The same feeds were fed at three fixed levels of feeding, low, moderate and high. Source: Campbell et al., 1985

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Protein intake (g/day)

Fat d

epos

ition

in

evis

cera

ted

carc

ass

(g/d

ay)

Low feed Moderate feed High feed

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Protein intake (g/day)

Prot

ein

depo

sitio

n in

ev

isce

rate

d ca

rcas

s (g

/day

)

Low feed Moderate feed High feed


Figure 2a shows the effect of feeding pigs with three constant levels of protein each having an increasing ME supplied by extra starch. At the low and medium levels of protein, providing extra energy had very little effect on increasing N (protein) retention. Protein supply was the limiting factor and an increase in protein supply increased protein deposition. At the high level of protein, additional energy gave a marked increase in protein deposition.

Figure 2a. Effect of increasing energy (by adding starch to a constant protein feed) at three levels of protein intake on protein retention of male pigs over a period of 6 weeks from 12 kg live weight. Source: Kyriazakis and Emmans, 1992 The low protein deposition at high protein but low energy intake indicates that energy was the limiting factor and that the excess protein was used with less efficiency and provided less net energy. When the data are scaled by the protein intake, the efficiency of use of the diet, N for N retention is seen to increase with the energy to protein ratio in the diet (Figure 2b). A high energy: protein ratio is needed to make the most efficient use of dietary protein.

020406080

100120140160

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

ME intake (MJ/d)

Prot

ein

gain

(g/d

)

Protein intake 131 g/d Protein intake 197 g/d Protein intake 262 g/d


Figure 2b. Effect of increasing energy in the diet (by adding starch) on the protein retention per unit of protein intake. Three levels of protein were fed to male pigs over a period of 6 weeks from 12 kg live weight. Source: Kyriazakis & Emmans, 1992 Figure 3 is a theoretical model of the response to energy, in the presence of adequate protein, for pigs of different weights (National Research Council, [NRC] 1998). The response is linear up to the maximum potential protein deposition and then reaches a plateau. The maximum potential protein deposition increases to a maximum at about puberty and then decreases as maturity is approached. Figure 4 demonstrates the change in maximum potential protein deposition for different sexes of improved European pig breeds. Dietary protein is not used efficiently as a source of energy. Although the gross energy of protein is greater than that of carbohydrate (23.6 kJ/g v 17.4 kJ/g for starch), when protein is used as an energy source the N has to be excreted as ammonia (fish), urea (mammals) or uric acid (birds). The ME value of protein at zero N retention takes into account the loss of energy in the excreta, such that the ME of protein and carbohydrate are approximately similar. The ME value for mammals and birds, however, does not take into account the energy costs of synthesising urea or uric acid and the cost of excretion in the kidney. Net energy (NE) of the diet represents the useful energy used to replace the losses of maintenance and the net deposition of energy as new tissue in growth or milk secretion during lactation, after subtracting the heat losses of metabolism.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ME intake/CP intake (kJ/g)

Prot

ein

rete

ntio

n/C

P in

take

Protein intake 131 g/d Protein intake 197 g/d Protein intake 262 g/d


Figure 3. Theoretical relationship of whole body protein gain and digestible energy intake in pigs from 5 to 150 kg body weight when fed diets with adequate protein. Source: NRC, 1998

Figure 4 Prediction of the maximum rate of protein retention in male, female and castrate pigs of an improved breed type at different stages of growth. Taken from Prmax = Bp.Pt.ln(Ap/Pt) where Bp is the growth coefficient for protein mass, Pt is protein mass at different growth stages, Ap is the mature protein mass. The independent x axis is shown as live weight, calculated as six times protein mass. Equation from: Whittemore et al., 2001

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Liveweight (kg) (6 times protein mass)

Max

imum

rate

of p

rote

in re

tent

ion

(kg/

d)

Male Female Castrate


For the pig, Noblet and Henry (1991) reported NE/ME ratios of 0.50, 1.0, 0.61 and 0.76 when ME was derived from protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate respectively; but such efficiency values are only indicative for a given combination of energy use for maintenance, protein deposition and lipid deposition. Nevertheless, the net energy value for protein is less than that of carbohydrate and fat, and when dietary protein is exchanged for carbohydrate at equal ME, the net energy decreases, protein deposition may be increased but fat deposition is decreased. The protein requirements of animals are given in terms of an amount of protein and its constituent amino acids per unit of time - usually the amount to be fed each day. However, this value continually changes as the animal grows, so is not convenient to use (see Figure 4). Instead we express protein requirements in terms of protein concentration of the diet, usually as g/kg diet as fed. Since most animals eat to meet their energy requirements, an alternative method of expressing protein needs is in relation to the energy concentration as g/MJ of ME or, using 17 kJ ME/g protein, as protein energy percent (1.7 x g CP/MJ ME). Typical protein contents of diets, expressed in these three ways for various livestock classes, are shown in Table 1. In these terms, young growing animals have greater requirements for protein than older animals. As the animal grows more energy is needed for maintenance of the bigger body and to support an increasing proportion of fat deposition in the body. Thus the protein percentage of the diet and protein: energy ratio declines. In addition, voluntary intake increases, so the increased amount of protein required meeting the increased daily protein need, can be accommodated within a lower protein concentration in the diet. Differences between species in their digestive system also affect the required concentration of protein. Carnivores have no ability to digest fibrous feed and even a limited ability to digest starchy carbohydrates. Consequently, the diet has to contain more of both protein and fat, but the protein: energy ratio is not greatly increased compared with pigs and poultry. Fish appear to have much higher protein needs than mammals and aquaculture diets (a very important area in developing countries) are high in protein. To a large extent this is not due to a greater need for protein but a smaller need for energy. Poikilothermic animals (fish, reptiles) do not need energy to maintain their body temperature, whereas homoiothermic animals (birds and mammals) expend a considerable amount of energy (partly reflected as basal metabolic rate and maintenance energy, and partly as shivering or panting) to maintain a constant body temperature different to the environmental temperature.


TABLE 1 Typical dietary crude protein and metabolizable energy concentrations (/kg air dry feed) and dietary protein expressed relative to energy (g/MJ ME and as percentage protein energy)

CP g/kg

ME MJ/kg

CP g/MJ

Protein energy %

PIG

Starter 3 week weaning 5-10 kg

5 week weaning 10-20 kg

240

210

14.1

13.7

17.1

15.3

29

26

Grower 20-60 kg 165 12.6 13.1 22

Finisher 60-90 kg 140 12.5 11.2 19

Sow lactating

pregnant

176

130

12.5

12.0

14.1

10.8

24

18

BIRDS

Broiler starter 0-2 weeks 230 12.8 18.0 31

Broiler grower 2-4 week 210 13.0 16.2 27

Broiler finisher 4-7 weeks 190 13.2 14.4 24

Rearing pullets 0-6 weeks

6-12 weeks

12-18 weeks

210

145

120

11.5

11.5

11.5

18.3

12.6

10.4

31

21

18

Laying hens 160 11.5 13.9 24

Turkey starter 0-6 weeks 300 12.6 23.8 40

Turkey grower 6-12 weeks 260 12.6 20.6 35

Turkey finisher 12 + weeks 180 13.0 13.8 24

Breeding turkeys 160 11.3 14.2 24

DOGS Growth /Lactation

Maintenance

250

130-20

>14

>13

17.8

10.0-16.9

30

17-29

CATS Growth / Lactation

Maintenance

>310

>220

>16

>14

19.4

15.7

33

27

FISH1

Salmonids Fry, fingerlings

Smolt

550

400-460

17

15-17

32.4

26.6

70

58

Catfish 320-360 12-13.5 26.6 58

Energy values in digestible energy (DE MJ/kg), CP/MJ DE and percentage Protein energy as 100 x digestible energy from protein/DE.


Protein synthesis in the body involves a considerable expenditure of energy to create the activated amino acids to be linked together. In addition, protein tissues are constantly being turned over. For every one unit of net accretion of protein about 5 units of protein are synthesised. Some tissues are turning over faster than others. Indeed some of the fastest tissue replacement, such as in the intestinal epithelium and liver, lead to little or no net accretion. The energy cost of protein synthesis in protein turnover, just to maintain the existing protein, has been estimated to account for 15 to 33 percent of energy needed for maintenance. When additional energy is provided, there is an increase in protein synthesis and a decrease in protein degradation and these two effects combine to enhance net protein retention. When additional protein is supplied at constant energy, there is an increase in both protein synthesis and in protein degradation, resulting in a smaller net increment in protein retention. This is illustrated in Figure 5, which gives the determined synthesis and degradation contributions to the net N retention. With increasing protein in the diet there are frequently small improvements in carcase quality, measured as increased protein and decreased fat content. These changes arise from the decreased net energy value of protein compared with carbohydrate and the increased energy required for increased protein turnover driven by higher dietary protein intake, resulting in reduced energy available for fat synthesis.

Figure 5. The effect on protein synthesis, degradation and net retention in pigs when fed a basal diet supplemented with either fat or carbohydrate at a constant protein level, or with protein supplied at constant energy. Source: Reeds et al., 1981

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Basal +FAT Basal +CHO Basal +PROT

g N

/kg

W 0.

75/d

Synthesis Degradation Net retention


INDISPENSIBLE AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS Monogastric animals do not have a requirement for protein as such, but they require nine to ten amino acids which the body cannot synthesize, together with a source of amino nitrogen which can be used for the synthesis of the remaining amino acids. The amino acids that cannot be synthesized must be provided by the diet. They are termed indispensable or essential amino acids. In addition, two amino acids, cysteine and tyrosine, can be synthesized in the body but only from indispensable amino acids methionine and phenylalanine respectively. Consequently, they are not indispensable but a dietary supply spares the need for the indispensable parent amino acid. These are termed semi-indispensable or semi-essential. Arginine is an indispensable amino acid for birds and fish but in mammals it is synthesized as part of the urea cycle. However, as most of the synthesized arginine is broken down to release urea, the amount available for protein synthesis may be inadequate and a dietary supply may promote growth in young animals. Similarly glycine and serine may not be synthesised in sufficient quantities in certain situations, such as in young animals and rapidly growing chicks and so are termed conditionally indispensable. Initially, practical trials were carried out to determine the requirement for each of the indispensable amino acids in turn. This was determined from response curves to supplementation of deficient diets with the amino acid under consideration. A typical response curve to lysine supplementation of a deficient diet for chicks is shown in Figure 6. Differences in the size, maintenance requirement and potential growth rate of individual chicks result in the flock response tailing off as the asymptote is reached. Researchers and National Committees have attempted to give a single value as the requirement that feed compounders could use as the target in least cost diet formulation. However, fitting different statistical models to the data can result in quite large differences in apparent requirement with consequences for diet costs. More attention is now being paid to the response curve such that the economically optimum level of each amino acid can be targeted. There is no point in targeting maximum growth rate or production if the last increment is uneconomic. The practical trials indicated the requirements varied with many different conditions, such as sex, genetic strain, environmental temperature, growth rate and energy supply, in the same way as requirements for crude protein. To shortcut the work needed to study all possible situations with each amino acid, the concept of the ideal protein was formulated. Since each protein has a fixed and characteristic sequence of amino acids, it follows that the ratio of the amino acids to one another is constant in any one protein. If the proportions of the different proteins in the body during growth also remain reasonably constant, then the ratios of the amino acids in the total body proteins will remain constant.


Figure 6. Feed efficiency ratio response to supplementing a lysine deficient diet with increments of lysine in male chicks from three to six weeks of age. The data are interpreted as either a) an exponential response over the whole range or b) a linear response to the requirement breakpoint. Source: Han and Baker, 1994 Consequently, if the requirement for one amino acid is determined by empirical trial in one situation, the requirements for all the others can be estimated by applying the ratio as determined for the ideal protein. Because lysine is normally the first limiting amino acid in most practical diets and therefore the requirements for lysine were the most studied in empirical trials, lysine is used as the reference amino acid and all others are expressed as a ratio to lysine (Table 2). A first approximation to the ideal ratio is the amino acid composition of the whole body, or of the tissue protein gained during growth. This makes the assumption that each absorbed indispensable amino acid is used with the same efficiency for protein synthesis. This is not true since some amino acids e.g. tryptophan and methionine are used for purposes other than protein synthesis, and others such as cystine and threonine have large losses in intestinal mucoproteins. Also as different proteins turn over at different rates, the ideal pattern changes with change in proportions of the different proteins being synthesised at any one time. For example, as the proportion of protein involved in maintenance of the body compared with accretion of new tissue changes with age, so the ideal pattern will change to reflect the different proteins involved. Consequently, the ideal pattern has evolved in recent years as some of these factors have been studied. Given an accurate determination of the lysine requirement in terms of percent of diet or g/MJ ME in any given situation, the requirement for the remaining indispensable amino acids can be calculated.

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

0.55

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2

Digestible lysine (%)

Gai

n/fe

ed

Gain/feed Fitted exponential Linear


TABLE 2 Amino acid requirement patterns relative to lysine = 100

Pig 1 Chick2 Rat Salmonids3 Trout4 Common carp4

Tilapia4 Cat

20-50 kg 0-3 wk

Lysine 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Met + Cys 51 72 70 50 56 54 63 90

Threonine 64 67 60 42 44 68 73 90

Valine 74 77 85 46 67 63 55 80

Leucine 114 109 110 75 78 57 66 <150

Isoleucine 57 67 70 42 50 44 61 65

Phe + Tyr 114 105 110 110 100 114 108 130

Trypt 17 16 14 13 11 14 20 15

Histidine 36 32 36 33 39 37 34 35

Arginine (40)* 105 (*) 88 83 75 83 150

Gly or Ser - (65)** - - -

Proline - (44)+ - - -

Taurine - - - - 6

*Arginine synthesis is not adequate to meet needs, especially in young animals and cats. **Glycine plus serine synthesis not sufficient for maximum growth rate. +Proline response obtained with experimental free amino acid diets; practical diets supply sufficient supplemental proline.

Approximate lysine requirement g/MJ ME 0.88 0.91 0.6 1.2a 1.2a 1.3a 1.1a 0.4

1. Boisen et al., 2000. 2. Baker and Han, 1994. 3. Bureau and Cho, 2000. 4. NRC, 1993. a: g/MJ DE One problem with this mode of expression is that it does not indicate the amount of dispensable amino N needed, i.e. the minimum crude protein content in which the indispensable amino acids must be supplied. If this is known then the ideal pattern can be expressed as a percentage of ideal protein or g/16 g N. In this form the ideal pattern can be used to estimate the biological value of feed proteins


through the calculation of a chemical score (CS) based on the proportion of the amino acid in the feed protein compared with that of ideal protein. CS = Amino acid in test feed (g/16 g N) x 100 Amino acid in ideal protein (g/16 g N) The amino acid with the lowest score below 100 is the limiting amino acid. Amino acids present in a greater amount relative to the ideal protein than the limiting amino acid, i.e. having a higher score, can only be used in protein synthesis up to the level sustained by the limiting amino acid. The amount in excess will be deaminated and the carbon skeleton used as a source of energy. Consequently, the score for the limiting amino acid becomes the chemical score for the protein. An example of the use of the ideal protein pattern to calculate chemical score of feeds is given in Table 3. For maize, lysine is the first limiting amino acid. For soybean meal, methionine +cystine (M+C) is the first limiting. TABLE 3 Calculation of the amino acid scores compared with the ideal pattern for chicks. The scores are for maize meal, soybean meal, a diet of maize-soya supplying optimum protein of 22.4 percent, and of this diet supplemented with 0.155 percent methionine to meet the ideal balance for methionine plus cystine Maize Soya Maize-Soya Plus Met Lysine 55 115 103 103 Methionine 107 74 81 116 M+C 111 75 82 100 Threonine 99 109 107 107 Tryptophan 82 149 136 136 Arginine 82 130 120 120 Histidine 176 160 163 163 Isoleucine 94 125 119 119 Leucine 208 132 147 147 Phenylalanine 164 176 173 173 P+T 154 160 159 159 Valine 114 112 112 112

Maize-soya: diet mix of 52.2% maize, 37.8% soybean meal, 10.0% fat/min/vit supplement

Plus Met: Maize-soya diet plus 0.155% methionine


When these two are mixed the surplus amino acids of one protein complement the deficiencies of the other. When the two are combined in a ratio to achieve the minimum crude protein needed by young chicks (currently estimated as 22.4 percent of a corn-soya diet), only the sulphur amino acids remain limiting. Supplementation with methionine will correct the deficiency. In this example the supply of lysine (CS 103) and threonine (CS 107) are also just met. The next amino acid in surplus is estimated as valine (CS 112), followed by isoleucine and arginine. This sequence of limiting amino acids has been demonstrated with growth trials in chicks (Fernandez et al., 1994). In theory it should be possible to decrease the diet crude protein by between 10 and 20.2 percent, through using less soya, but supplementing with methionine (0.221 percent) plus lysine (0.136 percent) and threonine (0.043 percent) (all of which are now commercially available), to create the ideal protein balance with valine. Further reduction in the crude protein and soya should be possible, but only with more supplementation with methionine, lysine and threonine and also with valine, isoleucine and arginine, all of which are closely similar in CS. It is not necessary to meet the ideal balance for all amino acids. If one or more amino acids are limiting in the diet, it is possible to increase the amount of protein to meet the needs of the limiting amino acids (Carpenter and De Muelenaere, 1965; Boorman, 1992). This can be important for areas where abundant cheap supplies of a poor quality protein are available. If complementary proteins and synthetic amino acids are not economically available, then quantity can make up for quality. The disadvantage is the excess of the other amino acids is increased further and these need to be deaminated and excreted, with consequent reduction in the energy value of the diet and increased pollution. • a good quality protein (i.e. close to the ideal pattern- cereal-fish meal) or • a poor quality protein (cereal-groundnut meal) with one or more amino acids

at less than optimum levels or • a poor quality protein supplemented with lysine and methionine in a constant

proportion to the protein. Figure 7a illustrates the response of chicks to an increase in the diet of: Nearly equal growth can be achieved with much greater use of the poor quality protein (Wethli et al., 1975).


Figure 7a. Response of chicks to increase in protein with a constant amino acid composition supplied from a poor quality source (cereal-groundnut meal), or the poor quality source supplemented with methionine and lysine, or from a good quality source (cereal-herring meal). Source: Wethli et al., 1975 The growth response is plotted against the limiting amino acid score (using current estimates of amino acid requirements) in Figure 7b, confirming the over-riding factor is the supply of the limiting amino acid in the diet. The failure to achieve the same maximum growth reflects the reduced net energy value of the diet. Formulating a diet with constraints to limit the excess of one or more amino acids has the advantage of lowering dietary protein and reducing pollution, but other proteins need to be brought in that have complementary patterns of amino acids, high in the limiting amino acids but low in those whose excesses are to be reduced. Such protein feeds are likely to cost more than the widely used feeds. Every time a new constraint is added to a best-cost diet matrix the cost of the diet invariably increases and can never decrease.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Limiting amino acid Score

Wei

ght o

f chi

cks

(at 2

1 da

ys o

f age

).

Cereal-Groundnut Cereal-Groundnut + Lys + Met Cereal-fish meal


Figure 7b. Response of chicks to feeds of differing quality. A poor quality source (cereal-groundnut), the same source supplemented with methionine and lysine and a good quality source (cereal-herring meal) are expressed in terms of the score for the limiting amino acid, calculated from the ideal protein ratio for chicks in Table 2, and a lysine requirement of 1.2 percent of the diet The lysine and M+C of some major feeds are compared with the ideal protein pattern for chicks in Figure 8a. This illustrates that cereals are low in lysine but have an excess of M+C. Legumes are richer in lysine but much poorer in M+C. Other vegetable protein concentrates can be very variable in lysine but generally have a good M+C content. Animal proteins are usually of good quality with very high levels of lysine. Fish meal also meets the high requirement of chicks for M+C but meat and bone meal, and blood meal, are not such good sources. In diet formulation the aim is to meet the requirements for at least these first two limiting amino acids. This is readily accomplished by complementing the lysine deficient cereals with a lysine rich protein such as soya. But the deficiency of the protein concentrates in M+C means that the diets will still be deficient in M+C, which is normally and most economically corrected by a small supplement of synthetic methionine.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Diet crude protein (%)

Wei

ght o

f chi

cks

(at 2

1 da

ys o

f age

).

Cereal-Groundnut Cereal-Groundnut + Lys + Met Cereal-fish meal


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11Lysine (g/16 g N)

M+C

(g/1

6 g

N) 1

2 3

45

6 7

810

14

11

2115

1617

23

1224

26

1 Corn gluten; 2 Sorghum; 3 Wheat; 4 Maize; 5 Barley; 6 Wheat middlings; 7 Wheat bran; 8 Oats; 9 Sesame;10 Sunflower; 11 Rape seed; 12 Potato protein;13 Peanut; 14 Lupin; 15 Soya bean; 16 Field beans; 17 Peas; 18 Feather meal; 19 Meat&Bone 48%CP; 20 Meat meal 54%CP; 21 Poultry by-product; 22 Fish meal 56%CP; 23 Whey; 24 Fish meal Chile; 25 Spray-dried plasma; 26 Blood meal; 27 Whey protein concentrate. Yellow circles cereal; Green squares legumes; Blue diamonds vegetable protein concentrates; Red triangles animal proteins. Amino Acid data from Degussa

M+C idealproportion

Lysine ideal proportion

Ideal mix (chick)

1920

2225

27

13

9

18

Figure 8a. Lysine and methionine plus cystine (M+C) content of feed protein compared with the ideal protein balance of these two amino acids for chicks from 0-3 weeks of age. In Figure 8b, the target pattern for young pigs is compared with the same feed amino acids that were considered in Figure 8a. Here the ideal lysine is set much higher. Indeed so high that it would appear that only some of the animal proteins are rich enough in lysine to balance the cereals and achieve the ideal ratio. The difference in value compared with the chick diet is not real but more a reflection of the greater amount of research that has been put into the ideal protein pattern for pigs. This has been influenced by efforts to model the growth of pigs and also to reduce environmental pollution by reducing dietary nitrogen to a minimum. As the ideal pattern is approached and excesses of indispensable amino acids are eliminated, so dietary protein is reduced and the lysine as a proportion of that protein increases.


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11Lysine (g/16 g N)

M+C

(g/1

6 g

N) 1

2 3

45

6 7

810

14

11

2115

1617

23

1224

26

1 Corn gluten; 2 Sorghum; 3 Wheat; 4 Maize; 5 Barley; 6 Wheat middlings; 7 Wheat bran; 8 Oats; 9 Sesame;10 Sunflower; 11 Rape seed; 12 Potato protein;13 Peanut; 14 Lupin; 15 Soya bean; 16 Field beans; 17 Peas; 18 Feather meal; 19 Meat&Bone 48%CP; 20 Meat meal 54%CP; 21 Poultry by-product; 22 Fish meal 56%CP; 23 Whey; 24 Fish meal Chile; 25 Spray-dried plasma; 26 Blood meal; 27 Whey protein concentrate. Yellow circles cereal; Green squares legumes; Blue diamonds vegetable protein concentrates; Red triangles animal proteins. Amino Acid data from Degussa

M+C idealproportion

Lysine ideal proportion

Ideal mix (pig)

1920

22

2527

13

9

18

Figure 8b. Lysine and methionine plus cystine content of feed protein compared with the ideal protein balance of these two amino acids for pigs of 30-60 kg live weight Despite this concentration of the requirements, the ideal M+C is still lower than for chicks. Consequently, the M+C requirement is easily met but lysine is normally the first limiting amino acid in practical diets for pigs. ILEAL DIGESTIBLE AMINO ACIDS In the past, most diet formulation has been based on the use of the chemically determined amino acid content of feeds, usually book values representative of the class rather than analyses of the individual batch. Some adjustment may be made using the determined crude protein content of the batch and published regression equations of amino acid content in relation to crude protein. The problem that not all the chemically determined amino acids are available to the animal at tissue level, has been known for many years but the lack of techniques to routinely determine amino acid availability has held back progress. Specific tests for available lysine, based on reaction of a free epsilon-amino group in lysine, with reagents such as fluorodinditrobenzene (FDNB-available lysine), demonstrated the importance of the concept of availability of amino acids and the effects of processing in reducing amino acid availability (Carpenter and Booth, 1973). Microbiological assays showed that heat processing also reduced the availability of


other amino acids such as methionine, and even those without reactive groups such as leucine (Miller et al., 1965). While mild heating in the presence of reducing sugars can specifically reduce the availability of lysine, the major problem is a generalised reduction in the digestibility of the protein. Traditional methods of measuring digestibility by analysis of faecal residues is inappropriate for most mammalian and avian species. Extensive microbial fermentation in the hind gut (caeca or colon) ferments amino acid residues from undigested feed and replaces them with bacterial protein with a different amino acid profile. Digestion and absorption of amino acids is complete by the end of the small intestine. Analysis of amino acid residues reaching the terminal ileum enables the calculation of apparent ileal digestibility. However, part of the residues are not of feed origin but are of endogenous origin such as shed mucosal cells, remains of digestive enzymes and secreted mucoproteins. These losses from normal metabolism are referred to as the basal endogenous loss. They are proportional to dry matter intake and not necessarily related to protein intake. Their contribution to the total ileal N will be greater when low protein feeds such as cereals are fed. Consequently, the apparent ileal digestibility of low protein feeds will be low, and the apparent ileal digestible amino acids of feedstuffs are not additive and this is a property necessary for feed formulation. Correction for basal endogenous amino acids in the terminal ileum gives the true ileal digestibility. These values are independent of the level of protein in the feed (see Figure 9) and true ileal digestible amino acid values are additive. How the correction for endogenous losses is still a subject for debate (Boisen and Moughan, 1996; Sève and Hess, 2000). Endogenous losses measured with an N-free diet are too low. In the absence of dietary N the animal adapts its metabolism; food intake is depressed, proteolytic enzyme secretions are greatly reduced and consequently N loss at the ileum is reduced. Endogenous losses can be measured directly using isotopic labelling of either the feed protein or of endogenous proteins. Corrections based on this measurement have been termed real ileal digestibility. However, the feed itself may increase the endogenous loss. This may be a result of a high fibre content causing additional mucosal losses, a high viscosity preventing reabsorption of secreted proteins or antinutritional factors in the feed, such as proteolytic inhibitors and lectins causing enhanced secretion of enzymes and increased mucosal cell turnover respectively. Such feed related losses are best regarded as a charge against the feed rather than an increase in the requirement of the animal. If the test protein is assayed at several levels of dietary inclusion, then the basal endogenous loss can be determined by extrapolation to zero inclusion and use of the regression coefficient of the increase in ileal N or individual amino acid against


N or amino acid intake. This then is the true ileal digestibility and includes within it any increase in endogenous loss which is proportional to the test feed.

Figure 9. Effect of increasing the amount of a single feed protein in the test diet on true and apparent ileal digestibility of the protein. In this example, relevant to a pig, basal endogenous crude protein loss at the ileum is 1.2 g/100 g feed dry matter and the feed has 90 percent true ileal digestibility Figure 10 illustrates the determination in chicks fed two commercial fish meals, one of standard quality and the other processed under low temperature conditions. In this study enzymically-hydrolysed casein supplemented with amino acids to meet all amino acid needs was used to measure basal endogenous loss at the zero test protein level. Instead of determining the basal endogenous loss in every trial, a mean value can be determined and used to correct apparent digestibility established at a single level of inclusion of test protein. Such values have been termed "standardized" ileal digestibility (Boisen, 1997; Jansman et al., 1998; Rademacher et al., 1999a,b). Typical values for true and apparent ileal digestibility of protein in the pig for some protein concentrates are given in Table 4. Accounting for the basal endogenous loss substantially increases the value for true digestibility over apparent digestibility. Clearly there are substantial differences between proteins in their ileal true digestibility.

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Crude protein in diet dry matter (%)

Ileal

Dig

estib

ility

(%).

True Digestibility Apparent Digestibility


y = 0 . 0 6 7 8 x + 0 . 1 6 2 1R 2 = 0 . 8 2 1 6

y = 0 . 1 3 3 2 x + 0 . 1 4 7 7R 2 = 0 . 8 9 9 2

0

0 . 2

0 . 4

0 . 6

0 . 8

1

0 1 2 3 4D i e t N ( g / 1 0 0 g d i e t D M )

Ileal

N (

g/1

00 g

die

t D

M)

.

N o r s e L T 9 4 ® N o r S e a M in k ®

Figure 10. Determination of ileal true digestibility of standard fish meal (NorseMink®) and of low temperature processed fish meal (Norse LT94®) in chicks by replacing enzymically-hydrolysed casein with three levels of test protein. True ileal digestibility is 1-regression coefficient. The endogenous loss is given by the intercept value, which is reinforced by direct measurement of ileal N on the enzymically-hydrolysed casein diet, assumed to be 100 percent truly digested. True ileal digestibility is NorseMink® 86.7% ±1.24; Norse LT94® 93.2% ±0.88. On average these differences in N digestibility reflect individual amino acid digestibility. A first approximation to amino acid digestibility can be obtained from the product of N digestibility and amino acid content of the protein. A further refinement is to determine the digestibility of each amino acid. In general, the true digestibility of methionine is greater than that of N, while that of cystine is lower, but for the majority of indispensable amino acids, the ileal true digestibility differs very little from that of N. Typical values for standardized true ileal digestibility of N and key amino acids are given in Table 5. Although ileal digestible instead of total amino acids are now widely used in the commercial formulation of diets, there is a paucity of evidence of the expected benefits (Sève, and Hess, 2000). If an existing diet (e.g corn-soya based) gives good production and the true ileal digestible amino acid supply will be in a similar proportion to the total supply as it is to the ileal requirement to total requirement, changing the basis of formulation will give no benefit.


TABLE 4 True Digestibility (TD) and Apparent Digestibility (AD) to the terminal ileum of pigs, of the crude protein (Nx6.25) contained in some protein concentrates

Protein concentrate TD AD

Fish meal 72% CP 88.4 84.4

Soya Hipro 48% CP 85.7 79.8

Sunflower seed meal 34% CP 81.2 74.9

Rapeseed meal 75.9 68.5

Peas 79.2 74.3

Horse beans 81.8 76.3

Meat meal high quality 79.3 75.3

Meat meal low quality 63.6 59.8

Source: Rhone-Poulenc, 1989 Substituting one feed having high digestibility with another of similar digestibility will also give similar performance by either the ileal digestible or amino acid system. However, synthetic amino acids are assumed to be 100 percent digested and a proper evaluation of their use requires the description of feed proteins in terms of ileal digestible amino acids. A major role of animal production is to use by-product feeds arising from the processing of foods for human consumption. Where these by-products have distinctly different availabilities, then advantages for the use of ileal digestible instead of total amino acids can be demonstrated. Tanksley and Knabe (1984) demonstrated that 50 percent of soyabean meal could be replaced in a pig diet with meat and bone meal, so long as the latter were supplemented with lysine and tryptophan to supply the same amount of digestible lysine and tryptophan. A number of studies have shown that heat processing reduced growth in bioassays in a manner similar to the loss of ileal digestible amino acids, while total amino acids remained little changed (Varnish and Carpenter, 1975; Parsons et al., 1992; Kim and Easter, 2001). In some studies ileal digestibility has not been able to account for differences in bio-availability (Batterham et al., 1990a,b; Beech et al., 1991; Batterham et al., 1993; Batterham et al., 1994; Moughan et al., 1991).


TABLE 5 Standardised true ileal digestibility of feedstuffs for pigs (percent) CP Lysine Methionine M+C Threonine Tryptophan Cereal grains

Barley 80 76 82 81 80 77

Corn 83 76 87 84 80 76

Oats 76 81 84 78 75 77

Sorghum 92 90 93 93 94 98

Wheat 89 84 90 89 86 88

Cereal co-products

Corn germ meal 70 65 81 69 72 66

Corn gluten feed 70 65 81 69 72 66

Corn gluten meal 87 87 97 93 90 86

Rice bran 64 62 71 62 62 75

Wheat bran (10% CF) 68 68 73 72 60 75

Wheat gluten feed 78 81 82 79 77 82

Wheat gluten meal 100 99 99 99 99 98

Wheat middlings (7%CF) 77 78 82 79 73 81

Legumes

Beans, field 77 82 66 62 77 68

Lupin seeds 87 88 82 85 86 87

Peanut meal 85 81 85 81 83 86

Peas, field 79 81 74 70 76 70

Soybean meal, 44%CP 87 89 90 86 86 87

Soybean meal, 48%CP 87 89 90 86 86 87

Soybean, full fat 82 83 82 78 79 82

Other vegetable proteins

Cottonseed meal 81 70 80 79 76 82

Linseed meal 75 82 85 85 79 84

Rapeseed meal 73 74 81 75 71 71

Sesame meal 84 82 84 84 79 84

Sunflower meal 81 79 88 83 80 83

Potato 90 90 91 82 86 80


CP Lysine Methionine M+C Threonine Tryptophan

Animal proteins

Blood meal 88 94 88 88 89 91

Feather meal 67 49 58 63 69 56

Fish meal, 56%CP 85 89 89 85 88 86

Fish meal, 65%CP 85 89 89 85 88 86

Meat and bone meal, 42%CP 74 77 77 67 74 73

Meat and bone meal, 48%CP 74 77 77 67 74 73

Meat meal, 47%CP 77 77 84 79 78 78

Meat meal, 54%CP 77 77 84 79 78 78

Whey powder, delactosed 92 93 91 90 93 91

Source: Rademacher et al., 1999b The conclusion from this series of experiments has been expressed as: the ileal digestibility values of heat-processed meals are unsuitable for diet formulations as a proportion of the digested amino acids is in a form(s) unavailable for tissue metabolism. These experiments all used apparent ileal digestibility values, not true ileal digestibility. Moughan et al. (1991) compared the determined growth of pigs fed a barley based grower diet with the response to lysine supplementation of a lysine deficient synthetic diet based on casein. The observed growth was 0.925 of the expected growth based on intake of apparently absorbed lysine. To achieve an equal ME intake, 15.3 percent more dry matter was fed of the test diet than the synthetic diets. Thus the endogenous losses would be less on the synthetic diet leaving more of the supplementary lysine available to support growth. The series of experiments by Batterham et al. (1990 – 1994) and Beech et al. (1991) all had the same form; a comparison of cottonseed meal, meat and bone meal and soybean meal as examples of feeds with low, medium and high ileal digestibility. The growth and N retention of pigs fed three diets formulated to supply the same limiting level of ileal lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan or isoleucine were measured. The main difference was observed between cottonseed meal and the other two meals, with smaller (lysine, threonine) and non significant differences (methionine, tryptophan), in N retention between meat and bone meal and soybean meal. Diets were fed on a scale to provide the same DE/W 0.75 but the cottonseed diets had 8.3 percent less DE/kg than the soybean diets, with the meat and bone meal diets intermediate. Consequently, the amount of dry matter fed differed and basal endogenous loss would be less for soybean than meat and bone meal or for


cottonseed meal allowing more of the absorbed limiting amino acid to be used for growth. The presence of gossypol and raffinose in cottonseed makes this protein particularly susceptible to heat damage by binding, specifically with the epsilon-amino group of lysine (Martinez et al., 1961). This may make it unavailable without any major change in digestibility of the protein (see below). Cottonseed meal and products such as dried milk powders where reducing sugars are potentially present, may be special cases where ileal digestibility fails to reflect the full loss of available lysine through early Maillard reactions. For the majority of protein concentrates this is unlikely to be a major factor. Indeed, the Batterham group in a study of isoleucine, where the meals used were cottonseed, lupin seed meal and soya bean meal, ileal digestibility correctly predicted growth performance (Batterham and Andersen, 1994). Correction for the known differences in ileal true digestibility must be an improvement over the use of chemically determined total amino acid content. The intestinal tract in carnivorous fish is relatively short, without any adaptation of the hind gut for microbial fermentation. Direct determination of apparent faecal digestibility is a reasonable indication of the net absorption of protein and amino acids. However, determination of digestibility in fish is difficult. Measurement of total intake of feed and of excretion of faeces is impossible and markers must be used. Soluble components can be lost from feed, especially in slow feeders, and from excreta collected from the water. The alternative of stripping digesta from the gut obviates this loss but may increase protein in the excreta by removing endogenous components that would be absorbed in the hind gut. The specialised facilities needed for maintenance of fish and determination of digestibility prevent the latter’s routine determination. Instead, mink have been used as an alternative carnivore with little complication of hind gut fermentation of undigested residues. True faecal digestibility of protein in mink correlates with apparent digestibility in salmonids. In Norway all fish meals sold as LT meals have been tested to exceed 90 percent digestibility in the mink test. An alternative method is to determine the ileal digestibility in chicks. In a recent study, fish meals and fish feeds prepared under various conditions were assayed by both mink and chicks. The two assays, which ranked the materials similarly, led to the same conclusions as to effects of processing variables and showed a good absolute agreement (Figure 11). Mink digestibility of fish meals can also be accurately predicted by Near Infra-red Reflectance.


y = 0.9741x + 1.2685R2 = 0.6958

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

85 87 89 91 93 95

N True Digestibility in Mink (%)

N Il

eal T

rue

Dig

estib

ility

.

in C

hick

(%)

Figure 11. Comparison of determination of true N digestibility in fish meals and fish feeds using either faeces in mink or ileal digesta in chicks EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON PROTEIN QUALITY FOR MONOGASTRIC ANIMALS Four distinct types of damage can occur. When proteins are heated under relatively mild conditions, even storage at 37 °C, in the presence of reducing sugars or sucrose (which can hydrolyse to release reducing sugars) the epsilon-amino group of lysine reacts with the potential aldehyde group of the sugar to form early Maillard reaction products such as fructosyl-lysine. Fructosyl-lysine and formyl-lysine are absorbed but not metabolised. Reactive epsilon-amino groups can be conveniently measured with fluorodinitrobenzene (FDNB). Albumin heated under mild conditions with glucose had an ileal true N digestibility of 96 percent, but the FDNB-available lysine was reduced to 69 percent of the control and availability of lysine by growth bioassay with chicks, was also reduced to 69 percent of the control (Hurrell and Carpenter, 1978). Gossypol in cottonseed has a reactive aldehyde group which reacts similarly with lysine during processing to reduce the availability of lysine. It also contains about 10 percent of the non-reducing sugar raffinose but, as with sucrose, this must hydrolyse during heating to produce reducing sugars and results in loss of FDNB-available lysine (Martinez et al., 1961). With more severe heat in the presence of reducing sugars advanced Maillard reactions lead to a further fall in FDNB-available lysine but an even greater fall in digestible lysine and a general reduction in the digestibility of all the other amino acids in the protein (Miller et al., 1965). In the absence of reducing sugars much higher temperatures, above 100 °C for several hours, are required to bring about loss of FDNB-available lysine (Carpenter


and Booth, 1973). Under these conditions, cross links form between the epsilon-amino group of lysine and of the carboxyl group of aspartic acid and glutamic acid (or their amides) to form new peptide-like cross links (Hurrell et al., 1976). In addition, cystine loses hydrogen sulphide to form a dehydroalanine residue plus a cysteine residue; the dehydroalanine and cysteine then recombine to form lanthionine creating a new C-S-C cross link between peptide chains. Dehydroalanine may also be formed by dehydration of serine. Under certain conditions, especially alkaline pH, the epsilon-amino group of lysine reacts with dehydroalanine to form a lysinoalanine cross link. These new cross links reduce the digestibility of the protein and hence the availability of all amino acids, not just those directly involved. These conditions are not experienced during normal processing but have occurred when destabilized fish meals have overheated through lipid oxidation during storage and transport. Even autoclaving at 133 °C for 20 minutes at 3 bars, as required for the treatment of meat and bone meal, is estimated from these studies to cause only a 2 to 3 percent loss of FDNB-reactive lysine. Heating protein in the absence of reducing sugars under much milder conditions (70 - 120 °C for 20 minutes) brings about a loss of sulphydryl groups (cysteine residues) and an increase in disulphide bonds (cystine residues) with little loss of the total cysteine plus cystine (Opstvedt et al., 1984). Heating causes the formation of new S-S cross links and also the rearrangement of existing disulphide bonds during denaturation of the protein. These changes are associated with a 2 to 7 percent reduction in protein digestibility determined in trout of fish protein cooked at 95 °C for 20 minutes. The digestibility of all amino acids is affected but that of cystine (16 - 26 percent reduction) and aspartic acid (7 - 11 percent reduction) were most affected (Opstvedt et al., 1984). In response to these findings the Norwegian fish meal industry developed low temperature processed fish meal, where the temperature is not allowed to exceed about 70 °C at any stage. This material has about 5 percent better digestibility determined with mink than regularly processed fish meal, where the temperature may exceed 100 °C for an hour or more. Heating also induces racemization of amino acids, particularly aspartic acid. D-aspartic acid can be detected in regular fish meals and its formation has been demonstrated in fish processed under various conditions with temperatures in the range 95 – 127 °C but not at 70 °C (Luzzana et al., 1996, 1999). In a recent collaborative study, the kinetics of loss of sulphydryl groups and the formation of D-aspartic acid has been studied and the changes have been related to reduction of digestibility of the protein in mink (Figure 12) and to the ileal digestibility of individual amino acids in the chick (Figure 13). Low temperature processing increased the digestibility of all amino acids but the effects were


greatest for cyst(e)ine and aspartic acid. D-aspartic acid was very poorly digested (Miller et al., 2001). The presence of D-amino acids in the peptide chain prevents the action of proteolytic enzymes.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95

True digestibility of N in mink (%)

Rea

ctiv

e SH

gro

ups

. (m

mol

es/1

00 g

CP)

.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

D-A

sp (D

/D+L

%)

Reactive SH % D-Asp Poly. (% D-Asp) Linear (Reactive SH) Figure 12. Mink digestibility of N, reactive sulphydryl groups and D aspartic acid content of standard fish meal (NorseMink®), low temperature processed fish meal (Norse LT94®) and fish feeds made from the meals under different conditions of severity of extrusion of the feed

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

NLys

ine

Methionine

Threonine

Valine

Leucin

e

Isoleu

cine

Phenyla

lanine

Arginine

Tyrosin

e

Glutamic

acid

Prolin

e

Serine

Alanine

Glycine

Aspart

ic ac

id

D-Asp

artic

Cyst(e

)ine

True

ilea

l dig

estib

ility

. in

chi

ck (%

)

Norse LT94® NorseMink® Figure 13. True ileal digestibility of amino acids of commercial fish meals prepared under low temperature or regular processing conditions


PROTEIN QUALITY FOR RUMINANTS In the ruminant feed is fermented in the rumen, volatile fatty acids are absorbed from the rumen and omasum and provide the major part of the metabolizable energy taken up by the animal. The fermented digesta leave the rumen along with the microbial biomass and are subjected to further digestion in the abomasum (true stomach) and intestines, much as in the monogastric animal. Microbial protein is digested and absorbed in the small intestine and supplies the major part of the absorbed amino acids. The amino acid balance of microbial protein is good, with methionine determined as the first and lysine as the second limiting amino acid for growing sheep (Storm and Ørskov, 1983, 1984). The amino acid needs of the animal can be met at maintenance level by microbial protein alone. With increase in energy supply above maintenance, extra microbial protein is produced and a low level of production can be sustained. The microbial protein yield is limited by the fermented energy supply. For moderate and high levels of production, the microbial amino acid supply needs to be supplemented with dietary sources of protein or protected amino acids that escape degradation in the rumen (Figure 14). The rate of digestion of feed, particularly roughage feed, and the rate of passage of residues from the rumen, are important determinants of voluntary feed intake and productivity. Consequently, considerable emphasis is placed on maintaining optimal conditions in the rumen to maximise microbial growth and digestion. The N requirements of the ruminant are two fold. As a source of degradable N to meet the needs of the rumen micro-organisms. This can be largely met by non-protein N sources such as urea which are converted to ammonia in the rumen, but growth of bacteria are stimulated by the supply of peptides. Supplying degradable protein instead of ammonia stimulates growth of amylolytic bacteria by up to 18.7 percent (Russell et al., 1992). Digestion of fibrous feeds is also increased by the provision of preformed dietary protein (Carro and Miller, 1999). The supply of degradable N should be at a rate commensurate with the release of energy during fermentation. Too rapid a supply of ammonia, from high levels of urea, or from rapidly degradable diet proteins such as grass, leads to high rumen ammonia levels. This is absorbed from the rumen, converted to urea in the liver and largely excreted in the urine. If the capacity of the liver to convert the ammonia is exceeded, ammonia increases in the blood to reach toxic levels. As a source of undegradable N that is digested in the small intestine and provides amino acids to complement the microbial amino acids and to meet tissue needs.


MP Requirement and Microbial contribution

Milk Yield (kg/d)

MP/

FME

(g/M

J)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

MP/FME

MP from RMO

Figure 14. Calculated requirements of a dairy cow for metabolizable protein (MP) per unit of fermentable metabolizable energy (FME) and the contribution that can be expected from rumen microbial organisms (RMO). Calculated from Alderman and Cottrill, 1993 As with the monogastric animal, energy is the main driving force of metabolism. In addition to setting the limits for tissue growth or milk production, the fermentable energy supply is the main determinant of microbial amino acid supply. For dietary protein, the main characteristic is the rate and extent of degradation of the protein in the rumen. This not only describes the contribution to ammonia and peptide needs of the microbes but also the supply of amino acids to meet tissue requirements. Considerable variation exists between feedstuffs in the rate of protein degradation. This is normally measured by the disappearance of feed N from bags of synthetic material which have defined small pore apertures that prevent the loss of undegraded feed particles but do not impede the ingress of microbes (Figure 15). The rate of loss can be described as: N loss = a + b(1- e -ct) where a = loss at time zero and represents soluble N easily washed from the bag and assumed 100 percent degraded, b = insoluble but potentially degradable N, c = rate constant describing the fraction of the remaining pool b degraded in unit time.


0

0 .1

0 .2

0 .3

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0 .7

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0 .9

1

0 8 1 6 2 4 3 2 4 0 4 8

T im e o f in c u b a tio n (h )

N lo

ss fr

om b

ag .

(frac

tion)

B a rle y S o y a b e a n m e a l F is h m e a l Figure 15. The rate of loss of feed nitrogen from polyester bags suspended in the rumen The feed residues in the synthetic bag cannot leave the rumen, but feed residues do leave the rumen at rates that are determined by the character of the diet and the level of feeding. Particles of concentrate feeds are small enough to leave the rumen immediately after ingestion. Their rate of leaving also follows an exponential pattern with a rate constant r (Figure 16). The equation describing the rate of degradation within the bag is combined with the rate of passage, to give the effective degradation over the summed time for which the feed is subjected to fermentation. The effect of rumen outflow rate on effective protein degradability is shown in Figure 17. Example values of feedstuff protein degradables for three rumen outflow rates of 2, 5 and 8 percent per hour, representing maintenance feeding, a moderate level of feeding (at about twice maintenance, as in beef cattle) or a high level of feeding (at over three times maintenance, as in high yielding dairy cows and lactating ewes) are given in Table 6.


0

0.2

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0.6

0.8

1

0 10 20 30 40 50

Time after feeding (h)

Prop

ortio

n re

mai

ning

in

rum

en

2%/h 5%/h 8%/h Effective degradability = a + (bc/ c+r). Figure 16. Representation of three outflow rates on the proportion of small feed particles (<1.0 mm) remaining in the rumen

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 0 0

0 .0 2 0 .0 3 0 .0 4 0 .0 5 0 .0 6 0 .0 7 0 .0 8

R u m e n f r a c t io n a l o u t f lo w r a te

Effe

ctiv

e de

grad

abili

ty o

f pro

tein

(%)

.

B a r le y S o y a b e a n m e a l F is h m e a l Figure 17. Effect of rumen fractional outflow rate on effective protein degradability. Proteins of intermediate degradability with a large potentially degradable pool (b) but an intermediate degradation rate constant (c) are the most affected Degradability alone is not sufficient to describe the value of feed protein. Undegraded protein leaving the rumen must also be digested in the small intestine. Microbial protein has a true digestibility of 85 percent in the small intestine. Feed proteins are generally well digested but values can range from 50 to 90 percent. The amino acid composition of the digested protein is as important as for the


monogastric animal. In the main, the amino acid composition of the undegraded protein is similar to that of the feed protein (Rulquin and Vérité, 1993). Reasonable estimates of individual amino absorption from the intestine can be obtained by multiplying the true N digested by the amino acid/N ratio of the original feed. Ruminant grade fish meal is a protein shown to give beneficial response in ruminants in many situations. The ruminant grade material is prepared using fresh raw material so there has been little autolysis and consequently the soluble N content (parameter a) is reasonably low. It is processed under regular heat conditions that reduce the extent of degradation of the insoluble fraction and gives high levels of undegraded protein. This is well digested in the small intestine and the amino acid composition, rich in methionine and lysine, complements the first two limiting amino acids of microbial protein. Fish meal has been used in many trials as a positive control to test the efficacy of other, possibly cheaper, proteins. Many processes have been studied to reduce the rate and extent of degradation of proteins in the rumen. The aim is to reduce the amount of excess production of ammonia in the rumen and to increase the supply of amino acids to the intestine. This process is mainly of advantage for proteins of good amino acid balance. There is no point in reducing the production of good quality microbial protein by restriction of degradable N, in order to provide an unbalanced source of undegradable feed protein. Heat treatment of feedstuffs decreases effective degradability and increases the supply of amino acids to the intestine. The formation of new S-S cross-links is one factor. Splitting the S-S cross-link with reducing agents increases degradability. Soybeans are normally heated to reduce trypsin inhibitors and consequently the normally processed meal already has a slow rate of degradation. Rapeseed meal is not normally subjected to the same degree of heat treatment in extraction of the oil. Additional heat treatment of rapeseed meal markedly reduces the degradability. Treatment with aldehydes such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde also reduces degradation in the rumen, but by cross linking between lysine residues, can also lead to reduced intestinal digestibility of the undegraded protein. Reaction with sugars, particularly xylose present in lignosulphonate binders, under mild conditions to form earlier Maillard compounds, also reduces degradation at the expense of some lysine, but without too much loss of intestinal digestibility (Wallace and Falconer, 1992; Harstad and Prestløken, 2000).


TABLE 6 Descriptive parameters of N loss from synthetic fibre bags suspended in the rumen and calculated effective degradability at three rumen outflow rates

Fractional N loss in rumen Effective degradability (%) Parameters Fractional rumen outflow rate /hr

a b c 0.02 0.05 0.08 Cereals

Barley 0.25 0.70 0.35 91 86 82

Maize 0.26 0.69 0.01 49 38 34

Wheat 0.45 0.51 0.38 93 90 87

Cereal co-products

Dried brewers grains 0.05 0.65 0.05 51 38 30

Distillers grains, maize 0.32 0.46 0.05 65 55 50

Maize gluten feed 0.61 0.36 0.09 90 84 80

Maize gluten meal 0.08 0.76 0.03 54 37 29

Rice bran 0.29 0.60 0.06 74 62 55

Wheat feed 0.34 0.57 0.11 82 73 67

Legume seeds

Beans, V. faba 0.42 0.56 0.16 92 85 79

Lupins 0.26 0.73 0.13 89 79 71

Peas 0.56 0.44 0.09 92 84 79

Oilseed meals

Cottonseed meal 0.33 0.60 0.06 78 66 59

Groundnut meal 0.27 0.77 0.09 90 77 68

Linseed meal 0.38 0.60 0.10 88 78 71

Palm kernel meal 0.24 0.70 0.07 78 65 57

Rapeseed meal 0.32 0.61 0.16 86 78 73

Soybean meal 0.10 0.90 0.11 86 72 62

Sunflower seed meal 0.30 0.65 0.17 88 80 74

Animal products

Feather meal 0.13 0.77 0.01 39 26 22

Fish meal 0.30 0.63 0.02 62 48 43

Source: Alderman and Cottrill, 1993


Amino acid supplements are rapidly broken down in the rumen and very little survives to reach the intestines, even at high rumen outflow rates. Methionine has been successfully protected by a number of coating techniques, principally using lipids or pH-sensitive polymers, but these techniques are more difficult to apply with the more polar lysine. The first two limiting amino acids in practical ruminant diets are methionine and lysine. The initial estimates of the requirements for these two amino acids for dairy cows are 2.5 and 7.3 percent of intestinally digested protein respectively (Rulquin and Vérité, 1993), values that are comparable to 1.8 and 7.0 percent of the ideal protein pattern for pigs. Trials in which diets have been supplemented to these levels have shown a marked response in milk production and protein content of the milk (Sloan, 1997). This level of lysine can be achieved by maximising microbial protein (8.1 percent lysine in total amino acids, Storm & Ørskov, 1983) and supplementation with a lysine rich protein concentrate such as soybean meal (6.3 percent lysine in total amino acids). However, if maize grain is used as a major energy source or maize gluten meal as a protein supplement, the highly undegradable protein and low lysine contribution from these feeds makes lysine limiting. Similarly feather meal, although of low degradability, has a very low lysine content. The methionine requirement is not so easily reached. Rumen bacteria are also a good source of methionine (2.5 percent methionine and 1.0 percent cystine in total amino acids, [Storm & Ørskov, 1983]) but soya meal (1.5 percent methionine in total amino acids) and most other vegetable protein concentrates are low in methionine. Only by inclusion of a portion of fish meal (3.1 percent methionine and 1.0 percent cystine in total amino acids) or protected methionine, can the ideal balance of intestinally absorbed methionine be achieved. IMMUNOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DIETARY PROTEINS Protein concentrates should not be thought of solely in terms of their supply of indispensable amino acids and a source of dispensable amino acid N. Proteins have effects on the immune system. Studies of protein-energy malnutrition in children emphasized the role of protein deficiency in impairing cell mediated immune responses. Animal studies confirmed that protein deficiency reduces immune status. The role of individual amino acids is less clear. Phenylalanine and tyrosine restricted diets actually enhance cytotoxic immunity in tumour-bearing animals, reducing tumour growth and spread (metastasis). In contrast, excess arginine depressed tumour growth by 50 percent. Deficiency of branched chain amino acids and of arginine + lysine increased splenocyte proliferation, but sulphur amino acid deficiency decreased splenocyte and lymphocyte proliferation. Increasing dietary methionine increases the lymphocyte response to stimulation with phytohaemagglutinin, with the maximum response at a greater level than needed


for maximum growth rate. Supplemental cysteine was also effective, having approximately 70 percent of the response to methionine (Tsiagbe et al., 1987; Austic et al., 1991; Konashi et al., 2000). More recent studies have examined the effects of glutamine and arginine in enhancing the immune system. Glutamine is preferentially metabolized by the intestinal mucosa and by lymphocytes. By maintaining mucosal cells it improves the gut barrier function against bacterial infection. As a precursor for glutathione (GSH) it helps maintain the antioxidant status of cells, especially the intestinal mucosa and lymphocytes. Inhibition of GSH synthesis leads to degeneration of mitochondria and structural damage to many tissues, including skeletal muscle and lung, but especially to fast turning over tissues such as intestinal mucosal cells (Mårtensson et al., 1990). The GSH level in lymphocytes is very critical, decreasing with oxidative stress in a number of disease situations with loss of immunocompetence (Dröge and Breitkreutz, 2000; Grimble, 2001). The best studied case of GSH deficiency is human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Not only is the extent of GSH depletion prognostic of the onset of AIDS, but supplementation with N-acetyl cysteine restores GSH levels and prevents progression of the disease (Herzenberg et al., 1997). Giving whey protein isolate to HIV+ patients also increased GSH levels and improved body weight (Bounos et al., 1993; Micke et al., 2001). Whey protein isolate is particularly rich in methionine (2.5 g/16 g N) and cyst(e)ine (2.7 g/16 g N) and presumably acts to provide the necessary precursors for GSH synthesis. The importance of maintaining GSH levels is now being demonstrated in farm animals. Steers fed a diet supplying only 60 percent of maintenance requirement had liver GSH levels reduced to 26 percent of the control values (Sansinanea et al., 2000). Protein deficient pigs had erythrocyte GSH reduced to 80 percent of the controls. An inflammatory stimulus further depleted GSH in the protein deficient pigs but was without effect in the protein replete pigs (Jahoor et al., 1995). Nutritional strategies to increase GSH levels are not likely to be beneficial to the immune system in healthy animals but deserve investigation in cases where disease and oxidative stress are compromising the immune response and causing decreased GSH levels. For example, there is evidence of reduced immune response at the onset of lactation in high yielding cows, when body protein reserves are being rapidly mobilized to meet amino acids needs for milk protein secretion, and an increase in susceptibility to mastitis at this time (Piccinini et al., 1999; Mehrzad et al., 2001). Arginine can affect the immune system by increasing growth hormone with consequent effects on thymus weight and responsiveness, and as the substrate for nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. Nitric oxide is important as a local messenger, for example as an endothelial relaxation factor involved in the maintenance of blood


vessel dilatation and blood pressure control. It is also produced in much greater quantities by activated macrophages. NO is converted by reaction with the superoxide radical to peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and during decomposition to the formation of the even more reactive hydroxyl radical (OH·), as the final bacterial killing agents. However, excess peroxynitrite production is also damaging to local tissues, causing nitrosation of proteins and destruction of antioxidants such as GSH. Immune modulating diets including arginine, have been shown to be clinically beneficial in humans subjected to traumatic stress, enhancing protein synthesis and wound healing. On the other hand, excessive NO production contributes to increased gut mucosal permeability and bacterial translocation across the mucosa (Suchner et al., 2002). Animal studies have also given conflicting results. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fed either a purified diet containing 2 percent arginine or a practical diet with 1.3 percent arginine were challenged with a virulent strain of Edwardsiella ictaluri. The arginine enriched diet reduced mortality (Buentello and Gatlin, 2001). Coccidiosis in poultry increases plasma nitrite + nitrate (measure of NO production) and reduces plasma arginine, but dosing with additional arginine did not reverse the growth depression or increase plasma nitrite + nitrate and did not reduce lesion scores (Allen, 1999; Allen and Fetterer, 2000). Spray-dried blood plasma is used in the United States in diets for early-weaned pigs. Numerous trials have shown increased feed intake and growth compared with other protein sources during the first two weeks after weaning but little response thereafter (Coffey and Cromwell, 2001). The improved growth is largely brought about by improved feed intake in the critical transition period. The reasons for this are not fully known. Weaning at three weeks of age is at a time when plasma immunoglobulin levels are at their lowest. Colostrum antibodies have declined but production of immunoglobulins by the piglet is only just beginning. The response to blood plasma is greatest in commercial environments and less in clean experimental conditions, suggesting the involvement of antigenic challenge to an immature immune system. The response has been shown to be associated with the immunoglobulin fraction leading to the current hypothesis that immunoglobulins, especially IgG, bind with viruses and bacteria in the intestinal lumen. Here they prevent adherence and damage to the mucosal cells, prevent shortening of villi and associated loss of absorptive surface while maintaining digestive enzyme activities. Dietary proteins, particularly the legume proteins, also have antigenic properties. These may have adverse effects on intestinal morphology, on intestinal myoelectric activity affecting the rate of passage of digesta and growth of calves fed milk replacers (Lallès, 1993). In the newly weaned pig they have transient effects, reducing growth in the first week post weaning, until tolerance is developed (Miller


et al., 1994; Rooke et al., 1998; Figure 18). Similarly, soybean meal and an alcohol extract of soya meal (soybean molasses) caused inflammatory responses in the distal intestine of salmon (Krogdahl et al., 2000). These reactions may predispose to infections. In both calves and pigs these adverse reactions may be accompanied by diarrhoea and death. The allergenic proteins, glycinin and β-conglycinin, in soya are resistant to normal proteolytic digestion, either in the abomasum or intestine. Both can be detected immunologically in the duodenum. β-conglycinin is most resistant to acid digestion in the stomach, whereas glycinin is more resistant in the intestine and can still be found in ileal digesta (Sissons and Thurston, 1984; Lallès et al., 1999). Apparent N digestibility of commercial soya preparations in the calf varies greatly and is best predicted by the concentration of immunoreactive β-conglycinin (Lallès et al., 1996). The antigenicity of these storage proteins is not removed by normal solvent extraction, heating or steam desolventisation. They can be denatured by hot aqueous ethanol or by partial acid or enzymic hydrolysis.

ControlDSM+FM

SBM Acid-SBM Acid-

Protease-SBM

SPC

Gain 7d

Gain 14d0

50

100

150

200

250

Wei

ght g

ain

(g/d

)

Gain 7d Gain 14d

Figure 18. Growth of piglets in the first seven and fourteen days after weaning onto diets containing: dried skim milk + fish meal (Control DSM+FM), commercial heat-treated soya (SBM), SBM treated with acid (Acid-SBM), SBM treated with acid and protease from Aspergilus species (Acid-Protease-SBM) or soy protein concentrate (SPC; Danpro A-02). Source: Rooke et al., 1998


PROTEIN-RICH FEEDS AS SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS OTHER THAN AMINO ACIDS Protein concentrates are also a source of many other nutrients that should be taken into account when formulating diets. These include the major minerals, Ca, P, Na, K, Cl, vitamins, including B12, choline and vitamin D and essential fatty acids. Consideration should be given to these nutrients because they may be either beneficial or in some cases, can be at such high concentrations as to be detrimental and limit the inclusion level. Fish meal and meat and bone meal are good sources of calcium and phosphorus in an ideal ratio of 2:1, and these are of high availability when included in diets for mammals or birds. Plant protein concentrates have much lower levels, especially of calcium, with a ratio more in the region of 1:2. Furthermore, the phosphorus is mainly present and bound as phytate, so the total phosphorus is about one third available for poultry and fish. The deficiency of calcium in both cereals and plant protein concentrates is readily and economically corrected with limestone, but supplementary phosphorus sources are expensive. The high level of phytate P also leads to high faecal P output and environmental pollution. Phosphorus is the main cause of eutrophication in aquaculture. In many countries legislation limits the amount of P that can be disposed of in manure on land. This has given added impetus to the development of phytase enzyme that can be added to the diet to hydrolyse phytic acid and improve the availability. Consequently, dietary P levels can be reduced and less P is excreted. In aquaculture, much of the calcium requirements are obtained by uptake from the water but P must be supplied from the diet. The digestibility in fish of P from fish meal is surprisingly low and variable and appears also to be inversely related to the ash content (NRC, 1993). Replacing a small part of the fish meal (51.8 percent reduced to 41.0 percent of diet) with 20 percent soybean, canola or peanut meals, increased diet true digestibility of P from 21.5,to 40.6 –and 43.4 percent respectively. Similarly, the replacement reduced total P from 1.74 to 1.5 – and 1.6 percent. If the same amount of P was absorbed, this reduction in intake would increase true digestibility to 24.6 percent. The much larger increase in digestibility reflects a 70.7 percent increase in the amount absorbed, despite replacing fish meal P with mainly phytate P of zero digestibility (Riche and Brown, 1999). The reduction in calcium supply by substitution of the part of the fish meal, is the most likely cause of the improved digestion of P. Appetite or voluntary feed intake is important in all species but especially so in aquaculture, where feeds must first attract fish or crustaceans and then be palatable to be accepted. Amino acids, betaine and inosine appear to act as attractants. Glycine, proline, taurine and valine appear to be preferred by carnivorous fish,


while aspartic and glutamic acids are preferred by omvivorous fish (NRC, 1993). Trimethylamine and its oxidation products, as well as highly oxidised oil, are deterrents for salmonids. Thus freshness of fish used in the preparation of fish meal and stability of the oil, through use of antioxidants, are important factors for quality meals. PROTEIN-RICH FEEDS AS SOURCES OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS The legume proteins contain protease inhibitors, lectins, tannins, phytates, antigenic proteins flatulence factors (oligosaccharides), and oestrogens (Huisman and Jansman, 1991). To this list can be added high fibre (non-starch polysaccharides) levels (which limit the inclusion levels in many situations) and contamination with mycotoxins. The brassicas contain glucosinolates, tannins, phytate and have high fibre levels. The relevance of the different factors varies with animal species. Processing is available to deal with several of these problems - dehulling, heating, solvent extraction and addition of enzymes as appropriate for the target animal species. Plant breeding, as in production of double zero rapeseed or canola meal, is another avenue. Reference has been made previously to the different susceptibility of calves, fish and early-weaned piglets to antigenic proteins. For both calves and fish, the general principle is that the greater the degree of processing of vegetable proteins (with an increase in protein content from meal, to protein concentrate, to protein isolate), the better the performance but also the greater the feed cost. The improvement may be due to removal of a number of the factors, but the exact reason is not known. Even using soya protein concentrate with 68 percent protein content of high digestibility, growth of turbot and salmonids is significantly reduced when more than 50 percent of the fish meal protein is replaced (Day & Plascencia Gonzalez, 2000; Sveier et al., 2001). Studies of digestibility of canola meal for trout also suggest that high levels of fibre, either alone or with phytate, result in poorer digestibility of protein (Mwachireya et al., 1999). Insoluble fibre increases the rate of passage through the intestinal tract, while soluble fibre increases the viscosity of the digesta and reduces the diffusion of nutrients to the absorptive mucosa. Pea fibre has been shown to increase the flow of water, mucus and endogenous N to the ileum of pigs. The endogenous N loss was best described as a function of the water holding capacity of the diet (Leterme et al., 1998). Antigenic proteins may also enhance the turnover of intestinal mucosal proteins. Desquamated epithelial cells and mucus in turn encourage the growth of bacteria in the intestine. Bacterial degradation of this protein may result in production of ammonia, which is absorbed and lost via urine. True endogenous faecal N loss is then underestimated and digestibility


overestimated. In addition, and possibly of greater concern, are the additional energetic costs of enhanced intestinal protein turnover. REFERENCES Alderman, G. & Cottrill, B.R. 1993. Energy and protein requirements of ruminants.

An advisory manual prepared by the AFRC Technical Committee on Responses to Nutrients. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.

Allen, P.C. 1999. Effects of oral doses of L-arginine on coccidiosis infections in chickens. Poultry Science, 78: 1506-1509.

Allen, P.C. & Fetterer, R.H. 2000. Effect of Eimeria acervulina infections on plasma L-arginine. Poultry Science, 79: 1414-1417.

Austic, R.E., Dietert, R.R., Sung, Y.J. & Taylor, R.L. Jr. 1991. Amino acids in immune function. In Proceedings 1991 Cornell Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers, p109-114. Ithaca, New York, Cornell University.

Baker, D.H. & Han, Y. 1994. Ideal amino acid profile for chicks during the first three weeks post hatching. Poultry Science, 73: 1441-1447.

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Practical production of protein for food animals

Stephen A Chadd, W. Paul Davies and Jason M Koivisto Royal Agricultural College,

Cirencester, Gloucestershire, UK

ABSTRACT Demand for meat could increase by 58 percent between 1995 and 2020 according to IMPACT food model predictions of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Poultry meat demand might increase by 85 percent; beef by 50 percent and pigmeat by 45 percent over this time period. IFPRI also predict that 97.5 percent of the population increase up to 2020 will be in the developing world, representing at this time 84 percent of global society. Income growth; urbanization; changes in lifestyles and food preferences in addition to continuing population growth could double the demand for meat in the developing world up to 2020. Other drivers for change in the agri-food sector include advances in technology; regulatory requirements and institutional pressures; environmental considerations; globalization influences; competition and political intervention. All of these factors, to a greater or lesser extent, will impact on the so-called ‘livestock revolution’. Future feed sources and supply to support the substantial growth in livestock production, as well as the approaches to livestock husbandry, are a continuing cause for concern. Protein availability and supply is a particular concern, especially in the light of meat and bonemeal restrictions, the adoption of genetically modified crops, dioxin residues in fishmeal and increasing pressures on fisheries policy. Sources of protein are reviewed, including by-products of the food industry, oilseeds and arable and forage legumes. Alternative, and currently less common, plant protein sources are assessed. More information is required on less popular protein plants to clearly identify the reasons for relatively low adoption. A much greater emphasis is recommended for improving plant protein supply in marginal growing environments. The increasing importance of both technical and safety aspects

78 Practical production of protein for food animals

of protein product quality is stressed. Better technology transfer and small farmer support is considered essential for encouraging further protein crop advances. More research is recommended in the short and medium term on agronomy and the further development of alternative, and novel protein supply cropping. More focussed support for longer-term strategies of crop improvement, through both breeding advances and genetic manipulation, is urged. More meaningful and greater co-operation is advocated between policy-makers; the feed industry; farmers and researchers to better deliver the future protein supply potential. INTRODUCTION Domestic animals make critical and valued contributions to society and human existence throughout the world, and play a key role in agriculture. Livestock products account for an estimated 30 percent of the total global value of food and agriculture, and approximately 19 percent of the value of global food production (Heap, 1998). Products from food animals provide over 33 percent of protein consumed in human diets globally and about 16 percent of food energy (Martin, 2001). Non-foods such as wool, hides, bones and dung for fuel are also valuable commodities. Animal manures make a very important contribution to soil fertility, particularly to productivity in the developing world. Animals also provide important power for cultivations and transport in some societies – and globally represent considerable value, equity and insurance. Protein is an essential key ingredient of animal feeds. It is absolutely necessary for animal growth, body maintenance, the production of young and the output of such products as milk, eggs and wool. Approximately 11 percent of the global land mass is cultivated and about 26 percent is permanent pastureland, with 31 percent in forest. In traditional low output farming systems the protein supply can be met from plants and crops grown locally. Higher output animal production is now increasingly important for commercial livestock and mixed farm viability, and nutrition (particularly protein) requirements have become much more demanding. High performing animals need higher quality feed and, except for extensive sheep and beef systems, imports of quality protein and energy are now the norm in the form of compound or straight feeds. Some 800 million tonnes of compounded animal


feeds are now produced annually worldwide (IFIF, personal communication, 2002). In considering protein budgeting and use, a clear distinction has to be made, of course, between requirements for monogastrics such as pigs and poultry, and ruminants such as cattle and sheep, where bacteria in the rumen significantly influence protein synthesis and absorbable amino acids. Particular concerns, and justification for the current United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization consultation on ‘Protein Sources for the Animal Feed Industry’, are being generated by increasing safety considerations (either real or perceived) in key protein sources. These include the prospects for genetic modification (GM) in major crops and its public perception; potential human health risks from meat and bonemeal - highlighted by the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) crisis, and dioxin residues in fishmeal. Safety, and potential health hazards are not the only issues challenging farmers and animal feed manufacturers in a rapidly changing agri-food industry and trading environment – but they remain critically important for consumer confidence in particular and for government reaction. FORCES FOR CHANGE As always, the future remains uncertain – and mostly unpredictable. It is quite clear, however, that the agri-food sector is experiencing accelerating rates of multi-dimensional change. No one factor is changing on its own. These drivers for change (Davies and Turner, 2002) include: • consumer tastes and behaviour; • market structures; • competition and production efficiency; • advances in technology; • institutional pressures and regulatory requirements; • environmental considerations; • international and globalisation influences; • political influences.

These on-going influences in themselves can be multi-dimensional, as in the following examples – and the impact on the agri-food industry is considerable.


CONSUMER UNDERSTANDING On the demand side, for example, consumption will involve considerations of demographics and population structures; cultural and religious issues; economic status and disposable income; aspirations; concerns and lifestyle. Consumers in the United Kingdom, for example, are ‘more demanding’, ‘better informed’ and ‘more discerning’ – and are demanding more ‘transparency’, ‘traceability’ and ‘assurance’ in the food chain. A recent Food Standards Agency (FSA, 2001) survey highlighted the following significant influences on food purchases in the United Kingdom (when not prompted) of: • price • taste • quality • health • production methods • appearance • freshness

When specifically asked to rank various given factors on the basis of being ‘very or quite important’ – ‘health’, ‘taste’ and ‘food safety’ scored highly. As a probable result of the many recent health and safety crises in the United Kingdom food chain, many respondents (FSA, 2001) are concerned about the methods of food production - 16 percent of men and 27 percent of women said they were concerned about how animals are treated and raised, confirming the significance of ‘animal welfare’ issues in livestock production in the United Kingdom. Since the BSE crisis, quality assurance schemes in relation to meat products in particular, have become important in the United Kingdom – and are becoming increasingly important in international trade (Baines and Davies, 1998). ‘Understanding the consumer’ is likely to become increasingly important as a major driver in livestock system development, including feed supply. Although in other countries, where the market for livestock products is still developing, there may currently be less concern for ‘quality’ issues than quantity or affordable prices – cardinal quality concerns (such as consumer safety linked to production approaches) are still likely to become increasingly significant. Understanding these developing markets, and the developing consumer behaviour and requirements, will be the key to greater understanding of livestock production chains.


COMPETITIVENESS Of the other major drivers, the need to improve competitiveness and production efficiency is becoming increasingly significant, for both domestic markets and international market positioning in particular. Benchmarking performance is increasingly important in this respect, as is the need to remove unnecessary costs in the supply chain. The costs of protein, and diet formulation, for livestock production in relation to performance is a key issue in this regard. Least cost programming to determine the value of each protein source will remain critical. IMPROVING TECHNOLOGY Technical advances, through research and development, will continue to make a particular impact, and beneficial advances need to be carefully explained and effectively communicated to all involved in the food chain – and to consumers in particular. Transgenic (GM) crops are currently grown on over 45 million hectares globally (James, 2001). The main GM crop being planted on 26 million hectares, 58 percent of the transgenic area, is herbicide tolerant soybean grown mainly in the United States, Argentina and Canada but also on smaller areas in Mexico, Uruguay and Romania. In second place is transgenic corn, planted on 10.3 million hectares followed by GM cotton on 5.3 million hectares and GM oilseed rape on 2.8 million hectares (James, 2001). The impact on the animal feed industry and on agriculture in some areas is already significant. Hesitancy in the European Union (EU) over the adoption of GM crops and consumer concerns could have wide-ranging effects on farming approaches, livestock feeding and competitiveness. There is little doubt that genetic modification of crops and livestock will potentially, have an increasing impact – but so probably will advances from conventional breeding. The influence of new manufacturing processes (and innovation) in the animal feed industry should not be underestimated either. Progress will undoubtedly be made on new protein sources, and different attributes of protein feeds. A greater focus on protein quality rather than simply on crude protein as a measurement of protein supply would also seem likely. What might the impacts be, for example, of (in a European context initially) higher digestibility grasses, exploitation of the ‘stay green’ gene and proteolysis prevention during ensiling? Or the impact of improved ‘naked oats’ as a candidate cereal for improving protein supply? In the longer term, what


will be the outcome of plant breeding efforts to increase protein values in barley – or to widen the climatic tolerances of exotic protein crops such as soybean? Some of the technical difficulties may presently be substantial, but how soon can they be resolved? SUSTAINABILITY AND ENVIRONMENT Greater concerns globally for a more sustainable agriculture, with a lower environmental impact, will have an increasing influence on farming systems and future approaches to food production. The real and potential influences of intensive livestock systems on environmental pollution is regarded as a serious issue in many countries – leading to further encouragement of less intensive approaches. Agri-environment schemes, to promote better countryside stewardship are becoming particularly important in Europe (Curry, 2001). Environmental perspectives will also modify future approaches, both directly and indirectly, to protein cropping. The use of break crops (utilizing peas or beans) in an arable rotation or a legume-rich (e.g. white clover) grass ley in cropping is being increasingly advocated as part of an integrated crop management approach in Europe. A much better understanding of the fate of nitrogen in mixed rotational farming systems is, however, required (Warman et al., 1997). The value of rotations is being reassessed and is gaining political ground. Greater usage of prospective spring-sown legumes, in an attempt to boost home-grown supply, will increase the area of bare ground over winter and in temperate systems, the potential for nitrogen leaching. The debate concerning the optimization of nitrogen usage on crops such as cereals and grassland, and political threats of a ‘nitrogen tax’ to protect the environment, are also likely to continue (at least in Europe). The extent to which new approaches to inter-cropping and companion cropping with legumes can mitigate against deleterious prospects in commercial temperate cropping in north-west Europe, remains to be seen. From an animal feed perspective, future supplies of fishmeal may also be affected by concerns for over-fishing and a more sustainable fisheries policy. INSTITUTIONAL PRESSURES Political support, or otherwise, for changes to agricultural systems and food production will continue to have a major influence on protein supply issues and the global realities of the animal feed business. For example, continuing encouragement of ‘home-produced protein cropping’, integrated crop


management, organic farming and non-adoption of GM crops, will have significant influence in the European Union. United Kingdom Government support for more research on soybeans, sunflowers and lupins or alternative protein crops could result in significant medium-term advances in production. Whereas, government encouragement and support for soybean production in North and South America will continue to have a major impact on global supply. 2020 VISION Global demand for cereals could increase by 39 percent between 1995 and 2020 (to 2 466 million tonnes), meat demand by 58 percent (to 313 million tonnes), and roots and tubers by 37 percent (to 864 million tonnes) according to IMPACT (International Model for Policy Analysis of Commodities and Trade) predictions. This global food model of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), also predicts that 97.5 percent of the population increase between 1995 and 2020 will occur in the developing world. This rise to a possible 6.3 billion people in these countries by 2020, would represents 84 percent of the global population (Pinstrup-Andersen et al., 1999). Most of the future world food demand will therefore occur in developing countries. An estimated 85 percent of the increase in demand for cereals (690 million tonnes) and meat (115 million tonnes) between 1995 and 2020 could occur in the developing world. Up to 2020, demand driven meat consumption in the developing world will grow three times faster than in the developed world. Total demand for meat will double. To supply such a massive increase in livestock production, the cereal grain supply may need to double, and the demand for maize in particular will be considerable. IFPRI predict that by 2020, up to 60 percent of the cereal demand in developing countries may have to be imported and meat imports increased significantly (to 6.6 million tonnes) (Pinstrup-Andersen et al., 1999). By 2020 however, due to the population increases, an average person in a developing country will consume less than 50 percent of the cereals consumed by a developed-country person, and only about 34 percent of the meat products. The IMPACT model projects that between 1995 and 2020, poultry meat demand will increase by more than 85 percent; beef by 80 percent and pigmeat by 45 percent.


Food insecurity and malnutrition will continue to be a significant and serious problem for the foreseeable future. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia in particular will remain as problem regions for food insecurity up to 2020 (Pinstrup-Andersen et al., 1999). LIVESTOCK PERSPECTIVES Foods of animal origin provide about one-sixth of human food energy consumed globally, and one-third of the protein (Martin, 2001). Rapidly growing demand for livestock products worldwide is brought about mainly by human population increases and growing income, but also by changing lifestyles, food preference and urbanization (Conway, 1998; Avery, 1998). Land use and human population pressures are leading to intensification and expansion in many livestock production systems. Like the Green Revolution, the ’Livestock Revolution’ defined by Delgado et al. (2001), involves the large-scale participation by developing countries in farming transformations that had previously occurred mostly in temperate zones of the developed world. These rapidly expanding livestock sectors are inevitably exerting increased pressures on natural resources. Technologies are needed to increase the efficiency of feed conversion (thereby reducing inputs and nutrient losses), and to develop more sustainable production systems and product-use. LINK WITH HUMAN NUTRITION The quality of human nutrition is inextricably linked to the quality of the livestock products consumed which, in turn, is significantly influenced by the nature of the raw materials (protein sources) eaten by the animal. There are those who feel that grain production should replace livestock production on land used for grazing, and that it is poor food economics to feed grain to animals. It could be argued, however, that much of the land used to produce livestock is not suitable for grain or alternative crop production anyway - and good, consistent meat quality can come from grain-fed animals. The link between affluence in societies and the demand for higher dietary levels of high-quality protein has been made by Avery (1998). Some examples provided include Japan, whose population have in recent years, increased their protein intake (mainly of fish) from 20 to 60 grams per day. Such consumption patterns are being emulated in Taiwan and South Korea. Poultry production increases in Thailand also reflect the importance of, and desire for, elevated levels of meat consumption (and export).


In contrast, and particularly noticeable in developed countries in northern latitudes, is the dietary shift away from animal to plant sources of protein. This being perceived as the healthier option (Millward, 1999). In addition to the move by some towards vegetarianism, is the desire by others for white meat in preference to red. It has been calculated that approximately 70 percent of the total animal protein eaten by humans is provided by ruminant animals, (Minson, 1997) and that 35 percent of all protein consumed is derived from animals. The debate continues about the nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets versus meat (Sanders, 1999). In addition to meat as a vital source of dietary protein for humans, milk and eggs are also standards against which the adequacy of other protein sources can be measured in terms of the provision of essential amino acids for body protein synthesis. Gill (1999) and Rosegrant et al. (1999) emphasize the significant variation there is in the proportion of meat consumed in national diets across the world - again linked to population growth, income and the degree of urbanization. Much of the debate in the West continues to focus on ethical and environmental issues, relating to the production methods employed in livestock systems. LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS AND TRENDS A comprehensive classification of types of livestock production systems has been produced by Sere and Steinfeld (1996) and further discussed by Gill (1999). The demand for livestock products and commodities in different parts of the world (as previously discussed) has influenced the characteristics of livestock systems, including the types of feeds used and observable trends. Livestock make an important contribution to most economies. The criteria used by Sere and Steinfeld (1996) to characterize livestock systems included regional differences, quantitative estimates of the importance of each system globally, human population dynamics, livestock numbers and outputs. Three main patterns are identified which effectively describe the nature and diversity of global systems, namely: grazing, mixed farming (some feed from crop residues and by-products produced on the farm) and so-called industrial or ‘landless’ systems. In excess of 65 percent of the world’s cattle population and small ruminants are located in the developing world, but factors such as culture, climate and economics will determine how much variation there is between countries and regions (Gill, 1999). The landless intensive production systems, mainly monogastric, tend to predominate in developed countries and are responsible for producing more


than half of the total meat production. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries account for a significant proportion of total pork and poultry production globally in landless systems. Asia is next in importance for pork production and in the case of poultry, Central and South America. Such systems are very reliant on imported feed raw materials, capital intensive and associated with concerns over environmental pollution. Landless ruminant production systems are focussed in a few regions of the world. Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) seem to be the preferred locations for most landless cattle systems, and sheep farmed in this way are found mainly in Western Asia and North Africa. Typical examples are also the large-scale feedlots of cattle in the United States. Under such systems the ruminants are fed essentially as a monogastric, with high levels of concentrates and cereal-based diets. Such systems are associated with substantial economies of scale. In respect of trend, very intensive types of farming operations can be expected to decline in importance in the European Union as production becomes more extensive, and in response to policies which promote protection of the environment and the gradual removal of agricultural support. To put the systems in perspective in terms of output of meat, only 9.3 percent of the total is produced in grassland-based systems, compared with 37 percent in landless and 5.3 percent for mixed farming operations (Sere and Steinfeld, 1996). The fastest growing meat production systems are the intensive landless ones with growth rates (percent per annum) of 4.3, 2.2 and 0.7 for landless, mixed and grassland systems respectively. Along with landless monogastric systems, the importance of mixed systems as suppliers of livestock products is expected to continue to grow in the future. ASIAN EXAMPLE An example of the merits of crop-animal (mixed) systems is provided in Asian agricultural practice in which livestock have a multi-purpose role (Devendra and Thomas, 2002). Although animals are considered secondary in importance to that of crop production, the complementarity of the two systems can readily be seen particularly from a systems’ sustainability viewpoint. At a local level, most of the projected future demands for ruminant meat and milk are expected to be met from the improved productivity of livestock in these mixed farming systems. Further research would be welcome on the more effective use of crops


as potential animal feed and, in particular, alternative protein sources. Annual and perennial crops are grown, including tree species, and these are closely integrated with the livestock sectors. Thomas and colleagues (2002) elaborate on the factors which represent potential constraints to Asian livestock productivity - including inadequate genetic resources, feed sourcing problems, health and disease and in places, poor infrastructure. Perhaps the greatest challenge confronting the livestock system is to increase the availability of animal feeds, both in respect of quantity and quality (particularly protein content). Feed deficits exist throughout South Asia as a whole, with significant regional differences. Feed protein sources and their use tend to be prioritised according to their perceived quality and the animal productivity level desired. Although some nutritional improvement to roughages, such as ammonia treatment, have been tried on farms, the more effective way to raise production standards has been by supplementation with cottonseed and oilseed cakes. However, the cost is often prohibitive for many farmers and the performance results disappointing and variable (Devendra and Sevilla, 2002). PROTEIN AVAILABILITY AND NUTRITION One of the major contributors to the cost of production in livestock farming, particularly pigs and poultry, is the price of protein per unit weight of animal feed. For the European Union, with implementation of the ban on the use of meat and bonemeal together with the predicted demise of fishmeal, there is the realisation that a bigger market will be created for alternative protein feed sources. The biological value of meat, bone and fish meals in terms of their recognised amino acid profile, will be difficult to substitute. The ban substantially reduces the European Union’s feed protein self-sufficiency. The experience of the United Kingdom is characteristic of most European Union countries. The increasing reliance on imported proteins (Merry et al., 2001) also increases farmers’ and compounders’ exposure to the price fluctuations, currency movements, supply shortages and surpluses associated with the main protein source - soybean. Globally, there can and will be imbalances between the production and availability of suitable livestock protein sources. Any resulting increased competition on the world market could, for example, give a competitive advantage to countries which can readily produce a feed such as soya (ENTEC, 1998). The cost of importing protein concentrates can be significantly influenced by supply and demand and other market forces, all of which can be extremely variable.


For any livestock farmer, reducing costs whilst maintaining a desirable level of output, is an objective which not all are able to realise. The breeding and development of new protein crops, or the enhancement of the nutritional value of indigenous crops, offer the potential to increase competitive advantage. The efficiency with which protein nitrogen in the animal diet is converted into products varies according to species (ruminant versus non-ruminant), the stage of the production cycle and quality (in amino acid profile terms) of the feed protein being offered. In the landless monogastric livestock systems referred to earlier, larger intensive units exercise great care and precision in diet formulations, which amongst other things, allows them to incorporate synthetic amino acids, for example. The main benefits of the creation of an 'ideal protein' are twofold. Firstly, matching supply with the animal’s nutrient requirement reduces the chance of environmental pollution and secondly, it can make economic sense. Efforts are already being made in Europe to rectify any shortfall in traditional protein feed sources. This includes providing incentives for farmers within the European Union to expand their plantings of soybeans, field peas and beans to meet the increased vegetable protein requirements. A possible problem with this policy may be that increased production of such crops could be counter to the Agenda 2000 reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy. Under Agenda 2000, the European Union is harmonising area payments for oilseeds and grains over a three-year period. It is also very uncertain how much soya the European Union could grow, particularly in northern latitudes. In considering alternative protein sources, it is important that governments and others appreciate the vital part that pastures and forage can play in supplying ruminants with their protein needs (Merry et al., 2001). The purpose of recent research in Australia by Robinson and Singh (2001) was to evaluate alternative protein sources for laying hens. There was a concern over increasing soybean imports, and the realization that cultivation of indigenous legumes (mung bean, chickpea and cowpea) and canola could reverse this trend and enable an increased level of self-sufficiency. Some legumes were found to be very well suited to subtropical regions and showed considerable promise as competitive sources of protein for livestock - in this case for poultry production. In parts of the developing world there is not perhaps the same luxury of being able to select alternative quality protein sources for livestock production as there is elsewhere. This may be for economic reasons. Teferedegne (2000) reports research carried out to enhance the productivity of ruminants in sub-


Saharan Africa. The primary feed sources were roughage with poor digestibility. Rather than supplementation with oil seed cake proteins, the nutritional value of local tree legumes (Enterolobium, Samanea and Acacia species) were investigated to substantiate claims of the beneficial effect on increasing nutrient intake (including nitrogen) and improving feed conversion efficiency and thereby animal performance. The protein content of forage tree legume leaves is usually high (150-300 g/kg) compared with that of hay and crop residues (30-100 g/kg). Although the presence of anti-nutritional substances in tree-based forage can potentially inhibit intakes and utilization, such legume sources appear to have a positive effect on rumen micro-organism function. These studies confirm the potential benefits to livestock production that could be achieved through the introduction of fodder trees and shrubs. Further research could and should also explore ways of improving the quality of crop residues through breeding or chemical treatment. Knowledge at farm level should also be provided to show how to incorporate non-conventional protein substitute feeds into animal diets. INFLUENCES ON CROP PRODUCTION There are a wide range of factors and influences that need to be considered when assessing the future of crop production. • Considerable emphasis is being given globally to the development of

more sustainable farming systems. Integrated crop management is being actively promoted in Europe as an agri-environment strategy based on optimising lower input-use.

• Environment concerns globally have focussed in particular on continuing soil degradation and loss of fertility in many low-income countries. Competition for water is becoming an increasing concern, and shortage in some regions is an acute problem for future cropping.

• More attention needs to be given to the development of cropping systems for marginal environments. Improving crop tolerance to such stresses as drought, salinity and soil toxicities remains essential.

• Cropping strategies to cope with climate change are pressing. Certain niche markets based on particular approaches to production are becoming more attractive, giving better market access and/or price premiums, such as for organic husbandry and animal welfare considerations. Understanding the consumer is driving production much closer to market


requirements, with an increasing premium on market information. The development and adoption of quality assurance schemes to guard against food safety threats and reassure consumers is becoming increasingly important.

• Quality of crop produce to meet more exacting market requirements is an increasing technical consideration.

• Efficiency to improve competitiveness is a major production consideration.

• Increasing crop productivity and food security remains a key goal for the continuing improvement of both major and minor crops in many developing countries.

SOURCES OF PROTEIN There are many possible sources of plant protein for livestock rations. These include oilseeds, by-products of food production, arable and forage legumes. By-products There are many examples of high quality plant protein sources available from by-products of food or drink production (Crawshaw, 2001). Two important examples illustrate the potential of using these materials for livestock feeding. Brewers’ grain and maize gluten meal (MGM) are two of the most common sources of by-product protein. Brewers’ grain is a term that applies to a broader group of spent grain products, including the non-alcoholic malting industry. Crawshaw (2001) found that brewers’ grain can be highly variable in terms of its crude protein content, varying between 170 and 320 g/kg, with a mean value of 240 g/kg. With such variability in protein content, it is very important for producers to check the protein value of specific batches of grain. Brewers’ grain can be fed fresh to stock, or ensiled for feeding at a later date. It can provide an excellent source of protein in high roughage diets with inclusion rates as high as 8 kg dry matter (DM)/d. It was found in United Kingdom studies (CEDAR, 1995) that brewers’ grain increased milk yield and milk protein, but reduced milk fat concentration. Maize gluten meal is a product of the maize fractionation process which involves extraction of starch, germ and bran from the grain. MGM tends to have 600 to 700 g/kg crude protein, making it one of the richest potential protein sources. However, MGM is deficient in lysine with 17 g/kg, compared with soya meal which has 62 g/kg. This lack of lysine makes MGM a poor


source of protein for pigs without lysine supplementation. MGM is however a good choice of protein for egg producing poultry, because of the relatively high methionine content of 28 g/kg compared with 14 g/kg for soya (Crawshaw, 2001). Due to the relatively high proportion of non-degradable protein in MGM it is a good source of by-pass protein in ruminant diets (Chalupa et al., 1999). Schwab and colleagues (1976) found that methionine and lysine are the two main limiting amino acids for the production of milk. MGM mixed with either soya meal, or another lysine source, gives greater potential for MGM use in a dairy ration formulation. Oilseeds Many oilseed crops produce a by-product meal or cake, which generally is a good quality protein source for livestock rations. Several common and some less common species that could be used in an expanded role as animal feeds are presented in Table 1. Several species of oilseeds, most notably soybeans and oilseed rape (canola) have been genetically modified to provide more specialised cultivars. The increased demand for white meat around the world over the last 30 years has helped to fuel a large increase in the demand for high quality feedstuffs for these livestock sectors (Weiss, 2000). Intensive pig and poultry units are particularly sensitive to costs of production and have a need for high quality feeds, such as oilseed meals, to help keep feed conversion ratios low. The price of oilseed meal is related to the price the processor is able to get for the oil. The demand for a specific oilseed meal, therefore, is directly related to the oil price. Soya is one of the few oilseed crops that is an exception to this principle because of the low oil yield. Another factor that affects the value of a specific oilseed meal is its protein content. Weiss (2000) outlines the relationship between oilseed meals and intensive livestock production. This will continue to encourage increased production of oilseeds meals as a protein source. As is clear from Table 1, soya meal is the dominant meal source of protein for livestock. In 2000, Argentina and Brazil accounted for 61 percent of world exports of soya meal followed by the United States at 16 percent (USDA, 2002). The United States produces 34.8 Mt soya meal, but consumes 28.5 Mt. China produces 13.3 Mt but consumes an additional 11.5 Mt of soya meal. This additional soya meal is needed to supply China’s burgeoning livestock industry (USDA, 2002).


TABLE 1 World production (Mt) of selected oilseed meals (million tonnes) 1970 1980 1990 2000 Coconut 1.3 1.8 1.7 1.9

Cottonseed 8.0 10.0 15.0 11.2

Groundnut 4.0 4.0 6.0 5.4

Linseed 1.8 1.4 1.4 1.3

Palm kernel 0.5 0.6 2.0 3.6

Canola (Rape) 3.0 6.0 14.0 21.4

Sesame 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.0

Soyabean 32.0 60.0 70.0 114.9

Total 531.3 894.89 1 211.1 17 360.97

Fishmeal 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.1 Source: (Weiss 2000; USDA, 2002) Crambe (Crambe abyssinica), also known as Abyssinian kale, is a close relative to mustard and rape. It prefers sandy loam soils, but will also grow on a wide range of soils. Crambe grows well with similar cultivations to most small grains. Crambe meal cake typically contains 400–600 g/kg crude protein (fat free dehulled cake being 500–550 g/kg protein), with a good amino acid balance and a high lysine content (Weiss, 2000). Crambe can provide 1200 kg of dehulled meal per 1000 kg of oil. Canola, oilseed rape (Brassica napus and Brassica rapa) meal provides a good protein source (430–450 g/kg crude protein [CP] - dehulled) with an excellent balance of essential amino acids. Some variation in the protein content of canola can be due to cultivar, soil type, and environmental factors (Bell, 1995). The lysine content of canola tends to be lower then soya meal, but canola has a higher proportion of sulphur amino acids The major drawback to members of the brassica family is the presence of glucosinolates (hydrolysed to thioglucosidease) within the seed. These compounds can be toxic especially to non-ruminants, and will also reduce the palatability of the meal. The thioglucosidase and sinapine have to be extracted


with hexane to allow crambe to be safely used for feeding cattle and poultry. In the case of canola, breeding work has been done to look for varieties with lower glucosinolates. These lower glucosinolates varieties tend also to have higher sulphur amino acids contents than other varieties (Bell, 1995). Based on current breeding trends, Bell (1995) suggests that future canola varieties will have very little glucosinolates. Weiss (2000) describes crops like jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica) as being able to provide an adequate protein supply for livestock feed. Jojoba, a crop found in north western Mexico and southern California, provides an extracted meal with 250-350 g/kg CP. However it needs to be detoxified through a one-stage oil extraction and meal detoxification process. Weiss (2000) goes on to say that the lysine content of jojoba is adequate but the methionine content is very low. Niger grown in Ethiopia and India provides an extracted cake that can contain an average of 340 g/kg CP, without any anti-nutritional agents. Based on very few samples there tends to be low concentration of lysine and threonine in niger cake. In India, niger meal is used extensively as a feed for lactating cattle and buffalo (Weiss, 2000). Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) meal is not very suitable for monogastric animals, but can be fed to cattle and sheep. Safflower meal has 200–240 g/kg crude protein (Mündel et al., 2000). Weiss (2000) says that higher growth rates are possible from safflower than from a similar amount of soya meal in a properly balanced ration. Safflower meal can make a suitable supplement for the fattening of cattle. If safflower has been hulled it can be added to pig rations, replacing up to 25 percent of the ration’s protein requirements. Sesame (Sesame indicum) meal provides an adequate protein source for livestock, (351–470 g/kg CP), but it must be used rapidly to prevent it from becoming rancid and unpalatable (Weiss, 2000). It is also valued as a source of protein in human diets, and so is less frequently used in animal rations. Sesame has a similar protein content to cottonseed meal and is also high in calcium and phosphorus. It is low in lysine, so must be fortified with soya meal if fed to pigs or poultry. There can be a reduction in the availability of calcium, magnesium, and zinc, because sesame contains 50 g/kg phytic acid (Weiss, 2000). There is a possibility that if too much sesame is included in the ration it could result in soft butter. Cotton (Gossypium spp.) meal is palatable and commonly used in cattle rations in cotton growing regions of the United States. Solvent extracted


cottonseed meal is the most common type of meal and has about 440 g/kg protein, similar to soya meal (Ingredients101.com, 2001). Cottonseed meal contains gossypol, a polyphenolic aldehyde, which can make cottonseed meal toxic to monogastric animals (McDonald et al., 1995). In ruminants it is unlikely that enough cottonseed meal would be ingested to result in the animal suffering from gossypol toxicity. Cottonseed meal is low in rumen degradable protein, and as such it is a suitable source of bypass protein (FAO, 2001a). Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) meal has a high protein content, but because of the high fibre content of the seed husks, has to be de-hulled to achieve a 400 g/kg crude protein content (Weiss, 2000). As such it is of limited value to feed compounders. Sunflower meal is low in lysine and must be fortified by soya meal if it is to be used for feeding to pigs and poultry. When sunflower meal is used for feeding ruminants and horses it is generally mixed with grain and roughage. It can be fed in large amounts, up to 5 kg, to milking cattle without an adverse effect on the milk yield or quality (Weiss, 2000). It is also possible to ensile whole plant sunflower, which will provide silage of about 140 g/kg crude protein. Sunflower grown for silage should be cut when half the heads are in bloom (FAO, 2001b). Sunflower for silage is often grown in areas that are too cool for growing maize (Zea mays). Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) meal is the by-product of extracting the seed for oil. The meal contains 350–380 g/kg CP that is low in protein quality, being deficient in lysine. It has been a favourite protein source for horses and ruminants in the past. Today, soya meal is preferred as it is cheaper and of higher protein quality. The meal fed in large amounts is laxative, and excess amounts in rations have undesirable softening effects on butterfat and give milk a rancid taste. The recommended maximum intake for cattle is 3 kg per day. Because of this softening property of the oil, linseed cake is unsatisfactory as a main ingredient in pig feeds. Up to 1 kg per day has been used with good results, but not more than 8 percent linseed meal is commonly included in rations. For young pigs and brood sows a maximum of 5 percent linseed meal in the ration is usually recommended. Linseed meal is toxic to poultry except in very small proportions (under 3 percent). Larger amounts depress growth. The toxicity can largely be eliminated by soaking the meal in water for twenty-four hours or by adding pyridoxin, one of the B-vitamins to the diet (FAO, 2001c).


Legumes Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) meal is a valuable feed that can provide 450-550 g/kg crude protein. The quality of the meal depends upon extraction method, cultivar, and where the crop was grown. Groundnut protein can be of comparable quality to soya meal. If groundnut meal is to be used for poultry diets, lysine and methionine have to be added to the ration. If too high a rate is included in pig and cattle rations it can result in soft pork and reduced milk fat quality (Weiss, 2000). However it can be fed to fattening cattle without any effect on meat quality. Soybean (Glycine max) is by far the most dominant protein crop for livestock rations throughout the world. Generally soya meal can provide 440 to 480 g/kg crude protein. Soybeans provide a high quality and highly digestible protein source that is also high in lysine, making it well suited to feed compounders. Generally inclusion rates of soya meal in monogastric diets range from 30-40 percent. Because of the presence of trypsin inhibitor in the bean, it has become standard practice for the beans to be heated for an extended period of time before and during oil extraction. Whole roasted soybeans can also be included in ruminant rations. While lower in protein that soy meal at 370 g/kg, roasted soybeans are higher in rumen bypass protein. Studies by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggest that higher milk yields are possible when roasted soybeans are substituted for soya meal in the diets of lactating dairy cattle (Satter and Dhiman, 1996). It is also possible to use soybeans for forage production. When soybeans were initially introduced to North America they were grown exclusively as a forage crop. In recent years several new cultivars of forage type soybean have been developed (Devine and Hatley, 1998). In the United States, these varieties have achieved yields of 11 t DM/ha at 170 g/kg CP (Borman, 1998). Nutritionally, whole crop soybeans provide similar levels of protein and digestibility as alfalfa (Hintz et al., 1992). The name lupin applies to a collection of four agriculturally important species. The two most important being Lupinus albus and Lupinus angustifolius offering relatively high yields (320–400 g/kg) of crude protein. Lupins tend to be deficient in sulphur containing amino acids and are also low in lysine (Haq, 1993). This means that in pig rations, lupins would need to be either supplemented with specific amino acids or with other protein crops. For pigs, lupins (ground seed) can have inclusion rates as high as 20 percent. For sheep


and cattle they can be the sole concentrate protein feed. Sweet varieties of lupins should be used to avoid any problems with alkaloids. In Australia, lupins (L. angustifolius) are increasingly being used as a replacement for fishmeal and soya meal. Yields of lupins can vary greatly depending on environmental factors and to a lesser degree on species, with L. albus yielding up to 5 t DM/ha in France and Chile, and L. angustifolius up to 4 t DM/ha in New Zealand. Lupins can be used as fresh forage or ensiled with maize or other cereals. All species have a similar chemical composition. In temperate climates, peas (Pisum sativum) and beans (Vicia faba) provide a good source of home grown protein, with peas containing 250 g/kg crude protein and beans varying between 260 and 300 g/kg. The lysine content of peas and beans is lower than in soya meal. Their relatively high protein content and level of lysine mean that they are complementary to cereals. The protein is low in sulphur amino acids and tryptophan. Consistent yield can be a problem because of plant stress during flowering and pod filling. Protein content can also vary due to environmental conditions. The European Commission (1994) estimate that if the rest of the European Union compounders used peas to the same extent as in France, the total use of peas would be 11.3 million tonnes, which is double current production levels. However, the best agronomic conditions to grow peas are found in France where they develop rapidly. The cost of production in France is now nearly equivalent to that of cereal crops. Peas and beans contain anti-nutritive factors - tannins and trypsin inhibitors. Pea varieties grown for animal feed are tannin-free and are screened for trypsin inhibitor activity. White flowered, tannin-free varieties of beans are also available. New varieties are screened for vicine and convicine, which cause haemolytic anaemia. These anti-nutritive factors are relatively unimportant for ruminants, and heat treatment destroys them during processing. (Shaw et al., 1998). Forage peas can be a valuable source of protein for ruminant diets. Peas have higher basic CP and a lower non dietary fibre (NDF) value than ryegrass, suggesting they should have a higher dietary intake than ryegrass. Peas also have a lower metabolizable energy (ME) value, as expected, than ryegrass. Digestibility and overall feed value will be reduced if harvest is delayed beyond the mange tout stage (growth stage 205-206). Conversely, earlier harvesting can give a high-quality forage but at the expense of production. Arable silage will generally have lower crude protein (100-140 g/kg) DOMD (58-63 percent) and ME (9.0-10.0), although these values can be higher depending on the pea


cultivar chosen and its contribution. In addition, the partner cereal species and cultivar, with respect to its straw length in particular, (with a long length being advantageous) will have an effect on digestible organic matter digestibility (DOMD) and ME. FORAGE LEGUMES Temperate In recent times the higher feeding value of legumes relative to grasses has been increasingly exploited, as a result of their higher nutritive value and increased animal intake. The rapid particle breakdown in the rumen resulting in rapid passage through the animal’s digestive system helps to contribute to the higher intakes (Waghorn et al., 1989). As a result of this high rumen degradation, those species that do not use condensed tannins to bind some of the protein can result in the fed animal suffering from bloat. This is only a serious problem in systems where animals are allowed to graze pastures that have high levels of low tannin forages. McMahon and colleagues (1999) found that including up to 20 percent sainfoin (DM basis) in fresh forage fed to cattle reduced the incidence of bloat by up to 93 percent, without negatively effecting nutritional quality of the feed. Since the 1950s, the recognition of nitrogen as a key factor in grassland production has led to increased applications of fertilizer. The preference for nitrogenous fertilizers made other forms of nitrogen acquisition, including legumes, less popular and significant. (Frame et al., 1998). Eventually, with increases in the cost of inorganic nitrogen, greater interest has been shown in the potential of forage and grain legumes. Forage legume prospects The following examples represent species considered as forage legume prospects, with a potential role for further increasing future protein supply for livestock. Bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is native to Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia. It is widely used for pasture, hay and silage production in areas where the soils or climate are not suitable for lucerne production. Pastures of bird’s foot trefoil should be allowed to reseed themselves in the late summer to ensure longer stand life (Beuselinck and Grant, 1995; Blumenthal and McGraw, 1999). Well maintained stands of bird’s-foot trefoil can be viable for over twenty years.


There are two distinct types of bird’s-foot trefoil, Empire and European. Cultivars of the Empire type are derived from naturalised ecotypes found in New York. European cultivars come from ecotypes found throughout Europe. The Empire type tends to have finer stems, to be prostrate, later flowering, indeterminate, more winter hardy and with slower seedling growth than the European type (Beuselinck and Grant, 1995). The use of bird’s-foot trefoil in many temperate systems is limited by the crop’s very slow establishment, which is in part a result of the smaller seed size compared with lucerne and red clover (Beuselinck and Grant, 1995). It competes poorly with weeds or some companion crops (Frame et al., 1998). A great deal of research has recently improved our understanding of how to establish this crop. Once bird’s-foot trefoil is established it provides an excellent source of protein for livestock, with a nutritional value equal to if not greater than lucerne (Marten and Jordan, 1979). The crude protein content of the forage is dependent on the stage of development, but decreases at a slower rate than other forage legumes. At the early bloom stage, trefoil can provide around 210 g/kg CP. This crop also contains condensed tannins that help to prevent protein being metabolized in the rumen. In a review by Beuselinck and Grant (1995) they report that the cell wall of bird’s-foot trefoil also breaks down more slowly in the rumen than clovers and lucerne, increasing the amount of protein available in the lower intestine. These two factors that increase the bypass protein value of the crop help to make it a higher quality forage than some other legumes. Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is often referred to as the queen of forages because of its ability to provide consistently high yields of high quality. Lucerne is the most widely grown forage legume in the world with 30 M ha, 85 percent of which is in the United States, Commonwealth of Independent States, Argentina, Canada, China, and Italy (Frame et al., 1998). It produces the greatest yield of protein per hectare of any of the temperate crops, including grains and oilseeds (Barnes and Sheaffer, 1995). It is most frequently used in conjunction with forage maize in dairy systems, because the protein of the lucerne complements the high energy maize. It is rarely grazed as a pasture crop because of the risk of bloat and possible death. It is generally harvested for hay or silage. The difficulty of producing good quality silage from lucerne has limited its use in some areas of the world, specifically maritime climates. Protein values for lucerne are also dependent upon the growth stage at which it


is harvested and are generally around 200 g/kg, but have been reported to range from 129 to 324 g/kg (Spedding and Deikmahns, 1972). Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is grown on over 4.5 M ha in the United States, making it the second most important forage legume grown in that country (Taylor and Smith, 1995). It is also of great importance in European farming, making it one of the most widely spread species in temperate agriculture. Red clover has adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, and tolerates growing on soils too acidic for lucerne production. It is however more prone to disease problems in climates that have higher summer temperatures. Red clover grows well in environments with sufficient moisture throughout the growing season (Taylor and Smith, 1995). Red clover tends to be a very short-lived forage legume, perhaps as short as two years. However this tendency to be short-lived has been of increasing importance in some regions because of a move away from the use of mineral nitrogen, in both organic and conventional systems. It is able to fix high rates of nitrogen in a relatively short period, providing the opportunity to grow subsequent crops with little mineral nitrogen. As a forage, red clover is very suitable for many ruminant systems, providing yields of up to 10 t DM/ha/year (Wilkins et al., 2001). Wilkins and colleagues (2001) managed to produce a red clover silage with 190 g/kg crude protein. In a review, Taylor and Smith (1995) report that the crude protein of red clover dropped from 280 g/kg in vegetative forage to 140 g/kg in full-bloom forage. Red clover also has greater digestibility than lucerne or bird’s-foot trefoil. Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) was widely grown in Europe during the 17th to 19th centuries and to a lesser extent in the early 20th century. It was used as a source of very high quality hay, much of which was fed to heavy working horses of the time. The aftermath grazing was highly favoured for fattening lambs. There are two main types of sainfoin - the ‘common’ and ‘giant’ type. The common type lasts longest, whereas giant sainfoin is productive over a much shorter time span, but is more popular with the equine industry in the eastern counties of the United Kingdom. Sainfoin prefers calcareous soils with a pH of over 6. Several reports suggest that it is more drought tolerant than lucerne, and better suited to shallow brashy soils. Sainfoin has many positive characteristics as a forage. In ruminants, these are the result of its high content of condensed tannins. These bond to the protein in the rumen and allow it to pass into the abomasum where it is digested. Daily live weight gains for cattle and lambs are high on grazed


sainfoin. Agronomically, its positive characteristics include a deep taproot that allows the plant to be resistant to drought and of course, being a legume there is a high level of residual fertility after a sainfoin ley has been ploughed in. However, sainfoin does not persist well. This coupled with its rather low dry matter yields, the decline in the use of horses for farm work and the availability of cheap nitrogenous fertilisers, brought about a decline in the growing of this crop. Increasing interest in horse ownership for recreational purposes, however, could renew interest in the United Kingdom. Sainfoin is less efficient than lucerne and red clover at fixing gaseous nitrogen, and this may be one of the reasons for low persistence of sainfoin in many forage stands. Research has also shown that sainfoin invests less assimilates from photosynthesis in leaf production than lucerne. Frame and colleagues (1998) suggest that this constraint on energy availability might be one of the causes of the poorer nitrogen fixation in sainfoin. With a move away from mineral nitrogen to what are considered (by some) to be more benign sources (forage legumes), sainfoin has an opportunity to make a comeback in suitable cropping systems. Several experiments have been performed to determine the suitability of sowing multiple legume mixtures that include sainfoin. These include mixtures with white clover, bird’s-foot trefoil and lucerne. The bird’s-foot trefoil mixture worked well when used in a conserved forage system. Sainfoin and lucerne have been sown together in the hope that the sainfoin could help reduce the risk of bloat from feeding cattle fresh lucerne. Experiments in Canada have shown it is possible to reduce the risk of bloat by feeding the two crops in a mixture (McMahon et al., 1999). Possible concerns with this mixture are that the sainfoin might not persist under the higher levels of competition from lucerne. Yields of sainfoin have been found to be as high as 14 t DM/ha/year (Lane and Koivisto, 2000). This yield coupled with protein values ranging between 179 and 134 g/kg for full bloom forage, means that sainfoin can provide a good protein source in the right farming system. Meissner et al. (1993) also found that sainfoin delivers 50 percent more non-ammonium nitrogen to the small intestine than lucerne. White clover (Trifolium repens) grows over a very wide range of agricultural lands including temperate and subtropical regions (Pederson, 1995). It accounts for 15 M ha of pastureland in Australia and 5 M ha in the United States. Its value to production systems in western Europe has been reappraised over the last 15 years, prompted by a desire to seek systems of production that are lower


costing and more environmentally sustainable (Frame et al., 1998). White clover is generally grown in association with perennial ryegrass, but can also be grown with other forage grasses. The yield potential of ryegrass/white clover mixtures has been estimated to be 18.5 to 22.5 t DM/ha/year in the United Kingdom and 22 to 28 t DM/ha/year in New Zealand (Frame et al., 1998). Yields more frequently tend to range between 7 and 15 t DM/ha/year in these countries. While it is generally grown as a pasture crop it is possible to make silage from some cultivars of white clover. Recent work by Wilkins et al. (2001) has produced silage with 250 g/kg of crude protein. This higher protein value for white clover tends, as a result of its growth habit with the main stem low to the ground, to be found in the leaf (Pederson, 1995) which has a higher proportion of protein than the stems. Cattle being fed this silage ad libitum were producing 2 kg/d more milk than those fed lucerne, red clover, or white clover mixed with ryegrass (Wilkins et al., 2001). To protect the stolons of white clover, it is best if it grazed to no less than 5 cm above the soil surface and then given approximately 4 weeks to recover before re-grazing (Pederson, 1995). There should also be no more than 20 to 40 percent white clover in the pasture to prevent bloat. Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) native to Japan, Korea, and China, is a vining legume that can be used for pastures and hay production in warmer climates. It does not reportedly tolerate close grazing and, therefore, like most species will work best in rotational grazing systems. The vines can grow up to 20 m in a season (Miller and Hoveland, 1995). Kudzu hay usually has a crude protein content of 150 to 180 g/kg (Everest et al., 1999). Kudzu unfortunately only yields between 4.5 and 9 t DM/ha/ year, greatly limiting its potential as a forage crop in intensive livestock production systems. Sericea Lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) is a warm seasoned perennial forage legume that is native to China, Korea and Japan (Hoveland and Evers, 1995). With the advent of new cultivars of sericea it might find a place in beef production systems. Older cultivars of the species tend to have a tannin level making them unpalatable to livestock, thereby reducing intakes and growth rates. Grazing trials have shown that low tannin sericea is inferior to lucerne, but superior to high tannin sericea. The tannin content decreases as the forage is dried for hay, making it more palatable to cattle in this form. The reported crude protein content is between 110 and 160 g/kg. If not grazed intensively, sericea can also quickly become dominant in a sward, crowding out many


grasses. Sericea’s place in production systems is as a forage legume where other species are not a viable option. Tropical legumes - herbaceous and tree species There is a wide range of tropical legumes available to agriculturists as potential feed sources. Specific reference will be made to some example species (Quesenberry and Wofford, 2001), including Aeschynomene, Arachis, Centrosema, Desmodium, Leucaena, Macroptilium and Stylosanthes. Early work on tropical forage legumes tended to revolve around plot evaluations, where too much emphasis was probably given to the yield potential and less consideration given to the importance of stand persistence under grazing, and competition from aggressive tropical grasses (Kretschmer and Pitman, 2001). Nevertheless, the high yield potential of these species encouraged researchers to continue breeding programmes. A considerable amount of the current tropical forage legume breeding and agronomy progress has been stimulated by the value that some of these species have in sub-tropical regions, of either Australia or the United States. Aeschynomene is native to the tropical regions of the Americas and generally grows in an erect habit to a height of between 1 and 2 m. Most of the species are annual and are self-regenerating. None are known to be toxic to cattle. A. americana has a relatively high yield of protein at 150 to 250 g/kg in the leaves (Kretschmer and Pitman, 2001). Rhizoma peanut (Arachis glabrata) has a yield potential of up to 10 t DM/ha/ year when established and of 140 to 180 g/kg crude protein forage. The crop is established by planting dormant rhizomes and this is the key limiting factor to its expanded use despite there being no reported disease or nematode pest in the literature (Quesenberry and Wofford, 2001). Once established the rhizoma peanut has been known to persist in excess of 40 years, making it a very good choice for tropical production systems. The genus Centrosema has 32 named species, most of which are twining perennials with trifoliate leaves, with or without stolons (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995). Of these - C. acutifolium is limited geographically to southern Columbia, Venezuela and north-western Brazil, in areas that get in excess of 1000 mm/year of rain. It can withstand acid soils (pH as low as 4.3) with high aluminium and manganese. C. acutifolium is used as forage in grazed pastures or in cut-and-carry systems. Optimal cutting intervals depend on soil moisture and fertility, and a 10-14 week cutting interval and a 10-15 cm cutting height


are suggested (‘t Mannetje, 2001). It is an effective under-storey for timber trees and in coconut plantations with about 60 percent light transmission. A cultivar 'Vichada' has been released in Colombia (‘t Mannetje, 2001). ‘t Mannetje (2001) goes on to say that on high fertility soils C. acutifolium will yield as high as 5 t DM/ha every 12 weeks; but this falls to 3 t DM/ha on poor wetter soils. C. acutifolium was more productive and persistent than the other Centrosema spp., regardless of companion grass, and this was associated with higher live weight gains particularly during the dry season (Lascano et al., 1989). In association with gamba grass, a live weight gain (LWG) of 180 kg/steer/year has been measured, as compared with 110 kg/steer/year from gamba grass alone. Milk yield in association with gamba grass was increased by 15 percent (1.2 kg/day) compared to grass alone (Lascano and Avila, 1991). For cut-and-carry systems, however, it is inferior to C. macrocarpum because of lower DM production (‘t Mannetje, 2001). The crude protein is similar to C. puescens at 624 g/kg. C. macrocarpum is a more disease tolerant and diversely spread member of the genera (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995). C. macrocarpum is used as forage, as ground cover in plantation agriculture and as a green manure. Similar to C. acutifolium it can either be grazed or cut. It also has the same nitrogen concentration in its leaves as C. acutifolium. C. pubescens is a highly palatable forage legume that is the most commercially widespread member of this genera, and is used in both grazing systems and as a cover crop in plantation crops. Like the other two Centrosema spp., it can have 624 g/kg of nitrogen in the leaves (FAO, 2001d). It performs well in mixed swards with grasses, but cannot tolerate low pH and high soil aluminium or manganese (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995). A yield potential of up 15 t DM/ha/year was reported in Columbia. There are about 300 Desmodium species, with several key species being used successfully as forage crops. D. heterocarpon is native to south east Asia, Australia and the Pacific islands. It is a long-lived perennial, with a creeping stem. It is a highly persistent legume and grows well as a companion with tropical grasses such as Bahia (Paspalum notatum). Although it is lower in quality than some other tropical legumes, its persistence makes it a better choice. The crop performs best with a soil pH of between 5.0 and 6.0. Macroptilium atropurpureum is a deep-rooting perennial with trailing pubescent stems which may root anywhere along their length, especially in moist clays but rarely in drier sandy soils. It contains 168 g/kg crude protein


and should be lightly grazed at all times. Livestock will eat the runners back towards the crown, which should be protected from overgrazing. The concept that ‘leaf begets leaf’ is valid for M. atropurpureum, and grazing to 15 cm maintains the stand. In thinning stands, M. atropurpureum should be allowed to seed and for seed to shatter, so that new seedlings can improve the population density. In this way it will also climb over dominant grass and weeds, and suppress them. Stobbs (1969) found that a rotational grazing system of two weeks grazing-four weeks rest maintained the best botanical composition, and could equal the weight gain obtained for continuously grazed animals. Stylosanthes spp. have been used very successfully for forage production throughout tropical and sub-tropical regions. They grow as either herbaceous or small shrub perennials that do not tolerate water logging. S. guanensis is used either for grazing or as a cover crop for plantation crops (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995). Greatest yield potential for S. guanensis is in a rotational system, where it is grazed for one week and then given four weeks rest. It has a whole plant crude protein concentration of up to 181 g/kg. All of the Stylosanthes spp. tend to suffer badly from disease pressures, which limits their potential in a broader commercial context. Breeding work is needed, in particular, to improve disease resistance (Quesenberry and Wofford, 2001) and to improve tolerance to water logging. Leucaena leucocephala is a native of Central America, growing as a shrubby tree to about 8 m in height, and yielding 116 g/kg CP. It is frequently grown in rows about 1.5 m wide with grass in between (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995). Because of the crop’s ability to grow in a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, it is one of the most widely commercialized tropical legumes. It tends to develop slowly and is generally given a year to establish before grazing. Leucaena contains a toxic amino acid (mimosine) that means it should not be used in non-ruminant diets, but is suitable for tropical ruminants that have a rumen microflora capable of detoxification. This microbe has been isolated and transferred to ruminants in Australia (Kretschmer and Pitman, 1995), expanding the benefits of Leucaena to more farming systems. The leaf yield of Leucaena has been recorded as high as 26.8 t DM/ha in Fiji (Blair et al., 1990). Blair and colleagues (1990) consider tree legumes to have the greatest potential to improve the supply and quality of protein in the human diet of the developing world, by providing a major source of fodder for livestock. There are recommendations that tree legumes should be used at inclusion rates of 30-


50 percent in ruminant rations (Devendra, 1992), but because of anti-nutritive factors they should perhaps be used to a lesser extent in monogastric diets (D’Mello, 1992). Some of these species have condensed tannins (procyanidins and proanthocyanidins) that at lower concentrations can improve protein-use efficiency in ruminants. However, Calliandra calothyrsus contains 110 g/kg of condensed tannins, and at this concentration it can greatly reduce protein digestibility. Up to 36 percent inclusion in forage could be considered (Ahn et al., 1989). Humphreys (1994) considers that many farmers in the tropics prefer to use tree legumes for cutting and carting to livestock or for direct grazing, rather than incorporating into the soil as a green manure to boost grain yields. Their preference is based on a belief that there are higher economic returns from the animals, than from the grain grown with green manures. Humphreys (1994) suggests that a more effective activity would be to supplement the legume fodder with either maize or maize husks, and then use the animal manure to further support grain crop production. Quality Protein Maize In 1963 scientists in the United States discovered the gene called opaque-2, which improves the nutritional quality of maize by increasing its lysine and tryptophan content. Initially farmers showed little interest in opaque-2 maize because of its low yields, chalky-looking grain, and susceptibility to pests and diseases. But in 1970, with funding from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the arduous task of breeding maize to overcome these drawbacks was initiated. During the 1970s and 1980s UNDP provided US$17 million in funding to the International Maize and Wheat Research Center (CIMMYT) in Mexico for this research. CIMMYT breeders continued to build on these efforts in the 1990s with support from the Nippon Foundation. CIMMYT has worked closely with research services in developing nations to breed varieties of quality protein maize (QPM) that are well adapted to local environmental conditions. Derivatives are now grown on approximately 1 M ha in 22 developing nations, and there are estimates that this will expand to 3.5 M ha by 2003. QPM has come a long way since 1963. It now looks, tastes and yields like normal maize, but has nearly twice the levels of lysine and tryptophan - essential dietary amino acids - in its grain, as normal maize (Córdova, 2001). In normal maize the prolamine-type amino acids (which are not digestible)


predominate. In QPM, the protein comprises 40 percent highly digestible glutelins and a balanced leucine-isoleucine ratio that boosts the production of niacin when eaten. QPM has better food and feed efficiency ratings (e.g. food intake/g weight gain) than normal maize (Córdova, 2001). QPM can have as much as 135 g/kg of crude protein and 35 g/kg more protein than normal cultivars of maize (Córdova, 2001). A synopsis of alternative plant protein sources is given at Appendix A LIMITATIONS ON PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN CROPS Tropical Americas With an ever-expanding agricultural frontier in tropical America, livestock are being displaced toward areas with low-fertility soils (mainly oxisols and ultisols). Meat and milk production in these areas is limited by the poor quality of available grasses and legumes. Lascano (2001) says that adoption of legumes for livestock production in tropical America has been poor, and many are not aware of the benefit these species can provide. He argues that the best way for this to be improved is through increased emphasis of ‘on-farm’ participatory evaluations of grass-legume pastures, and the demonstration of commercial benefits. National research programmes have recently, with collaboration from the Tropical Forages Project at CIAT, released new forage cultivars and appropriate technologies for their establishment and successful management. The tropical Americas are the source of origin for many of the tropical legume species, but work has been restricted to relatively few . This restriction of potential plant diversity work has limited the utilization of these species in livestock production areas in tropical America (Lascano, 2001). It has led to farmers not seeing these prospects as being a potentially valuable part of their production systems. In Columbia this has recently been redressed by the introduction of a new high quality cultivar of perennial forage peanut, A. pintoi, (cv. Mani Forrajero). This cultivar is able to compete well with aggressive grasses (Gorf, 1985) and heavy grazing (Lascano, 1994). As in temperate pastures, tropical legumes offer higher nutritive value compared with grasses, and can also provide a residual nitrogen source for the companion grass (Lascano, 2001). The nitrogen economy within pastures is highly dependent upon the legume content of the pasture. This premise is of equal importance in both tropical and temperate agriculture. CIAT (1989) illustrated a dependence of LWG on the legume content of a pasture, with cattle gaining 0.7 kg/hd/d;this was confirmed by Lascano (1994) who was also able


to double the weight gain of cattle grazing pastures that were mixtures of legumes and grasses rather than grass pastures alone. Substituting feed concentrates for forages and nitrogen fertilization of grassland has driven much of the research into improving tropical milk production. Both methods have been effective in increasing milk production per unit area and per cow (Lascano, 2001), but they are more expensive than using legume grass mixtures. Little work has been done to determine the potential of using legume/grass swards for increased milk production per unit area. Work in Australia suggests that greater yields are available from using nitrogen fertilizer on grass swards, because it is possible to have higher stocking rates. However, the production per animal grazing mixed legume-grass swards was almost twice that of the nitrogen fertilized sward (Lascano, 2001). Over a period of four years, root-feeding beetles reduced the legume proportion within a pasture initially containing 60 percent legumes. This deterioration resulted in a decline in LWG to 0.25 kg/hd/d, not only because of a lack of legumes for forage but also because of a reduction in the nitrogen concentration of the grasses in the sward (CIAT, 1989). Legumes can supply not only a good source of protein for livestock in tropical systems, but can also provide a cheap source of nitrogen to support grass production. These crops can also improve soil organic matter through decaying nodules and leaf litter. This will help to support longer term farming on these lands, meaning that less new land (often valuable tropical forest) needs to be brought into production (CIAT, 1989). Many of the legume species also have a deep taproot enabling them to better deal with drought conditions than grasses in the dry season. Even with all these advantages, legumes still do not yet play a major part in tropical American agriculture. More work has be done to encourage farmers to use these species, and to incorporate them into their production systems. Lascano (2001) suggests this can be achieved through on-farm pasture evaluation and demonstration programmes, so that the farmer can see first-hand the benefits of using these species. He goes on to suggest that there should also be more training for pasture establishment and grazing management, and the development of a reliable seed supply system. United Kingdom and European Union General European Union concern over the environmental implications of grassland agriculture has led to a policy that seeks to decrease stocking rates for


livestock, and to reduce the amount of mineral nitrogen that is used on grassland. These policies along with increases in the genetic merit of livestock, specifically dairy cattle, have been encouraging a shift towards the use of forage legumes as high quality feed, and to reduce the need for mineral nitrogen (Frame et al., 1998). The United Kingdoms’ agricultural economy is dominated by grassland agriculture and is therefore a good example to represent the northerly part of the European Union. In the United Kingdom, the protein source has come into clearer focus as a result of restrictions on using animal proteins, efforts to reduce the costs of ruminant production and public concern arising from potential nitrogen pollution (Wilkins and Jones, 2000). The British response to BSE, specifically the resultant ban on animal proteins is well documented. This, together with the fact that only 5–20 percent of nitrogen consumed by ruminants was being recovered in meat or milk (Wilkins and Jones, 2000), has provided an impetus to search for alternative sources of protein for livestock production. Wilkins and Jones (2000) contend that it would certainly be possible to increase, relatively cheaply, the protein supply from plant-based proteins because some of these sources are very inefficient in providing nitrogen conversion for animals. Doubling the nitrogen fertilization rates from 120 to 300 kg/ha on grassland could produce twice as much grass-based crude protein (Morrison et al., 1980). Because of the inadequacy of the protein supplied, however, the animals would not be able to ingest enough of this grass to obtain the nutrients they need for required production. Grass proteins are highly rumen soluble, and because of low energy supply, the microbial protein synthesis is limited. It will be necessary, therefore, to look for better ways of balancing protein and energy fractions in the rumen, and to increase the proportion of rumen undegradable protein (UDP) in the diet. Including temperate legume forages in ruminant rations can help to provide these changes. All have high feed intake values and result in higher milk production levels (Dewhurst et al., 2000). There are, however, clear differences between several of these species in protein composition. Winters and colleagues (1999) found that white clover and lucerne protein are highly soluble and can have a higher proportional breakdown into free amino acids when ensiled. Red clover is more resistant to proteolysis, meaning that microbial nitrogen synthesis is more efficient (at 34 percent [Davies et al., 1999]) than for lucerne. The resistance of red clover to proteolysis is attributed to an elevated concentration of polyphenol oxidase


(Albrecht and Muck, 1991) also suggesting that tannins in sainfoin and bird’s-foot trefoil offer similar protein protection during ensiling and in the rumen. This rumen protection has helped to make these forages an excellent source of UDP. Several authors (Waghorn and Shelton, 1997; Thomson et al., 1971) have shown the benefits of sainfoin and bird’s-foot trefoil to protein utilization. Consequently this has resulted in higher growth rates from these species relative to other legumes (Hart and Sahlu, 1993; Karnezos et al., 1994; Marten et al., 1987; Ulyatt, 1981). However, these species can be unreliable agronomically, tending to be slow to establish and having poor stand persistence. The nutritional attractiveness of the tanniferous forages should encourage further research into improving their agronomic properties. There is also room to considerably expand the role of concentrated forms of protein in British agriculture, and the most likely sources for this are beans, peas and lupins. Canola (rapeseed) meal is already well established as a feed for pigs and other livestock in the United Kingdom. Peas and beans are well known to many farmers, but they are not thought by some to be a good enough concentrate alongside grass-based rations due to the high level of grass protein loss with rumen degradation. They might work better, however, in maize-based systems (Wilkins and Jones, 2001). Lupins have almost the same proportion of their protein as UDP as soybeans. There is currently, unfortunately, very little work to compare lupins with soybeans and fishmeal in dairy rations, but interim results suggest that lupins could be a suitable replacement for some of these other sources (Mansbridge and Blake, 1998). There is also much more work needed on the agronomy in Britain before it can become a major crop. Economic performance In practice, the unit cost of protein is clearly important for the competitiveness and commercial viability of a livestock enterprise. For driving down production costs it is important to know the cheapest and most effective protein source. Farmers, however, do not normally think about the unit cost of producing home-grown protein when planning cropping programmes and their farm businesses. They are usually more concerned about their whole farming system planning; farm resources; how well a crop fits into the rotation and in particular for arable legume crops, what the financial output reflected in the crop gross margin might be. In the same way, and from a similar broad farm business


perspective, a livestock farmer may judge a home-grown crop mostly on the basis of the contribution it will/can make to the overall animal feeding programme. Protein cropping on a farm is not usually viewed from the perspective of only protein production per hectare. The strengths and weaknesses, therefore, of home-grown protein crop production and farm use are rarely compared directly or on the same basis as purchased external animal feeds. From an economic standpoint, most arable farmers will be heavily influenced not only by the output level of a legume seed crop, but also the consistency of the gross margin and its expected contribution to arable performance. In the United Kingdom, the recent greater popularity of oilseed rape in comparison with peas and beans is attributed to its more attractive gross margin, greater support and consistent yield performance – apparent in Table 2 (ENTEC, 1998). TABLE 2 Gross margins and variable costs of crude protein production costs of example United Kingdom arable crops

Crop Gross margin

with subsidy (£/ ha)-1

Gross margin without subsidy (£/ ha)-1

Crude protein produced

(kg protein/ ha)-1

Variable costs of crude protein

(pence/kg protein)-1

Winter Beans 691 335 964 18

Winter Peas 663 308 1017 25

Lupin 571 216 998 16

Winter Oilseed

Rape

819 366 687 38

Spring Linseed 552 72 370 52

Winter Wheat 715 470 832 35 Source: ENTEC, 1998. UK £ = US$1.53 Studies in the United Kingdom show, in general, that the cheapest protein (as crude protein) is obtained from forage protein crops (ENTEC, 1998). Some of


the less common forage crops having the lowest growing costs. White clover, which is more commonly grown in mixed grass swards, has a unit cost of production comparable to perennial ryegrass when grazed or cut. The cost of producing protein in the United Kingdom (which is favourable to grass growth) from perennial ryegrass or white clover in a mixed grass sward, is about 75 percent of the cost of beans, which are the cheapest arable protein crop (ENTEC, 1998). TABLE 3 Crude protein production and variable costs of crude protein production of example United Kingdom forage crops

Crop

Crude protein production

kg protein/ ha-1

Variable costs of crude protein pence/ kg protein-1

Perennial Ryegrass 1 344 14

White Clover/grass 1 216 13

Lucerne 2 320 7

Red Clover 2 155 8

Forage Peas 711 17

Maize Silage 968 24

Of the United Kingdom arable protein crops, peas are the cheapest source of crude protein after beans. The crops that could make a very big difference to providing protein at least cost, lupins and soybeans, are at present rarely grown commercially. WAYS FORWARD In seeking new protein sources it would be helpful to know why certain potential protein crops, which are not widely grown currently, are not more attractive. To understand in greater detail, for example, why crop uptake has not been greater by farmers. This currently applies not only to more minor (less significant) sources but to such specific crops as peas (e.g. in the United Kingdom) or Leucaena trees (e.g. in Malaysia). The reasons could be mainly technical but learning about farmer perception and the overall suitability of ‘new’ prospects for particular farming systems would also be of interest. Such a study could extend to feed manufacturers, to gain a better understanding of


their needs and their willingness to give greater consideration to currently less popular protein sources for feed incorporation. An appropriate strategy might then be devised, focussing on increasing the production and use of these ‘new’ sources. • Greater efforts are certainly called for in further examining and

exploiting appropriate legumes for home production in marginal growing environments.

• The above approaches to determine the reasons why alternative protein crops are not being grown, highlights the need for better linkages and communications between farmer producers; merchants and feed compounders. Also included should be a better dialogue with research and extension personnel.

• To what extent this approach should reflect supply chain studies, from ‘plough to plate’, from producer to the end consumer could also be usefully considered for livestock products.

• Can small farmers in developing countries be better vertically integrated, through some agreed structure, with livestock processors, retailers and input suppliers?

• In many countries early adoption of a quality assurance scheme (perhaps based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point [HACCP]) for livestock food supply chains would be highly beneficial, to try to forestall potential food safety problems. At the same time it should provide a better basis for consumer confidence, and improved market access for international recognition and trade.

• In many countries, in recent years, there has been a reduction in appropriate advisory services to farmers. In some cases private advisors (often connected to product sales) have replaced the longer established, independent, public extension authorities – often due to financial constraints in the public sector.

• For better protein production and supply, however, the adequacy of good husbandry and market information to farmers has to be re-examined. The type of advice required as well as its adequacy should be reviewed. What role, for example, could the private sector (fertilizer and feed manufacturer) play in considering the wider farming systems and farming business needs – towards more sustainable outcomes?

• In this respect, commercially focussed demonstration farms have a particularly important role to play. Providing not only ‘blueprints’ for


better production, as previously, but also providing economic and environmental information (in a commercial context) for farmers concerned with protein cropping and feed utilization. The concept of ‘Walking the Food Chain’, recently proposed in the United Kingdom (Curry, 2002) would be very supportive, and should involve all key players in livestock supply chains so that they can better understand the inter-relationships of component parts.

• Renewed efforts could be usefully made to emphasise the value of ‘protein quality’ approaches in supply. Crude protein still seems to dominate many production considerations.

As part of this perspective, more information will be required on the influences of variety, crop husbandry and season on the protein quality of particular crop species. In this respect new feed strategies for particular purposes, utilizing alternative protein sources in particular, should exploit nutrition models to a greater extent. These should also include, where appropriate, an economic modelling dimension. From a medium term research and development perspective, more work is required, particularly and as always, on improving crop performance. More basic agronomy is also needed to include better exploitation of nitrogen fixation and the inoculation of suitable legumes. Breeding and or genetic manipulation for better plant protein quality has to be a continuing goal with emphasis on the medium to longer term. Although this may be difficult technically with certain crops, it should be given greater emphasis. Particular efforts may need to be supported in terms of research strategies to provide a better basis for farming systems to adjust to climate change. Small farmers in some developing countries could be seriously affected by such change. • A thorough examination of the agricultural policy background, and the

basis of new policy formulation in candidate countries (short of home-produced protein) and in major trading blocs would be instructive. To what extent, at national and international policy levels, is protein supply being prioritised for future livestock farming provisions?

• It could also be argued that a better ‘clearing house’ is required internationally, to gather and provide appropriate information on animal feeds. To include not only supply and demand information, but also such


details as nutritional values, incorporation rates and data about the practicalities of its use.

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Appendix: A Synopsis of alternative plant protein sources

Species Crude Protein (g/ kg-1 DM basis) Limitations

Aeschynomene spp., forage 150 – 250

Bird’s-foot trefoil, forage 198 – 210 Slow to establish

Brewers’ grain 170 – 320 Inconsistency of protein concentration between batches

Canola meal 430 – 450 Presence of glucosinolates, dealt with through the use of hexane and breeding

Cassava, forage 235 High tannin concentration could affect palatability

Centrosema acutifloium 624

Centrosema macrocarpum 624

Centrosema puescens 624 Less persistent than C. acutifloium

Cocoa residue 180 Contains theobromide - toxic to pigs, poultry, and horses, but can be fed to ruminants at 700mg/ kg-1 feed

Coconut meal 220 – 230 Low in methionine, and cysteine

Cotton meal 410 – 440 Gossypol and aflatoxins can make it toxic to livestock especially monogastric

Crambe meal 400 – 600 Limited supply

Field beans, grain 260 – 300 Heat treatment required to deactivate several anti-nutritional factors

Groundnut meal 450 – 550 Aflatoxins possibly present and low in lysine and methionine

Jojoba meal 250 – 350 Detoxification through oil extraction needed, also low in methionine

Kudzu, forage 150 – 180 Low yielding, and does not tolerate close grazing

Kura clover, forage 146 – 208 Can cause bloat

Leucaena leucocephala 116 Minmosine is toxic to non-ruminants, limiting this species to ruminants

Linseed meal 350 – 380 May contain glucoside or linamirin, destroyed by high temperature processing

Lucerne, forage 129 – 324 Can cause bloat if grazed

Lupin, forage 220

Lupin, grain 320 – 400 Poor digestibility by monogastric animals

Species Crude Protein (g/ kg-1 DM basis) Limitations


Macroptilium artopurpureum 168 Only tolerates light grazing pressure

Maize gluten meal 600 – 700 Lysine deficient

Niger meal 340 Low in lysine and threonine

Peas, forage 100 – 140

Peas, grain 250 – 260 Phyto haemagglutinis destroyed by heat treating

Quality protein maize, grain 135

Red clover, forage 140 – 280 Can cause bloat if grazed

Rhizoma peanut, forage 140 – 180 Establishment method, limits area sown to this crop

Safflower meal 200 – 240 Phytic acid makes the meal bitter and binds minerals

Sainfoin, forage 134 – 179 Difficult to maintain swards

Sericea lespedeza, forage 110 – 160 Very high condensed tannin content can interfere with protein digestion

Serradella, forage 200 – 270 Low yielding

Sesame meal 351 – 470 Low in lysine

Soybean meal 440 – 550 Trypsin inhibitor deactivated by heat processing

Soybean, forage 170

Soybean, roasted 370 – 440 Trypsin inhibitor deactivated by heat processing

Stylosanthes spp. 181 Badly suffers forom disease

Subterranean clover, forage 260 – 310

Sulla, forage 196 Poor persistence

Sunflower ensiled 140

Sunflower meal 360 – 400 Low in lysine


Innovative developments in the production and delivery of alternative

protein sources Douglas L. Hard

V.P. Regulatory Affairs and Public Acceptance Renessen L.L.C. Bannockburn, Illinois -USA

INTRODUCTION The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has called upon governments around the world to implement national action plans to control the spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease. Important to blocking this spread is disciplined management of animal movement and the responsible disposition of animal protein by-products, which includes strict adherence to established feeding guidelines. Furthermore, the FAO has recommended a global ban on the feeding of mammalian meat and bone meal (MBM) to cattle, sheep and goats (FAO, 2001). In the past, meat and bone meal has been a primary protein source in animal diets in many world areas. To reduce the risk of infection even further, the FAO is encouraging governments to extend the MBM ban to the feeding of all animals. Under the current model for BSE transmission, the spread of BSE could be blocked without the use of alternative protein sources if established feeding guidelines were strictly followed. However, livestock productivity would be severely compromised if quality protein levels in animal diets were not adequately maintained. Many countries already have animal production systems in place that rely solely on locally available protein sources. Other countries will be impacted to a greater extent as their livestock feed sectors search for ways to make up the anticipated protein shortfall. World population growth is another important reason to consider alternative protein sources for feed. Global population is expected to increase from 6 billion today to more than 7.5 billion by 2020. This burgeoning population may require a doubling of animal protein production and a corresponding doubling of feed grains (Persley, 2000). This is due in part to improved economic standards leading to increased demand for high-quality animal protein. A demand-driven livestock supply expansion will require dramatically improved livestock productivity on a

126 Innovative developments in the production and delivery of alternative protein sources

global scale. To date, increasing meat, milk and egg production from a unit of land has been largely the result of improving crop yields. However, of growing importance, are changes in the types and quality of nutrients in specific crops and the impact these changes may have on the efficiency of the animal’s conversion of consumed feed to meat, milk and eggs. This paper will consider four topic areas: • First, alternative protein sources to make up the anticipated shortfall

resulting from the MBM ban and longer-term population growth. • Second, the promise of traditional plant breeding and agricultural

biotechnology to address the protein shortfall by enhancing animal nutrition and/or health.

• Third, identity preservation of nutritionally enhanced crops for product delivery and value capture.

• Finally, a global strategy for the regulatory approval process of nutritionally enhanced biotech crops.

PROTEIN RAW MATERIALS FOR USE IN FEED Meat and bone meal: leading up to the ban MBM is a protein-rich powder derived from the rendering of animal tissues. In the past, adding animal by-products to feed served three purposes: 1. MBM was a cost-effective way to increase the levels of protein and/or minerals

in animal diets. 2. It complemented protein from grain ingredients to improve dietary protein

quality. 3. MBM provided a good use for rendered by-products, reducing waste and

disposal problems. Rendered by-products were previously considered safe, because the high temperatures used in processing were known to kill microbes. However, that thinking was re-examined after the first case of BSE was diagnosed in the United Kingdom in 1986. By December 1997, ruminant MBM in feed was identified as the most likely cause (European Union On-Line, 1998). Scientists are just beginning to fully understand what causes BSE in cattle, and its possible relationship to the new variant that causes Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease (vCJD) in humans. BSE and vCJD are both among the group of animal and human diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). TSEs are characterized by a sponge-like appearance of the brain and associated with deposits in the brain of unique proteins called prions. Prions, which have only recently been discovered, are unique proteins with a novel mode of replication and transmission. The prion is not a complete living organism, but a polypeptide that may bind to


DNA in the central nervous system. It does not replicate in the same way as DNA-containing organisms such as bacteria and viruses, and has been shown to be very resistant to many of the methods, such as high processing temperatures, that have traditionally been used to destroy pathogenic agents. It is widely believed that cattle contracted BSE from consuming feed containing animal by-products contaminated with prions. BSE may have originated from cattle feed containing MBM derived from sheep infected with scrapie (a TSE in sheep and goats, similar to BSE in cows). Strong agreement exists that the original outbreak of BSE in Europe was amplified by feeding MBM prepared from BSE-infected cattle to calves (United States Food and Drug Administration 2001a). The Office International des Epizooties (2002) reports that BSE has been confirmed in some 20 countries. More than 180 000 cases have been confirmed in the United Kingdom and about 1 800 cases have been found elsewhere in Europe, with Portugal, France, Switzerland, Germany and Spain, respectively, having the highest incident rates (Office International des Epizooties, 2002; United States Food and Drug Administration, 2001b). Consequently, the United Kingdom introduced a ban on feeding ruminant-derived MBM to cattle in July 1988. The ban was extended to all animal feed in September 1990. The European Union has prohibited the feeding of mammalian protein to ruminants since 1994 (European Union On-Line, 1998). The European Union ban was extended to feed rations for all other livestock in January 2001 (Brookes, 2001). Although temporary, the extended ban (or substantial parts of it) could become permanent. The current European Union-wide controls apply not only to meat and bone meal, but also to other sources of animal protein (e.g., blood meal, dried plasma, hoof meal, feather meal, etc.). Although beyond the scope of this paper, the ban also raises the issue of how animal protein, which was previously rendered into MBM, will be properly and cost effectively disposed. The first BSE case confirmed outside Europe was in September 2001, when a farm near Tokyo reported that one of its Holsteins tested positive for the disease. To date, three cases have been confirmed in Japan (World Organization for Animal Health, 2002). The Japanese government reacted by banning ruminant MBM use in cattle feed in September 2001 and extended the ban to all other livestock feed in October of that year. However, meat and bone meal made of pigs’ blood and chicken meat and feathers were exempt from Japan’s overall MBM ban. Soy meal: the preferred protein alternative Soy meal, a residual product of the oil extraction process from soybeans, is the most used and preferred protein source in animal feed worldwide. This is due to its


relatively high protein content of 44 to 50 percent, its consistent availability and constantly competitive price (Brookes, 2000, 2001). World production in protein-rich substances (primarily soybeans) increased by 60 percent between 1985 and 2000, with soybean supply currently concentrated in the United States, Brazil and Argentina (European Parliament, 2001). The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (James, 2001) reports that 72 million hectares of soybeans were planted globally in 2001, with 46 percent planted to biotech varieties. The abundant availability of competitively priced soybeans and soy meal on world markets today, should be able to replace the protein material formerly derived from MBM in the European Union (EU) and elsewhere, without undue difficulty and only at a modest addition to compound feed costs (Brookes, 2001). Soy meal dominates as a protein source in the EU feed sector, accounting for 53 percent of the total protein supplement used, with only 3 percent of the soy meal derived from EU supply sources (Brookes, 2001). The Commission of the European Communities (2001) has predicted that the EU livestock industry would react to the MBM ban by: • Reducing the use of protein-rich feed ingredients to a level that is consistent

with reasonable levels of technical efficiency and that would not have a significant negative impact on factors such as feed conversion rates.

• Increasing the use of cereals in animal feed and meeting any remaining deficit through the importation of soy meal. For Europe to produce substantially more vegetable protein material, EU farmers would require the necessary market and policy incentives. The current farm-level profit margins derived from soybeans are significantly lower than those of other oilseeds and cereals. Also, the EU is in the process of implementing the Agenda 2000 policy reforms, which further reinforce the existing financial advantages of growing cereal crops. As such, current market and policy incentives are inadequate to increase soybean production in the EU by any significant amount (Brookes, 2001).

One year after the extended EU ban on the use of MBM began; the EU has largely replaced the loss of MBM by using additional volumes of soy meal, the vast majority of which has been imported. Early estimates of trade statistics for the year 2001 suggest that the EU imported an additional 1 to 1.5 million tonnes of soybean meal relative to 2000 (G. Brookes, personal communication, 2002). Other sources of protein-rich ingredients also have contributed somewhat to meeting the MBM shortfall (e.g., other oilseeds like canola). However, other common EU protein sources have limits on their usage in the diet due to amino acid imbalances or anti-nutrients as compared to soy meal, which has nearly no limitation to its inclusion in


animal feeds. Soy meal has been the main replacement ingredient because of its inherent technical qualities and competitive price (in protein equivalent terms) relative to alternatives. Other protein-rich crop alternatives The European Parliament has investigated options for increasing the supply of alternative protein-rich crops, including oilseeds (e.g., peas, beans, sweet lupins). The Commission of the European Communities (2001) analyzed options for increasing production, including aid incentives to EU farmers and easing restrictions on set-aside land. The Commission concluded that production incentives would satisfy additional protein needs only to a very limited extent. For example, increased aid to stimulate an increase in the area cultivated with oilseeds and protein crops would be relatively costly, with only modest production increases predicted and being explained by (expected) favourable cereal price developments. This option, in particular, would lead to relatively high additional expenditures and opportunity costs compared to the current import price for soy meal. The next section will consider how traditional plant breeding and agricultural biotechnology have addressed, and will continue to address, the protein shortfall and the improvement of animal nutrition. IMPROVING ANIMAL PERFORMANCE AND HEALTH WITH NUTRITIONALLY ENHANCED CROPS An important objective of agricultural biotechnology is to improve plant quality to benefit the health, growth and/or nutrition of animals. By way of this technology, crops commonly used in animal feeds can be enhanced so they better match the nutritional needs of specific livestock and poultry. This should reduce feed costs, making meat protein more affordable in many parts of the world, and reduce dependency on MBM to add needed protein to animal diets. Nutritionally enhanced crops also should reduce the environmental impact of livestock production (e.g., by reducing phosphorus, nitrogen, methane, etc., concentrations in animal waste). This section will address the major crops used in livestock feed today, and examine how these crops could be improved to enhance animal nutrition. Global usage of crops in feed The FAO Statistical Database (FAO, 2002a) shows that the top commodities used in animal feed worldwide are maize, soybeans, wheat and barley, respectively. Cereals such as maize and wheat account for about half of all feed ingredients, primarily because they are good sources of energy. Maize tends to be the preferred feed grain because it is rich in highly digestible carbohydrates and relatively low in


fibre, which is particularly important for swine and poultry. Because of its relatively low protein levels (7 to 9 percent), maize generally requires supplementation with protein-rich feeds and amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) in diets for pigs and poultry. Young ruminants also may require protein supplementation with attention to dietary protein quality (FAO, 2002b). Oilmeals (such as soy meal) are the second most important group of feed ingredients as protein sources. As mentioned earlier, soy meal is one of the most valuable sources of vegetable protein. The amino acid composition in soy meal is nearly comparable to that of milk protein and complementary to the amino acid profile of maize. Although it is a good source of some vitamins, soy meal lacks vitamin B12, which must be supplemented, particularly in poultry diets (FAO, 2002b). The promise of nutritionally enhanced crops The first generation of biotech crops contain agronomic traits that create value by providing plants with the ability to increase production or reduce the need for other inputs such as pesticides. One example is Bt insect-protected maize, which already is improving feed quality and animal health by reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination associated with insect feeding damage. What is on the horizon? An article in Science (Mazur et al., 1999) reports that the composition of oils, proteins and carbohydrates in maize, soybeans and other crops is being modified to produce grains with enhanced value for both animal feeds and food for human consumption. Both traditional plant breeding and biotechnology techniques are being used to produce plants carrying the desired quality traits. The next commercial wave of nutritionally enhanced crops will focus on improved feeding value related to protein quality (better balance of essential amino acids), digestibility (fibre and starch) and metabolizable energy (oil). Nutritionally enhanced feedstuffs also can address anti-nutrients (e.g., phytate, protease inhibitors and tannins) that affect digestibility and feed value. Current biotech examples include rice with pro-vitamin A (Ye et al., 2000), high-lysine maize (O’Quinn et al., 2000), high-lysine canola and soybeans (Falco et al., 1995) and high-oleic acid soybeans (DuPont, 1996). These products often achieve their nutritional or health benefits through modifications to the plant’s metabolism. The following are examples of nutritionally enhanced crops improved through traditional plant breeding and/or biotechnology with direct benefits to animal production. As indicated below, some of these have been successfully commercialized.


1. Low-phytate soybeans and maize. Phosphate naturally present in traditional varieties of soybeans and maize exists primarily in the form of an insoluble salt called phytate. Low-phytate crops can improve efficiency of phosphorus utilization in monogastric animals (e.g., swine and poultry). Monogastric animals lack the phytase enzyme needed for digestion of phytate (also known as inositol hexaphosphate). Thus, most of the maize and soy phytate is excreted by animals. In some circumstances, this contributes to water pollution problems due to release of phosphate in the environment. Because phytate is a strong chelating agent that binds certain ions such as zinc and iron, vitamins and minerals in low-phytate crops are more available to the animal and, therefore, more likely to be absorbed than excreted. Low-phytate maize was commercialized in the United States in 1999 (Wehrspann, 1998). Low-phytate soybeans have already been developed, but researchers are still working to achieve an acceptable yield before commercialization (Raboy et al., 1985).

2. Crops with higher levels of the amino acids such as methionine and lysine. The potential impact of high-methionine soybeans is important because it could eliminate the need for methionine as a feed supplement, particularly in poultry diets. Similarly, the value of high-lysine maize would be as a substitute for synthetic lysine in swine and poultry diets. Methionine and lysine are both essential amino acids for growth, and cereal grains are generally a poor source. Crops also could be enhanced to compensate for other low concentration essential amino acids such as tryptophan or isoleucine.

3. Low-fibre feedstuffs. Monogastric animals do not produce the enzymes necessary to digest cellulose-based plant fibre. Plants low in fibre should yield more digestible and metabolizable energy and protein, and less manure and methane when fed to simple stomached species (North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, 2000). Improved fibre digestibility in ruminants will have similar beneficial effects because the efficiency of digestion of most high-fibre diets for ruminants is far from optimized.

4. High-oleic soybeans. High-oleic soybeans can contain more than 80 percent oleic acid in their oil, compared to 24 percent for traditional soybean oil (Payne, 1997). Because oleic acid has greater heat and oxidation resistance than other fatty acids in soybean oil, high-oleic soybean oil is naturally more resistant to degradation by heat and oxidation over time. It requires less or no hydrogenation, which would decrease trans-fatty acid production. In addition, this research has indicated that feeding high-oleic soy meal fullfat (i.e., containing the oil) to cows and chickens may result in a lowering of saturated fat levels in milk and poultry meat.


5. High-oil maize. High-oil maize has the potential to increase the flexibility of formulating feed rations due to its high energy density. Animals that consume high-oil maize will be provided with more vitamin E, as well as more energy. Vitamin E helps prevent cardiovascular disease, which is particularly relevant in chickens. Carcass fat of animals fed high-oil maize also has lower saturated fats and more unsaturated fatty acids (Lohrmann et al., 1998). The first high-oil maize product, developed using traditional breeding methods, was released in the United States in 1992 (Lin et al., 2000).

6. Low-stachyose (high-sucrose) soybeans. Stachyose, an oligosaccharide (carbohydrate), is non-digestible in humans and other monogastric animals (Suarez et al., 1999). Instead of being digested in the stomach, stachyose passes to the intestines where bacteria ferment it into gases. In low-stachyose soybeans, it is replaced with the easily digested sugar sucrose. Low-stachyose soybeans also are higher in energy content than traditional soybeans, making them doubly useful as an ingredient in young animal diets. Researchers found that the incorporation of low-stachyose soybean meal in prestarter pig diets tended to improve growth performance (Risley and Lohrmann, 1998).

7. Oligofructan-containing soybeans. These soybeans may be able to improve intestinal health by altering the composition of microflora in the digestive system (EBS forms business unit, 1999). Oligofructan components in soybeans can selectively increase the population of beneficial species of bacteria (e.g., bifidobacteria) in the intestines of certain animals, and competitively remove or ’crowd out’ harmful species of bacteria (e.g., E. coli 0157:H7, Salmonella SE, etc.). Thus, the soybeans may potentially displace some of the antibiotics historically used to combat diseases caused by bacteria. The oligofructan-containing soybeans also cause preferential growth of beneficial strains of bacteria that emit certain short-chain fatty acids. These are absorbed in the colon and result in a reduction in blood serum triglycerides (fat), which reduces the risk of heart disease.

8. Antibody-containing soybeans. These may improve meat quality and lessen the danger of E. coli outbreaks when meat is contaminated during slaughter and processing (Nill, 2001). Today’s periodic outbreaks of beef-borne bacterial disease occur because cattle became tolerant to E. coli 0157:H7 in the 1970s [it had previously killed the animals]. Humans occasionally are exposed to deadly bacteria when cattle digesta come into contact with meat (e.g., at slaughterhouses). It is now possible through biotechnology to cause specific antibodies to be produced in soybeans, so antibody-containing soybeans could potentially be fed to livestock for 72 hours prior to slaughter to reduce or even


eliminate outbreaks of food-borne diseases such as E. coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella spp.

IDENTITY PRESERVATION OF NUTRITIONALLY ENHANCED CROPS FOR PRODUCT DELIVERY AND VALUE CAPTURE Clearly, many new crops are in development that will create value by enhancing nutrient composition and/or improving animal health and performance. As a result, preservation of a nutritionally enhanced crop’s identity is important because the crop will be more nutritious or have different qualities compared to its traditional counterparts. It will be essential to keep the nutritionally enhanced crop separate to ensure its higher value is maintained from the farm to the end customer. The end customer may be a farmer feeding the nutritionally enhanced crop to his/her owns livestock, or a livestock feeder that has contracted for the crop to be produced in another region or country. A feed manufacturer may also wish to source an enhanced crop for its improved processing characteristics. Crops are processed to separate valuable components such as proteins and oils from less valuable components such as hulls. Nutritionally enhanced crops could be developed with higher levels of the more valuable components, or with improved nutritional quality of the lower value components. For example, the added value from high-oil maize comes from reduced expenditures for fat supplements in the feed ration, as well as improved digestibility and feed efficiency. A United States farmer seeking to grow high-oil maize can identify interested local elevators (grain stores) through the Internet. The company that markets high-oil maize to farmers also ensures that it is segregated throughout the entire supply chain based on a network of contracts. The contracts coordinate the crop’s movement from farm to elevator to barge to ocean freight to end customers in Mexico, Japan or Taiwan (Lin et al., 2000). Identity preservation (IDP) is more stringent than crop segregation, and requires that strict separation (often involving containerized shipping) of the seed and crop be maintained from field to point of sale (Lin et al., 2000). IDP programmes typically include the following components: Thorough record-keeping and data entry by growers and processors associated with each contract. This should include in-field data collection technology to record quality testing and agronomic management data. Complete and accurate databases that are easily accessible and user-friendly. Data should be immediately available, through the Internet, for example. Field-oriented, unbiased audits of all critical process points outlined in each production contract (Mock, 2000).


The payoff for maintaining the identity of a nutritionally enhanced crop comes in the form of price premiums to farmers and grain handlers, and improved animal health and reduced input costs for livestock producers. The next section provides a framework for the regulatory approval process for nutritionally enhanced biotech crops, as compared to the current process used for biotech crops with agronomic traits. GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR A REGULATORY APPROVAL PROCESS FOR NUTRITIONALLY ENHANCED BIOTECH CROPS The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) conducted a Workshop on the Nutritional Assessment of Novel Foods and Feeds in 2001. Specifically, the workshop examined the question of what would be the most appropriate process for the nutritional and safety assessment of nutritionally enhanced biotech products. The workshop recommended that a comparative safety assessment currently provides the best scientific process for assuring the safety and nutrition of foods and feeds from nutritionally enhanced biotech products. Table 1 compares the food and feed safety and nutritional studies appropriate for both agronomic and nutritionally enhanced biotech products. The safety assessments previously used for agronomic traits – such as insect-protected maize and herbicide-tolerant soybeans – remain a good model for nutritionally enhanced biotech traits. Many of the studies, such as protein safety, molecular and phenotypic or agronomic characterization, are largely appropriate without modification for nutritionally enhanced biotech products. Other studies may need refinements to accommodate differences between agronomic biotech products such as insect-protected maize (e.g., many of the non-target organism studies are irrelevant) and nutritionally enhanced biotech products (e.g., the possible need for additional compositional analyses and the possible utility of a nutritional feeding study with a fast-growing animal species). The elements of the nutritional and safety assessment should follow a logical progression starting with morphological, agronomic and physiological analyses of the plant, to assess whether unanticipated metabolic changes have altered the plant itself. Detailed compositional analyses of nutrients, anti-nutrients and relevant secondary metabolites should follow. The last stage would be to assess, on a case-by-case basis, whether in vitro tests, animal studies or human clinical studies are needed, depending upon the specific nutritional or health trait being developed and the claims being made.


TABLE 1 Food and feed safety and nutritional studies appropriate for agronomic and nutritionally enhanced biotech products

Assessment Agronomic Biotech Trait Nutritionally Enhanced Biotech Trait

Biochemical/Nutritional Changes

Analysis of proximate and key nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, minerals) Analysis of anti-nutrients Wholesomeness feeding trials in a fast- growing species – confirmatory

Analysis of proximate and key nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, minerals) Analysis of anti-nutrients Wholesomeness feeding trials in a fast-growing species – important supplemental data Identification and analysis of relevant intermediary metabolites

Genetic Changes Describe the modification process Conduct detailed molecular characterization Assess the genetic stability of the introduced trait

Phenotypic/Agronomic Changes

Plant morphology Yield Disease susceptibility Agronomic properties

Safety of the Introduced Protein

History of safe use of the donor organism Bioinformatic analysis of the allergenic and toxicological potential of the protein Digestibility of the protein Expression level of the protein in plant tissues Acute toxicology of the protein

Molecular characterization Regardless of whether a biotech product expresses an agronomic or nutritional trait, the studies needed to characterize inserted DNA resulting from the transformation process, would remain the same. The molecular characterization of any agronomic or nutritionally enhanced biotech product should involve assessing: insert number, copy number, integrity of the inserted transgenic DNA elements, and the presence or absence of vector backbone sequences. Protein safety assessment Regardless of whether the biotech crop is an agronomic or nutritionally enhanced product, in most cases the safety assessment of the introduced protein can use the same set of studies, such as for the Cry1Ab protein introduced into insect-protected maize (MON810). These studies assess the level of the novel protein in the feed grain and food; determine the rate of degradation in simulated gastric fluids; and


confirm lack of similarity to known allergens and toxins. In addition, these studies also establish the no adverse effect level (NOAEL) in acute animal oral toxicity experiments with the purified protein. Also critical to a safety assessment of a novel introduced protein is the history of safe use of the donor organism from which the gene for the novel protein was isolated. Composition/Nutrition assessment The modifications to plant metabolism needed to produce nutritionally enhanced biotech crops may result in qualitative and/or quantitative differences in composition when compared to conventional crop varieties. The widely used comparative safety assessment process involves identifying the similarities and differences (e.g., nutrients, anti-nutrients, primary and secondary metabolites) between a biotech crop and the traditional counterpart, then subjecting the significant identified differences to a rigorous safety evaluation. This comparative process can be used for the safety assessment of nutritionally enhanced biotech crops as well. In some cases, new analytical methods may be required to thoroughly identify and quantify significant compositional differences between nutritionally enhanced biotech crops and their traditional counterparts. To be successful in using the comparative safety assessment process with nutritionally enhanced biotech crops, the scientific methods must be rigorously validated. Modifications to plant metabolism needed to achieve the intended nutrition and health benefits of nutritionally enhanced biotech products may result in qualitative and/or quantitative differences that may be difficult to detect, even by the most sophisticated compositional profiling technologies. As a result, it was recommended that a feeding study with a single, fast-growing species, such as the broiler chicken, should be included in a nutrition assessment to detect unexpected effects not captured by chemical analyses or other laboratory measurement techniques. A fast-growing species was recommended because its growth rate is so highly optimized that relatively subtle changes in nutrients or anti-nutrients become readily apparent during growth performance trials. Summary As the world’s population continues to rapidly grow and governments work to extend the MBM ban to the feeding of all animals, the feed industry must look for alternative protein sources to feed the increasing number of humans, as well as to replace the protein material formerly derived from MBM and fed to animals. Under current conditions, soy meal seems to be the best alternative. The abundant availability of competitively priced soybeans and soy meal on world markets today


should be able to replace the protein material without undue difficulty (Brookes, 2001). Nutritionally enhanced crops – developed using both traditional plant breeding and biotechnology techniques – hold potential for improving animal performance, reducing feed costs, making meat protein more affordable in many parts of the world, and reducing dependency on MBM to add needed protein to animal diets. Such crops would benefit the health, growth, performance and/or nutrition of animals. It will be essential to preserve the identity of nutritionally enhanced crops from the farm to the end customer in order to capture the crops’ higher value. If the feed industry is to benefit from nutritionally enhanced biotech crops, a global strategy is needed for the approval process. As recommended by the OECD Workshop on the Nutritional Assessment of Novel Foods and Feeds in 2001, the safety assessments previously used for agronomic traits remain a good model for nutritionally enhanced biotech traits. Many of the studies are largely appropriate without modification for nutritionally enhanced biotech products, while other studies may need refinements to accommodate differences between agronomic and nutritionally enhanced biotech crops. REFERENCES Brookes, G. 2001. The EU animal feed sector: Protein ingredient use and the

implications of the ban on use of meat and bonemeal. Canterbury, UK, Brookes West.

Brookes, G. 2000. GM and non GM ingredient market dynamics and implications for the feed industry. In Proceedings of the 6th International Feed Production Conference, p. 308-314.

Commission of the European Communities. 2001. Options to promote the cultivation of plant proteins in the EU. Brussels, Belgium.

DuPont Agricultural Products. 1996. Safety assessment of high oleic acid transgenic soybeans. Notification dossier 62 FR 9155-9156, Docket No. 96-098-1.

EBS forms nutrition unit. 1999. Feedstuffs, 71(33),: 15. European Parliament, Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development. 2001.

Working report on options to promote the cultivation of plant proteins in the European Union.

European Union On-Line. 1998. Special Report No. 19/98 concerning the Community financing of certain measures taken as a result of the BSE crisis, accompanied by the replies of the Commission. (available at http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/lif/dat/1998/en_398Y1209_01.html).

Falco, S., Guida, T., Locke, M., Mauvais, J., Saunders, C., Ward T. & Weber, P. 1995. Transgenic canola and soybean seeds with increased lysine. Bio/Technology, 13: 577-582.


Flachowsky, G. & Aurlich, K. 2001. Role of nutritional assessment of GMO in feed safety assessment. Paper presented at the OECD Workshop on the Nutritional Assessment of Novel Foods and Feeds, Ottawa, Canada.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 2001. BSE – More than 30 countries have taken action on BSE, but more needs to be done. [Press release, June 21].

Food and Agriculture Organization. 2002a. Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database. (available at

http://apps.fao.org/page/collections?subset=agriculture). Food and Agriculture Organization. 2002b. Animal Feed Resources Information

System. (available at http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/afris/default.htm). Institute of Food Technologists. 2001. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy: A

backgrounder of the Institute of Food Technologists. February. International Food Information Council. 2001. BSE response plan. Washington,

D.C. September. James, C. 2001. Global review of commercialized transgenic crops: 2001. ISAAA Briefs No. 24: Preview. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-

biotech Applications: Ithaca, NY. Lin, W., Chambers, W. & Harwood, J. 2000. Biotechnology: US grain handlers look

ahead. Agricultural Outlook, April. Economic Research Service, USDA. Lohrmann, T. T., Hahn, J. D. & Araba, M. 1998. Effect of Optimum® high oil corn

as a replacement for typical corn and choice white grease in finishing pig diets. Journal of Animal Science, 76(Suppl. 2).

Mazur, B., Krebbers, E. & Tingey, S. 1999. Gene discovery and product development for grain quality traits. Science, 285: 372.

Mock, J. J. 2000. Tracing the integrity of agricultural products from field to food. ASA Technical Bulletins.

Nill, K. 2001. A codex standard mandating “GMO labeling” of food products containing genetically modified ingredients would decrease global food safety. American Soybean Association, March 9.

North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. 2000. Genetically modified organisms in animal production. Swine News, 23(5).

Office International des Epizooties. 2002. Number of reported cases of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) worldwide. (available at http//www.oie.int/eng/info/en_esbmonde.htm).

O’Quinn, P., Nelssen, J., Goodband, R., Knabe, D., Woodworth, J., Tokach, M. & Lohrmann, T. 2000. Nutritional value of a genetically improved high-lysine, high-oil corn for young pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 78: 2144-2149.

Payne, J. H. 1997. DuPont petition 97-008-01p for determination of nonregulated status for transgenic high oleic acid soybean sublines G94-1, G94-19, and G-168: Environmental assessment and finding of no significant impact. Riverdale,


MD, USA, Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology and Scientific Services.

Persley, G. J. 2000. Agricultural biotechnology and the poor: Promethean science. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.

Raboy, V., Hudson, S. J. & Dickson, D. B. 1985. Reduced phytic acid content does not have an adverse effect on germination of soybean seeds. Plant Physiology, 79: 323-325.

Risley, C. R. & Lohrmann, T. T. 1998. Growth performance and apparent digestibility of weanling pigs fed diets containing low stachyose soybean meal. Journal of Animal Science, 76(Suppl. 1).

Suarez, F. L., Springfield, J., Furne, J. K., Lohrmann, T. T., Kerr, P. S. & Levitt, M. D. 1999. Gas production in humans ingesting a soybean protein derived from beans naturally low in oligosaccharides. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69: 135-139.

United States Food and Drug Administration. 2001a. BSE: Background, current concerns, and United States response. March 1.

United States. Food and Drug Administration. 2001b. Food and Drug Administration action plan: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. April 24.

Wehrspann, J. 1998. New traits of seed buying. Farm Industry News, 31(10). Ye, X., Al-Babili, S., Klotl, A., Zhang, J., Lucca, P., Beyer, P. & Potrykus, I. 2000.

Engineering the provitamin A (β-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science, 287: 303-305.


Proteins from oilseeds

Nick Bajjalieh, Ph.D.

President, Integrative Nutrition, Inc., Decatur, IL USA INTRODUCTION The animal production industry provides for one of the most basic of human needs, quality food proteins. It does so through a synergistic relationship with other segments of agriculture. One such segment is that devoted to oilseed production and processing. Through this relationship, both segments complement, and to a certain extent enable, the economic sustainability of one another. Understanding this mutually beneficial relationship, in addition to applied nutritional considerations, is critical to any evaluation of the role oilseeds play in animal production. The animal feed industry productively utilizes the co-products associated with the refining of oilseeds into higher value food materials. In so doing, it contributes value to the value-chain segment, which produces the ‘by-product’. In some cases, the incremental economic value contributed through utilization of the by-product may be a deciding factor in the economic viability of the value chain segment. Through its use of such materials, the animal production industry benefits humankind in at least two additional ways. The most obvious being the relatively economical production of quality animal proteins and other products for human consumption. In addition, by serving as an outlet for such by-products, the animal production industry prevents their introduction into the environment in what might be less useful ways. Understanding where one is starting from is critical to any journey forward. Therefore, any rational evaluation of the future for oilseed proteins must be grounded in the present. The first portion of this presentation seeks to briefly review and summarize the present. The second portion addresses some issues relative to moving forward.

142 Protein from oilseeds

OILSEED PRODUCTION World production estimates for the major oilseed crops are presented in Table 1: TABLE 1 World oilseed production (USDA Estimates, April 2002)

Preliminary 2000/2001 Oilseed Million tonnes % of total Soybeans Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower seed Rapeseed Copra Palm Kernel

175.21 33.5 31.1

23.24 37.5 5.73 6.87

56.0 10.7 9.9 7.4

12.0 1.8 2.2

Total 313.15 In terms of gross production, soybeans are the dominant oilseed crop. More tonnes of soybeans are produced globally than all other major oilseeds combined. OILSEED USAGE The proteins in oilseeds can be fed either as part of the oil-intact seed, or as a meal from which the oil has been removed. A relatively small proportion of oilseed production is fed to animals as the whole seed. There are both economic and nutritional reasons why this is the case. Depending upon the specific oilseed involved, and the type of animal being fed, special considerations must be addressed when feeding whole oilseeds. One consideration is the presence of naturally occurring toxic compounds such as the gossypol pigment present in cottonseed. While whole cottonseed should not be fed to non-ruminant animals, it can be fed to ruminants when appropriate limits are employed. Rapeseed contains erucic acid as well as glucosinolates, which are goitrogenic compounds. Canadian plant breeders have developed rapeseed cultivars significantly lower in both of these compounds. Oilseed and products derived from such cultivars are referred to as Canola. Soybeans contain ‘anti-nutritional’ factors which must be denatured through some form of heat treatment prior to feeding to non-ruminant animals. A nutritional consideration is the caloric density of oilseeds. As is further discussed later, modern feed formulation seeks to optimize the levels and balance between energy, protein/amino acids, essential fatty acids, minerals and vitamins in the context of a given animal’s needs. Fats contain approximately 2.25 times the


energy of carbohydrate. Due to their high oil content, oilseeds tend to be relatively high in nutritional energy. This can be an advantage in feed formulations which require ingredients that provide higher levels of energy. However, energy also serves as a ‘cap’ on the usage of whole oilseeds. Another nutritional consideration is the fatty acid profile of the oil. The impact of feeding unsaturated fats on various non-ruminant animal carcass characteristics is a concern in many production situations. However, the major consideration in the feeding of whole oilseeds is economic. Historically, the value of the oil from oilseeds is greater when it is made available to the human food market than when it is retained in the whole seed and fed as a source of energy in animal feeds. As a result, the vast majority of oilseed is processed into oil and meal. OILSEED PROCESSING In its simplest form, oilseed processing is involved with the separation of oil from non-oil oilseed constituents. Different approaches to this objective exist, the detailed discussion of which is beyond the scope of this paper. However, a simplified schematic of the primary steps is presented in Figure 1. Historically, the major focus of oilseed processing has been the extraction of high quality oil. The meal and other co-products were typically regarded as ‘by-products’ and thus of lesser interest. Processing considerations do have a direct impact on the nutritional value of oilseed meals. Some positive, others negative. As an example, the primary anti-nutritional factors in soybean meal need to be deactivated by the proper use of heat. If too much heat is applied, the protein can be damaged to the extent that it becomes less digestible when fed to the animal. Over the course of time, market pressures have required an increasing focus on meal quality. This trend is expected to continue.

Figure 1. Oilseed processing – a simplified schematic summary

Oilseed Preparation Oil extraction

Meal

Crude oil Hulls


OILSEED MEAL CONSUMPTION A United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimate of meal usage for the major oilseeds is presented in Table 2. Of note is the expanded dominance of soybean’s meal relative to the meals from other oilseeds. With the exception of cottonseed, this is partially a reflection of the lower oil content of soybeans relative to the other major oilseeds. Other applications, such as the direct feeding of cottonseed to ruminant animals and human food applications for whole peanuts are also factors. TABLE 2 World oilseed meal consumption (USDA Estimates, April 2002)

Preliminary estimates, 2000/2002 Oilseed Million tonnes % of total Soybean

Cottonseed

Peanut

Sunflower seed

Rapeseed

Copra

Palm Kernel

118.51

11.25

5.45

9.6

21.08

2.07

3.39

69.2

6.6

3.2

5.6

12.3

1.2

2.0

Total 171.35

The economic relationship between oil and meal is a critical consideration relative to both meal availability and the emphasis placed on improving meal quality. The two primary products of oilseed processing are fed into two different markets: 1. Human foods for oil 2. Animal food for meal. At a given point in time, each has its own unique supply/demand dynamic. Yet, they are linked. Since oil and meal are linked in the context of the oilseed from which they are derived, production of one requires production of the other. As a result, a demand driven increase in the production of one component is associated with increased market availability of the other. Both oil and meal are relatively perishable. This, together with the capital value they represent, makes long-term storage of either undesirable. As a result, increased supplies are priced to achieve usage by the market. Where severe price-


cutting is required to ‘move’ either oil or meal, this decreases the net return associated with processing the oilseed. Since whole oilseed can be stored under proper conditions for longer periods, the alternative to a ‘low’ net-value market is to limit the processing of oilseed. (On the other hand, buy it at a lower price.) Such a balancing act is an ongoing aspect in the decision making process associated with this type of business. For oilseeds in which oil represents the major portion of value, ‘dumping’ meal into the market is less of a concern than for those in which the meal represents a major contributor of value. Such oilseed meals are more prone to fluctuations in availability and price. Also, investing in meal quality aspects is of a lower priority. All of these factors have a significant impact on their use as an animal feed. Table 3 attempts to lend perspective to this issue. It utilizes USDA estimates for the average value of meal and oil for the oilseed crops presented. Values for meal are the product of meal value per tonne and meal consumption values from Table 2. Values for oil are a product of the respective oil values per tonne and the amount of oil estimated to be associated with the amount of meal consumed. TABLE 3 Economic value estimates for meal and oil (2000/2001 crop year)

Average US Dollars per tonne*

US Dollars for 2000/2001 crop year

Meal Oil Total US$ value ($ Million) Oilseed $/t Basis** $/t Basis Meal Oil Meal +

Oil Meal/ Total

Soybean

Cottonseed

Peanut

Sunflower

seed

Rapeseed

Copra

Palm Kernel

Palm

(consumed)

191

158

134

100

141

92

NA

1

1

1

1

2

3

311

352

768

350

372

323

235

1

1

1

1

3

3

4

22 635

1 778

730

960

2 972

190

8 846

1 426

3 143

2 620

5 051

1 229

5 661

31 481

3 203

3 873

3 580

8 023

1 420

5 661

71.9

55.5

18.9

26.8

37.0

13.4

Total/Mean 29 266 27 975 57 241 51.1 * USDA: Oilseeds World Markets and Trade, April 2002 Average Prices Oct 2000 to Sept 2001 ** Location Basis for Pricing: 1 = US, 2 = Hamburg, 3 = Rotterdam, 4 = Malaysia


It is acknowledged that pricing is highly dependent upon location, specific market conditions at a given point in time and a host of other factors. Also, meal and oil volumes are estimates. Therefore, values are presented only to develop a general, ‘snap-shot’ perspective of the oil to meal by crop relationship. The gross product value (i.e. meal + oil) of the global soybean crop, relative to that for other oilseeds, is striking. Of the major oilseed meals, soybean meal has the highest average price per tonne. This, together with its high level of consumption results in soybean meal representing 77 percent of the total market value of oilseed meals in the context of the above estimates. The above testifies to the dominant economic position of soybean meal in the global market for oilseed protein meals. Its higher average market value per tonne reflects its greater inherent value to the animal production industry in general. For these reasons, soybean meal is the ‘standard’ to which other sources of protein and amino acids must be compared. NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Modern feed formulation seeks to address an animal’s nutritional need in the most efficient manner. A major challenge is the identification of the true nutritional needs of an animal in light of the fact that they are constantly subject to change. Age, genetic background, environment, health status, type and stage of animal production are all factors in determining an animal’s true nutritional needs. Each nutritionist, based upon their own unique set of experiences and in conjunction with the business goals of their own company, develops and constantly re-evaluates his/her vision of what these are. Once a given set of nutritional needs is defined, the next challenge is to match these needs using ingredients, which complement the nutritional deficiencies of one another. Cereal grains, typically serve as the basis upon which most production animal feeding programmes are based. Cereal grains are typically deficient in many of the nutrients required by an animal. Figure 2 illustrates the extent to which corn (maize) supplies the amino acid needs of a growing broiler chicken. The heavy horizontal line identifies 100 percent of the requirement. In addition to the above amino acids, corn is also deficient in other nutrients, including vitamins and minerals. Figure 3 illustrates the combined use of soybean meal, liquid fat, crystalline lysine, methionine and supplemental sources of vitamins and minerals to achieve a nutritionally balanced diet. (The vitamin and mineral supplements are not identified but represent the void between the top of the first column and 100 percent). The different coloured portions of each bar graph represent the relative contribution of the ingredient it represents.


Energy and Amino Acids in Corn as a Percentage of Dietary Requirement for Growing Broiler Chickens

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Energy,

ME

Amino Acid

s Arg His Ile Leu Lys Met

Met+Cys Phe

Phe+Tyr Thr

Trp Val

Nutrient

% o

f Req

uire

men

t

Figure 2. Energy and amino acids in corn as a percentage of dietary requirement for growing broiler chickens

Energy and Amino Acid Contributions as a Percentage of Dietary Requirement for Growing Broiler Chickens

0%20%

40%60%

80%100%

120%140%

160%180%

% of D

iet

Energy

, ME

Amino Acid

s Arg His Ile Leu

Lys

Met

Met+Cys Phe

Phe+Tyr Thr Trp Val

% o

f Die

t or

Requ

irem

ent

Animal FatDL-MethionineL-LysineSoybean MealCorn

Figure 3. Energy and amino acid contributions as a percentage of dietary requirements for growing broiler chickens It should be noted that to meet the minimum requirements for some amino acids, others are added in excess. Those essential amino acids at or near 100 percent of


requirement tend to be most limiting from a practical formulation perspective. In this example, they are Lysine, the sulphur bearing amino acids Methionine + Cystine and Threonine. In practical, corn based poultry feed formulations, these same amino acids tend also to be most limiting, but for swine, whose nutritional requirement for the sulphur amino acids is lower, these deficiencies tend to be less of a problem. Those amino acids, which tend to be most limiting are of primary interest when evaluating different sources of protein in the context of similar feeding situations. Table 4 presents and allows for the comparison of certain major nutrient levels between the different oilseeds. These values are from National Research Council publications (1994, 1998) for poultry and swine. It should be noted that as one compares values across different sources of such information, they often vary. Such differences are a function of both actual compositional variation inherent in the materials and analytical variation across laboratories. Proteins must be evaluated within the context in which they will be used. Specifically: • what are the nutrient targets for the final feed? • what type of grain serves as the base-mix ingredient? • what other sources of protein and amino acids will be utilized?

When soybean meal is evaluated and compared with canola and sunflower meals in the context of those amino acids which tend to be most limiting, it is, with the exception of its sulphur bearing amino acids, typically superior. In general, soybean meal also tends to be higher in energy than the other protein meals. This is of particular importance in feeding situations where higher nutrient densities are desirable. In Table 6 amino acids are expressed as a percentage of protein. This format allows for an evaluation of the ‘quality’ of each protein relative to the amino acids of practical interest.


TABLE 4 Selected ‘book’ values for solvent extracted oilseed meals* (as fed basis, solvent extracted, without hulls [where applicable]) Component(s) Unit Soybean

meal Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower

seed Canola Coconut

Dry matter

Crude fat

Non dietary fibre

%

%

%

90

3

8.9

90

1.5

28.4

92

1.2

16.2

93

2.9

27.8

90

3.5

21.2

92

3

51.3

Energy

Swine ME

Swine NE

Poultry ME**

kcal/kg

kcal/kg

kcal/kg

3 380

2 020

2 440

2 315

1 325

2 400

3 245

2 170

2 200

2 735

1 635

2 320

2 640

1 610

2 000

2 565

1 695

1 525

Crude protein 47.5 41.4 49.1 42.2 35.6 21.9

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Methionine + Cystine

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine +

Tyrosine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

3.48

1.28

2.16

3.66

3.02

0.67

1.41

2.39

4.21

1.85

0.65

2.27

4.55

1.17

1.3

2.47

1.72

0.67

1.37

2.2

3.42

1.36

0.48

1.78

5.09

1.06

1.78

2.83

1.66

0.52

1.21

2.35

4.15

1.27

0.48

1.98

2.93

0.92

1.44

2.31

1.2

0.82

1.48

1.66

2.69

1.33

0.44

1.74

2.21

0.96

1.43

2.58

2.08

0.74

1.65

1.43

2.56

1.59

0.45

1.82

2.38

0.39

0.75

1.36

0.58

0.35

0.64

0.84

1.42

0.67

0.19

1.07

* National Research Council, 1998 ** National Research Council, 1994 For ease of comparison across oilseed meals, the above values were used to calculate those in Table 5.


TABLE 5 ‘Book’ values as a percentage of respective soybean mean value (moisture equalized)

Component(s) Unit Soybean meal

Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower seed

Canola Coconut

Dry matter

Crude fat

Non dietary fibre

%

%

%

90

100

100

90

50

319

90

39

178

90

94

302

90

117

238

90

98

564

Energy

Swine ME

Swine NE

Poultry ME**

kcal/kg

kcal/kg

kcal/kg

100

100

100

68

66

98

94

105

88

78

78

92

78

80

82

74

82

61

Crude protein 100 87 101 86 75 45

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Methionine +

Cystine

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine +

Tyrosine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

131

91

60

67

57

100

97

92

81

74

74

78

143

81

81

76

54

76

84

96

96

67

72

85

81

70

65

61

38

118

102

67

62

70

66

74

64

75

66

70

69

110

117

60

61

86

69

80

67

30

34

36

19

51

44

34

33

35

29

46

** National Research Council, 1994 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN THE EVALUATION OF PROTEIN MEALS Amino acid availability. The above values are on the basis of total levels present. In reality, not all of the protein that is present can be digested and thus beneficially utilized by an animal. Protein availability varies with native protein characteristics as well as processing induced changes. As our understanding, information resources and ability to monitor and control continue to improve, the industry is moving to the use of bio-available as opposed to total amino acids.


Toxic and antinutritional factors. As mentioned, certain whole oilseeds contain toxic and/or antinutritional factors. The presence of these compounds in the meal must be evaluated and considered. TABLE 6 Amino acids expressed as a percentage of total crude protein

Component(s) Unit

Soybean meal

Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower seed

Canola Coconut

Crude protein % of meal 47.5 41.4 49.1 42.2 35.6 21.9

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Methionine +

Cystine

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine +

Tyrosine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

% of protein

7.3

2.7

4.5

7.7

6.4

1.4

3.0

5.0

8.9

3.9

1.4

4.8

11.0

2.8

3.1

6.0

4.2

1.6

3.3

5.3

8.3

3.3

1.2

4.3

10.4

2.2

3.6

5.8

3.4

1.1

2.5

4.8

8.5

2.6

1.0

4.0

6.9

2.2

3.4

5.5

2.8

1.9

3.5

3.9

6.4

3.2

1.0

4.1

6.2

2.7

4.0

7.2

5.8

2.1

4.6

4.0

7.2

4.5

1.3

5.1

10.9

1.8

3.4

6.2

2.6

1.6

2.9

3.8

6.5

3.1

0.9

4.9

Functional considerations. Physical characteristics can be an issue in certain applications, such as when the feed is to be pelleted. In this situation, nutritional considerations may be outweighed by inappropriate levels of fibre and fat, which limit its practical use in certain applications. Palatability of an ingredient or lack thereof, is also a factor. Wholesomeness. Meals should be free of mycotoxins and other harmful materials. In addition, the residual oil in a meal should not be rancid. Consistency. An important assumption in modern feed formulation is that the nutritionist can accurately describe the nutritional characteristics of the ingredients


used. When an ingredient is subject to wide fluctuations in composition, it greatly complicates the process and ultimately adds cost. Varying degrees of control can be exercised in relation to most of the above items. Presently, much of this control is in the realm of the processor. The extent to which the processor views the protein meal as a quality product, or conversely views it as ‘waste’, determines the amount they are willing to invest in quality control. End users have a role in this process by developing closer relationships with processors and encouraging them to work on quality related aspects of their meal products. Another potential control point is the compositional characteristics of the oilseed. Variation in oilseed composition is a function of genetic background and the growing environment. The relative impact of each in the context of the oilseed meal traits of greatest interest has yet to be determined. We have limited control over environment but have much greater command over the genetic backgrounds of the plants we grow. Improving compositional characteristics through plant genetics has become a major focus for many research and business efforts. MOVING FORWARD Improving oilseed meal characteristics continues to attract considerable attention. There are two general approaches, one focuses on the processing step, the other involves altering the composition of the oilseed using plant-breeding technologies. However, tangible progress continues to be a challenge. Summarized below are some general considerations for success in such an endeavour. General considerations for moving forward include: 1. Incentive. To invest in change, there must be an incentive. Within the

business environment in which we function, incentive ultimately takes an economic form. One form is more profit per unit sold, either through higher prices and/or lower production costs. Another form relates to volume sold. a. Equitable incentives must exist to ensure the participation of all required

segments. When a series of business relationships exist, such as those associated with the production and use of oilseeds and their products, this greatly complicates the process. In addition, the whole process can be blocked by the refusal of one value chain link to participate.

b. For oilseed meals, added inherent value is translated into economic value by the animal production segment. This value will most likely be associated with a decreased ingredient cost per tonne of feed produced. A mechanism for distributing the value created at the end of the value chain to the other value chain participants must exist.


2. Required investment and by whom. To date, a major part of the investment in these areas has focused on the seed sector of the value chain. (This concentration of investment may have resulted in unreasonable expectations of return by this segment.) Yet, the benefit is translated into a tangible economic value by the animal producer at the opposite end of the value chain. Since the entire value chain has the potential for benefit, investment related risk should be spread throughout the value chain.

3. Potential for success. There must be a rational plan for identifying and achieving objectives. As a minimum, this should include. a. Tangible targets with definable value. b. For plant derived traits, a reasonable genetic basis for expression. c. A system for capturing value added and its equitable distribution. (Such a

system must be able to hold the trust of all participants. d. The assembly or creation of needed tools and associated infrastructure.

Among oilseed meals and in the majority of practical feeding situations, soya is the leader in market share, market value and applied nutritional value. Changes to the soybean thus have a tremendous potential for impact on the oilseed market segment. Different research groups continue to look at improving various compositional characteristics of soybean for targeted market applications. Table 7 is an incomplete list of nutrition-oriented traits, which have been discussed and targeted for improvement. Traits are included in such a list based upon the assumption that they will result in enough additional value to justify their development and commercialization. (the incentive.) Most business models associated with such traits require the use of Identity Preservation (IP) systems. Such systems add considerable cost to the soybean meal process. This added cost must be deducted from the value added through use of the characteristic. THE UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD’S BETTER BEAN INITIATIVE The United Soybean Board (USB), a United States soybean producer funded organization, has undertaken a project focused on the compositional improvement of commodity soybeans. This project is the Better Bean Initiative (BBI).


TABLE 7 Nutritional traits of soybeans targeted for future improvement

Trait Primary application(s) Animal feed Human

foods Environmental

Poultry Swine Meal traits Increased lysine

Increased methionine

Increased crude protein

Improved protein profile

Improved carbohydrate profile

Higher isoflavone

Lox-null

Low phytate

High phytase

X

X

X

X

X

?

X

X

X

X

X

X

?

?

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Oil traits* Reduced saturates

Reduced linolenic

High oleic

High stearate

Conjugated linoleic acid

?

?

X

X

X

X

X

* Meal characteristics must be assessed While the BBI incorporates some aspects of past value adding initiatives, it also involves some unique characteristics of its own. The following brief presentation of the BBI is intended to serve as a framework for presenting some of the issues outlined above and as an alternative approach for addressing them. The Better Bean Initiative 1. The incentive is to increase demand for US commodity soybeans. While the

primary goal is to further expand usage, there is a unit price consideration associated with any increase in demand.

2. USB has been the initial investor in the BBI. However, as the project moves forward, it will require investments by other value chain participants. Such


investments can take forms other than direct cash outlays. As this occurs, USB’s role will increasingly become that of facilitator.

3. The plan is to improve the inherent compositional value of soybeans relative to specified end uses. Both oil and meal characteristics are being addressed. BBI has funded projects focused on the following three areas: a. Development of soybeans bearing targeted oil traits. b. Development of soybeans bearing targeted meal traits. c. Identification and development of tools which will better enable and thus

support the infrastructure which will be required. The meal traits targeted by the BBI for improvement are presented in Table 8. TRANSLATING TRAIT CHARACTERISTICS INTO ESTIMATES OF ECONOMIC VALUE. From a broad feed application perspective, the assigning of a ‘hard’ economic value to a given value-adding trait is not practical. Several factors are constantly at play relative to the actual value a trait may have. Included are: Competitive ingredients available and respective costs as impacted by time and location. 1. The different nutritional needs of different animal species. 2. The different nutritional needs within a species based upon age/stage of

production and environment. 3. The impact on feed formulation parameters utilized as influenced by

differences in: a. The perspectives of the nutritionists involved as a result of their unique set of past professional experiences.

b. The specific business objectives of a company. However, the projection of such values is critical to the making of objective business decisions regarding altered compositional traits. Such estimates, however, must always be evaluated in the context of the scenario assumptions utilized in their development. The information presented below (Table 9) is based upon the least cost formulation of a broiler type feed. It focuses on the Primary BBI Traits identified above. Pertinent assumptions and costs are presented in the footnote to the table. The above values for the Reduced Phytate Bound Phosphorus trait do not include any environmental value. However, based upon the above model, each tonne of complete feed fed would be associated with 0.5 kg less phosphorus finding its way into the environment as a part of the manure. The cost of


compliance with environmental regulations focused on phosphorus in manure will determine this economic component of the trait. TABLE 8 BBI soybean meal trait end points

Changes in high protein meal

From To Coefficient of change

Maximum displacement of

selected ingredient for each 100 kg of

meal used Primary traits

Increased methionine +

cystine

Reduced phytate bound

phosphorous

1.4%

0.4%

2.1%

0.2%

1.5 X

0.5 X

0.7 kg DL

methionine

0.95 kg monocal

phos.

Increased

metabolizable energy

(ME)

(from improved

carbohydrate

characteristics)

^ 330 kcal ME/kg Swine: approx. 1.1 X

Broilers: approx. 1.13 X

4.2 kg added fat

Secondary traits

Improved utilization of

protein/amino acids

^ by a min. of 5% 1.05 X 5 kg soybean meal

Increased levels of:

Lysine

Threonine

Tryptophan

3.0%

1.9%

0.65%

3.7%

2.3%

0.80

%

1.23 X

1.21 X

1.23 X

0.88 kg L-lysine

HCI

0.4 kg L-threonine

0.15 kg L-

tryptophan

Note: Must ensure that improvements in one area do not result in overriding losses in others


TABLE 9 Gross benefit estimates for a broiler based scenario. Feed ingredient cost savings and associated gross added values

Feed ingredient cost (US$)

Meal in feed(kg/t of feed)

GAV* based on gross savings and meal usage Primary traits Cost/t Gross

savings $/t meal $/m3

soybeans ‘Typical’ soybean meal

Increased methionine + cystine

Reduced phytate bound

phosphorous**

Increased metabolizable energy

(ME)

Primary traits combined

123.83

120.81

123.03

120.51

116.79

3.02

0.80

3.32

7.04

278

277

277

274

273

10.93

2.91

12.17

25.87

6.24

1.70

6.81

14.75

* Gross savings and gross added value (GAV) does not include added costs associated with procurement and use of the respective meals ** Does not include ‘environmental value’ Footnote to Table 9. Elected inputs/assumptions. Broiler ‘composite’ formulation: corn-soya based diet. Corn @ $57/m3: all soybean meals @ $176/t: L-lysine HCI @ $1.87/kg: DL methionine @ $2.2/kg: Animal fat @ $0.22/kg: monocalcium phosphate @ $276/t While a significant amount of value can be shown per tonne of feed, the value per cubic metre of soybeans is not a great enough incentive to adopt a system with high intellectual property (IP) costs. A key to success is the ability to bring such a bean through the value chain at minimal added cost. Thus, BBI’s commodity approach. MOVING BEYOND THE VISION Creating a better bean. Obviously, a critical component for the success of BBI is the creation of soybeans that provide for the traits discussed earlier. Recognizing that progress can most rapidly be made by building upon that which already exists, a large part of BBI’s current meal related activities is focused on identifying sources of existing germplasm to meet the BBI meal trait targets, and then gaining access to its use. One tactic involves developing relationships with companies that have been working on improving the compositional characteristics of soybeans; another focuses on public soybean plant breeders. In both instances, the BBI commodity


approach is a tactic to commercializing materials that does not represent enough value in the context of an IP system. The biology involved is always a factor. The extent to which genetic and associated compositional diversity exists determines the boundaries in which we must work. However, the opportunity may be much broader than once thought. Gizlice et al. (1994) have determined that only six ancestors account for more than half of the genetic base for North American soybeans. Eighty four percent of the total genetic base is drawn from only 17 ancestors. The possibility for expanding beyond this narrow genetic base should be evaluated in the light of over 15 000 samples within the USDA Soybean Germplasm Collection. USB’s Meal Trait Identification Project has begun to access this Collection as well as other potential opportunities. Commercializing a better bean. Once a better bean is created, it must still survive the commercialization gauntlet. For the commodity concept to be viable, Germplasm providing for BBI traits must be accessible throughout the seed industry. At the same time, intellectual property rights of the owners of Germplasm must be respected and rewarded. All of this must be done without adding excessive cost to the system. While the focus is on creating a better commodity-type soybean, the early stages of commercialization will probably require some initial degree of IP. Appropriate animal feeding evaluations will also be an important component of the commercialization process. OILSEED PROTEINS: NOW AND IN THE FUTURE Oilseed proteins are a critical contributor to the commercial viability of the animal production industries, as they exist today. Conversely, the animal production industries’ use of oil seed proteins returns considerable value to the oilseed production and processing industries. To the extent that these two segments are mutually dependent, beneficial changes are shared. Considerable incentive exists for the compositional improvement of oilseed meals. Irrespective of who starts the process, all value chain components must participate and be able to derive benefit. A result of such activities will be an ongoing change in the nutritional characteristics of the oilseed meals made available to the market. This will result in new competitive pressures, which ultimately encourage greater efficiencies in the sectors involved. Historically animal feed nutritionists quickly learned how to maximize their use of new ‘co-products’ and other ingredients as they became available to the marketplace. The ability to have the flexibility to react to such opportunities is a competitive advantage.


Animal feed formulation is a competitive process. Since many ingredients can be substituted for one another, they continually compete for use in the context of animal feeds. Such competition ensures the optimal utilization of feed ingredient resources while also allowing for lower animal production costs. Ultimately, large segments of the human population benefit from the resultant increased availability of lower cost, quality food. Future improvements in oilseed proteins promise to play an important role in this continuing process. REFERENCES USDA. 2002. Counsellor and Attaché Reports Official Statistics, USDA Estimates,

FAS, April 2002. Gizlice, Z., Carter, T.E. & Burton, J.W. 1994. Genetic Base for North American

Public Soybean Cultivars Released between 1947 and 1988, Crop Science, 34: 1143-1151.

National Research Council. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Washington, DC, National Academy Press.

National Research Council. 1998. Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 10th Edition. Washington, DC, National Academy Press.


Lysine and other amino acids for feed: production and contribution to protein

utilization in animal feeding Yasuhiko Toride

Ajinomoto Co., Inc. Japan

INTRODUCTION The industrial application of amino acids for feed has an almost 40-year history. In the late 1950s and 1960s, DL-Methionine, produced by chemical synthesis, began finding its way into poultry feed. Production of L-Lysine by fermentation was started in Japan during the 1960s. In addition to DL-Methionine and L-Lysine, HCl, L-Threonine and L-Tryptophan were introduced in the late 1980s. With progress in biotechnology, the cost of production of each amino acid has been significantly reduced, which has been one of the key factors in the expansion of use of amino acids in animal feed. Amino acids for feed now play very important roles in improving the efficiency of protein utilization in animal feeding. PRODUCTION OF AMINO ACIDS FOR FEED The estimated production of amino acids for feed is summarized in Table 1. DL-Methionine is produced by chemical synthesis from raw materials such as acrolein, hydrocyanic acid and methyl mercaptan. The above-estimated production includes that of methionine hydroxy analog, which has nutritional value equivalent to that of DL-Methionine. TABLE 1 Estimated production of feed-grade amino acids in 2000 Amino acid Production (tonnes) DL-Methionine 500 000 – 600 000 L-Lysine HCl 500 000 – 600 000 L-Threonine 30 000 L-Tryptophan 1 000

162 Lysine and other amino acids for feed

Three other amino acids, L-Lysine HCl, L-Threonine, and L-Tryptophan, are produced by the fermentation method. By cultivating a special microbial strain developed for the production of each amino acid, in a medium containing glucose or sugar and other nutrients (ammonium sulphate, etc., as nitrogen sources, minerals and vitamins), an amino acid can be efficiently produced. The amino acid is extracted from the fermentation broth with ion exchange resin treatment, etc. The fermentation yield of the strain is a key factor in the productivity of amino acids, which has been steadily improved with the introduction of new biotechnology. For example, the fermentation yield of L-Lysine HCl from glucose or sugar has now exceeded 50 percent. APPLICATION OF AMINO ACIDS FOR FEED The requirements of amino acids in animals are well defined in various sets of recommendations such as those of NRC (National Research Council), USA, etc. Requirements vary depending on the species and age of animals. Amino acids should be supplied either in the form of protein or crystalline amino acids in feed to meet requirements. By comparing requirements and the actual amino acids present in feed, the order of ‘limiting amino acids’ can be estimated. The orders of limiting amino acids in pig and broiler feeds, composed of corn (or wheat) and soybean meal, are summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2 Order of limiting amino acids First Second Third Growing Pig Lysine Threonine Tryptophan Broiler Methionine Lysine Threonine

Crystalline amino acids should be added to feed in the order of limiting amino acids when the protein content of the feed is reduced, which is the reason why DL-Methionine and L-Lysine HCl were initially introduced to feed. Now, with a more economic supply of L-Threonine and L-Tryptophan available, use of amino acids has entered a new era, in which the use of second and third limiting amino acids is taking off. For example, in the past two to three years, the annual growth rate of L-Threonine usage has been above 20 percent. Since the protein level required by livestock is reduced further with the introduction of second and third limiting amino acids, use of the first limiting amino acid will also be expanded.


CONTRIBUTION IN PROTEIN SUPPLY The animal industry can be defined as an industry producing proteins of higher value (meat, milk) from less expensive protein sources (vegetable proteins such as soybean meal). To meet the growing demand for protein worldwide, it is essential to improve the efficiency of conversion of proteins from feed to meat. Amino acids for feed now play indispensable roles in improving the efficiency of animal protein production, and contribute to increasing protein supply. For example, the contribution of L-Lysine HCl to protein supply can be estimated as follows. A simple equation illustrates substitution of the protein source (soybean meal) with corn (maize) and L-Lysine HCl: 50 kg/tonne of soybean meal = 48.5 kg/tonne of corn + 1.5 kg/tonne of L-Lysine HCl The substitution corresponds to a 2 percent reduction of the protein level in feed. This equation means that 1 tonne of L-Lysine HCl can save the usage of 33 tonnes of soybean meal. The estimated usage of L-Lysine HCl in the world, 550 000 tonnes/year, corresponds to the saving of 18 million tonnes of soybean meal, which is equivalent to almost half of the soybean meal production in the United States (38 million tonnes in 2000). How to utilize limited arable land efficiently to maximize the supply of food should also be considered. The above equation can be interpreted in the following way to show how L-Lysine HCl can improve the efficiency of utilization of cultivated areas. The following yields are assumed for the estimation in Table 3. Soybean – soybean meal 80 percent corn – cornstarch 60 percent cornstarch – L-Lysine HCl 50 percent. These values indicate that the arable land required for the production of 48.5 tonnes of corn, plus 1.5 tonnes of L-Lysine HCl is only about one quarter of that required for 50 tonnes of soybean meal. The introduction of second and third limiting amino acids can further reduce the usage of precious protein sources and arable land required for their production. For growing pigs, the reduction in usage of soybean meal will be about 100 kg/tonne of feed, in a feed formulation with L-Lysine HCl, L-Threonine and L-Tryptophan. This is double the saving compared with a feed formulation having L-Lysine HCl only. TABLE 3 Comparison of arable land required for soybean meal, corn and L-Lysine HCl Necessary arable land

(hectare) Soybean Meal 50 tonnes 24.0 Corn 48.5 tonnes 5.6 L-Lysine HCl 1.5 tonnes 0.6 Corn + L-Lysine HCl 6.2

164 Lysine and other amino acids for feed

CONTRIBUTION TO PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT Nitrogen excretion due to animal farming is posing a serious threat to human health through ammonia or nitrate/nitrite pollution in soil and water. Farmers now must therefore face more and more stringent environmental regulations. Decreasing excessive protein in feed by supplementation of amino acids is the most cost-effective way to solve the problems of nitrogen pollution associated with animal feeding. It is a preventive measure aimed at reduction of pollutant output at its source. A literature review was conducted to quantify the impact of low-protein diets on nitrogen excretion. On average, reduction of crude protein content in a diet by one percentage point can yield about an eight to ten percent reduction in nitrogen excretion. Reducing the crude protein level by three to four percent, with supplementation of first, second and third limiting amino acids, will yield at least the same growth performance but with around 20-30 percent reduction in nitrogen excretion. COMPARISON WITH HIGH-LYSINE CORN It is expected that the introduction of High-Lysine Corn will make the same contribution as L-Lysine HCl to the protein supply and to reducing nitrogen pollution. High-Lysine Corn with about 50 percent higher lysine content than conventional corn (0.40 vs. 0.26 percent) was developed with the introduction of new plant biotechnology. The combination of High-Lysine Corn and soybean meal will attain the optimum lysine content in feed without L-Lysine HCl supplementation. However, the feasibility of large-scale commercial production of High-Lysine Corn is still questionable. With the expected identity preservation (IP) handling cost, it is said that at least US$14/tonne (35 percents/bushel) of benefit is necessary to make value-added crops commercially feasible. In the case of High-Lysine Corn, the benefit comes from an increase of 0.14 percent lysine content or 1.4 kg lysine/tonne of corn, which corresponds to 1.75 kg of L-Lysine HCl. At the current L-Lysine HCl price of around $1.5/kg, the benefit can be calculated to be only $2.6, which is far below the anticipated benefit of $14/tonne. L-Lysine HCl is thus still a much more economical source of lysine than High-Lysine Corn. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF AMINO ACIDS FOR FEED Improving the efficiency of protein utilization in animal feeding with the application of amino acids for feed, will become more and more important in securing the protein supply and protecting the environment. In addition to the four kinds of amino acids noted above, the next limiting amino acids, Isoleucine, Valine and Arginine, will be introduced in the near future. For ruminants, so-called by-pass amino acids, which can escape microbial


degradation in the rumen, have recently been introduced. Consumers’ concern regarding bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has been forcing dairy farmers to limit the usage of animal protein such as blood meal in feed, which will further accelerate the usage of amino acids in ruminant feed.


The role of high lysine cereals in animal and human nutrition in Asia

S. K. Vasal

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)-Mexico

INTRODUCTION Cereals play an important role in world agriculture. They contribute significantly to the global food pool in achieving food and nutritional security. Considering the area sown and annual production volume, they occupy an important position in the world economy and trade as food, feed and industrial grain crops. In 2000, the area harvested was roughly 675 million hectares which produced 2059.8 million tonnes with an average yield of 3049 kilograms per hectare (Table 1). As can be seen, wheat, rice and maize are of prime importance but area and production from other crops such as barley, sorghum, oats, rye and millet are also quite significant. It may be noted that maize has a great potential for yielding more per unit of land area than other cereals. TABLE 1 World cereal statistics; area, yield and production in 2000

Crop Area (Million ha)

Yield (kg/ha)

Production (Million tonnes)

Cereals 675.631 3 049 2059.8 Wheat 215.180 2 706 582.2 Rice (paddy) 153.458 3 863 592.9 Coarse grains 306.996 2 882 884.7 Barley 55.698 2 440 135.9 Maize 137.549 4 336 596.4 Rye 9.896 2 075 20.5 Oats 14.416 1 811 26.1 Millet 36.161 752 27.2 Sorghum 42.805 1 391 59.536 Source: FAO

168 The role of high lysine cereals in animal and human nutrition in Asia

In Asia, the area devoted to cereals was 301.8 million hectares with a production volume of 938.8 million tonnes (Table 2). This is almost 50 percent of total world cereal production. Rice is the most important crop in Asia occupying almost half of the cereal area, with a production of paddy rice touching 540 million tonnes. The other two important crops are wheat and maize, which rank second and third respectively. Other crops of importance with significant area are barley, sorghum and millets. Oats and Rrye are also grown but their area is quite small, less than one million hectares annually being sown to each crop. TABLE 2 Asian cereal statistics; area, yield and production in 2000

Crop Area

(Million ha) Yield

(kg/ha) Production

(Million tonnes) Cereals 301.8 3 093 983.8 Wheat 96.8 2 566 248.3 Rice (paddy) 137.3 3 930 540.0 Coarse grains 84.1 2 326 195.5 Barley 12.6 1 669 20.9 Maize 41.2 3 492 143.9 Rye 0.7 1 502 1.1 Oats 0.8 1 774 1.3 Millet 14.5 812 11.8 Sorghum 12.5 1055 13.2 Source: FAO

Some of the cereal crops, particularly rice, wheat and to some extent maize, sorghum and millet are consumed by humans as staple foods to meet energy and protein requirements. Feed use of cereals in Asia is more in some countries than others, but at least 158 million tonnes were used in 2000 for livestock (Table 3). Food and feed use of cereals will be greatly prioritized in future in view of projected world population growth of 80 million people every year. Unfortunately much of the increase in population will take place in the developing countries mostly concentrated in South Asia. It is expected that demand for food and meat products will increase dramatically in the next two decades. A demand driven livestock revolution is underway in Asia and it is very likely that demand for meat and other animal products may almost double by 2020. This in turn will increase demand of cereals for feeding livestock. The


demand for some cereals such as maize will increase more rapidly, and will perhaps overtake demand for rice and wheat in the next two decades. TABLE 3 Feed use of grains in Asia

Country/Region 2000-2001

(Million tonnes) India 8.0 Pakistan 0.9 Others 0.1 South Asia 9.0 China 103.1 Taiwan 5.0 Indonesia 4.1 Japan 15.9 Korea, Rep of 7.6 Malaysia 2.3 Philippines 4.6 Thailand 4.6 Others 1.9 Pacific Asia 149.1 Total Feed Asia 158.1

Cereal proteins vary in protein content but in general are of poor quality because of a lack of balance in amino acid composition. Breeding for improved amino acid composition has been attempted in some crops and commercially exploitable high lysine varieties are now available, at least in maize. This paper will discuss development efforts in improving protein quality in different crops, as well as their future role in livestock and human nutrition. PROTEIN RELATED NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CEREALS GRAINS The crude protein content varies in different crops (Table 4). Rice is quite low in protein (7 percent). Intermediate levels of 9-10 percent are encountered in maize, sorghum and barley. Wheat, oats and triticale exhibit a high protein content of 12 percent and more. In general high protein content is inversely correlated with yield.


TABLE 4 Protein and lysine content of cereal crops

Crop Protein Content

(%) Lysine in protein

(%) Maize 8.0-11.0 1.80–2.00 Wheat 11.0-14.0 2.50–3.20 Rice 7.0-9.0 3.50–4.00 Barley 8.0-11.0 2.90–3.20 Oats 12.0-14.0 3.80–4.00 Sorghum 9.0-11.0 2.00–2.80

In wheat and oats, however, high protein lines with good yielding ability are available. As far as protein quality is concerned, unfortunately, all cereals are deficient primarily in lysine with a secondary deficiency in threonine or tryptophan (Table 5). TABLE 5 Limiting amino acids in cereal protein

Cereal 1st limiting 2nd limiting Rice Lysine Threonine Wheat Lysine Threonine Maize Lysine Tryptophan Sorghum Lysine Threonine Millet Lysine Threonine Tiff Lysine Threonine

The poor quality of proteins is attributed to a high concentration of prolamin storage protein fraction in cereals. This particular fraction is practically negligible or devoid of lysine. The high level of this fraction is the sole cause of poor protein quality in cereals. The prolamin contents of major cereals fall into three distinct classes or groups (Table 6). The high prolamin group constitutes 50-60 percent of protein, as is the case in maize and sorghum, intermediate 30-40 percent as in barley and wheat and the low prolamin group with only 5-10 percent as in rice and oats. The protein quality of cereals, like protein quantity, is inversely related to the protein content. Those groups of cereals such as rice and oats, which have low prolamin content, thus exhibit superior protein quality. It may be pointed out that prolamin is one of the four protein fractions which make up cereal protein. The other three fractions are albumins, globulins


and glutelins and are soluble in water, saline solution and alkali solution, respectively. The prolamins being soluble in alcohol are rich in proline and glutamine, but are low in basic amino acids including lysine. Osborne and Mandel (1914) showed that rats of all ages went into rapid decline and eventually died if placed on a diet in which zein was the sole source of dietary protein. The prolamin fraction is named differently as is zein in maize, gliadin in wheat, kafarin in sorghum, hordein in barley, and avenin in oats. As indicated earlier, both oat and rice have good protein quality owing to low levels of prolamin. Despite high lysine in these two cereals compared to others, lysine is still the first limiting amino acid. Proteins from both these cereals have higher biological value relative to other cereal proteins. It is further interesting to point out that high protein content in oat does not adversely affect the biological value of protein. TABLE 6 Prolamin content of major cereals

Crop Prolamin Fraction Prolamin Group Percent of Total

Protein Maize Zein High 50–60% Sorghum Kafarin High 50–60% Barley Hordein Intermediate 30–40% Rye Secalin High 60% Wheat Gliadin Intermediate 30–40% Oats Avenin Low 10–12% Rice Prolamin Low 5–10%

BREEDING EFFORTS FOR IMPROVING PROTEIN QUALITY IN CEREALS People in the developing countries, particularly in Asia, consume cereal grains as staple food and derive their calories and protein requirements from such cereals. Nutritional improvement in such cereals through plant breeding efforts have been under active consideration for the past several decades but realistic breeding efforts could not be taken up in the absence of specific genes for such traits. Altering the amino acid profile of cereal proteins and making them more balanced will impact hundreds of millions of people without altering their food habits and preferences.


Maize To start with, germplasm accessions were screened for genetic variability for lysine content. Variation was observed in maize but differences were rather small. It would have needed many years to elevate levels sufficiently to make the protein profile reasonably balanced in manifesting superior biological value. The protein quality therefore remained a concern but no immediate solutions were in sight and no good breeding options could be deployed at that time to affect improvements. A beginning in genetic manipulation of protein quality began with the discovery of high lysine mutant opaque-2 (o2) (Mertz et al., 1964) and a year later another mutant floury-2 (Nelson et al., 1965) was discovered by Purdue University researchers. These exciting discoveries generated a lot of enthusiasm and hopes, and paved the way for improving protein quality in maize. Of interest is the fact that these mutant alleles changed protein quality of endosperm and not that of germ. These mutants were able to alter the amino acid profile of maize endosperm protein resulting in a two fold increase in the levels of lysine and tryptophan compared to normal genotypes. The phenotype of the mutants was easily recognizable from their soft chalky appearance. Alterations were noticed in other amino acids as well. An increase was observed for amino acids such as histidine, arginine, aspartic acid and glycine and a decrease in glutamic acid, alanine and leucine. Leucine:isoleucine ratio was improved and became better balanced, which in turn is considered beneficial as it helps to liberate more tryptophan for more niacin biosynthesis, thus helping to combat pellagra. These mutants bring about improvements in lysine and tryptophan by suppressing lysine-deficient zein fraction without altering the contribution of other fractions. A reduction in zein fraction causes proportional elevation of other fractions rich in lysine, thus resulting in elevation of these two amino acids in protein, but not on an absolute basis of per unit of endosperm in the grain. The search was continued for new and better mutants, but the ones found (o7, o6, fl3) were in no way better than opaque-2. Breeding efforts were thus initially concentrated on opaque-2 and floury-2. Since floury-2 did not hold its promise it was dropped in the early 1970s. High quality protein materials developed using o2 did not show competitive performance compared to their normal counterparts. They suffered from a number of problems including lower grain yield, unacceptable soft chalky endosperm, slower drying, more vulnerable to ear rot pathogens and to stored grain pests. These agronomic deficiencies were serious enough to cause a decline in interest and even a


complete abandoning of efforts in many programmes. Only a few institutions such as CIMMYT, Purdue University, Crows Hybrid Seed Company in Milford, Illinois, and University of Natal in South Africa sustained their efforts, choosing different options to develop normal looking agronomically acceptable varieties and hybrids. The success of approaches deployed at CIMMYT and the germplasm developed will be described in detail in a later section. Barley Discoveries of nutritionally superior mutant alleles o2 and fl2 in maize stimulated interest in other cereal crops. Screening efforts to identify similar types of mutant alleles as in maize were initiated in Sweden and Denmark. A high-lysine gene (Hily) was identified from the Hiproly source (Munck et al., 1971) and another gene Riso 1508 was identified in Denmark (Doll and Koie, 1975; Ingverson et. al., 1973). The latter mutant showed simple recessive inheritance and had 40 percent increase in lysine content. Both mutants suffered from agronomic defects. There was a reduction in seed size and also a reduction in yield. In feeding trials, Ris 1508 or hily Hiproly barley produced optimal growth of pigs without addition of protein or amino acid supplements. It may be added that normal barleys are intermediate between maize and sorghum on the one hand and rice and oats on the other. Again because of agronomic problems, widespread efforts in improving protein quality did not result in a positive outcome. Sorghum Thousands of accessions were screened for high lysine mutants in sorghum. Two mutants, 15-11167 and 15-11758 were identified from the Ethiopian world sorghum collections (Singh and Axtell, 1973). Later an induced mutant P721 was reported (Mohan and Axtell, 1975). The mutant allele P721 appeared to be partially dominant and had a 60 percent increase in lysine over the normal. The lysine in normal was 2.11 percent as against 2.88 percent in high lysine. P721 had soft phenotype and had reduced yield. It behaved differently in different genetic backgrounds and only in a few did yield appear to be satisfactory. Converted materials using this gene had poor acceptance because of soft kernels. Modified vitreous types have also been encountered (Ejeta, 1979) but work was not pursued rigorously. Ethiopian high lysine sorghums are proposed for for use as weaning food pending conformation of the fact that digestibility is acceptable.


Rice Milled rice is low in protein concentration (7 percent). It contributes 40-80 percent of the calories and at least 40 percent of the protein in Asian diets. Rice has good quality protein despite its poor concentration. A lot of work has been done over the past five decades at IRRI to improve protein content and quality in rice. The Researchers concluded after many years of work that there is some hope and prospect of further improving the lysine concentration in rice protein (Coffman and Juliano, 1979). Improvement for protein concentration appeared to be a good possibility, but results so far have been disappointing as witnessed by the lack of high protein rice cultivars. Rice protein consists mostly of glutelin (80 percent), prolamin (less than 5 percent), albumin (5 percent) and globulin (10 percent). It is of interest to point out that albumin and globulin are concentrated in the aleurone layers. The lysine content of different fractions is glutelin (3.47 percent lysine), albumin (4.92 percent lysine), globulin (2.56 percent lysine) and prolamine (0.51 percent lysine). Bran and embryo proteins are mainly albumin proteins and are rich in lysine. Rice has more lysine and better biological value compared to other cereals (Coffman and Juliano 1979; Khush and Juliano 1984; Tanaka 1983; Frey 1977). Oat Oat ranks fifth in the total production following wheat, rice, corn and barley. It is mainly used for animal feed. Oat protein has good protein concentration and has excellent balance of amino acids (Robbins et al., 1971). Its protein quality and biological value is maintained even at higher protein concentrations. Genetic enhancement and manipulation for higher protein content is possible and commercial cultivars having 20 percent protein have been developed (Briggle, 1971). High yield has no adverse effect on protein content. A few high protein cultivars – Dal, Goodland, Marathan and Wright developed in Wisconsin have two-three percent increase in groats protein. Wheat This is chiefly used as food and its use as feed is less important. Surpluses are sometimes fed to livestock. Despite extensive research efforts, the high lysine mutants have not been encountered. There are better prospects of increasing protein content and lines exceeding 12 percent have been isolated. From by-


products of wheat milling, as much as 28 percent of the grain, mainly in the form of bran and shorts, finds its way into mixed livestock feeds. Triticale and Rye These are mostly used as feed for livestock. Triticale has improved protein content and quality and so continues to generate optimism as a potential feed source. QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE SUCCESS STORY As pointed out earlier, CIMMYT scientists used opaque-2 gene because no other genes offered any greater advantage. In the beginning emphasis was on developing soft endosperm cultivars. As the agronomic problems mentioned earlier became obvious, several different options were tried which could result in acceptable quality protein maize germplasm. These approaches are described in several CIMMYT publications and journal articles (Byarnason and Vasal, 1992; Vasal et al., 1984; Vasal et al., 1980; Vasal et al., 1979; Vasal, 1994; Vasal, 2000). Only one approach appeared promising which could resolve all problems confronting soft opaques and result in high-quality protein materials with acceptable yield performance, kernel phenotype and low vulnerability to ear rots and stored grain pests. The approach involved use of two genetic systems involving the opaque-2 gene and the genetic modifiers of opaque-2 locus. Using this approach, the initial emphasis was on developing hard endosperm opaque-2 donor stocks. Subsequently these donor’s stocks were used to convert normal maize materials to hard endosperm opaque-2. In addition several broad based gene pools were formed. By late 1978, a huge volume of quality protein maize germplasm was developed with normal looking kernel phenotype. Merging and reorganization was attempted at this point to form a fixed number of pools and populations for systematic handling and improvement (Vasal, 1994, 2000). In all, 10 populations and 13 Quality Protein Maize (QPM) pools resulted from this effort. In the mid 1980s QPM hybrid effort was initiated. Problems were overcome and progress was attained in most traits deficient in original soft opaque-2 materials. International testing of QPM varieties and hybrids has been extensive and the results have been extremely encouraging. Several countries have identified varieties or hybrids which are competitive and are either equal or better than the best normal checks included in the trials (Table 7). Also during the mid 1990s, 55 QPM inbreds were announced and made available to public and private sectors. In the past four years at least 22 countries have released QPM materials, including China, India


and Vietnam (Table 8). Successful field days were conducted in most of the countries releasing the hybrids. In many instances, high ranking politicians attended the ceremonies. There is enthusiasm and hope of covering more area under QPM in the coming years. TABLE 7 Superior white QPM hybrids tested across fifteen locations at El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico, 1998

Pedigree Yield (t/ha)

Ear Rot (%)

Tryptophan (%)

Ear Modification

Silking (Days)

Plt ht (cm)

CML142xCML146 6.48 3.7 0.096 2.0 55 242

CML159xCML144 6.39 4.3 0.100 1.6 56 230

(CLQ6203xCML150)

CML176

6.28 5.7 0.088 2.1 55 239

CML145xCML144 5.81 5.8 0.840 2.0 54 241

CML158xCML144 5.59 7.1 0.103 1.3 55 228

CML146xCML150 5.48 8.1 0.084 3.6 56 222

POZA RICA 8763 TLWD 5.34 12.0 0.095 2.8 54 230

Normal Hybrid check 5.58 9.5 0.070 2.0 56 228

Local checks: HB-83, CB-HS-5G, H-59, XM7712, GUAYOPE TABLE 8 Recent releases involving CIMMYT germplasm

Name Institutions/Country CIMMYT germplasm involved SHAKTIMAN – 1

SHAKTIMAN – 2

HQ 2000

Yun Yao 19

Yun You 167

Qian 2609

Lu Dan 206

Lu Dan 207

Lu Dan 807

Hybrid 2075

Zhongdan 9409

DMR, India

DMR, India

NMRI, Vietnam

Yunnan, China

Yunnan, China

Guizou, China

Shandong, China

Shandong, China

Shandong, China

Sichuan, China

CAAS, China

(CML 142, CML 150)

(CML 176, CML 186)

(CML 161, CML 165)

(CML 140)

(CML 194)

(CML 171)

(P70)

(P70)

(P70)

(CIMMYT QPM Populations)

(Pool 33 QPM)


FOOD AND FEED USE OF CEREALS Cereals are consumed principally as food for humans and feed for livestock. Total production of cereal grains in 2000 was 1870 million tonnes compared with 1581 million tonnes in 1978. It is estimated that 34 percent of the world’s grain crop is used to feed livestock raised for meat. For humans, cereal grains provide a major portion of calories and protein needed in the diet. Today the world obtains about 50 percent of its dietary protein from cereals, about 20 percent from legumes and 30 percent from animal products (Oram and Brock, 1972). In developing countries, people obtain about 26 percent of their protein from animal products and the remaining two-thirds from cereals. In contrast, people from the developed world meet 56 percent of their protein requirement from animal products. Feed use of cereals has been steadily increasing. On a worldwide basis, roughly one-third of grain crops are used for feeding livestock. The feed use of cereals in Asia totaled 158.1 million tonnes. China was the largest user (103. million tonnes) followed in order of their use by, Japan (15.9 million tonnes), India (8.0 million tonnes), South Korea (7.6 million tonnes) and Taiwan (5.0 million tonnes). Maize use as feed is quite large in Asia and perhaps exceeds 50 percent of total production. The consumption of meat and milk has grown many fold in the developing countries, at least in the past 3 decades. The total meat consumption in the world has risen from 139 million tonnes in 1983 to 184 million tonnes in 1993. This is projected to increase to 303 million tonnes by 2020. The meat consumption in developing countries increased from 50 in 1983 to 88 million tonnes in 1993, and the projected consumption for 2020 is 188 million tonnes. Between the mid 1970s and the mid 1990s, the consumption of meat in the developing countries grew almost three times as much as it did in the developed world (Pinstrup-Andersen et al., 1999). Consumption grew at an even faster rate in the second half of this period, with Asia in the lead (Delgado et al., 1999). Future projections suggest that meat and milk in the developing countries will grow by between 2.8 and 3.3 percent per year between the early 1990s and 2020. The corresponding developed world growth rates were 0.6 and 0.2 percent per year. High lysine cereals in human nutrition Most cereals have lysine as the first limiting amino acid. Naturally occurring high lysine cereals are rice and oats. The lysine values range from 3.5 to 4.0


percent in protein. Despite high lysine values, the first limiting amino acid in both cereals is lysine. As discussed earlier, conscious effects to further increase the levels of lysine have not yielded positive results. In respect of protein, rice is quite low (seven percent) but oat protein content is reasonably high. Here again breeding efforts aimed at increasing protein content in rice have not been very successful, but the prospects of developing high protein oats without sacrificing lysine are quite good. Because of high lysine values both rice and oat have demonstrated higher biological value relative to other cereals (Coffman and Juliano, 1979; Khush and Juliano, 1984; Tanaka, 1983; Frey, 1977). Rice will continue to be a staple diet of at least half of the world’s population. Compared to all other cereals, oat grain combines the advantage of both protein content and quality and its use as a human food will increase, even though its major use is presently as feed grain. Rice will continue to be an important cereal for food and has the advantage of being high in protein quality despite being low in its concentration. In the remaining crops, maize, sorghum, barley and millet, the protein quality is not good while the protein quantity is in the range of 9-10 percent in the whole grain. Except maize, the nutritional improvements for improved amino acid composition through breeding efforts have not been successful, so the benefits of nutritionally enhanced characteristics in sorghum, barley and millet cannot be harnessed by people and tribes consuming such cereals. The use of high lysine sorghum could be advocated as weaning food, as is the case in Ethiopia. The high lysine types are easily recognizable because they are somewhat dented. Farmers could produce high lysine sorghum grain as a protein source for weaning children and for pregnant and nursing mothers. Sorghum flour is quite indigestible by the infants, so more studies are needed before it can be recommended as a weaning food. QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE FOR HUMAN NUTRITION In maize, the development of QPM has turned out to be a success story. It has similar agronomic performance, appearance and taste as the normal maize. It has a reduced prolamin fraction (25–30 percent) but elevated levels of other fractions such as glutelins, albumins and globulins. There is a two-fold increase in the levels of lysine and tryptophan with high digestibility and biological value. QPM has a balanced leucine:isoleucine ratio and thus an enhanced production of niacin to help overcome pellagra. QPM is like eggs and milk,


both low in niacin, but they offer protection from pellagra because their proteins contain high levels of tryptophan. Compared to skim milk, the nutritional value of QPM is about 90 percent. It meets the requirements of pre-school children for their protein needs. In countries or communities where low protein and tuber crops make up an infant’s diet, QPM offers better prospects. There is a tendency for increased nitrogen retention when a switch over from normal to QPM is made. It should in turn translate into body weight, stature and protection from protein deficiency illnesses. Clinical studies conducted in hospitals have demonstrated that QPM can give preventative help and cure of severe protein deficiency disease (Kwashiorkor) in young children by simply using it as the only source of protein (Pradilla et al., 1973). QPM could be a great weaning food when used alone in maize diets. Substitution of normal maize with QPM will produce more benefits. QPM could be really helpful in catch-up growth, particularly in the malnourished and those who are sick, especially after diarrhoea. QPM could have a role in improving birth rates. In addressing problems of infant mortality due to low birth weight, QPM fed to pregnant women could raise the chances of child survival. Poorer sections of society lacking resources to buy milk could rely on low cost QPM to provide very similar benefits (Singh and Jain, 1977). QPM could also be a better alternative for those groups who are unable to eat bulk food, even if it is available, as is the case in infants and children. A diet solely based on QPM is regarded adequate in meeting the energy and protein needs of infants and children (Graham et al., 1980, 1990). It is believed that QPM should be a good measure for infants and young children (ranging from three months to three years in age) to reduce mortality and improve growth rates. Studies on adults using QPM are limited, but there are indications that QPM is more efficient than normal corn in supplying the protein requirements of adults (Clark, 1966; Clark et al., 1977). QPM can also provide a high amount of usable protein as energy, 8.3–9.6 percent when a value of 8 percent is considered adequate for a one-year old child. Carotenoids, the coloured plant pigments which are precursors and give rise to vitamin A in the body, are better utilized in QPM compared to normal maize. From limited studies on humans and animals, it is well demonstrated that it has high biological value (BV), high digestibility and better food efficiency (g food intake/g weight gain). In defining an exact and further role of QPM in human nutrition, additional studies are needed to make nutritional and economic assessments.


Value of high-lysine cereals (QPM) in animal nutrition A variety of animals have been used in demonstrating the superior performance of QPM compared to normal maize used alone or in combination with different food rations. It is fair to say that QPM has great potential in monogastric animals such as rats, chickens and swine. In experiments carried out in about the last three decades, there is clear evidence that QPM is a better feed than normal maize because its proteins are well balanced. Other advantages and roles of QPM could be seen in substituting it for high protein costly supplements like soybean or fish meal. Feeding trials showed that rats fed on opaque-2 compared with normal maize exhibited a three to six fold increase in body weight. Bressani obtained similar results with rats in Guatemala. They also exhibited a greater food intake (162 for QPM compared with 130.5 for normal maize) and a better feed conversion efficiency (7.0 in normal compared with 9.4 in QPM). In feeding chickens, QPM could play a much greater role because of increasing demand for poultry in several countries of Asia. In poultry feeding some special considerations must be kept in mind. Growing chicks need high protein and high methionine content diets. With only methionine supplementation, the opaque-2 fed chickens grew faster than those fed on normal maize, and produced better live weight gain and feed conversion, even at below optimal protein levels. Feed efficiency results obtained from Guatemalan trials were quite striking. The feed efficiency ratio for QPM and normal maize was 3.5:1 and 8.2:1 respectively. From limited studies that are available in Guatemala, one may conclude that QPM has great promise for feeding poultry if supplemented adequately with methionine. Field demonstrations of QPM on swine have produced striking and convincing results. Thus pigs can be used as model animals in demonstrating the value of this special maize. For swine, QPM can be fed as the only source of protein during finishing, gestation and pre-gestation periods without reducing growth (Maner, 1975). In Colombian trials, pigs fed QPM grew 3.5 times faster than on normal maize when maize was the sole protein source. Since protein in QPM is not concentrated, it is advisable to add or mix with some supplement. Animals gain weight faster than humans especially during the early growing period. Piglets and rats, for example, put on 10 percent of their body weight per day. In contrast, an infant puts on only one percent/day of its body weight. It is therefore recommended that for growing pigs of all ages or lactating sows, opaque-2 corn must be supplemented with extra protein to


produce optimum and maximum performance. The dramatic effects of QPM have been demonstrated in other countries such as Guatemala, China, Vietnam and Kenya. In Guizou province of China, feeding QPM within pig raising systems transformed the livelihoods of the poorest people in the poorest province. From the foregoing it may be concluded that rearing and production of pigs and chickens can be carried out more efficiently on QPM, and indirectly this will improve human diets by providing more meat and eggs. The expanded demand for meat and other animal products has witnessed unprecedented growth. In the next two decades the growth is likely to continue at the rate of 3.3 percent per year. The demand for feed will thus rise rapidly and will have to be met by cereals which have potential for increased productivity and improved nutritional value through better feed efficiency. Maize will certainly play a dominant role, and QPM will have the added advantage of being superior in protein quality and higher in feed efficiency. REFERENCES Bjarnason, M. & Vasal, S.K., 1992. Breeding of quality protein maize (QPM) In J.

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1980. Nutritional value of normal, opaque-2 and sugary-2, opaque-2 maize hybrids for infants and children. I. Digestibility and utilization., Journal. of Nutrition., 110:, 1061, 1980.

Graham, G. G., Lembcke, J., and Morales, E., 1990. Quality protein maize as the sole source of dietary protein and fat for rapidly growing young children., Pediatrics, 85:, 85, 1990.

Ingverson, J., B. Koie, B. & H. Doll, H. 1973 Induced seed protein mutant of barley. Experientia 29:1151-52, 1973.

Khush, G.S., and B.O. Juliano, B.O. 1984. Status of rice varietals improvement for protein content at IRRI. P. 199-202, 1984. In Nuclear techniques for cereal grain protein improvement. Proceedings. of Research. Coordination. Meeting., Vienna. IAEA, Vienna, 6-10 Dec. 1982.

Maner, J.H. 1975. Quality protein maize in swine nutrition. In High-quality protein maize. p. 58-82. Stroudsberg, PA, USA. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., Stroudsburg, PA. p. 58-82, 1975.

Mertz, E. T., Bates, L.S., and Nelson, O. E., 1964. Mutant gene that changes protein composition and increases lysine content of maize endosperm., Science, 145:, 279, 1964.

Mohan, D. P., and J. D. Axtell, J.D. 1975. Diethyl sulfate induced high lysine mutant in sorghum. Paper presented at Ninth Biennial Grain Sorghum Research. And Utilization. Conference., Lubbock, TXex., USA, 4-6 Mar. 1975.

Munck, L., K. E. Karlsson, K.E. and A. Hagberg, A. 1971. Selection and characterization of high protein lysine variety from the world barley collection. In R. Nilan, R. (ed.) Barley genetics II., p. 544-558. Washington, DC, Pullman, Wash., pp. 544-58, 1971.

Nelson, O.E., Mertz, E. T., and Bates, L.S., 1965. Second mutant gene affecting the amino acid pattern of maize endosperm proteins,. Science, 150:, 1469, 1965.

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Pradilla. A.G., C.A. Frances, C.A. and F.A. Linares, F.A. 1973. Studies on protein quality of flint phenotypes of modified maize. Arch. Latinoam. Nutrition. 23: 217-223. 1973.

Robbins, G. S., Y. Pomeranz,Y. and L. W. Briggle, L.W. 1971. Amino acid composition of oat oats. Agricultural. Food Chemistry,. 19: 536-39., 1971

Singh, J., and H. K. Jain, H.K. 1977. Studies on assessing the nutritive value of opaque-2 maize. New Delhi, Indian Agricultural. Research. Institute., New Delhi, 1977.

Singh, R., and J. D. Axtell, J.D. 1973. High lysine mutant gene (hl) that improves protein quality and biological value of grain sorghum. Crop Science., 13: 535-539. 1973.

Tanaka, S. 1983. Seed proteins of rice and possibilities of its improvement through mutant genes. In W. Gottchalk and H.P. Muller (eds.) Advances in agricultural biotechnology: Seed proteins: biochemistry, genetics, nutritive value. p. 225-244. The Hague, Nijhoff, Junk The Hague. P. 225-244, 1983.

Vasal, S. K. 2000. Quality Protein Maize Story. Food and Nutritional Bulletin, Vol. 21(4), No. 4: 445-450, 2000.

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Vasal, S.K., Villegas, E., and Bauer, R., 1979. Present status of breeding quality protein maize., In Seed Protein Improvement in Cereals and Grain Legumes, p. 127. Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 127, 1979.

Vasal, S.K., Villegas, E., Bjarnason, M., Gelaw, B., and Goertz, P., 1980. Genetic modifiers and breeding strategies in developing hard endosperm opaque-2 materials., In W.G. Pollmer and R.H. Phipps, eds. Improvement of Quality Traits of Maize for Grain and Silage Use, p. 37. The Hague, Pollmer, W.G. and Phipps, R.H., Eds., Nighoff, The Hague, 37, 1980.

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Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize（QPM）in animal

feed

Guang-Hai Qi*, Qi-Yu Diao*, Yan Tu*, Shu-Geng Wu* and Shi-Huang Zhang**

*Feed Research Institute and **Institute of Crop Breeding and Cultivation,

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing , P. R. China

INTRODUCTION Maize is well accepted as the king of feed ingredients. It is a primary source of energy supplement and can contribute up to 30 percent protein, 60 percent energy and 90 percent starch in an animal’s diet (Dado,1999). About 70-80 percent of maize production is used as a feed ingredient in the world. Although normal maize (NM) contains between eight and nine percent protein, the quantity of two essential amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, is below nutritional requirements for monogastric animals. Therefore, utilization of quality protein maize (QPM) can correct this deficiency and may be advantageous in the diets of livestock, and monogastric animals in particular. Improving the protein quality of cereal grains has been a major concern of scientists in the last two decades. Mutant germ plasma with high levels of lysine has been identified in maize (Mertz et al., 1964), but inherent agronomic defects of this germ plasm, particularly its low yield and high susceptibility to disease and insects, discourage many breeders from further investigation. Through several cycles of recurrent selection, the maize breeders in the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) have combined the high-lysine potential of the opaque-2 gene with a sufficient number of modifier genes to change the original soft opaque-2 endosperm into a hard vitreous type (Vasal et al., 1980). QPM populations that have superior lysine content and yield and agronomic characteristics similar to those of normal corn are now available (Ortega et al., 1986). QPM has smaller, more

186 Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize in animal feed

dense, harder kernels than food grade maize. Over the last 10 years in China, scientists at the Institute of Crop Breeding and Cultivation, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) have developed a group of QPM cultivars. Among them, Zhong Dan 9409 (ZD9409) is one of the best, with an 80 percent increase in lysine and tryptophan and 8–15 percent increase in grain production. However, for a number of reasons, the planting area of QPM in China is still less than 70 000 ha (Zhang, Shi-Huang, personal communication). The major obstacle to more widespread planting of QPM is information on nutrition and the utilization of QPM in animal diets. A series of experiments to overcome this problem has therefore been conducted using broilers, laying hens and pigs at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF QPM Chemical analysis Chemical analysis. Researchers have compared the chemical composition of QPM with NM (Ortega et al., 1986; Sproule et al., 1988; Osei et al., 1999). The percentage lysine content of QPM varies between 0.33 and 0.54 with an average of 0.38. This is 46 percent higher than NM and QPM also contains 66 percent more tryptophan (0.08 percent) (Table 1). Two maize samples each of NM and QPM, were recently analyzed for their composition and amino acid contents (Zhai, 2002) (Table 2). The approximate composition of QPM was similar to that of NM, although QPM tended to have higher levels of crude protein, ether extract and crude fibre (data not shown). The amino acid profiles show that of the five critical amino acids, QPM had higher levels of arginine (+18 percent), cystine, tryptophan and lysine (+30 percent) than NM, while the level of methionine in QPM was 5 percent less than in NM. In addition, the ratio of leucine to isoleucine was lower in QPM than in NM (2.97:1 vs 3.36:1). ENERGY AVAILABILITY The energy content of QPM and its availability in terms of different animals and in comparison with NM were determined using chicken and pigs (Tables 3 and 4). There were no significant differences in gross energy (GE), apparent metabolizable energy (AME) (poultry) and apparent digestible energy (ADE) (pigs) between QPM and NM (P>0.10). Although NM has a higher GE content than QPM, its AME for poultry and ADE for pigs are lower than those of QPM. It indicates that the energy available from QPM is little higher than that from NM (P>0.10).


TABLE 1 Comparison of the nutritional composition of quality protein maize (QPM) and normal maize (NM) (dry basis) Ortega,et al.,

1986 Osei et al.,

1999 Sproule et al.,

1988 NM QPM NM QPM NM QPM Gross energy, MJ/kg 14.71 16.76 17.39 17.26

Crude Protein, % 9.8 9.8 8.92 9.11 11.0 11.3

Ether extract, % 4.48 5.12 4.2 5.1

Crude fibre, % 1.93 2.14

Ash, % 1.90 1.60 1.3 1.6

Nitrogen-free extractives, % 71.52 71.37 72.3 72.3

Lys, % 0.27 0.43 0.24 0.32 0.28 0.42

Trp, % 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.08

Met, % 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.28 0.19

Cys, % 0.19 0.25

Ala, % 0.82 0.68 0.78 0.62

Arg, % 0.42 0.75 0.40 0.50 0.49 0.66

Asp, % 0.62 0.78 1.51 1.63

Glu, % 1.94 1.77 2.11 1.67

Gly, % 0.37 0.55 0.34 0.42 0.40 0.47

His, % 0.33 0.47 0.31 0.42

Ile, % 0.36 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.38 0.35

Leu, % 1.34 0.96 1.18 0.93 1.45 1.00

Phe, % 0.54 0.47 0.46 0.39 0.53 0.51

Pro, % 0.78 0.83 1.02 1.04

Ser, % 0.53 0.55 0.48 0.45

Thr, % 0.38 0.45 0.29 0.31 0.35 0.38

Tyr, % 0.33 0.41 0.45 0.35

Val, % 0.50 0.57 0.46 0.49 0.57 0.55


TABLE 2 Amino acid content of quality protein maize (QPM) and normal maize (NM) (dry basis)

Amino acid NM QPM QPM/NM Asp, %

Thr, %

Ser, %

Glu, %

Gly, %

Ala, %

Val, %

Met, %

Ile, %

Leu, %

Tyr, %

Phe, %

Lys, %

His, %

Arg, %

Pro, %

0.64

0.34

0.40

1.92

0.42

0.72

0.43

0.19

0.36

1.21

0.51

0.50

0.33

0.37

0.44

0.80

0.78

0.34

0.40

1.80

0.46

0.69

0.43

0.18

0.33

0.98

0.45

0.39

0.43

0.49

0.52

0.97

1.22

1.00

1.00

0.94

1.10

0.96

1.00

0.95

0.92

0.81

0.88

0.78

1.30

1.32

1.18

1.21

Source: Zhai, 2002 TABLE 3 Energy content of quality protein maize (QPM) and normal maize (NM) (dry basis), MJ/kg)*

Maize QPM NM

Gross energy (GE) 18.80 18.85

Apparent metabolizable energy (AME), poultry 14.48±0.22 14.41±0.23

Apparent digestible energy (ADE), pigs 13.91±0.08 13.88±0.16

Source: Zhai, 2002; Gao, 2002; *Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10).


Availability of protein and amino acids A force-feeding assay was employed to determine apparent and true digestibility of amino acids in QPM and NM (Zhai, 2002). The apparent and true amino acid digestibility of the two types of maize is shown in Table 4. It shows there is no significant difference in apparent and true digestibility of amino acids between the two types of maize with the exception of cystine digestibility for poultry. In contrast to the poultry study, when QPM was fed to pigs it had a higher apparent and true ileal amino acid digestibility of most amino acids than NM. QPM not only had a higher content of lysine but it was also digested better by the pigs. The reason for these differences is possibly due to the improvement of protein quality by a higher level of albumins/globulins. The lower digestibility of methionine with QPM should be notified if it is used in animal feed because methionine is one of the most limiting amino acids in animal feeds. QPM Utilization in Animal feed NM contributes up to a third or more of the crude protein content of chicken diets. On the other hand, maize is low in protein in addition to its general deficiency in essential amino acids, particularly lysine and tryptophan. Thus, feeding NM necessitates the use of expensive protein ingredients, including fishmeal and soybean meal. Nutritional evaluation of QPM in various locations has proved the superiority of QPM over NM in the feeding of various animals. A series of animal trials using broilers, laying hens and pigs are summarized as follows (Bai, 2002; Gao, 2002; Zhai, 2002). Pig Trial Gao (2002) conducted a pig trial at the Chinese Academy. It included five dietary treatments. Treatment 1 was a NM-soybean meal (SBM) based diet. Treatment 2 was the same as Treatment 1, except NM was totally replaced by QPM in the same dietary proportion. Treatment 3 was an NM-SBM based diet with lysine content adjusted to that in Treatment 2. In Treatment 4, some of the SBM was replaced by cottonseed meal with lysine content being adjusted to that in Treatment 1. Treatment 5 was was similar to Treatment 2 but had less SBM and its lysine content was adjusted to the same level as that in Treatment 1. Two stage diets relating to pig growth stages of 20-50 kg and 50-80 kg, were made for each treatment (Table 6).


TABLE 4 Apparent and true amino acid digestibility of quality protein maize (QPM) and normal maize (NM) for poultry

Apparent amino acid digestibility, (%) True amino acid digestibility, (%) Amino acid* QPM NM QPM NM Thr 67.20±5.79 64.83±3.84 93.73±5.53 94.84±3.84

Cys 81.52±1.05A 72.29±2.93B 93.37±4.46A 83.73±6.87B

Val 68.13±5.11 70.09±4.39 89.22±3.22 92.74±4.39

Met 66.20±2.07 67.61±4.55 97.38±1.71 96.05±3.95

ILe 71.93±7.73 76.75±6.51 94.05±6.33 95.21±6.51

Leu 83.12±4.99 86.82±5.93 95.51±3.18 95.14±5.93

Phe 78.03±10.41 79.06±8.83 92.08±10.07 96.19±8.82

Lys 77.81±7.73 74.20±7.19 94.88±5.30 92.95±7.19

Arg 83.44±4.09 81.64±3.89 100.17±3.58 101.13±3.89

His 73.63±4.75 74.65±2.45 93.99±3.81 93.58±3.52

Trp 73.37±3.95 73.24±3.06 89.50±1.60 87.79±3.03

Asp 69.68±6.46 74.86±5.03 87.48±6.15 95.96±5.04

Glu 82.84±3.42 83.13±3.94 95.66±3.22 94.54±3.94

Gly 76.84±4.29 77.26±5.09 95.85±3.61 95.72±5.09

Ala 80.94±6.35 79.93±3.43 97.82±4.78 97.14±3.43

Pro 83.38±5.57 84.81±2.77 95.81±4.22 98.17±2.77

Tyr 76.42±10.69 77.43±9.48 100.74±6.37 92.19±9.49

Ser 67.76±1.60 63.41±3.56 97.59±1.13 96.33±3.56

Source: Zhai, 2002; * Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10).


TABLE 5 Apparent and true ileal amino acid digestibility of quality protein maize (QPM) and normal corn (NC) maize (NM) for pigs

Apparent ileal amino acid digestibility, (%)

True ileal amino acid digestibility, (%)

Amino acid*

QPM NM QPM NM Asp, % 85.3±1.7A 79.2±1.7B 87.4±2.6A 82.8±1.1B

Thr, % 78.5±2.4A 72.1±3.0B 81.2±2.5A 75.2±2.9B

Ser, % 81.8±1.5 80.4±2.6 84.7±1.7 82.2±2.6

Glu, % 87.3±1.5 87.3±1.1 89.4±1.6 88.8±0.8

Gly, % 72.2±4.9 68.6±6.4 77.4±4.4A 71.0±6.4B

Ala, % 77.1±2.9 77.6±3.0 80.8±2.5 80.2±3.1

Val, % 81.1±1.8A 78.7±1.6B 83.7±3.4A 82.2±1.3B

Ile, % 78.7±3.3 80.0±1.3 83.0±3.6 82.6±1.2

Leu, % 84.0±1.7 85.5±1.2 86.8±1.7 87.4±1.1

Tyr, % 84.2±2.6 81.0±2.9 86.6±2.9A 83.3±2.7B

Phe, % 84.9±3.0 84.6±0.7 87.3±3.3 86.5±0.7

Lys, % 76.0±3.1A 71.9±1.7B 78.7±3.6A 74.6±1.3B

His, % 90.7±2.0A 86.4±2.8B 91.1±2.1A 86.6±2.8B

Arg, % 89.2±0.9 88.7±2.3 90.9±1.3 90.3±2.1

Pro, % 89.8±5.7 85.8±7.7 91.0±5.7 85.5±7.1

Cys, % 80.4±4.3 76.0±4.3 82.2±3.5 78.5±3.8

Met, % 79.0±4.9B 85.3±2.1A 82.8±6.0B 88.3±2.6A

Trp, % 89.3±5.5A 81.6±5.3B 94.4±5.5A 86.0±5.0B

TAA, % 82.7±1.9A 80.2±2.2B 85.6±2.0A 83.0±2.0B

TEAA, % 83.1±1.5A 81.5±1.7B 86.1±1.7A 84.2±1.5B

Source: Gao, 2002; * Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10).


TABLE 6 Dietary treatments used at different growth stages in the pig trial

Treatment 1 2 3 4 5 NM QPM NM + Lys QPM + CSM QPM, Low CP Grower phase 20-50 kg

NM, % 73.33 / 73.24 / /

QPM, % / 73.33 / 73.3 75.73

Soybean meal, % 23.7 23.7 23.72 16.05 21.16

Cottonseed meal, % / / / 7.8 /

Nutritional content DE, MJ/ kg 13.52 13.52 13.51 13.27 13.53

Crude protein, % 17.1 17.1 17.1 16.9 16.2

Lysine, % 0.9 0.97 0.97 0.9 0.9

Finisher phase 50-80 kg NM, % 78.8 / 78.69 / /

QPM, % / 78.8 / 79.45 81.44

Soybean meal, % 18.05 18.05 18.07 11.34 15.37

Cottonseed meal, % / / / 6.6 /

Nutritional content DE, MJ/ kg 13.55 13.55 13.54 13.38 13.57

Crude protein, % 15 15 15 14.8 14

Lysine, % 0.75 0.82 0.82 0.76 0.75

Source: Gao, 2002. The growth performance of the pigs used in the experiments is shown in Table 7. In the grower phase (20-50kg), replacement of NM by an equal ratio of QPM in the pig diet significantly improved the average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) (P<0.10) (Table 7). In the finisher phase (50-80kg), replacement of NM by an equal ratio of QPM in the pig diet remarkably increased ADG. This indicates that QPM has a superior quality to NM. The reason for the weight gain and FCR improvement is possibly due an increase in the lysine content and higher digestibility of critical essential amino acids. Similar results were obtained by Sullivan (1989) in grower pigs and Burgoon (1992) in finisher pigs. When the lysine content in the NM based diet (Treatment 2) was similar to that in the QPM based diet (Treatment 3), ADG and FCR greatly improved in comparison with the NM based diet. However, there was no significant


difference in performance between Treatment 2 and Treatment 3. It suggests that it is the higher lysine content in QPM that is the main contributor to the feeding benefits of QPM. Sullivan (1989) and Brugoon (1992) obtained similar results. Table 7 also shows that for pigs, some soybean meal in the QPM based diet could be replaced by cottonseed meal without compromising their performance (Treatments 4 and 5). This is of great significance since cottonseed meal is much cheaper than soybean meal in China. TABLE 7 Growth performance of pigs fed different maize based diets*

Treatment 1 2 3 4 5

Grower phase (20-50 kg)

Number of pigs 15

15

15

15

15

ADG, g/d 640±25C 730±20A 700±40AB 660±30BC 640±15C

Feed intake, kg/d 2.03±0.03A 2.14±0.09A 2.21+0.24A 2.01+0.11A 2.09±0.16A

FCR (F/G)** 3.16±0.15A 2.94±0.14BC 2.83±0.13C 3.03±0.04AB 3.26±0.21A

Finisher phase (50-80 kg)

Number of pigs

10

10

10

10

10

ADG, g/d 720±80C 815±75AB 905±90A 845±75AB 750±120BC

Feed intake, kg/d 2.69±0.19B 3.00±0.27AB 2.92±0.16AB 3.12±0.18AA 3.03±0.49AB

FCR (F/G) 3.75±0.17B 3.68±0.05B 3.24±0.13C 3.70±0.17B 4.03±0.16A

Source: Gao, 2002; * Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10). ** F = feed per day, kg, G = growth per day, kg There was no significant difference in carcass dressing percentage as a result of the diets (Table 8). For carcass length, there was no significant difference between Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 5, but Treatment 4 resulted in more lean meat than Treatment 3. Dietary treatment had no significant effect on back-fat thickness. This disagrees with Jin et al (1998) who suggest that using QPM rather than NM in the diet could decrease back-fat thickness. The reason for this disagreement remains unknown. It is interesting to note (Table 8) that the loingissimus dorsi area was significantly increased when NM was completely


replaced by QPM. In summary, QPM has no significant effect on the carcass characteristics of pigs. TABLE 8 Carcass characteristics of pigs fed different maize based diets*

Treatment 1 2 3 4 5

Dressing percentage,% 72.46±8.29A 74.59±11.79A 74.32±3.06A 73.26±5.62A 71.77±8.85A

Carcass length, cm 86.5±2.4AB 86.8±2.4AB 89.5±7.1AB 92.8±4.6A 83.5±3.7B

Back-fat thickness, cm 2.1±0.5A 1.9±0.3A 2.5±0.2A 2.1±0.3A 2.0±0.4A

Loingissimus dorsi

area, cm2

30.7±6.4B 42.6±6.1A 32.7±5.0AB 31.4±4.5AB 40.5±6.2AB

Lean meat, % 52.0±2.3AB 53.7±2.2AB 48.7±4.9B 59.1±4.7A 53.2±4.1AB

Source: Gao, 2002; *Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10). Laying Hen Trial Zhai (2002) conducted a laying hen trial. The dietary treatments and their major nutritional contents are shown in Table 9. Simply replacing NM by QPM significantly enhanced egg production (P < 0.10). The QPM based diet increased feed intake of the birds remarkably (P < 0.10). It implies that QPM may contain an appetizer regardless of its lysine content. Using QPM in a laying hen diet could enhance yolk pigmentation. However, dietary treatment has no noticeable effects on egg weight, FCR, soft and broken egg percentage or Haugh unit (P>0.10) (Table 10). TABLE 9 Dietary treatments and their major nutritional contents

Treatment NM+Lys QPM Normal maizeNM, % 68.5 - Quality protein maize (QPM), % - 68.5 L-LysineHCl, % 0.07 - Nutritional content ME, MJ/kg 11.09 11.18 Crude protein, % 15 14.94 Lysine, % 0.71 0.69 Methioine, % 0.32 0.31 Cystine, % 0.22 0.23 Source: Zhai, 2002


TABLE 10 Effect of dietary treatments on the performance of laying hens*

Treatment NM+Lys QPM

Number of birds 144 144

Feed intake, g/bird/d 113.95±0.91B 116.69±0.22A

Egg production, % 89.63±0.83B 90.97±0.71A

Egg weight, g/egg 59.21±0.99 59.07±0.67

FCR (Feed/egg) 2.15±0.07 2.16±0.06

Soft and broken egg, % 1.90±0.23 1.83±0.40

Haugh unit, Day 21 99.18±2.18 99.98±2.59

Haugh unit, Day 42 96.69±1.09 97.24±1.06

Haugh unit, Day 63 97.10±1.46 97.39±1.15

Shell strength, Day 21 3.71±0.25 3.73±0.14



Yolk colour, Day 21 8.10±0.14B 8.58±0.26A



Source: Zhai, 2002; * Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10). In addition, Osei et al (1999) carried out an evaluation of QPM for layer pullets. The trial was conducted in two phases:

1. Growing phase (from 8 to 18 weeks) and 2. Laying phase (from 19 to 51 weeks).

The results of the grower phase suggested that when QPM was added to pullet diets, protein levels could be reduced to 14 percent without any adverse effects on their performance. In comparison, when NM is used, performance is lowered. The addition of QPM to layer diets had significant effects on the age at first egg (P < 0.01), at the age when 50 percent egg production was achieved (P < 0.05), and on the daily production of housed hens (P < 0.001). It indicates that QPM can be used in layer chicken diets to cut down on the use of fish meal and results in considerable financial benefits without sacrificing performance.


Broiler Trial Bai (2002) conducted a laboratory broiler trial using Avian day-old broiler chicks. Dietary treatment is shown in Table 11. TABLE 11 Dietary treatments used in ofthe broiler trial conducted by Bai (2002)

Digestible lysine content, (%) Treatment

Dietary content 0-3 wk 3-6 wk 6-7 wk

1 NM 0.87 0.62 0.43

2 NM + LysineHCl 0.98 0.70 0.53

3 QPM 0.91 0.66 0.47

4 QPM + LysineHCl 0.98 0.70 0.53

Source: Bai, 2002 The effect of dietary treatment on performance of broilers is shown in Table 12. Dietary replacement of NM by QPM significantly increased weight gain during days 21-42, 42-49 and 1-49. Meanwhile, feed efficiency was greatly improved (P< 0.10). There was no significant difference between Treatments 1 and 3 relating to carcass percentage, abdominal fat percentage, percentage of eviscerated yield and percentage of eviscerated yield with giblets. At a given digestible lysine content, using QPM tended to increase weight gain but there was no statistical evidence to support this (P>0.10). Therefore, using QPM to replace NM in the broiler diet may have economic benefits due to improved weight gain and FCR and decreasing of dietary lysine supplementation.


TABLE 12 Effect of dietary treatment on the performance of broilers*

Treatment no. 1 2 3 4

Weight gain, g Weight gain, g Day 0-21 535.14±9.97B 550.05±11.33A 537.43±15.36AB 551.09±6.13A

Day 21-42 1286.76±9.61C 1313.62±11.24AB 1298.50±14.89B 1320.93±6.63A

Day 42-49 409.16±2.40C 424.11±3.10AB 419.06±9.42B 426.13±4.32A

Day 1-49 2231.06±2.11C 2287.79±2.88A 2265.99±8.68B 2298.15±4.29A

FCR (F/G) Weight gain, g/g Day 0-21 1.53±0.04A 1.48±0.03BC 1.52±0.05AB 1.47±0.02C

Day 21-42 2.20±0.02A 2.14±0.02BC 2.16±0.02B 2.13±0.01B

Day 42-49 2.38±0.03A 2.25±0.02B 2.30±0.03B 2.24±0.03B

Day 1-49 2.07±0.01A 2.00±0.01C 2.03±0.01B 1.99±0.01C

Carcass percentage, % 76.99±0.40C 78.21±0.91AB 77.30±1.24BC 78.69±1.35A

Percentage of

Eviscerated yield, (%)

68.03±1.20B 69.60±0.76A 69.41±0.62AB 70.22±1.35A

Percentage of

Eviscerated yield with

giblets, (%)

79.60±1.08B 81.38±0.50A 80.13±0.43B 81.78±0.90A

Abdominal fat, (%) 2.03±0.01B 2.06±0.04AB 2.05±0.02AB 2.08±0.05A

Source: Bai, 2002; * Means within a row with different letters differ significantly (P<0.10). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS QPM is superior to NM in its amino acids balance and nutrient composition, and could improve the performance of various animals. It is more economical to use diets incorporating QPM as it can lead to progressive reductions in the use of fishmeal and synthetic lysine additives. Acknowledgements Jun Gao, Shao-Wei Zhai, and Xue-Feng Bai are acknowledged for their skillful participation in the laboratory studies. Thanks are also extended to Ji-Xin Guan and Xin-Hai Li for their help during this study.


REFERENCES Bai, Xue-Feng. 2002. Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize

Zhong Dan 9409 in broiler feed. MSc Thesis. Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, P. R. China.

Burgoon, K.G., J.A. Hansen, J.A., D. A. Knabe, D. A. and A. J. Backholt A. J. 1992. Nutritional value of quality protein maize for starter and finisher swine. Journal of Animal Science., 70: 811-817.

Dado, R. G. 1999. Nutritional benefits of specialty maize grain hybrids in dairy diets. Journal. of Animal. Science., 77(Suppl.2) /Journal of. Dairy Science, .82 (Suppl.2): 197-207.

Gao, Jun., 2002. Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize Zhong Dan 9409 in pig feed. MSc Thesis, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, P. R. China. Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. (M.Sc. thesis)

Jin, Shuixian, Fuzhuang, Lu and Hongxing Lu. 1998. Nutritional evaluation of high lysine and conventional corns for pigs. Swine Production, (1): 4-5 (in Chinese)

Mertz, E. T., L. S. Bates, L. S. and O. E. Nelson,. O. E.1964. Mutant gene that changes protein composition and increases lysine content of maize endosperm. Science, 145: 279.

Ortega, E. I., E. Villegas, E. and S. K. Vasal, S. K. 1986. A comparative study of protein changes in normal and quality protein maize during tortilla making. Cereal Chemistry., 63(5): 446-451.

Osei, S. A., H. K. Dei, H. K. and A. K. Tuah, A. K. 1999. Evaluation of quality protein maize as a feed ingredient for layer pullet. Journal of Animal. Feed Science. 8: 181-189.

Sullivan, J. S., D. A. Knabe, D. A., A. J. Bockholt, A. J. and E. J. Gregg., E. J. 1989. Nutritional value of quality protein maize and food maize for starter and growth pigs. Journal of Animal. Science. 67: 1285-1292.

Sproule, A. M., S. O. Saldivar, S. O., A. J. Bockholt, A. J., L. W. Rooney L. W. and D. A. Knabe, D. A. 1988. Nutritional evaluation of tortillas and tortilla chips from quality protein maize. Cereal Foods World,. 33(2): 233-236.

Vasal, S. K., E. Villegas, E., M. Bjarnason, M., B. Gelaw, B. and P. Goertz, P. 1980. Genetic modifiers and breeding strategies in developing hard endosperm opaque-2 materials. Pages 37-73 In: W. G. Pollmer and R. H. Phipps, eds. Improvement of Quality Traits of Maize for Grains and Silage Use. p. 37-73. W. G. Pollmer and R. H. Phipps, eds. Amsterdam, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Amsterdam.

Zhai, Shao-Wei., 2002. Nutritional evaluation and utilization of quality protein maize Zhong Dan 9409 in laying hen feed. MSc Thesis, Shaanxi 712100, P. R. China, Northwestern Agricultural and Forestry University of Science and Technology, Shaanxi 712100, P. R. China. (M.Sc. thesis)


Current livestock production and protein sources as animal feeds in Thailand

Metha Wanapat

Department of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture Khon Kaen University

Thailand Livestock production in Thailand plays an important role both in supplying meat, milk, eggs for domestic consumption and for export. Animal feeds generally account for up to 70 percent of the cost of production and within these costs, protein sources are likely to have a significant impact. Under the prevailing conditions and level of livestock production in Thailand, an increase in production can be anticipated. A number of local protein sources have been used in animal rations. However, soybean meal/cake and fishmeal are the major protein sources used and are mostly imported. In order to achieve the future goal of lowering imports and costs, alternative sources of competitively priced protein, such as cassava, cassava based products (e.g. cassarea) or other products from different crop origins could have potential and be exploited. INTRODUCTION Livestock in Thailand has played an important role both socially and economically. Diversity of livestock in terms of species, distribution, roles, etc., can be widely found and is integrated into the prevailing production systems throughout the country. In general, two groups of animals have been raised, ruminants; beef cattle, dairy cattle, swamp buffaloes, sheep and goats and non-ruminants: swine and poultry. Although, production systems have been shifting from one to another, nevertheless, they generally fall into the following categories: subsistence, semi-intensive and intensive production systems (Wanapat, 1999). Within each system, input, resources and management are likely to be different and will vary according to local and specific goals. A good example of these differences is a subsistence system of small-scale buffalo production in the NE, whilst a flock of layers can be seen in the central region of Thailand. Requirements of feeds and particularly for protein will vary according to species and production systems. It is therefore the

200 Current livestock production and protein sources as animal feeds in Thailand

objective of this paper to review current production systems and the availability, utilization and development of protein sources as livestock feeds. LIVESTOCK NUMBERS AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Livestock production in Thailand plays a crucial role, which extends beyond the traditional uses of supplying only meat, milk and eggs. Livestock are used for multiple purposes such as draught power, a means of transportation, capital, credit, meat, milk, social value, by-product uses, and hides and as a source of organic fertilizer for seasonal cropping. Livestock have a significant capacity to utilize on-farm resources, especially agricultural crop residues and by-products that are abundantly available. Livestock/crop holdings have been in the hands of the rural resource-poor farmers for many decades and it is likely to hold true for many years to come. In general, farmers traditionally practice rice cultivation (1-3 ha), field crop production, e.g. sugar cane or cassava, with buffalo and/or cattle (1-3 head). It is therefore essential to account for and integrate the on-farm activities of livestock and to diversify their contribution to increase the farmer’s production efficiency and income. Subsistence farmers have practised mixed crop-livestock based production, in which the bulk of the crop yield is used for family consumption and the excess exchanged for local goods or sold, for decades. Recently, a number of countries, including Thailand, have developed a new policy. The aim is to develop livestock-crop production systems to enhance the situation of smallholder farmers, especially their income, in areas where crops cannot be efficiently cultivated. In such areas, land for rice and cassava plantations will be reduced and livestock production, especially of beef and dairy cattle, is being promoted. The Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives is committed to increasing the number of beef and dairy cattle by 50 000 and 10 000 head/year respectively, over the next five years. Small ruminants such as goats and sheep are important species raised mostly in the southern part of Thailand. Their potential and future development, and the required research to achieve these goals have been presented by Saithanoo and Cheva-Isarakul (1991) and Saithanoo and Pichaironarongsongkram (1989). It is therefore, anticipated that the livestock industry will be a major source of income, and livestock-crop production systems could play a critical role in the economy of rural societies in Thailand. The livestock economy accounts for about half of total agricultural production when the direct economic value of animal products are added to the animals’ role in providing transportation, draught power for cultivation (Chantalakahana, 1995), manure for cropping and their ability to utilize non-arable land and agricultural residues (Chantalakahana, 1990; Devendra and Chantalakahana, 1993). However,


as environmental issues become of increasing concern, specific measures will be taken that combine efficiency of conversion and productivity, low emissions of methane and capacity to use by-products and crop residues from other primary sources in developing countries. According to Wanapat (1999), livestock-crop based production systems in Thailand could be classified in accordance with their management practices and targeted goals (Tables 1 and 2). The efficiencies of the production systems subsequently depend on availability of on farm resources, skilful management and marker outlets. TABLE 1 Type of livestock-crop production systems in Thailand

Type Characteristics/goal Livestock and crops Subsistence System

Minimal input, small in number draught power, meat, by-products, socio-economic status, naturally available feeds

Buffalo, goats, sheep rice, cassava, sugar-cane

Semi-intensive System

More input, herd expansion, better management of short duration, targeted market, income generation, secondary or primary source of income

Dairying, finishing/fattening of beef, cassava, soybean, sugar-cane, corn

Intensive system Labour-intensive, high input, large herd, skillful management, availability and good quality of roughage and concentrates, well-structured market, major source of income

Dairying, finishing/fattening of beef, poultry, swine, rice, corn, soybean

TABLE 2 Existing livestock production systems by regions

Species Type of production Regions by highest to lowest production

Beef cattle Semi-intensive cow-calf/grazing North-east, northern, central, Finishing/feedlot North-east, northern Dairy cattle Semi-intensive, intensive

milk/grazing and zero-grazing Central, north-east, northern

Buffalo Subsistence production for draught/grazing

North-east, northern, central

Goats Subsistence production for meat Southern, others Sheep Subsistence production for meat Southern, others Swine Commercial/intensive Central, northern, north-east Poultry Commercial/intensive Central, north-east, northern


The major ruminant species raised in Thailand are cattle and swamp buffaloes. The population reported in 1999 were 5.7 and 1.9 million head for cattle and buffaloes respectively. During the period 1990 to 1995, cattle numbers increased but declined markedly thereafter. Despite this, the Department of Livestock Development (DLD) announced that cattle, and particularly dairy cattle, were an important species as a source of meat and milk and as an income generator for smallholder farmers. DLD therefore set a development plan to support the smallholder dairy industry. As far as buffaloes are concerned, the population has declined dramatically, particularly since 1995. Factors, which contributed to the decline, have been addressed, including replacement of buffalo draught by small tractors, illegal slaughtering, low reproductive performance, production inefficiency and low profile support and development from the Government etc. The sudden drop in buffalo numbers received considerable attention and was taken up by DLD who tried to find conservation and development solutions, especially amongst village smallholders. At the village level, this included a more organized and obvious marketing and trading of cattle and buffaloes, which stimulated the producers and the process (Tables 3 & 4 and Figures 1 & 2). TABLE 3 Distribution of cattle in Thailand (head)

Region

Year Northern (N)

North-Eastern (NE)

Central Plain (C)

Southern (S)

Whole Kingdom (WK)

Annual Growth rate, %

1990 1 285 946 1969268 1 295 970 907 496 5 458 680 -

1991 1 326 572 2 031 481 1 336 911 936 166 5 631 130 3.2

1992 1 369 998 2 097 948 1 380 676 966 182 5 814 804 3.3

1993 1 677 023 2 410 990 1 471 037 801 405 6 360 455 9.4

1994 1 795 919 2 643 523 1 506 574 849 399 6 795 415 6.8

1995 1 782 533 2 686 326 1 492 019 861 455 6 822 333 0.4

1996 2 723 841 1 791 422 1 508 165 854 759 6 878 187 0.8

1997 1 770 144 2 688 ,419 1 478 934 840 948 6 778 445 -1.5

1998 1 640 537 2 540 160 1 364 323 783 046 6 328 066 -6.6

1999 1 470 820 2 306 578 1 211 195 688 466 5 677 059 -10.3

Source: Office of Agricultural Statistics, 2001 Non-ruminants produced in Thailand are swine and poultry but unlike ruminants, are reared on a large or commercial scale. Skilful and systematic management have


been used. Commercial concentrates and a higher level of automatic feeding are used for both domestic consumption and for export, especially for frozen chickens. Proper handling and a high standard of sanitation are an essential requirement, particularly for those being exported. Population of poultry with the exception of chickens, increased steadily from 1991 to 1998, but in the ten years to 1999 had actually dropped slightly. The steady increase in numbers of chickens is expected to continue due to rising exports. (Tables 5, 6 & 7, Figures 3, 4 & 5). TABLE 4 Distribution of buffaloes in Thailand (head)

Region

Year Northern (N)

North-Eastern

(NE)

Central Plain (C)

Southern (S)

Whole

Kingdom (WK)

Annual Growth rate, %

1990 783 111 3 769 833 379 024 162 302 5 094 270 -

1991 765 042 3 682 852 370 279 158 557 4 976 730 -2.3

1992 747 392 3 597 883 361 736 154 899 4 861 910 -2.3

1993 708 487 3 554 941 347 070 143 199 4 753 697 -2.2

1994 676 303 3 512 249 336 366 134 622 4 659 540 -2.0

1995 580 202 3 213 215 274 420 113 775 4 181 612 -10.3

1996 480 609 2 917 471 246 761 88 432 3 733 273 -10.7

1997 363 007 2 280 174 174 394 66 920 2 884 495 -22.7

1998 267 532 1 919 065 142 500 57 320 2 386 417 -17.3

1999 228 061 1 509 499 122 751 51 207 1 911 518 -19.9

Means 559 975 2 995 718 275 530 113 123 3 944 346 -10.0

Source: Office of Agricultural Statistics, 2001


TABLE 5 Number and distribution of swine in Thailand (head)

Region

Year Northern (N)

North-Eastern (NE)

Central Plain (C)

Southern (S)

Whole Kingdom

(WK)

Annual Growth rate (%)

1991 1 298 554 1 227 502 1 568 557 764 423 4 859 036 -

1992 1 243 480 1 177 834 1 486 958 747 207 4 655 479 -4.4

1993 1 247 581 1 252 033 1 731 488 753 890 4 984 992 6.6

1994 1 251 054 1 314 560 2 114 018 755 108 5 434 740 8.3

1995 1 291 523 1 243 235 2 114 761 719 581 5 369 100 -1.2

1996 1 392 891 1 395 034 2 540 303 800 281 6 128 509 12.4

1997 1 210 119 1 316 112 3 550 692 816 665 6 893 588 11.1

1998 1 251 328 1 386 990 3 635 901 807 464 7 081 683 2.7

1999 1 106 511 1 219 609 3 297 658 745 909 6 369 687 -11.2


0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Year

Po

pula

tio

n, h

d

N

NE

C

S

WK

Figure 2 Change in number of buffalo during the period 1990 to 1999


TABLE 6 Number and distribution of chickens in Thailand (head)

Region

Year Northern (N)

North-Eastern (NE)

Central Plain (C)

Southern (S)

Whole Kingdom

(WK)

Annual Growth

rate (%)

1991 27 286 868 31 595 502 28 033 918 12 805 689 99 721 977

1992 28 761 080 33 070 173 29 508 183 14 279 900 10 5619 336 5.9

1993 27 908 721 30 078 524 68 346 641 12 751 555 139 085 441 31.7

1994 29 095 071 32 658 382 71 911 142 13 427 848 147 092 443 5.8

1995 29 965 371 34 570 233 70 925 505 13 322 844 117 783 953 -9.4

1996 31 965 531 37 376 214 77 299 038 13 322 844 121 814 953 5.7

1997 36 373 466 41 771 509 116 587 785 18 789 855 213 522 615 51.6

1998 38 311 154 45 382 379 119 506 359 19 532 447 222 732 339 4.3

1999 39 919 177 47 524 920 121 191 810 20 447 181 229 083 088 2.9


0

50000000

100000000

150000000

200000000

250000000

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Year

Po

pula

tio

n, h

d

N

NE

C

S

WK

Figure 4 Change in number of chickens during the period 1991 to 1999


TABLE 7 Number and distribution of duck in Thailand (head)

Region

Year Northern (N)

North-Eastern

(NE)

Central Plain (CP)

Southern (S)

Whole Kingdom

(WK)

Annual Growth rate (%)

1991 1 416 574 5 934 037 10 398 969 1 373 984 19 125 555 -

1992 1 334 357 6 019 511 10 288 432 1 702 414 19 346 706 1.2

1993 1 821 108 6 420 269 11 742 093 1 794 925 21 780 388 12.6

1994 1 408 325 5 888 475 12 636 861 1 878 154 21 813 809 0.2

1995 1 431 412 5 118 910 10 564 520 1 781 793 18 898 630 -13.4

1996 1 836 174 5 933 781 11 951 646 1 678 774 21 402 371 13.2

1997 2 176 228 6 027 409 11 470 759 2 155 500 21 831 893 2.0

1998 1 778 786 5 261 088 10 769 738 1 938 465 19 750 075 -9.5


0

5000000

10000000

15000000

20000000

25000000

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Year

Nu

mb

er o

f d

uck

s, h

d

N

NE

C

S

WK

Figure 5 Change in the number of ducks during the period 1991 to 1998


PROTEIN SOURCES AS ANIMAL FEEDS Fish meal and soybean meal/cake are common major protein sources used in non ruminant feeds while supplements of cottonseed meal, peanut meal, pararubber seed meal, mungbean meal, coconut meal and oil palm cake are fed to ruminants, particularly lactating dairy cows. In the year to 2002, total feed use for all animals was about 10 million tonnes, of which soybean meal (SBM) and fish meal were the two major protein sources (Tables 8 & 9). As presented in Table 9, the Thai feed industry has been importing soybean seed and its by–products especially SBM for use in the animal feed industry. TABLE 8 Major protein sources used in animal feeds in 2000 (tonnes)

Species Feed use Fishmeal Soybean meal

Broilers 3 354 302 0 1 006 290

Parent stock 462 510 13 875 115 627

Growing layer, hen 552 652 16 579 138 163

Layer, hens 1 181 960 59 096 295 490

Layer, parent stock 20 025 601 5 006

Fattening, swine 2 496 585 74 897 499 317

Breeding, swine 604 500 30 225 120 900

Meat, ducks 148 512 8 910 29 702

Breeding, ducks 13 870 832 4 161

Layer, ducks 110 500 8 840 16 575

Shrimp 600 000 210 000 72 000

Dairy cattle 367 920 0 18 396

Fish 207 000 41 400 62 100

Total 10 120 335 405 259 2 383 728

Source: Association of Feed Mills of Thailand, 2000


TABLE 9 Soybean and its by-products: their exportation and importation in Thailand (tonnes)

Exportation Importation Year Seed Oil Meal/Cake Seed Oil Meal/Cake 1982 1 295 - 250 3 218 10 445 208 470

1983 1 035 - 150 * 20 554 191 479

1984 995 79 250 107 46 709 296 237

1985 2 342 - 13 1 13 657 155 023

1986 1 983 5 - * 3 802 205 915

1987 142 3 - * 2 687 239 564

1988 16 16 4 33 277 7 304 225 404

1989 11 40 - 9 7 601 171 602

1990 74 48 - 16 5 499 147 081

1991 529 102 - 34 3 826 189 065

1992 781 434 - 158 047 7 299 74 291

1993 471 398 * 44 689 7 453 598 844

1994 312 546 12 97 998 11 360 902 708

1995 279 971 50 203 156 13 920 688 516 * less than one tonne Source: Office of Agricultural Statistics, 1983-1996 As shown in Table 9 soybean seed, oil and cake/meal have been imported for use in animal feeds, especially SBM/cake during the years 1982–1995. The price of SBM fluctuated from 8–14 Baht/kg (Baht 41.66/US$ at 5 July 2002) depending on world markets and as a consequence, the cost of production was relatively high. Considering the present livestock population and the future demand, more livestock will be produced in Thailand. It is therefore imperative that locally available alternative protein sources should be exploited in order to support production and to achieve a more sustainable feeding system. Alternative protein sources: cassava foliage and cassava based products as protein sources Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), an annual tropical tuber crop, was nutritionally evaluated as a source of protein in animal feeds. Cultivation of cassava biomass to produce dried leaf and hay is based on a first harvest of the


foliage at three months after planting, followed every two months thereafter until the crop is a year old. Inter-cropping cassava with leguminous crops such as Leucaena leucocephala (wild tamarind) or cowpea (Vigna unculata), enriches soil fertility and provides additional fodder. Cassava leaf or hay contains 20 to 25 percent crude protein in the dry matter and has a minimal hydro cyanic acid (HCN) content. Recent studies by Wanapat et al. (1997, 2000a, 2001) revealed the potential of cassava leaf and hay as a good source of protein. This was achieved by collecting the leaf or whole crop at an early stage of growth and harvesting further biomass throughout the year. Accumulated yield of cassava hay has been reported to range from 2–8 tonnes DM/ha depending on variety, cultivation practice and use of fertilizer (Wanapat, 2001). Potential use of cassava in integrated farming systems has been presented (Polthanee et al., 2001; Preston, 2001). As can be seen from Table 10 and Figure 6, the protein content of cassava leaf and hay were relatively high, while fibre levels were low. Moreover, levels of the essential amino acids, methionine and threonine were similar to those found in soybean meal. Lysine content on the other hand was lower than in SBM but higher than in alfalfa meal. Feeding trials with cattle revealed high levels of dry matter (DM) intake (3.2 percent of body weight [BW]) and high DM digestibility (71 percent). The hay contained tannin-protein complexes, which could act as a rumen by-pass protein for digestion in the small intestine. Therefore, supplementation with cassava hay at 1–2 kg/hd/d to dairy cattle could markedly reduce concentrate requirements and increase milk yield and composition. Moreover, cassava hay supplementation in dairy cattle could increase milk thiocyanate and thus possibly enhance milk quality and storage, especially in smallholder-dairy farming. Condensed tannins contained in cassava hay have also been shown to have potential for reducing gastrointestinal nematodes and they could therefore act as an anthelmintic agent. Cassava hay is therefore an excellent multi-nutrient source for animals, especially with its high level of protein; it could also, together with its leaf and some enrichment nutrient, be processed by grinding, chopping or palletizing. Overall, therefore, cassava has the potential to increase the productivity and profitability of sustainable livestock production systems in the tropics (Wanapat 2001; Wanapat et al., 1999, 2000b, 2000c). Development of protein rich cassava based products Recent attempts have been made to develop new products using cassava chips as an energy source, urea as a non–protein nitrogen (NPN) and cassava leaf/hay as a rumen bypass protein. Two new cassava based products have been developed:


cassarea and cassaya. Cassarea was formulated to contain the following ingredients: Cassava chips 57.1 percent + urea 9.9 percent and tallow 3 percent (Cassarea I, 30 percent CP); Cassava chips 83.6 percent + urea 13.4 percent and tallow 3 percent (Cassarea II, 40 percent CP); Cassava chips 80.2 percent + urea 16.8 percent and tallow 3 percent (Cassarea III, 50 percent CP). TABLE 10 Chemical composition of dried cassava leaf and cassava hay

Item Leaf1/ Cassava hay2/

DM, % 90.0 86.3

% of DM

Digestible protein, DP 18.3 22.0

Total digestible nutrient, TDN 60 65

Crude protein, CP 20–30 25.0

Crude fibre, CF 17.3 15.0

Neutral detergent fibre, NDF 29.6 44.3

Acid detergent fibre, ADF 24.1 30.3

Acid detergent lignin, ADL 8.2 5.8

Ether extract, EE 5.9 n.a

Nitrogen free extract, NFE 44.2 n.a

Ash 7.9 17.5

Ca 1.5 2.4

P 0.4 0.03

Secondary compounds

Tannins,% 7.3 3.9

Hydrocyanic acid, mg/kg 59 35 Source: 1/ Wanapat and Wachirapakorn, 1990. 2/Wanapat et al., 2000b Cassareas were tested for rumen degradability using a nylon bag technique and were found to have 46.2–56.7 percent effective degradability. Further tests with Cassarea II (40 percent CP) showed that it could be used to replace SBM in the


rations of lactating cows, but supplementation with a rumen by–pass protein such as cottonseed meal should also be investigated (Jittakhot, 1999). Figure 6. Amino acid contents of cassava leaves (CL), alfalfa and soybean meal Source: Phuc et al., 2001 Cassaya (30 percent CP) was a product formulated using chopped whole cassava crop hay (85 percent) + soybean meal (5 percent) + cassava chips (5 percent) + urea (2 percent) + tallow (2 percent) + sulphur (1 percent), mixed with water, pressed through a pelleting machine and sun dried to 85 percent DM. The use of Cassaya in lactating dairy cows as a protein source proved to be efficient in promoting rumen fermentation, improved milk yield and composition and in providing an economical return. However, work on scaling up the production of Cassaya should be conducted (Netpana, 2000). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Under the prevailing conditions of livestock production in Thailand, the scope for increased use of protein sources in both non–ruminants and ruminants is enormous. Such sources need to be incorporated in animal feeds to improve nutrition and to reduce negative environmental impacts. At present the imported sources of protein are insufficient and it is anticipated that the level of importation will rise. With the rising price of soybean meal, development and research for locally available alternatives should be undertaken. It is essential that alternative protein sources be developed and exploited for a more sustainable feeding system. There is now more information available following the new approach of using cassava foliage as a protein source in animal feeds but scaling up developmental work should be conducted. Nevertheless, research in selecting the variety, cultivation, harvesting and utilization of cassava foliage protein rich cassava products deserves immediate attention.


REFERENCES Association of Animal Feed Mill of Thailand. 2000. Animal Feed Business 17(75):

6–42. Chantalakhana, C. 1990. Small farm animal production and sustainable agriculture. In

Proceedings of the 5th AAAP Animal Science Congress, Taipei, Taiwan. Volume II. p. 36–64. Organization Committee, Chunan, Maiali, Taiwan.

Chantalakhana C. 1995. Remarks on Draft Animal Power in the Farming systems. In M.Wanapat, S. Uriyapongson and K. Sommart eds. Proceeding of an International Workshop on Draft Animal Power. Khon Kaen, Thailand. Khon Kaen University.

Devendra, C. & Chantalakhana, C. 1993. Development of sustainable crop–animal systems in Asia. In P. Bunyavejchewin, S. Sangdid & K. Hangsanet eds. Animal Production and Rural Development. Proceedings of the 6th AAAP Animal Science Congress. Volume 1. The Animal Husbandry Association of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand. p. 21–39.

Jittakot, S. 1999. Effect of cassarea as a protein replacement for soybean meal on feed intake, blood metabolites, ruminal fermentation, digestibility and microbial protein synthesis in dairy cows fed urea–treated rice straw as a roughage. Khon Kaen, Thailand. Graduate School, Khon Kaen University. 171 pp. (M.Sc. thesis)

Netpana, N. 2000. Comparative study on protein sources utilization in dairy rations. Khon Kaen, Thailand. Graduate School, Khon Kaen University, 90 pp. (M.Sc. thesis)

Office of Agricultural Statistics. 1983-1996, 2001. Agricultural Statistics of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

Phuc, B.H.N., Ogle, B. & Lindberg, J.E. 2001. Nutritive value of cassava leaves for monogastric animals. In T.R. Preston, B. Ogle & M. Wanapat, eds. Proceedings of International Workshop on Current Research and Development on use of Cassava as Animal Feed. Stockholm. SIDA–SAREC.

Polthanee, A.S., Wanapat, M. & Wachirapakorn, C. 2001. Cassava–legumes intercropping: A potential food–feed system for dairy farmers. In T.R. Preston, B. Ogle & M. Wanapat, eds. Proceedings of International Workshop on Current Research and Development on use of Cassava as Animal Feed. Stockholm. SIDA–SAREC.

Preston, T.R. 2001. Potential of cassava in integrated farming systems. In T.R. Preston, B. Ogle & M. Wanapat, eds. Proceedings of International Workshop on Current Research and Development on use of Cassava as Animal Feed. Stockholm. SIDA–SAREC.

Saithanoo, S. & Cheva-Isarakul, B. 1991. Goat production in Thailand. In S. Saithanoo & B.W. Norton eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on Goat Production in the Asian Humid Tropics. Songha, Thailand. Prince of Songkha University,. 236 pp.


Saithanoo, S. & Pichaironarongsongkram, K. 1989. Priorities for research and development on small ruminants in Thailand. In C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a Workshop in Small ruminant Production Systems Network India. Ottawa. IDRC (International Development Research Centre) 166 pp.

Wanapat, M. 1990. Nutritional aspects of ruminant production in southeast asia with special reference to Thailand. Bangkok, Funny Press Company Ltd. 217 pp.

Wanapat, M. 1999. Feeding of ruminants in the tropics based on local feed resources. Khon Kaen, Thailand. Khon Kaen Publishing Company Ltd. 236 pp.

Wanapat, M. 2001. Role of cassava hay as animal feed in the tropics. In T.R. Preston, B. Ogle & M. Wanapat, eds. Proceedings of International Workshop on Current Research and Development on use of Cassava as Animal Feed. Stockholm. SIDA–SAREC.

Wanapat, M. &. Wachirapakorn, C. 1999. Techniques in feeding of beef cattle and dairy cattle. Bangkok, Funny Press Publishing Company Ltd. 142 pp.

Wanapat, M., Pimpa, O., Petlum, A. & Boontao, U. 1997 Cassava hay: A new strategic feed for ruminants during the dry season. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 9(2).

(also available at http://www.cipav.org.co/Irrd/Irrd9/2/metha92.htm). Wanapat, M., Pimpa, O., Siphuak, W., Puramongkon, T., Petlum, A., Boontao, U.,

Wachirapakorn, C. & Sommart, K. 1999. Cassava hay: an important on-farm feed for ruminants. In Proceeding of an International Workshop, Adelaide, Australia, May 31 – June 2.

Wanapat, M., Pimpa, O., Sripuek, W., Puramongkol, T., Petlum, A., Boontao, U., Wachirapakorn, C. & Sommart, K. 2000a. Cassava hay: an important on–farm feed for ruminants. In J.D. Brooker, ed. Proceedings of International Workshop on Tannins in Livestock and Human Nutrition. p. 71-74. ACIAR, Proceeding. no. 92.

Wanapat, M., Petlum, A. & Pimpa, O. 2000b. Supplementation of cassava hay to replace concentrate use in lactating Holstein Friesian crossbreds. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science, 13: 600-604.

Wanapat, M., Puramongkon, T. & Siphuak, W. 2000c. Feeding of cassava hay for lactating dairy cows during the dry season. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science, 13: 478.


Developments in the Indian feed and poultry industry and formulation of

rations based on local resources Dr.V.Balakrishnan

Professor and Head, Department of Animal Nutrition Madras Veterinary College

Chennai –India. INTRODUCTION India’s animal wealth is huge in terms of its population of cattle (204.5 million), buffaloes (84.2 million), poultry (800 million), sheep (50.8 million), goats (115.3 million) and pigs (12.8 million). Compared with the rest of the livestock sector the poultry industry in India is more scientific; it is well organized and progressing towards modernization. The Indian poultry industry’s success story is uniquely exceptional. From a backyard venture, it has made a quantum leap to emerge as a dynamic industry. Over the last three decades, there have been significant developments in the poultry industry with each decade focusing on different sectors. The seventies saw a spurt in egg production; the eighties an acceleration in broiler production; the nineties advances in poultry integration, automation and feed production (Fig.1). The present decade promises to exploit value added products and the global trade avenue. The growth of the poultry industry is so fast that authenticated statistics are irrelevant by the time they are published. PRESENT SCENARIO OF THE INDIAN POULTRY INDUSTRY India has 150 million laying hens and 650 million broilers. It is the fifth largest producer of eggs (40 billion eggs/year) and ranks 18th in world broiler production (Directorate of Economics, 1992). The poultry industry is one of the fastest growing sectors in the country. The overall growth rate of the poultry industry is 15-20 percent per annum. At present the total turnover of the Indian poultry industry is Rs.90 billion (2 billion US$) and the industry has set a target for achieving a total turnover of Rs.270 billion (6 billion US$) by the year 2005.

216 Developments in the Indian feed and poultry industry

The government’s policy initiative under different five-year plans has generally helped this transformation in the poultry sector, but cannot claim to have propelled the poultry industry to its existing heights. The government funds research activities related to the sector either through research organizations like Agricultural Universities/Indian Council of Agricultural Research or through trade regulatory bodies – the Agricultural and Processed Products Exports Development Authority (APEDA). The government also supports the industry by extending loans through nationalized banks especially the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and through technical expertise. However, the Indian poultry industry is dominated by the private sector (World Bank, 1996). Despite the phenomenal expansion in commercial poultry farming, many rural households continue to raise indigenous breeds in their backyard. The backyard poultry units, though not the main income generator for rural producers, are called ‘walking banks’ because their products are sold to meet emergency expenses. Furthermore, they contribute substantially to the family’s food and nutrition. In urban areas the poultry products from ‘desi birds’ (indigenous birds) are sold at a premium rate for their unique flavour and taste. This uniqueness is due to the scavenging nature of the birds. In addition,

Figure 1. POULTRY PRODUCTION IN INDIA

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

PERIOD

% G

RO

WTH

RA

TE

layer broiler

Source: Private Sector Partnership in Poultry Production


chickens, ducks, quails, turkeys, geese and guinea fowl are only reared in a few pockets of the country. Eggs and poultry meat are typically marketed in fresh form. However, with the advent of cold storage facilities and the entry of branded food products, the consumption of processed/preserved products is gaining momentum. Further, with the urban family size getting smaller, housewives are looking for chicken in small and convenient packs. In addition, the rapid mushrooming of fast food chains and growing dependence on convenience foods means the poultry sector is poised for a quantum jump. CONSUMPTION PATTERN The average per capita egg consumption is around 36 and that of poultry meat around 850 g per annum. However, in urban areas the per capita consumption is 100 eggs and 1200 g of poultry meat per annum. The NECC (National Egg Coordination Committee), which is involved in the fixing of egg prices, has set a target for increasing annual per capita egg consumption to 180 by the year 2015. Industry estimates are that about 75 percent of the output of the poultry industry – egg and poultry meat – are consumed in the urban areas (25 percent of the population). In general, the availability of eggs and broilers in rural areas is low and the selling price of eggs higher than in the cities. Periodic and apparently cyclical gluts in broiler supply regularly contribute to depressed market conditions, which has led to the exit of many small and inefficient producers. Similarly, the egg price continues to swing due to cyclical periods of excess supply, in spite of the availability of cold storage facilities and efficient transportation. Indian egg prices are lower compared to the price of eggs in many other countries. The South Indian broiler industry has become highly integrated (Table 1) while the operation in North India remains largely unorganized. The concept of integration is limited in the layer industry to the extent of partnership activity between farmers and traders listed in Table 2. Export potential Export markets are also likely to open up as subsidies on agricultural products are phased out internationally under World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. By making the quality and cost of eggs and poultry meat competitive, the Indian poultry sector is expected to capture a significant share of the export market currently dominated by the United States, Brazil, Netherlands and Thailand. India has already started exporting shell eggs to gulf countries and egg powder to the European Union (EU) and Japan. India also exports large quantities of hatching eggs to Bangladesh, Singapore, Maldives,


United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Oman and specific pathogen free eggs to the EU for pharmaceutical purposes. TABLE 1 Type of vertical integration or contract farming in vogue with respect to the broiler industry Broiler farmer Integrator Owner of broiler shed and equipment Buys litter material Attends to rearing activities (e.g.) brooding, feeding, watering (self labour or hired labour) Bears cost of electricity/ fuel for brooding Takes the manure and empty gunny (feed) bags.

I. Supplies the following inputs Day-old broiler chicks – owns a breeder

farm and hatchery to do the same. Broiler feed required by the birds – owns

a feed mixing unit Medicines and vaccines – buys quality

medicines and vaccines and supplies it to the farmers as per requirement

Veterinary services required, emergency and routine – engages qualified veterinarians for the purpose.

II. Pays the rearing cost to the farmer towards cost of litter, labour, electricity, rent for buildings and equipment and also a part of the profit.

III. Takes back the finished broilers and arranges for their marketing, mostly through traders.

TABLE 2 Major kind of partnership activity in the layer industry Input by the farmers Input/facilities by the trader Land and housing Equipment – cages Chicks Medicines Labour Electricity Marketing of culled hens, manure, gunnys

Feed Vaccines Marketing of egg Transport Consultancy

Source: Private Sector Partnership in Poultry Production and Marketing in India. (FAO, 2001)


DISTRIBUTION OF EGG AND MEAT PRODUCTION AMONG VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA Eight states account for the total egg production in India. They are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Andhra Pradesh is the largest egg producing state accounting for one-third of the country’s entire output. In broiler production, one district of Tamil Nadu alone accounts for more than 30 percent of the total production. SUPPORTING SECTORS India is almost self sufficient in all inputs required for producing eggs and chicken meat. The Indian poultry industry receives excellent backing from its supporting sectors, which are drawn from various input industries. They consist of a network of about 600 hatcheries, 10 000 veterinary pharmaceuticals, numerous equipment manufacturers, 130 feed mills and several education and research institutes. Hatcheries produce almost all commercial breeds of chicks that are available in America and Europe. The annual turnover of the veterinary pharmaceutical industry is estimated to be Rs.75 000 million, indicating the presence of a vital support service to ensure sound health of the birds in the country. The growing veterinary infrastructure – 40 000 veterinary hospitals/dispensaries/first aid centres - supports livestock production with better health care for poultry. In addition to several veterinary colleges and premier institutes, each state government extends its technical know how and marketing support through the co-operative sector. Even though tremendous progress has been made in developing diagnostics and vaccines, serious problems still exist because of the lack of adequate infrastructure for disease surveillance and monitoring. As far as availability of equipment is concerned, India is self sufficient in all basic equipment required for rearing and breeding poultry. All nationalized commercial banks in the country provide credit facilities to invest in poultry ventures. Poultry insurance is available to cover abnormal risk of mortality. Feed sectors Consumption of commercial feed by the poultry sector at present is 28 million tonnes/year. The poultry industry is highly dependent on the feed industry, which is only 35 years old. The Indian feed industry caters predominantly to the dairy and poultry sector. Manufacture of feeds for other categories of livestock is practically non existent. At present, the Indian organized feed


industry produces around 3 million tonnes of feed/year, which is only 5 percent of its actual potential. A substantial quantity of feed is prepared by the farmers themselves in order to reduce the feed cost. Raw materials for manufacture of poultry feed The raw materials that are used for manufacture of poultry feeds are grouped as follows: 1. Cereal and grains: maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, bajra, ragi and other millets,

broken rice, germs, middling and damaged wheat that is discarded from the food industry as unfit for human consumption.

2. Cakes or Oil meal: groundnut cake, soybean meal, rapeseed meal, sesame meal, sunflower meal, coconut meal, palm meal are used as protein resources.

3. Feed of animal origin: meat meal, fish meal, squilla meal, hatchery waste and bone meal are used. However, farmers face production problems due to bacterial contamination of fish and meat meal.

4. By-products: rice bran, rice polish, solvent extracted rice and wheat bran, molasses and salseed meal are by-products used in poultry feeds.

5. Minerals and vitamins: poultry feeds are enriched with calcium, phosphorus, trace minerals such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, CO and I and vitamins A, D3, E, K and B Complex.

6. Feed additives: additives commonly used are antibiotics (usage not banned in India) prebiotics, probiotics, enzymes, mould inhibitors, toxin binders, anti-coccidial supplements, acidifiers, amino acids, antioxidants, feed flavours, pigments and herbal extract of Indian origin.

These raw materials for feed are adequately available in India. As feed cost is the key factor in determining the profitability of poultry farming, feed manufacturers as well as farmers attempt to produce least cost rations by including some of the following products, depending upon their cost, availability and nutritive value: • forest produce (babul seed, rubber seed, tamarind seed, salseed, etc.); • food industry waste (biscuit waste, coco shell, bread waste, powder, cocoa

beans, macaroni waste, skim milk powder, etc.); • gum and starch industry (guar meal, tapioca, tapioca spent pulp, etc.); • fruit and vegetable processing waste (citrus wastes, mango waste, tomato

pomace, pineapple waste, tea leaves, etc.); • alcohol industry waste (yeast sludge, grape extractions, breweries’ dried grain,

etc.).


Availability of raw materials has increased as the production of food grains and oil seeds in the country have risen over the past few years. The production is estimated to be well over 190 million tonnes for food grains and 16 million tonnes for oil seeds. Increasing domestic production of maize, a major ingredient in poultry feed, is likely to contribute to the reduction of poultry feed prices. The liberalization of feed maize imports will also increase domestic supplies and provide a cushion for domestic production (Table 3). This will help to avoid possible feed crises such as occurred in 1992, which severely hurt the poultry industry. The World Bank Document on the Indian livestock sector review quotes a number of regulations that control the distribution of feed ingredients (Table 4). Movement controls on cereals under the Essential Commodities Act are reported to hinder arbitrage between surplus and deficit areas, while the Storage Control Act has been reported to limit private inter-seasonal storage. TABLE 3 1995 tariff schedule for selected feed ingredients (%)

Commodity GATT Tariff Quantitative restriction

Tariff level Binding Exports Imports

Feed maize 0 0 Restricted Free

Barley 0 100 Restricted Canalized

Rye 0 100 Restricted Canalized

Sorghum 0 0 Restricted Canalized

Millet 0 0 Restricted Canalized

Soybean 40-50 100 Restricted Canalized

Groundnuts 40-50 100 Restricted Canalized

Linseed 40-50 100 Restricted Canalized

Rapeseed 40-50 100 Free Canalized

Sunflower 40-50 100 Free Canalized

Oats 0 0 Restricted Canalized

Oilcakes, meals 35 150 Free Restricted

The commodities act was enacted in 1955 to control and regulate the production, supply and distribution of essential commodities so that they could be made available to consumers at reasonable prices. Under the Act, interstate


movement of commodities requires a general or special transport permit. Similarly, enforcement of the act subjects wholesalers to maximum stockholding limits. In Maharastra state, the maximum storage period is 15 days for wholesale dealers. Continual changes in these regulations contribute to market uncertainty. Another major constraint to the expansion of the feed concentrate sector is the small and highly volatile supply of quality feed ingredients. Feed manufacturers often face problems of adulteration of feed ingredients, such as when urea and sawdust are added to fish meal. Poor post-harvest handling and storage of feed ingredients result in low quality inputs. Analytical reports based on several thousands of samples spread over five years by a premier feed analytical laboratory (Personal Communication, 2002) situated in the egg laying belt of the country suggest that ground nut cake and maize should be regularly screened for aflatoxin. In these reports, 54.6 percent of maize samples and 99 percent of the ground nut cake tested positive for aflatoxin. The aflatoxin menace was observed both in rainy and non rainy seasons. Concomitant occurrence of other toxins viz. ochratoxin, citrunin were also reported. Quality standards are available from the Bureau of Indian Standards, but no mechanism ensures that these standards are met by the industry for both ingredients and finished products. The Bureau of Indian Standards has initiated debate on the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in feed in one of its recent meetings, but otherwise no guidelines are available. Though it is out of context to mention bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), a brief note could allay fears, especially in the absence of regulatory mechanisms to prohibit the use of rendered by-products in cattle feed. As cows are considered to be sacred in India, cattle are fed on vegetarian diets devoid of feed stuffs of animal origin. Further, in the absence of feed meant exclusively for sheep, goats and swine, the BSE problem is virtually non-existent in the country. Briefly, the poultry industry is growing at a fast pace, which in itself is an indicator of the prevalence of a conducive environment. Along with the poultry industry, the feed industry is keeping pace. Hence most of the research work on animal feed is practical and focuses on the use of by-products, upgrading of ingredients and enhancing productivity in order to reduce production costs. Several innovative ideas have emerged in the trade sector to tackle critical situations.


TABLE 4 Government interventions in feed and feed ingredient marketing

Regulation Government level Examples Coarse cereals

Trade licensing Central and state Food Grains Licensing and Procurement Order,

Uttar Pradesh food grains and other Essential

Articles, Haryana Food Articles Licensing and

Price Control, Punjab Trade Articles

Price control Central and state Support price, Uttar Pradesh Food Grains Act.

Transport Central Motor Vehicles Act (Maximum weight = 16.2 t)

Inter-state Trade State Punjab Maize Movement Order

Dealer Trade State Punjab Trade Articles

(Dealer trade not to exceed 2.5 t)

Storage quantity Central and State Licensing Order, Punjab Trade Articles

(Maximum quantity set by different orders)

(Maximum quantity = 2.5 t)

Storage licensing State Uttar Pradesh Scheduled Commodities Dealers’

Licensing Order, Punjab Trade Articles

Oil seeds

Trade licensing Central/State Essential Commodities Act;

Punjab Trade Articles (if quantity > 2.5 t)

Transport State Essential Commodities Act

Haryana Food Articles

Punjab Trade Articles

Storage quantity Central/State (Class A; City Wholesalers 150 t, retailer 10 t;

Class B; City Wholesalers 50 t, Retailers 5 t)

(Maximum quantity 2.5 t)

Storage licensing State Haryana Food Articles

Marketing Central/State Agricultural Produce Marketing Act (oilseed

manufacturing restricted to small-scale enterprises)


Above all the growth of the poultry industry should not be viewed only from the success it has achieved from the commercial standpoint but should also be regarded as a dynamic and vital tool for building a better and healthier nation. REFERENCES Directorate of Economics and Statistics. 1992. New Delhi, Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India. FAO. 2001. Private sector partnership in poultry production and marketing in India.

Case study, Tamil Nadu. Project report. Chennai, India, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University.


Requirements for protein meals for ruminant meat production in developing

countries R. A. Leng

Emeritus Professor, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia.

World meat and milk supplies must be increased considerably in the next 20-50 years if the predicted demand is to be satisfied. Development of the poultry and pig industries is targeted as being the most likely to develop at a rate commensurate with the demand for meat. However, if development of the alcohol industry occurs, to provide for example, oxygenate for inclusion in gasoline, its demand for grain may lead to a shortfall in the monogastric feed industry. This suggests that emphasis should be directed to ruminants, including cattle, sheep and goats that are capable of producing on feeds high in complex carbohydrates not usable in quantity by the monogastric meat producers. A review of the literature shows that with appropriate supplementation of the abundant crop residues and other fibrous materials fed to ruminants, complex carbohydrates can be used with great efficiency to attain reasonable production levels. Crop residues, feed from wasteland or mature tropical grasses are mostly deficient in nutrients that are critical for the digestion of fibrous carbohydrates and their efficient synthesis. Supplying these nutrients leads to a significant improvement in productivity and when these supplementation strategies are applied together with management to attain high digestibility of the forage, elevated production can be achieved relative to animals fed, for example, on high quality temperate pastures. Supplementation involves providing minerals and urea to satisfy requirements for efficient digestion by microbes in the rumen, and augmenting the protein supply to the animal through feeding an escape protein meal. Protein meals appear to have differing roles: when fed at low increments the response in growth of cattle is apparently four times greater than similar increments of protein supplements fed above a critical level. In dairy animals on forage based diets, the response to supplements of protein meals depends on the genetic potential of a cow for milk yield. Cows on mature

Requirements for protein meals for ruminant meat production in developing countries 226

forage based diets and with high genetic merit will mobilise body reserves to produce milk and the benefits of increasing protein intake is often more apparent in decreasing a live weight loss than a large stimulus in daily milk production. The prevention of live weight loss has large benefits in terms of reduced inter-calving interval and persistency of lactation. As daily live weight gain increases with increasing levels of supplementation, the feed requirements to produce a fattened animal can be reduced to 20 percent of the feed required to fatten a similar animal without supplements. The potential for increasing ruminant production from poor quality forage is of the order of five to ten folds without any increase in the demand for forage. To attain such an increase in production there are associated needs. These include supplements to increase the fertility potential of the breeding herd, the elimination of waste (death of animals) and the provision of incentives for farmers to take up recommended strategies. The latter requires the establishment of an infrastructure for slaughter, distribution and marketing of meat at equitable prices INTRODUCTION In the near future, it is predicted that there will be a greatly increased and continuing demand for protein foods for human consumption in most developing countries, and particularly in Asia. (Delgado, et al. 1999). Purchasing power often limits the amount of meat and milk consumed by people and as disposable income increases, people tend to consume more of these commodities. At the same time there is an enormous moral need to provide protein in deficient diets of resource-poor people who do not have the capacity to purchase meat or milk on a regular basis. Protein under-nutrition or malnutrition in the early life of humans may lead to small stature and developmental retardation (Waterlow, 1998) and in recent years it has been recognised that a balanced diet supports an efficient immune system and promotes resistance to parasites and disease, even into adult life. Rice, the staple food (calories) of much of Asia has the lowest average protein content of all cereal grains (6 percent crude protein [CP]). In the polished grain form in which it is mostly consumed, it is also the least nutritious of the traditional staples. Most countries are however, self sufficient in staple foods. The desirable development for future food production, from a welfare viewpoint, would seem therefore to be in emphasizing meat production to meet the demand for protein that accompanies increased family incomes and education. This in turn results in increased awareness, mainly by women, of the benefits to the family and to young children in particular, of balanced diets. The options for increasing meat production are many and depend on:


• the country; • availability of feed resources; • the presence of infrastructure for slaughter; • the distribution and marketing of products; • the endemic diseases of livestock; • the climate; • Socio-economic factors, such as the religious taboos against consumption of

pig meat. In overall terms the major issues that determine meat supply and availability are:

1. which species is best supported by the available resources: i. pig? ii. poultry? iii. ruminants?

2. Which production system is appropriate to the country: i. industrial scale? ii. backyard systems? iii. or combinations of the two that suit the particular country?

The increased demand for meat in developing countries is a direct result of the increasing middle class that insists on a balanced diet and recognises the good eating value of meat. This greater demand has been used to suggest that greater emphasis must be directed to production of poultry in Muslim countries, and pig and poultry in countries where pig meat is acceptable. This does not eliminate other developments but places emphasis on replication in the developing countries, of the industrial methods currently being used in most developed countries. FEED GRAIN COST AND AVAILABILITY IN THE FUTURE Industrial livestock production in Western countries has been supported and encouraged by the availability of inexpensive grain, and the opportunity provided by the size of production units to minimise the number of relatively costly workers. As a generalization, grain has been comparatively inexpensive as a feed resource in industrialised countries for many reasons including widespread subsidization. Access of producers to affordable feed grain is a pivotal requirement for development of industrial scale pig, poultry and beef production in the countries with emerging economies. The development of range or scavenging systems for poultry production is also assisted by inexpensive grain that is often fed as a supplement. Diet components often have to be imported; for example, approximately 80 percent of concentrates have to be imported into countries such as Bangladesh to raise poultry under intensive and modified backyard production systems. The scavenging systems however, are not necessarily dependent on grain


availability and there are a number of opportunities for providing alternative sources of feed. In a number of developing countries, the village chicken producers are mostly women that have access to small loans for this purpose, and the family benefits in two ways: • The increased income that results from raising poultry. • The ability of the women poultry producers, with their improved income, to

siphon off a proportion of their production for the family, increasing the protein intake of young children in particular and at a cost equal to that of production.

Where labour costs are low, the majority of the costs of production of industrial pig and poultry reside in the cost of feed. Relative to average income, chicken and pig meats produced in ‘modern systems’ are mostly unaffordable for a large proportion of the urban and rural poor. Nevertheless, the increasing pressure for meat production to meet the demand of the urban middle class will see village and industrial scale production systems increase in developing countries, providing feed costs are kept under control. Many arguments can be made against the use of grain for livestock production based on concerns for the environment, soil fertility, erosion and salination and socio economic questions. In marketing grain, the high costs of land degradation in some areas has not been factored into prices. Grain production is inextricably linked to fossil fuel inputs through the use of water, fertilizers, pesticides and fungicides and the need for tractors. As such, grain prices will be dependent on inexpensive fuel. Many of these factors have been discussed by Delgado et al. (1999) and are not developed further here. If grain prices rise substantially, then smallholder livestock raising on locally available resources with recycling of wastes, has the potential to become the most environmentally sustainable of all major farming systems world wide. There is obviously an enormous number of factors involved in such an evolution (revolution) that would need to be addressed and the concept is not taken further here, except to suggest that in the future, pressures that have not so far applied, may have substantial effects on the availability and price of feed grain. ALCOHOL PRODUCTION FROM GRAIN AND GRAIN AVAILABILITY World grain availability has been affected in the past, mostly by the demand for food for humans and feed for livestock. Grain for livestock will have to compete with increasing demand for grain to produce industrial alcohol. The latter arises from the demand for industrial alcohol as an oxygenate to add to gasoline for use in automobiles.


The oxygenate in gasoline is required to lower the levels of many compounds in motor vehicle exhaust gases that pollute the atmosphere of high population density cities, such as Los Angeles. In 1999 legislation was introduced in the United States to enforce the addition of oxygenates into gasoline to more completely remove ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen as well as potential carcinogens such as benzene and 1,3 butadiene found in car exhaust emissions. A compound derived in the fractionation of oil (methyl tertiary-butyl ether, [MTBE]) was first used for this purpose. Because of its affinity with water, MTBE polluted the ground water sufficiently to create alarm, gave water a pungent odour and made it undrinkable The extent of contamination of ground water led to its replacement by alcohol, which is higher in oxygen and produces no pollutants when co-combusted with gasoline. Industrial production of alcohol for these purposes is predicted to increase to a minimum of 23 billion litres annually within 3 years and utilize over 70 million m3 of maize (Figure 1). This is 21 percent of current production in the United States and would potentially remove the world surplus of grain (Pearse Lyons and Bannerman, 2001).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Millions of cubic metres of

maize

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Figure 1. Past and future use of grain for industrial alcohol production in the United States to meet the requirements for the inclusion rate of alcohol into automobile fuel (Pearse Lyons and Bannerman, 2001; Renewable Fuels Association, 2001). California, the potentially largest market for industrial alcohol as an additive to gasoline in the United States, needs to produce between 2.7 and 3.2 billion litres of alcohol annually. In response to this, it is considering the future development of industries for production of alcohol from biomass (California Energy Commission, 1999).


A huge demand for grain, or the transfer of land into production of other potential feedstock for alcohol production such as sugar cane, may result in a world scarcity of grain. It will be remarkable if this increased market demand does not increase the price of grain on international markets. If this is the case, then any grain dependent animal production must necessarily become relatively more expensive. Thus, such developments are certainly unlikely to benefit the poor, other than providing cash through the jobs that may be generated. Even these will be minimal if industrialized farming is promoted at the expensive of small farmer operations. It is likely that a reliance on industrial sized development will actually reduce employment because of the economies of scale required; and the demise of the small producer is predictable where these strategies are adopted. POTENTIAL SPIN-OFF BENEFITS FROM DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALCOHOL INDUSTRY BASED ON GRAIN The production of alcohol from grain yields a by-product that is low in carbohydrate but high in protein and fibre, namely gluten meal (where isolated starch is the feed stock) or spent distillers grains (where ground cereal grains including maize are the feed stock). This is highly suitable as a supplement for ruminant animals, particularly those dependent on poor quality feeds such as crop residues (see below) the consensus is that these by-product meals are high in escape protein that can be used directly as an amino acid source by ruminants. The yield ratio of protein meal to maize grain fermented is roughly 300 kg protein meal /ton of grain, with about 410 litres of alcohol output. THE FUTURE ROLE OF RUMINANTS IN MEAT PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Undoubtedly, industrial poultry/pig production delivers the high quality meat with good eating value that the middle class demands. There is, however, a clear moral issue for any agency to direct development so that the resource poor may share in the outcomes, whether it is from increased income or nutrition, or both. It is also unwise to ‘put all your eggs in the one basket’ of industrialized production, when there is a massively under-utilized resource of ruminant animals in most developing countries that are producing at a fraction of their potential. The low level of production of large ruminants results from a number of factors, such as: • the fact that their major feed resources are poor quality crop by-products and

are not supplemented to overcome their deficiencies; • they are mainly kept as an insurance against disasters when they can be sold

to provide cash; • they are mainly kept for work or religious purposes.


In all cases, efficient production is not necessarily a priority as it has little impact on the animal’s value. Meat from ruminants can be produced inexpensively from low cost (low quality?) forage by efficiently harnessing the animal’s fermentative digestive systems. Cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats can be produced on smallholder farms from waste forage (often regarded as a free resource) that is dispersed widely and does not therefore easily meet the requirements of intensive systems. These low cost production systems are not dependent on large volumes of carbohydrate or protein that are directly usable by either the human population or in pig and poultry production. Over the past 20 years, ruminant nutrition has developed to the extent that efficient production of meat and milk (also wool and hair) is possible from forage such as the crop and agro-industrial by-products and biomass from fallow and waste land. Ruminant production from these products provides a major hope for meeting the demand for large quantities of medium to high quality protein for human consumption at relatively low cost. This is not a new concept and the efficiency and level of ruminant production that is achievable on such diets has been debated for a number of years (Preston and Leng, 1986). Development of such production systems provides major opportunities for upgrading many smallholder farming and agroforestry systems in large areas of Asia and for increasing many fold, the income of small and even landless farmers. Using crop residues for ruminant productivity Crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, weeds/grasses from waste and fallow cropping land, foliage of trees and shrubs and forage/tree crops and foliage produced as an intercrop are the basal feed resources of ruminants in developing countries. Crop residues such as straw are by far the greatest available biomass. Straw is considered by most scientists to have little nutritional value because of its low metabolizable energy (ME) that is predicted to support little more than the maintenance of ruminant animals. Uninformed farmers regard it as a poor feed because cattle generally loose weight when it is fed without supplementation In 1990, Leng (1990) challenged the description of crop residues as being of low quality and preferred to describe them as imbalanced forage. The point was made that with small additions of supplementary nutrients to forage, a large response in animal production could be achieved. These improvements with appropriate low-level supplementation cannot be predicted from the ME content of the mixed diet. The concepts that were developed are more applicable in developing countries, for example in India, to increasing milk yield in cows fed high forage diets (NDDB records, [FAO, 1997b]). Industrialized countries normally have little or no


dependency on poor quality forage for ruminant industries, except perhaps where there are large landmasses mainly suitable for the production of grazing ruminants. Poppi and McLennan (1995) concluded though, that large increases in productivity through small additions of protein meals were not attainable in cattle on low quality forage. However, as will be discussed below, there was a small error in the analysis of results from cattle growth trials. These disguised important aspects of the response of ruminants on low quality forage diets to supplements. A re-examination of the available data from feeding trials of this nature in various countries suggests that such an error has major implications in terms of the potential of these abundant resources for highly efficiently ruminant production. The examples will be drawn from growth trials with cattle, but the general conclusions are applicable to other species of ruminant. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CROP RESIDUES AND THE NEED FOR SUPPLEMENTS WHEN FED TO RUMINANTS Mature, dried foliage and stems of grasses, are normally low in protein (less than 3 percent CP) and have been variably leached of soluble components, including minerals, proteins, sugar and starchy carbohydrates. Mature dry forage, is therefore mostly complex or structural carbohydrate intermingled with the plant’s cement, lignin. The content of soluble materials will vary and at times is critical because it can change the overall digestibility of forage by up to 10 units. The content may also reduce the need for supplemental minerals and urea, which are needed for its efficient fermentative digestion. Thus managing the harvest of forage is critical to ensure its potential feed quality. SUPPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMUM USE OF LOW DIGESTIBILITY FORAGE BY RUMINANTS For efficient digestion of forage, irrespective of its solubles content, the microbes in the rumen require a source of ammonia and a medium, which is balanced with minerals. Once these are provided, the extent of digestion is only limited by the structural nature of the plant fibre and the degree to which this fibre is embedded in or surrounded by lignin. Ruminant nutritionists have established which nutrients are essential for microbial growth in the rumen and efficient methods are available to ensure that no mineral or ammonia deficiencies occur in animals feeding on mature forage diets (e.g., provision of multinutrient blocks [IAEA, 1991]). Supplementation of the animal feed to ensure an efficient digestion of forage in the rumen usually improves digestibility and intake and increases productivity. This is the first step in combating low productivity when cattle are fed on forage (Leng, 1984).


Improving protein nutrition is the second strategy for increasing production in ruminants with a high protein requirement. These include young animals following weaning, cows in the last trimester of pregnancy and also lactating cows. Here the question arises, for immature animals on poor quality forage, as to the extent that growth can be increased by providing nutrients for the rumen and extra protein for absorption? The provision of more protein for absorption in a ruminant on a straw-based diet can be achieved by a number of methods that include: • Ensuring no microbial growth factors are deficient in the diet and microbial

growth is optimised. • Providing a protein meal that is relatively slowly degraded by microbial

action in the rumen and from which a proportion of dietary protein enters the intestines for digestion (termed escape protein).

• Manipulation of the microbial ecosystem to minimise inefficiencies brought about by protozoa that prey on bacteria and reduce protein flow to the intestines (defaunation /oil drenching).

A discussion of various factors involved in the amounts of microbial protein entering the intestines, or the extent to which a protein meal escapes to the lower gut is not warranted here (see Preston and Leng, 1986 for a discussion of these factors in ruminants fed on mature forage). In practice, escape protein for supplementing ruminant diets is sourced from oilseed meals, in particular cottonseed meal (solvent extracted), hulled cotton cake (pressure extracted), copra meal, gluten meal or soybean meal. Numerous experiments have been done in various areas of the world to evaluate strategies of supplementation to increase the growth of cattle, and the efficiency of using mature forage from dry season pasture and crop by-products. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF THE USE OF SUPPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES TO ALLEVIATE LOW PRODUCTION IN CATTLE GIVEN LOW DIGESTIBILITY FORAGE What to supplement and how much to give and the likely response in growth of young cattle are major economic considerations for livestock production from mature forage, which is the staple of most ruminants in developing countries. For example, the forage feed to large ruminants in Bangladesh comes approximately 50:50 from rice straw and forage gathered from wastelands or fallow. In Asia, despite a potentially large shortfall in forage requirements for animal feed, a considerable amount of the annual straw crop is either wasted or used for purposes other than livestock feeding.


Benefits of providing protein supplements to cattle consuming poor quality forage Mature forage from grasses such as cereal and pasture, have an ME content rarely more than 5 MJ ME /kg dry matter. The requirement tables predict that such feed will probably maintain young animals, providing nitrogen and mineral deficiencies are corrected. The idea that straw is too low in ME to support growth often leads to a recommendation to replace it with a more energy-dense feed and/or increase the ME content by treating it with an alkali such as ammonia. Treatment with urea or ammonia to increase straw digestibility is a highly recommended procedure, as it increases the use of the basal low cost resource. In addition, it also corrects N deficiency in the rumen. The increased digestibility of straw consumed often increases growth of cattle by up to 300 g/day. The value of this additional growth is often less than the cost of treatment (see FAO, 1997). This would suggest that a cereal grain should be fed to enhance the intake of energy, even where there is considerable biomass available. From published results, however, it appears that the productivity of ruminants is limited by the balance of nutrients derived from digestion in the rumen. By providing more protein for digestion in the intestines through supplementation with an escape protein source, the overall efficiency of use of absorbed nutrients is improved. The more efficient use of the ration results from the closer balance of nutrients absorbed to the nutrients required, and to a greater intake of basal feed and thus total nutrients. This concept has been challenged. Poppi & McLennan (1995) concluded that the benefit of supplementation of low protein feedstuffs for ruminants is largely an effect of the increased nutrients supplied (ME). The same authors also concluded that the ME of straw underestimates production levels because the amount of forage that can be consumed by ruminants is much higher than has previously been reported. This is too simple because the measurement of ME per kg of forage (M/D) is used to predict production without reference to feed intake. In most situations ME is predicted from an in vitro digestibility measurement with obvious associated errors. Response to escape protein of young ruminants given low digestibility forage Credit for the discovery of the need for escape protein in the diets of producing ruminants is difficult to assign, as it slowly evolved from basic observations when ruminant nutrition was in its infancy. The need for escape protein by young cattle to achieve high growth rates was most clearly demonstrated in feeding trials with high energy, low protein, non-conventional feeds such as liquid molasses. Preston and Willis (1974)


demonstrated that replacement of urea with fishmeal in a diet for young cattle based on molasses, had marked stimulatory effects on growth and most importantly, on efficiency of feed utilization. Even on high quality grain based diets fed to lambs, where part of the protein in grain is likely to escape digestion in the rumen, Ørskov et al. (1973) showed that providing fishmeal in a way that caused it to bypass the rumen, stimulated growth of lambs. Thus, fish meal would appear to have created the conditions for greater capture of some of the grain protein lost from the rumen, giving an increased efficiency of feed utilization, even when cereal grain intake was optimized (Table 1). Numerous publications have shown that cattle growth rate on straw based diets could be stimulated by increasing supplementation with a protein meal (see for reviews Preston and Leng, 1986; FAO, 1997; Leng, 1990). TABLE 1 Live-weight gain and efficiency of feed utilization by lambs fed pelleted, crushed grain (containing urea and minerals) supplemented with additional urea in the pellet, or fishmeal artificially made to bypass the rumen (after Ørskov et al., 1973).

Diet Feed intake (g pellet/d)

Live weight gain (g/day)

FCR (g feed/g gain)

Pelleted crushed barley 1078 230 4.3

Pellet +1% urea 1062 224 4.3

Pellet +17 g fishmeal*/day 1190 300 3.5

Pellet +34 g fish /day 1196 326 3.2

Pellet +57 g fishmeal/day 1241 332 3.0

*By allowing the animal to suck on a bottle of fishmeal mixed with water, the oesophageal groove reflex was preserved and the rumen bypassed. Research on the mode of action of supplements on the growth of young cattle is difficult to rationalize. In some studies the escape protein supplement was found to stimulate forage intake whereas in other studies with young cattle, forage intake was unchanged or reduced. The studies where straw intake by cattle was stimulated when supplemented with escape protein were usually undertaken in hot climates. This suggested that forage intake of ruminants may be lower on mature forages such as straw, at times when humidity and environmental temperature induce an intolerable thermal load on the animal, and that supplementation with escape


protein maybe much more effective in alleviating low productivity in ruminants in hot climates (Leng, 1990). Energy versus protein supplements to improve the growth rates of cattle fed on poor quality forage Fermentative digestion in the rumen, when uncompromised by deficiencies of nutrients, converts feed components into volatile organic fatty acids (VFA) and microbial cells ( that are 40-60 percent protein) in a fairly constant ratio. Therefore on diets where rumen microbial growth is optimized, it is difficult to alter the protein to energy ratio in the nutrients absorbed by feeding supplements that are digested in the rumen. In other words there is no such thing as an energy supplement for ruminants. Only if supplements are degraded by microbial action in the rumen, at a rate that allows some to leave in the digesta to the lower tract, do they increase the balance of protein to VFA nutrients absorbed. Protein (amino acids) relative to energy in the nutrients absorbed may be altered by supplementing with a meal high in protein that has: • a structure relatively resistant to microbial attack or • been protected from microbial action by chemical or physical treatments or • in mastication, comes in contact with materials that protect it from microbial

action (this often occurs when secondary plant compounds are present in high concentrations).

Degradable protein, as compared to an equal weight of fermentable carbohydrate, produces a lower yield of microbial cells with a higher amount of VFA. The reason for this is that there are less high energy phosphate bonds available to microbes when protein is converted to VFA and ammonia than when carbohydrate is fermented to VFA. Thus cell yields on protein substrate are about half that on carbohydrate. Examples of protein meals that are relatively resistant to rumen microbial degradation and provide protected or escape protein when fed to ruminants include those that: • have been chemically processed with formaldehyde or xylose (treated

vegetable protein meals e.g. xylose-treated soybean meal); • have been through heat treatment in solvent or pressure extraction processes

for oil (e.g. cottonseed meal, cotton cake and copra meal); • are associated with relatively low levels of secondary plant compounds that

bind proteins (e.g. some leaf protein in tree foliages and some vegetable protein meals);


• have a high degree of sulphur amino acids with considerable cross linkage in the amino acid chains (e.g. gluten meal and dried distillers waste from grains).

South African fishmeal is possibly the best form of bypass protein and is usually flame dried and treated with formaldehyde to prevent decomposition (see for response in cattle Silva et al., 1989). Cottonseed meal appears to be one of the better protected vegetable protein meals, possibly combining protection from heat treatment and protection by secondary plant compounds. The benefits of feeding supplements to young cattle on poor quality forage diets, where the supplements are regarded as an energy source (barley or sorghum) or a source of extra protein at the intestines (cottonseed meal [CSM]), are shown in Figure 2. At the higher level of supplementation of cattle shown in Figure 2, the ‘supplement’ becomes the major dietary source of ME. In practice, a supplement, which is usually considerably more expensive then the basal feed, should rarely be fed at above 0.5 percent of the animal’s live weight. This requires emphasis because in cattle fed mature forage, the efficiency of conversion of the supplement to live weight gain, with increasing amounts of cottonseed meal, is some four times greater as the increments are increased progressively to 0.5 percent of live weight, as compared to the efficiency of conversion above this level (see Figure 3). For economic evaluation, it is important to define the early part of the response curve to supplements of protein meals in young cattle on poor quality forage (see Dolberg and Finlayson, 1995). Supplementation strategies for young cattle on low quality forage Many experiments have demonstrated the benefits of supplementing protein meals to ruminants fed poor quality forage. Most have recognized the need to provide for an efficient working of the rumen by including minerals and urea in the diet. However, only some of the experiments included sufficient levels of protein meals to provide response relationships for both predictive purposes and economic evaluation. The exceptions are in research reported by Elliott and O’Donovan (1971), FAO, (1983) Saadulah, (1984), Wannapat et al., (1986), Perdoc, (1987), Zhang Weixian et al., (1994), Finlayson et al., (1994), Dolberg and Finlayson, (1995), McLennan et al., (1995). However, in some of the feeding trials there was no control group fed only the basal diet and unfortunately therefore the data from these particular trials cannot be incorporated in the analysis below.


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Supplement intake [% LWt/day]

Live

wei

ght c

hang

e [k

g/da

y]

CSM

Barley

Sorghum

Figure 2. The supplementation of a low quality pasture hay with cottonseed meal, barley or sorghum grain. Young cattle were given a poor quality pasture hay and minerals and then given graded amounts of the various supplements according to their live weight. (McLennan et al., 1995) Where a large number of results from research conducted at different sites can be drawn together, some very useful generalizations can be developed and used as ‘rules of thumb’ and as guides to the likely economics of developing cattle fattening on straw. This is an alternative approach to using ME content of the available feeds to design diets for ruminants. The results of a number of studies of the live weight response of cattle on low quality forage or at pasture during the dry season, to supplements of protein meals are shown in Figures 3a-3d. A number of equations have been fitted to the data which have been collated mostly by Poppi and McLennan (1995) and include results from McLennan (1995), Smith and Warren (1986a, b), Hennessey et al., (1983), Karges et al., (1992). To take out some of the variability of weight of animals used in the different experiments and differences in protein meal quality, the intake of supplement is expressed in g of crude protein intake per kg live weight (LWt) per day (gCP/kg LWt/d), and the response is calculated as the increase in live weight gain (kg/d) over that of un-supplemented control animals. The data, originally compiled by Poppi and McLennan (1995) have been combined with more records from trials where straw has been the major feed resource, as indicated in the references listed above.


y = 0.1365x + 0.2676R2 = 0.7433

y = 0.2244xR2 = 0.2208

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Protein meal intake [gCP/kg LWt/day]

Incr

ease

in L

Wt [

kg/d

ay]

Figure 3a. The data are fitted to a linear regression with an intercept as suggested by Poppi and McLennan (1995) or through the origin

y = -0.041x2 + 0.3897xR2 = 0.6755

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Protein meal intake [gCP/kgLW t/day]

Incr

ease

in L

Wt [

Kg/

day]

Figure 3b. A polynomial fit through the origin. This is unacceptable as there is a down turn in the benefits of supplementation at high rates which is biologically incorrect


y = 0.1111x + 0.3524R2 = 0.6495

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Intake of protein meal [gCP/kgLWt/day]

Incr

ease

in L

Wt [

Kg/

day]

Figure 3c. The potential to describe the results as two distinct sets of data described by independent linear regressions. These regressions are intended to provide prediction equations that are relatively easily understood.

y = 0.2339Ln(x) + 0.4621R2 = 0.7942

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Intake of protein meal [gCP/kgLWt/day]

Incr

ease

in L

WT

[Kg/

day]

Figure 3d. The most appropriate description is probably the logarithmic linear relationship shown above An oversight by these authors is apparent in their original analyses, as they fitted a linear regression to the data despite having already corrected it for the live weight change of the control, un-supplemented group. This disguised the initial and higher response to feeding protein supplements to young cattle on these feeds. Figure 3a


shows the relationships as fitted by Poppi and McLennan (1995) and that forced through the origin. The latter is a very poor fit to the data (R2=0.22) as compared to the former (R2=0.74). A polynomial appears to more accurately describe the response but seems to make an underestimation at extremely high levels of protein meal inclusion in the diet. On the other hand, a logarithmic relationship appears to best describe the data with the highest amount of the variability taken out by the regression (see Figures 3b and 3d). A further argument to use two independent relationships is the plausibility that a protein meal supplement fed to cattle may have differing roles at low compared to higher levels of inclusion in a forage diet. In practice it is also likely that the rate of supplementation will be restricted to low inputs for economic reasons. It is suggested that the most logical approach for this to be used as a guide for farmers, is to represent the data as two linear response relationships, as shown in Figure 3c. The different responses may be attributed to: • an initial effect of an increased protein supply and a more balanced array of

nutrients for efficient live weight gain (the response in a 200 kg steer is 1.2 g gain/1 g cottonseed meal consumed) and

• the fact that higher intakes of protein meal supplement cause a lower rate of response per unit of additional supplement due to the fermentation of a part of the supplemented meal. In the case of a higher level of protein meal supplement, the protein to energy ratio is higher than when less forage is replaced with protein meal supplement.

The important issue is that at low supplementation rates (i.e. the early part of the response curve) the returns in live weight gain are approximately four times greater than at higher levels of supplementation (i.e. in the later part of the response curve). Summary of growth trials with young cattle on mature forage supplemented with protein meals In summary, the effect of supplementing young cattle (200 kg live weight [LW]) grazing dry pasture or straw with an escape protein meal such as cottonseed is: • at up to 0.7 kg/day supplementation with cottonseed meal, the response in

live weight gain would be approximately 0.84 kg/day or a conversion efficiency of supplement to live weight gain of 1.2 g LWt/g;

• above 0.7 kg/day the improvement is approximately 0.35 g LWt gain/g. Thus, small inputs of a bypass protein have a ‘catalytic’ effect on the utilization of a low quality forage, but the level of production that can be achieved depends on the ‘actual quality’ of the forage. From the literature some generalizations can be drawn:


• straw diets fortified with urea and minerals and fed to cattle support live weight changes from minus 200 to plus 100 g/head/day;

• straw treated with balanced nutrients for the rumen organisms support growth rates that may vary from about maintenance to around 300 g/head/day.

The greater the digestibility of a forage the higher the intake and the higher the growth rate without supplementation (see for discussion FAO, 1997). In most situations the growth rates of cattle fed on treated straw compared with untreated straw are not economically attractive, unless production levels are boosted with supplements which reduce the time to market and the total feed requirement. Digestibility of a basal straw diet by cattle supplemented with urea/minerals depends on a wide number of factors including: • cereal variety; • soil fertility; • climatic conditions, particularly those between harvest of grain and storage

of straw; • storage conditions; • method of drying prior to storage, particularly for wet season rice straw; • other forages mixed with the straw including higher digestibility grasses.

Other large effects on the feed quality of straw include the timing of harvest and drying and storage processes. Essentially, a major loss of soluble nutrients can occur in pre and post harvest management, and to maximize the value of straw it is essential that these losses are minimized. Dolberg and Finlayson (1995) reported on studies undertaken in two Chinese provinces within an aid project, to introduce the use of urea ensiled or ammoniated wheat straw as a basal diet for fattening cattle (Figure 4). The available protein source was cottonseed cake and response curves were developed showing the live weight gain of young cattle when fed at different levels of supplementation. These studies are included in Figure 3, but despite a higher growth rate of cattle on the basal feed resource in Henan province, there was a much higher stimulation of live weight gain in the lower levels of supplementation in the animals in Hebei province. However, as supplementation in Hebei increased above the level where the catalytic response ceases (about 0.7 kg cotton seed cake/day) the responses were approximately the same per unit of cottonseed meal consumed. It appears that the catalytic response in growth of young cattle to low inputs of protein meals in Henan province was not observed because supplementation rates


were always above the cut off in the catalytic level of supplementation. Similar effects were also apparent during studies in Thailand, where young cattle were fed ammoniated straw with supplements, but unfortunately there were no cattle without supplementation in the reported trial (Wanapat et al., 1986).

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 1 2 3 4

Intake of cottonseed cake[kg/d]

Live

wei

ght g

ain

[kg/

d]

Hebei

Henan

Figure 4. The response of Yellow cattle given urea ensiled wheat straw (Hebie province) or ammoniated wheat straw (Henan province) as a basal diet, to increasing levels of supplementation with cottonseed meal (after Dolberg and Finlayson, 1995) IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE MEAT PRODUCTION Production of meat and milk is influenced by both the reproductive efficiency of the herd and the production levels achieved by the cattle being fattened. A generalized statement based on experience in a large part of south East Asia indicates that cows maintained by small farmers that rely on the locally available forage and are not strategically supplemented, probably have their first calf at 4-5 years of age and produce a calf thereafter at intervals of a minimum of 2 years. Under the harsh conditions, a high proportion of the calves die soon after birth and many cows barely replace themselves within their lifetime. The cow’s maintenance is often justified in order to provide replacements for working bullocks and so that the cow can stand in when a working bullock is incapacitated at a critical time in crop production operations. This can act as an insurance against crop failure. The cow also produces small amounts of milk for its


calf and the family. However, sharing of the milk and/or early weaning causes calves not to thrive and often leads to their early death. The supplementation strategies discussed above can (could) have remarkable effects. Better feeding management increases the growth of young animals, and reduces their breeding age to 2 years. In older animals, the maintenance of live weight by the same approach can reduce inter-calving interval to 1-1.5 years. The overall improvement in animal health and body condition is accompanied by increased survival of young animals prior to weaning and reduced death rate among cows at calving. The effects on reproductive efficiency alone can more than double the availability of young animals for fattening. In India, a major benefit of the introduction of multi-nutrient block and bypass protein supplementation of lactating cows in the Cooperative Milk Unions (under the auspices of the National Dairy Development Programme), was attributable to improved reproductive efficiency of the supplemented cows. This led to a greater number of cows in milk at any one time and an improvement in both lactation length and daily milk yield (Leng and Kunju, 1990). Ruminant production and forage availability Improved reproductive function leads to increased mouths to feed and immediately the objection is made ‘where is the extra feed to come from?’ The point that needs stressing here is that the amount of feed needed to finish an animal is related to its growth rate. The higher the growth rate the lower the feed requirements per unit of live weight produced .The clearest indication of this comes from research in China (Table 2) which showed that if the necessary supplements were added to the existing amount of forage, it was possible to achieve a 10–13 fold increase in meat from ruminants. Depending on the cost of the protein meal, the most economic response is likely to be at low protein inputs, where production from a unit of straw may provide a 5-6 fold increase. The conversion of concentrate into live weight gain in ruminants is far ahead of that of pigs and poultry, providing the supplementation levels allow the catalytic response, which occurs at less than 1kg of protein concentrate per day. Responses to escape protein in dairy cows The response to protein intake by dairy cows fed on forage has not been so well defined as for young growing cattle. However, in milking cows on a basal feed of mature forage, supplementation with high protein meals has a major effect on live weight, often reducing weight loss in lactation. As there is a high correlation between live weight and the ability of lactating cows to breed, supplementation


with protein meals during lactation often reduces the time to first oestrus reduces inter-calving interval and improves the overall reproductive efficiency. TABLE 2 The potential of balanced supplementation to increase meat production from young cattle fed low quality crop residues treated to increase digestibility. The calculations are based on the data from Dolberg and Finlayson (1995). The growth rates of the cattle were accurately predicted from the regression shown in Figure 3d

Cottonseed supplement fed (kg/day) 0 0.25 0.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 Live weight gain,

(kg/day)

0.063 0.370 0.529 0.781 0.829 0.892

Straw consumed to produce 100 kg live

weight (tonnes)

6 1.1 0.92 0.56 0.48 0.46

Cottonseed cake consumed to produce

100 kg live weight (tonnes)

0 0.1 0.1 0.14 0.22 0.24

Number of animals (group) that can

achieve an extra 100 kg of live weight

on 6 tonnes of straw

1 5+ 6+ 10+ 12+ 13+

Protein meal requirements to allow

100 g live weight gain per group of

animals fattened (tonnes)

0 0.5 0.6 1.4 2.6 3.1

Conversion of protein meal to live

weight (g Lwt gain/g feed concentrate)

- 1.2:1 0.93:

1

0.48:

1

0.26:

1

0.31:

1

The major effect of supplying escape protein compared with traditional concentrates to dairy cows being fed mature forage, appears to be to reduce the cow’s need to draw on body reserves to maintain milk production. Supportive evidence for this is shown in the data given in Figure 5 and Table 3. Higher genetic potential for milk production is linked to the ability of the good (high yielding) cow to mobilize body reserves, as against a poor cow that does not have this capacity. Therefore the benefits of supplementing cows with a high genetic potential for milk production is more effective in reducing inter-calving interval than it is for those having a poor potential.


Definition of the amount of escape protein needed to attain the point at which the change of roles of the protein meal supplement occurs is clearly needed in lactating cows.

-25-20-15-10

-505

1015

Milk

yie

ld [k

g/da

y]

No suppl. Sorghum Copra

Weight loss

Milk yield

Figure 5. The effect of feeding sorghum or copra meal (both at 3 kg/day) to dairy cows on pasture. Supplementation with protein seems to be more beneficial in reducing body weight loss (kg in 12 weeks) in dairy cows than in promoting milk yield (kg/day), which is only stimulated to a minor extent (Ehrlich et al., 1990) The concept is that the initial supplement protein source needs to be highly protected from microbial action for maximum efficiency, but after this response is achieved, a partially protected protein meal appears to be most effective. This is because the requirements for amino acids compared with other nutrients appear to be closely balanced with additional production from such a source. Perhaps in this case there is good synchrony of nutrient supply (carbohydrate ammonia and minerals) from the feed for its optimal fermentation in the rumen. TABLE 3 Effects of replacing balanced concentrates (20 percent CP) with a concentrate high in escape protein (30 percent CP) on the live weight change and milk yield of Jersey X Kankrej cows (after Leng and Kunju, 1990). Note that the balanced concentrate was given at about half the rate of the protein concentrate

Crude Protein in supplement

(%)

Supplement given

(kg/day)

Milk Yield

(kg/day)

Live weight change

(kg/day) Group 1 20 4.7 8.0 -0.21

Group 2 30 2.6 8.8 0.20


Minimising the need for escape protein The definition of the growth response curves for feeding protein meals in a diet of straw given to cattle may be used to predict their growth rates and from economics analyses, establish priorities for the ruminant industries. Research to minimise protein meal requirements is a priority since these are usually expensive and often in short supply. The most appropriate way would seem to be to more completely protect the protein in a meal (for example cottonseed meal protein is estimated to be between 40 and 60 percent protected) to maximise the initial response and then to feed untreated meal for the most economic level of production. One way of partially reducing the initially high requirement for escape protein in cattle on forage diets is to increase the net flow of bacterial cells to the lower tract by removing the predatory protozoa from the rumen (defaunation). Bird and Leng (1978) first showed that defaunation of the rumen improved the growth of cattle on low protein diets (see Figure 6). Wool growth response in sheep to defaunation indicated that more protein was delivered from the rumen of fauna free as compared to normal sheep (Bird et al., 1979). This was confirmed by Veira et al., (1984) who demonstrated that introducing protozoa into the rumen of sheep that had previously been without them, reduced microbial protein flowing to the intestines. The work of Ushida et al., (1984) indicated that in the absence of rumen protozoa, more dietary protein, in addition to bacterial protein, moved to the lower tract in sheep. The consensus would appear to be that protozoa in the rumen reduce total protein flow to the intestines and therefore lower the protein availability from the feed consumed by ruminants. There is thus potential to minimise protein requirements of ruminants on low protein diets by manipulation of the rumen to exclude and maintain the animal free of protozoa. Until recently, no methods have been discovered that can be easily applied to existing farming systems. Nguyen Thi Hong Nhan et al., (2001) working in Vietnam showed that treating young cattle fed on rice straw with an oil drench, increased their subsequent growth rate. For the first 20 days after drenching, the rumen appeared to be free of protozoa and the response was attributed to their absence. (Figure 7). Subsequent studies by Mom Seng et al., (2001) showed that rumen protozoa appeared to be eliminated initially but returned within two weeks with a changed population mix. The very large protozoa that usually make up a small proportion of the numbers but are often a large proportion of the total biomass, returned to only a fraction of their population density pre-drench. A slow recovery of these large protozoa has been previously observed, where fauna free sheep were naturally infected when they returned to a flock of normal grazing sheep (Hegerty et al., 2000).


0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

LWt c

hang

e [g

/day

]

Molasses/straw Molasses strawand protein

protozoa freeNormal fauna

Figure 6. The effects of the defaunated state on growth of cattle fed straw /urea/molasses based diets supplemented with sub-optimal levels of escape protein meals (Bird and Leng, 1979) The amount of polished rice (15 percent CP) that had to be fed to get the same response as drenching once with oil, was about 0.5 kg/day. CONCLUSIONS It is argued in the paper by Delgado et al., (1999) that the relative price of grain will not rised significantly in the next 50 years, and that grain surplus to human requirements can be used to provide the basis for an expanding industrialized pig and poultry industry in developing countries to meet the growing demand for meat. Legislation for the inclusion of alcohol (an oxygenate) in gasoline for motor vehicles in order to lessen the hazards of chemical smog in major cities of the United States, is likely to have a major impact on the economics of feed grain. The production of alcohol is set to monopolise surplus United States’ maize grain by 2005. Whilst this will have repercussions for livestock industries in all parts of the world, a major benefit will be the considerable quantities of fibrous high protein by-products that will become available, and are most suited to supplementation of ruminants being fed on low digestibility forage. It seems likely that the development of alcohol industries will also be implemented in a number of countries, increasing the use of starch and sugar based crops for this purpose. In the future there will also be considerable effort to use biomass (urban,


forest and agricultural waste) for the same purpose, but the technology has yet to be refined to support economic production (California Energy Commission, 1999).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

LWt g

ain[

g/da

y]

RS RS +oil RS+RP RS+RP+oil

Figure 7. The effects of a single oil drench at the beginning of the fattening period on the growth rate of young cattle fed rice straw and supplements. Young cattle were given rice straw with grass (RS) or rice straw/grass with a supplement of 1kg/day of polished rice (RS+RP). One group in each feeding system was drenched with 5 ml vegetable oil/kg live weight (+oil) at the beginning of the feeding trial Source: Nguyen Thi Hong Nhan et al., 2001 A world shortfall in feed grain will adversely affect intensive animal production industries and limit the production of meat. It appears that the development of ruminant industries has the potential to meet any short fall in meat, as the feed base of cellulose biomass is abundantly available and inefficiently utilized at present. The use of poor quality forage, un-supplemented for ruminant production, is realising less than 20 percent of its potential. It is relatively easy to provide the technology to make more than a five fold increase in meat production from poor quality forage without finding new sources of basal feeds. However, it will be necessary to identify and prioritise the protein meals that are required as supplements to increase the efficiency of production to levels that are economic. Protein concentrates may be more efficiently used for meat (and milk) production from ruminants when combined with forage from such sources as crop residues, which in many developing countries are regarded as a free resource. The widespread distribution of ruminants in general, and cattle in particular, among rural farms where the forage is a by-product of crop production, is highly


advantageous. However, to be successful in encouraging the development of such dispersed, small production units, the necessary supplements must be made available. Suitable slaughtering facilities and an equitable marketing system are also essential elements. These requirements are well demonstrated by the success of the Milk Cooperatives in India. These have shown that dispersed systems for milk production from indigenous cows or their crossbreeds, together with local feed resources, can be highly viable economically where the necessary supplements are made available, and where there is a guaranteed, equitable and wealthy market concentrated in a nearby city. Small farm systems appear to be best operated outside any industrial framework, which then ensures that the farmer benefits directly as against indirectly, as is the case with workers in industrial enterprises. The marketing of supplements (multi-nutrient mineral urea mixes and concentrates high in escape protein), provision of slaughter houses and packaging plants and a guaranteed market, together with some form of time payment to ensure a regular income, are all considerations for the introduction and success of such a development. The overall development could realise the potential of a five fold or more increase in meat production, particularly in those developing countries with vast areas of crops. Reports indicating that relatively high levels of meat production are possible on these crop resources have often been ignored, largely it is believed because of the preconception that such feeds are poor quality rather than simply being deficient in some nutrients. The trials summarized here indicate that cattle growth rates and milk production from mature forage with appropriate supplementation, can often approach the same levels as those obtained on high quality temperate pastures. It is also reported quite regularly that the growth rates of young cattle can be in the order of 0.75 kg/day when they are fed on treated or untreated straw with appropriate supplementation. It should be emphasised that this growth rate of cattle is translated to 280 kg of live weight gain per year and that small ruminants respond equally relative to their size. The feeding trials reviewed indicate that cattle on a diverse range of mature low protein forage, respond very similarly to supplementation, despite a wide divergence of local climates and different management. The source of supplements is often a key factor and is not necessarily dependent on packaged or bought in items. Thus, for example, tree foliage/sown grasses or other plants that can be grown, may be sources of minerals and escape protein and/or where they have a high digestibility, a source of biomass to increase the digestibility of the diet. The


point to be made is that the requirements for essential nutrients that may be deficient in straw or other low digestibility feed may be sourced wherever possible and the above discussion is intended to provide the rules of thumb that have to be applied in developing such feeding systems. Meat production will continue to be diversified amongst the three major species in extensive and intensive systems and in all countries. However, for the ruminant industry to develop, it will be necessary to identify and to provide the resources that are needed to improve productivity. The need is for education of farmers to: • improve their management of straw harvesting; • manage or treat roughage appropriately to increase its digestibility; • blend or harvest forage to provide essential nutrients and improve the

digestibility of a forage based diet. The second need is for the relevant industry groups in both public and private sectors to find and make available the essential supplements to ruminants fed on poor quality straw or other forage and to: • ensure that there is no deficiency of essential nutrients for microbial growth

in the rumen; • provide a source of escape protein to be fed at an optimal rate; • provide options for drenching with a vegetable oil at the beginning of a

fattening period. Research is needed on all the above points but in particular, to achieve better harvesting methods that would retain the feed quality of straw after harvest. This could mean that treatment with ammonia would be unnecessary and that high growth rates could be achieved with the minimum of supplements. The last but perhaps most important point, is the requirement for an infrastructure that supports the marketing of ruminant meats and ensures that farmers receive fair and equitable prices. REFERENCES Bird, S. & Leng, R.A. 1978. The effects of defaunation of the rumen on the growth of

cattle on low protein high-energy diets. British Journal of Nutrition, 40: 163-167. Bird, S.J., Hill, M.K. & Leng, R.A. 1979. The effects of defaunation of the rumen on

the growth of lambs on low protein high energy diets. British Journal of Nutrition, 42: 81-87.

California Energy Commission. 1999. Evaluation of Biomass-to-Ethanol Fuel Potential in California. (available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/reports/1999-12-22_500-99-022).


Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. &Courbois, C. 1999. Livestock to 2020; The Next Food Revolution. Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper 28. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.

Dolberg, F. & Finlayson, P. 1995. Treated straw for beef production in China. World Animal Review, 82: 14-24.

Ehrlich, W.K., Upton, P.C., Cowan, R.T. & Moss, R.J. 1990. Copra meal as a supplement for grazing dairy cows. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production, 18: 196.

Elliott, R.C. & O’Donovan, M.W. 1971. In Report of the Henderson Research Station, Harare, Zimbabwe.

FAO. 1983. An evaluation of the use of anhydrous ammonia to treat rice straw, by M. J. Creek, T. J. Barker & W.A. Hargus. UNDP/FAO Beef Industry Development Project. EGY/82/007. FAO Field Document No.8. Rome.

FAO. 1997a. Roughage utilization in warm climates, by M. Chenost & C. Kayouli. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 135. Rome.

FAO. 1997b. Tree foliage in Ruminant Nutrition, by R.A. Leng. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 139. Rome.

Finlayson, P., Zhang Weixian, Chuan Xue & Dolberg, F. 1994. Economic aspects of utilising fibrous crop residues for beef production in China. Research for Rural development 6[3]. http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd6/3/4.htm.

Hegerty, R.S., Shands, C., Harris, C. & Nolan, J.V. 2000. Productivity and pasture intake of defaunated crossbred sheep flock. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 40: 655-662.

Hennessy, D.W., Williamson, P.J., Nolan, J.V., Kempton, T.J. & Leng, R.A. 1983. The roles of energy- or protein–rich supplements in the sub tropics for cattle consuming basal diets that are low in digestible energy and protein. Journal of Agricultural Science, 100: 657.

IAEA. 1991. Proceedings of International Symposium on Nuclear Related Technologies in Animal Production and Health. Vienna..

Karges, K.K., Klopfenstein, T.J., Wilkerson, V.A. & Clanton, D.C. 1992. Effects of ruminally degradable and escape protein supplements on steers grazing summer native range. Journal of Animal Sciences, 70: 1957.

Leng, R.A. 1984. The potential of solidified molasses-based blocks for the correction of multi-nutritional deficiencies in buffaloes and other ruminants fed low-quality agro-industrial by products. In The Use of Nuclear Techniques to Improve Domestic Buffalo Production in Asia. Vienna, IAEA, STI/PUB/684.

Leng, R.A. 1990. Factors effecting the utilisation of poor quality forages by ruminants particularly under tropical conditions. Nutrition Research Reviews, 3: 277.


Leng, R.A. & Kunju, P.J.G. 1990. Feeding strategies for improving milk production from milk animals owned by small farmers in India .In Domestic Buffalo Production in Asia. Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency.

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http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd13/4/seng134.htm). McLennan et al. 1995. Quoted in Poppi and McLennan, 1995) Nguyen Thi Hong Nhan, Nguyen Van Hon, Ngu, N.T., Preston, T.R. and Leng,

R.A. 2001. Practical application of defaunation of cattle on farms in Vietnam: Response of young cattle fed rice straw and grass to a single drench of groundnut oil. Asian-Australasian Journal Animal Science, 14(4): 485-490.

Ørskov, E.R., Fraser, C. and McHattie, I. 1973. The effect of bypassing the rumen with supplements of protein and energy on intake of concentrates by sheep. British Journal of Nutrition, 30: 361-367.

Pearse Lyons, T. and Bannerman, J. 2001. The US Fuel Ethanol Industry from 1980 to 2001: Lessons for Other Markets. In A Time for Answers p. 115-129. Proceedings of Alltech’s 15th Asia –Pacific Lecture Tour.

Perdoc, H.B. 1987. Ammoniated Rice Straw as a Feed for Growing Cattle. Armidale, Australia, University of New England. (Ph.D. thesis)

Perdoc, H.B. and Leng, R.A. 1990. Effect of supplementation with protein meal on the growth of cattle given a basal diet of untreated or ammoniated rice straw. Asian–Australasian Journal of Agricultural Science, 3: 269-

Poppi, D.P. and McLennan, S.J. 1995. Protein and energy utilisation by ruminants at pasture. Journal of Animal Science, 73: 278- 290.

Preston, T.R. and Willis, M.B. 1974. Intensive Beef Production. Oxford, UK, Pergamon Press.

Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1986. Matching Livestock Systems to Available Resources in the Tropics and Sub Tropics. Armidale, Australia, Penambul Books.

Renewable Fuels Association. 2001. One Massachusetts Avenue, Suite 820, Washington, DC. (available at http://www.ethanolrfa.org).

Saadulah, M. 1984. Studies on the utilisation of rice straw by cattle. Copenhagen, Royal Veterinary University. (Ph.D. thesis)

Silva, A.T., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. and Ørskov, E.R. 1989. Influence of ammonia treatment and supplementation on the intake, digestibility and weight gain of sheep and cattle on barley straw diet. Animal Production, 48: 99-108.

Smith, G.H. and Warren, B. 1986a. Supplementation to improve the production of yearling steers grazing poor quality forage. 1. The effects of forage type and cottonseed meal supplement. .Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 55: 389.


Smith, G.H. and Warren, B. 1986b. Supplementation to improve the production of yearling steers grazing poor quality forage. 2. The effects of oats, supplementary nitrogen, lupins and cottonseed meal. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 26: 7.

Ushida, K., Jouuany, J.P., Lassalas, B. and Thivend, P. 1984. Protozoal contribution to nitrogen digestion in sheep. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 64[suppl.]: 20-21.

Veira, D.M., Ivan, M. and Yui, P.Y. 1984. The effect of ciliate protozoa on the flow of amino acids from the stomach of sheep. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 64: 22-23.

Wanapat, M., Duangchan, S., Pongpairote, S., Anakewit, T. and Tongpanung, P. 1986. Effects of various levels of concentrates fed with urea-treated rice straw for pure bred American Brahman yearling cattle. In R.M. Dixon, ed. Ruminant Feeding Systems Utilizing Fibrous Agricultural Residues, p. 149-153. Canberra, IDP.

Waterlow, J.C. 1998. Protein-energy malnutrition. London, Edward Arnold. Zhang Weixian,Gu Chuan Xue, Dolberg, F. and Finlayson, P.M. 1994.

Supplementation of ammoniated wheat straw with hulled cottonseed cake. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 6(1). (also available at

http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd6/1chna l.htm).


Real and perceived issues involving animal proteins

C. R. Hamilton

Director Research and Nutritional Services Darling International Incorporated

U.S.A. THE RENDERING INDUSTRY The rendering industry has and continues to be closely integrated with animal and meat production in countries where these industries are well established. On a global perspective, rendering provides an important service to society and the animal feeding industries by processing approximately 60 million tonnes per year of animal by-products derived from the meat and animal production industries. During slaughter and processing, between 33 and 43 percent by weight of the live animal is removed and discarded as inedible waste. These materials, which include fat trim, meat, viscera, bone, blood and feathers are collected and processed by the rendering industry to produce high quality fats and proteins that have traditionally been used in the animal feed and oleochemical industries around the world. Without the rendering industry, the accumulation of unprocessed animal byproducts would impede the meat industries and pose a serious potential hazard to animal and human health. One definition of rendering is to ‘clarify or purify by melting’ (heat processing). Unprocessed animal by-products may contain 60 percent or more water (Figure 1). The primary reasons for using heat when processing these raw materials are to remove the moisture and facilitate fat separation. Desiccation significantly reduces the total volume from 60 million tonnes of raw material to about 8 million tonnes of animal proteins and 8.2 million tonnes of rendered fats. Stored properly, these finished products are stable for long periods of time. Heat processing also benefits the finished product customer. The temperatures used (115° to 145° C) are more than sufficient to kill bacteria, viruses and many other micro-organisms, to produce an aseptic protein product that is free of potential biohazards and environmental threats. Done correctly, heat processing also denatures the proteins slightly, which enhances their digestibility.

Real and perceived issues involving animal proteins 256

Modern efficient rendering facilities are concentrated in countries and regions possessing strong and well-established animal production industries. Renderers in North America process nearly 25 million tonnes of animal byproducts per year, while those in the European Union process about 15 million tonnes. Argentina, Australia, Brazil and New Zealand collectively process another 10 million tonnes of animal byproducts per year. The total value of finished rendered products, worldwide is estimated to be between US$6 and US$8 billion per year. RENDERED PRODUCTS – NUTRITIONAL VALUE Animal products include meat and bone meal, blood meal, poultry by-product meal (poultry meal) and feather meal. These are all concentrated sources of protein and amino acids and some are also good sources of vitamins and essential minerals (Table 1). This makes them important feed ingredients for livestock, poultry and companion animals in the United States and many other countries of the world. Meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal and poultry meal are suitable for use in feeds for a wide range of animal species, including fish and shrimp (Table 2). As shown in Figure 2, more than two million tonnes of meat and bone meal and poultry meal combined are used annually by the United States feed industry alone. Animal proteins have traditionally been important sources of proteins and other nutrients for livestock and poultry in the United States and their acceptance in Latin

05000

10000150002000025000

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on k

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Water Protein Fat

Figure 1. Raw material composition


America and Asia has grown substantially in the past five years. Animal proteins are also used extensively in pet foods. About 1.5 million tonnes of meat and bone meal and poultry meal is used by the United States pet food industry each year. The use of non-marine animal proteins in aquaculture feeds is a relatively new practice, but this application is expected to continue to grow, especially as competition and prices for fishmeal increase. TABLE 1 Nutrient composition of animal proteins a

Item Meat & Bone Meal Blood Meal b Feather Meal Poultry Meal

Crude protein, % 50.4 88.9 81.0 60.0

Fat, % 10.0 1.0 7.0 13.0

Calcium, % 10.3 0.4 0.3 3.0

Phosphorus, % 5.1 0.3 0.5 1.7

TMEN , kcal/kg 2666 c 3625 3276 3120

Amino Acids

Methionine, % 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.0

Cystine, % 0.7 0.5 4.3 1.0

Lysine, % 2.6 7.1 2.3 3.1

Threonine, % 1.7 3.2 3.8 2.2

Isoleucine, % 1.5 1.0 3.9 2.2

Valine, % 2.4 7.3 5.9 2.9

Tryptophan, % 0.3 1.3 0.6 0.4

Arginine, % 3.3 3.6 5.6 3.9

Histidine, % 1.0 3.5 0.9 1.1

Leucine, % 3.3 10.5 6.9 4.0

Phenylalanine, % 1.8 5.7 3.9 2.3

Tyrosine, % 1.2 2.1 2.5 1.7

Glycine 6.7 4.6 6.1 6.2

Serine 2.2 4.3 8.5 2.7 a NRC 1994; b Ring or flash dried; c Dale, 1997


TABLE 2 Suitability of animal proteins to supply a portion of the protein in feeds for various animal species

Meal Specie Meat & Bone Blood Feather Poultry Chickens Yes Yes Yes Yes

Turkeys Yes Yes Yes Yes

Cattle No Yes Yes Yes

Fish b Yes Yes Yes Yes

Shrimp b Yes ? Yes Yes

Dogs c Yes Yes Yes Yes a Guaranteed to be free of ruminant material. b As a partial replacement for fishmeal. c Approximately 25 to 40% of the dry matter in premium dog foods are animal by-products. Some nutritionists underestimate the digestibility and the nutritional value of animal proteins. This misperception dates back many years to when poor processing techniques and equipment were used to render animal by-products. Since that time, new processes, improved equipment and greater understanding of the effects of time, temperature and processing methods on amino acid availability have resulted in significant improvements in the digestibility of animal proteins. Improved understanding as to how best to incorporate them into commercial formulas and improved formulation procedures also increased the nutritional value of animal proteins. Data published since 1984 demonstrate that the digestibility of essential amino acids, especially lysine, threonine, tryptophan and methionine, in meat and bone meal, has improved (Table 3). BIOSECURITY AND FINISHED PRODUCT SAFETY Biosecurity of food and food related products is largely perception based on trust and education. Food and feed are derived directly or indirectly from biological organisms. Natural variation, the environment, storage conditions, usage and the potential interaction with other biological organisms (such as micro-organisms) make it impractical to guarantee food safety in absolute terms. Despite the best efforts on the part of companies, farmers, regulatory agencies, politicians and others involved in the food chain, all of the potential risks cannot be alleviated 100 percent of the time. Therefore, it is necessary to manage these risks using sound


scientific principles and facts. In some recent crisis situations, politics, fear and supposition have replaced logic and science in risk management decisions.

TABLE 3 Digestibility of meat and bone meal since 1984

Amino Acid 1984 a 1989 b 1990 c 1992 d 1995 e 2001 f

Lysine, % 65 70 78 84 94 92

Threonine, % 62 64 72 83 92 89

Tryptophan, % --- 54 65 83 --- 86

Methionine, % 82 --- 86 85 96 92

Cystine, % --- --- --- 81 77 76 a Jorgensen et al., 1984; b Knabe et al., 1996; c Batterham et al., 1990.d Firman, 1992; e Parsons et al., 1997 ;

f Pearl, 2001b During the past decade, a number of safety-related challenges have daunted the rendering industry. These challenges resulted from perceived rather than proven risks. Public and political perceptions were influenced by media sensationalism, a general movement of society away from its agrarian roots, lack of scientific knowledge concerning bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and other hazards, inadequate analytical procedures for routine detection of potential hazards

0

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1200

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mto

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Meat Poultry Fish

Protein Meal

LivestockPet

Figure 2. Animal protein usage by the United States’ feed industry


such as dioxins, public expectations that government and industry assure a safe food supply, opportunistic marketing strategies and the political agendas of activist organizations. The Precautionary Principle adopted by the European Union has served to catalyze these perceptions because in its development and enforcement, perceived risks and political image frequently overruled science. The World rendering industry recognizes its role in assuring food safety and in protecting human and animal health. The rendering process is an effective method for ensuring biosecurity because processing conditions and volumes, raw material characteristics and drying create an unfavorable environment for viruses, bacteria and other micro-organisms to survive and grow. Rendering is the most logical method for collecting and processing animal by-products because it possesses the infrastructure to safely and responsibly recycle these products, allow traceability and produce safe finished products. The rendering industry is closely regulated by the appropriate agencies within the resident region, country or province. In the United States, State and Federal agencies each routinely inspect rendering facilities for compliance to applicable regulations and finished product safety tolerances. Rendering facilities are inspected by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for compliance to BSE related regulations. State Feed Control Officials inspect and test finished products as they enforce quality, adulteration and feed safety policies. Rendering industry organizations provide technical support and education in quality assurance and feed safety. Using United States based organizations as examples, the Animal Protein Producers Industry (APPI) administers industry-wide programmes for biosecurity, pathogen reduction, continuing education and third-party certification for compliance to BSE related regulations. The Fats and Proteins Research Foundation (FPRF) solicits and funds industry and university research to address pertinent biosecurity and nutrient value issues. Three primary food safety issues dominate discussions about the safety of feeding animal proteins to animals. These are Salmonella contamination (bacterial pathogens), BSE and dioxins. Each of these issues present legitimate concerns and all are known to threaten animal and human health. However, in each case, the risk of spreading these risks through finished rendered products is largely perceived rather than factual. The value of the rendering process as a mechanism to control risks of microbial pathogens as well as other hazards (with the possible exception of the agent causing BSE) is illustrated in Table 4, which is based on a report from the United Kingdom Department of Health (2001).


Salmonella Salmonella are destroyed by heat when exposed to temperatures of 55° C for one hour or 60° C for 15 to 20 minutes (Franco, 1993). Processing temperatures of between 115° C and 145° C are used to render animal by-products. These temperatures are more than sufficient to kill Salmonella and other pathogenic bacteria present in raw animal by-products (Tables 4 and 5). However, Salmonella are opportunistic organisms and may re-contaminate products after cooking or processing and during storage, transport and handling. Post process contamination is of concern for all feed ingredients and not restricted only to animal proteins. Despite this fact, animal proteins continue to be more closely scrutinized for Salmonella contamination than other feed ingredients. Davies and Funk (1999) completed an extensive review of Salmonella epidemiology and control. They summarized that while feeds of animal origin receive the most attention as sources of Salmonella, it is now recognized that feeds of plant origin, such as soybean meal, are often contaminated with Salmonella. Data showing the incidence of Salmonella contamination in various feed ingredients in North America, Europe and the United Kingdom are shown in Table 6. These data suggest that all feed ingredients may be contaminated with Salmonella. Brooks (1989) demonstrated that the relative risk of Salmonella contamination in complete feed is less for animal proteins than for soybean meal, fishmeal and grain. Even if the Salmonella prevalence in animal proteins is equal to or exceeds that of other ingredients, animal proteins pose two- to threefold less risk of contaminating complete feed, because animal proteins typically have much lower (2 to 5 percent) inclusion rates than other ingredients (Table 7). More than 2 200 different serotypes of Salmonella have been identified and only a few of these cause disease in humans or animals. Almost all of the Salmonella serotypes that have been identified in animal proteins are innocuous and do not cause disease (Davies and Funk, 1999). Furthermore, dried animal proteins do not provide a favorable environment for Salmonella organisms to proliferate, primarily because the water activity is too low. Figure 3 illustrates this point. Salmonella choleraesuis (a human pathogen) remained viable in meat and bone meal for less than two days after inoculation. In order to limit Salmonella (or other pathogenic organisms) in meat and other animal products, it is necessary to control the most important sources of contamination first. Feed is not the most important contributor to Salmonella contamination of these products. Data collected from commercial swine production facilities in the United States suggest that employees, cats, rodents, insects and environmental factors are much more important Salmonella reservoirs than feed (Table 8). Drinking water had more than a five-fold greater incidence of Salmonella than feed.


TABLE 4 Summary of potential health risks for various methods of handling animal by-products

Exposure of humans to hazards from each handling method

Disease/Hazardous Agent

Ren

derin

g

Inci

nera

tion

Land

fill

Pyre

Bur

ial

Campylobacter, E. coli, Listeria, Salmonella, Bacillus anthacis, C. botulinum, Leptospira, Mycobacterium tuberculosis var bovis, Yersinia

Low Low Some Low High

Cryptosporidium, Giardia Low Low Some Low High

Clostridium tetani Low Low Some Low High

Prions for BSE, Scrapie Some Low Some Some High

Methane, CO2 Low Low Some Low High

Fuel-specific chemicals, Metal salts Low Low Low High Low

Particulates, SO2, NO2, nitrous particles

Low Some Low High Low

PAHs, dioxins Low Some Low High Low

Disinfectants, detergents Low Low Some Some High

Hydrogen sulfide Low Low Some Low High

Radiation Low Some Low Some Some

a Adapted from United Kingdom Department of Health, 2001.


TABLE 5 Efficacy of the United States’ rendering system in the destruction of pathogenic bacteria

Pathogen Raw Tissue b Post Process b

Clostridium perfringens 71.4 % 0 %

Listeria species 76.2 % 0 %

L. monocytogenes 8.3 % 0 %

Campylobacter species 29.8 % 0 %

C. jejuni 20.0 % 0 %

Salmonella species 84.5 % 0 % a Trout et al., 2001. Samples from 17 different rendering facilities taken during the winter and summer. b Percent of the number of samples found to be positive for pathogens out of the total samples collected. TABLE 6 Incidence of Salmonella in feed ingredients

Country

Ingredient Item Netherlands a Germany b USA c Canada d United

Kingdom e

Samples 2026 17 101 Not reported 120 Animal

Proteins % Positive 6 6 56 20 3

Samples 1298 196 50 Not reported 2002 Vegetable

Proteins % Positive 3 26 36 18 7

Samples 37 Not reported 1026 Grains

% Positive 3 5 1

Samples Not reported 1316 Fish Meal

% Positive 22 22 a Beumer and Van der Poel, 1997; b Sreenivas, 1998; c McChesney et al., 1995; d Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1999; e Brooks, 1989


TABLE 7 Relative risk of Salmonella contamination in complete feed a

Salmonella Ingredient Amount in formula

(%) Incidence (%)(+) Risk Factor

Grain 66.9 0.9 0.602

Soybean meal 24.9 2.7 0.672

Fishmeal 2.2 13.2 0.290

Meat Meal 3.0 3.0 0.09

Fat ---- ---- ----

Vitamin mineral mix ---- ---- ---- a Brooks, 1989

TABLE 8 Reservoirs of Salmonella contamination on Illinois swine farms.a

Reservoir Number samples Percent positive Employee footwear 93 17.2 % Cats 22 13.6 % Drinking water 33 12.1 % Mice/rodents 59 10.2 % Floor material 471 7.9 % Flies 95 7.4 % Feed 100 2.0 %

a Weigel et al. 1999.

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Figure 3. Salmonella choleraesuis viability in mammalian bone meal (MBM)a ( 7 to 25 percent

moisture) and stored at 28.8°C. a Sutton et al. 1992.


These data all clearly demonstrate that animal proteins should not be the primary focus of concern in feeding programs designed to reduce the incidence of Salmonella. Why then, is Salmonella in feed ingredients, especially animal proteins, scrutinized so closely? - Because of perception – not fact. Requiring all animal proteins, or even all feed ingredients, to be Salmonella free has little impact on overall food safety without controlling the more important sources of contamination. Salmonella reduction/prevention is a farm - to - plate issue affecting all segments of the feed manufacturing, animal production, meat processing and retail meats industries. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) What is BSE (‘Mad Cow Disease’)? ’Mad Cow Disease’ is an inaccurate term used to describe Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), because cows do not appear ’mad’ or ’crazy’ when they have the disease. This was a term coined by the news media in order to gain public attention and sensationalize the story. BSE is a more appropriate and accurate term to use when the disease is discussed. BSE is one of several related diseases that affect a number of different animal species and humans. These diseases are collectively called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). BSE is a chronic degenerative disease that affects the central nervous system of cattle. The only positive cases detected outside of the United Kingdom and Mainland Europe were reported in Japan in late 2001. The incubation period is thought to be between two and eight years and it has been associated with a new form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) in humans. CJD has been recognized for many years as a sporadic disease that affects about 1 person per million. New variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) differs in etiology and it affects people at a younger age. Fortunately, BSE is not easily passed from animal to animal, so it is not a contagious disease. It also affects specific tissues in cattle and is confined primarily to the brain, spinal cord and a few other tissues. Muscle and fat do not appear to be affected by the disease and are considered to be safe. Why is BSE a growing concern? BSE is a complex disease that is poorly understood, even by the scientists who have worked in the field for many years. At least six different theories are used to explain its cause and transmission. A complete understanding of the disease is hampered by the long incubation period (up to 8 years for cattle). As a result, reporters, activists and some scientists and government officials consider theories and assumptions as fact. This combined with innuendo and the sensationalism associated with a possible link between BSE and human disease has created undue concern and panic among consumers. BSE is


also compatible with the anti-meat and organic food agendas of certain activist groups in the United States and in Europe. These groups are organized and well funded and have developed focused media campaigns in order to advance their causes. No single theory has been proven to explain the cause of BSE and/or vCJD. Each theory can be supported by circumstantial, experimental or epidemiological evidence. However, until more is understood about the disease, theories will continue to be used to explain the cause. It is clear that abnormal prion proteins are involved in the disease. However, their role is not completely clear, so it is difficult to determine whether prion proteins cause disease or are an effect produced by some unidentified infectious agent or toxin. Recognize regional differences. Efficient control and surveillance systems around the world make it possible to successfully manage the BSE issue. In general, BSE remains a regional disease and is largely confined to the United Kingdom and Mainland Europe. In the case of Japan, the cattle found to be positive for BSE were assumed to have contracted the disease through eating meat and bone meal that was exported from the United Kingdom or Mainland Europe where BSE had previously occurred. Therefore, animal proteins from the different countries where BSE has not existed represent a different risk than countries having the disease. The North American countries have implemented good BSE prevention efforts. Even though other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE), such as Scrapie in sheep and chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer and elk exists in these countries, these diseases have been shown to differ in their etiology from BSE. Australia and New Zealand are free of these diseases. Situation in the United States. The United States differs from Europe. A number of differences between the United States and Europe, in terms of livestock feeding and rearing practices, livestock demographics and governmental programmes, exist with respect to BSE risk assessment. Sheep and cattle numbers in the United Kingdom are more concentrated than in the United States (Table 9). The United Kingdom is roughly the size of the State of Oregon and it has about four times more sheep than the entire United States. In addition to a dense sheep population, the United Kingdom also has more than 11 million cattle. As a result, there are almost 3 sheep for each bovine in the United Kingdom and 12 bovines for every sheep in the United States. The United Kingdom and the rest of the European Union have similar livestock demographics.


TABLE 9 Cattle and sheep demographics of United Kingdom, European Union and United States

Category United Kingdom United States European Union

Cattle and calves (million head) 11.2 99.7 82.7

Cattle slaughter (million head) 2.3 35.6 27.9

All sheep (million head) 31.0 7.8 98.6

Sheep slaughter (million head) 18.7 3.9 78.3

Cattle to sheep ratio 1: 2.8 12:1 1: 1.2

Because vegetable protein sources are not as readily available in Europe as they are in the United States, ingredients used to provide supplemental protein in animal feeds have differed for many years. Compared to the United States, rendered animal proteins have historically been used at much higher concentrations in animal feeds in Europe. Further, animal proteins in Europe were commonly added to veal calf feeds and fed to cattle as young as two days old. Most United States’ beef production is concentrated in commercial feedlots where cattle are fed low forage rations consisting primarily of soy and corn. However, few feedlots exist in Europe and cattle are fed primarily on grass with protein supplements. Thus, the beef industry in Europe consists primarily of veal meat and older beef. Because, sheep are the most common ruminant animal in Europe, rendered animal proteins contained a higher proportion of sheep material than in the United States. Assuming that all rendered sheep protein was fed to dairy cows, those in the United Kingdom would consume 1.54 kg of sheep derived protein per day compared to only 79 grams in the United States. This comparison is even more dramatic because the US renderers voluntarily stopped processing sheep material prior to 1995. Some scientists believe that BSE originated from Scrapie, a TSE that has been known to affect sheep for more than 300 years. Given the differences in sheep concentration and production statistics between the United States and Europe, the risk of BSE occurring in the United States is markedly lower than in Europe. When differences in feeding practices are also considered, the level of risk is further decreased. The ’Triple Firewall’ strategy. The United States developed a series of ’firewalls’ to prevent BSE from occurring within its borders. The United States’ risk analysis approach was very different from that used in Europe, primarily because United States’ officials recognized from the beginning that zero risk was


not attainable. The United States programme is a progressive and continuously evolving one designed to proactively prevent the introduction of BSE (import restrictions), prevent amplification, should the disease ever be introduced into the United States (ruminant feed ban) and implement an aggressive targeted detection system (surveillance). All steps were based on science and have been the result of joint efforts among governmental agencies and all segments of the beef, dairy, feed and rendering industries (Table 10). Brain tissue from more than 22 900 cattle were tested and found to be negative for BSE between 1990 and February of 2002. This programme has primarily focused on the segment of the cattle population that represents the greatest risk for BSE. As scientists in Europe have learned more about the cattle most likely to test positive for the disease, surveillance in the United States has been adjusted accordingly. The most recent modification to include ’downer cows’ resulted in a substantial increase in sample submissions. Target sample numbers for the year 2002 are double the targets for the preceding year. The record keeping requirements that rendering companies and the feed industry are required to comply with also require a high degree of traceability for animal proteins. Regulated by the FDA, it is possible to trace finished proteins and fats from collection to use. Actions by the US rendering industry. The United States’ rendering industry fully supports BSE prevention programmes and efforts developed by the United States’ FDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and other federal and state governmental agencies. The rendering industry is committed to achieving 100 percent compliance to the FDA ban (No. 21 CFR 589.2000) which prohibits the feeding of mammalian proteins (with some specified exemptions) to cattle and other ruminant animals. The rendering industry has been actively involved in programmes to prevent BSE in the United States since before 1995, when renderers voluntarily stopped rendering sheep material. This was to prevent any scrapie-infected material from entering the food chain, especially through feed for ruminant animals. When the FDA first considered preventative measures in 1996, renderers and cattle producers voluntarily stopped using meat and bone meal derived from ruminant animals in cattle feed. This later became official when the FDA published the rule prohibiting the use of these materials in feeds intended for cattle and other ruminant animals. The rendering industry was actively involved in preparing this rule and fully supported it from its introduction in 1997. The only meat and bone meal permitted for use in ruminant animal feed in the United States is material that comes from processing plants that slaughter or process only non-ruminant animals. material is prohibited from use in feeds for cattle and other ruminant animals.


TABLE 10 Summary of United States BSE prevention efforts

Year Prevention Programme

1985 Imports of British Beef halted

1986 BSE made a legally reportable disease

1989 Ruminant animals from countries with BSE banned

1990 BSE surveillance program initiated

1990 Veterinarian education efforts about BSE increased

1991 Risk assessment conducted (an on-going process)

1993 Surveillance programme expanded

1996 Voluntary ban on use of ruminant derived proteins in cattle feed initiated

1997 FDA ban on use of ruminant derived proteins in feed for cattle and other ruminants

1997 European ruminant animals and products banned

1998 Scrapie eradication program published

1999 Surveillance programme expanded to include “downer cows”

2000 All animal proteins from European Union banned

2001 Harvard Risk Assessment Study to be completed

2001 Risk potential and preventative measures reassessed – on-going process

If the raw material cannot be verified to be of 100 percent non-ruminant origin, then the resulting finished. While hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) programmes target known hazards that can be eliminated or controlled through the rendering process, they also include in-plant enforcement of policies that apply to the acceptance or rejection of raw material. This provides further assurance that material from suspect cattle (such as those being tested for BSE through the APHIS surveillance programme), sheep, goats and other animals susceptible to TSEs are not received and processed. The FDA feed ban includes requirements that finished products are clearly labeled and records of raw material receipts and finished product sales be kept and made available for inspection by the FDA. This allows the FDA to verify the source of raw materials and verify compliance to the feed ban among feed manufacturers, dealers, distributors and end users. For renderers who process proteins exempted under the feed ban, safeguards to prevent cross-contamination must be demonstrated in practice and in writing.


The American Protein Producers Industry (APPI) recently introduced a certification programme for rendering companies, to verify compliance to the feed ban, based on inspections by third-party auditors. The goal is to have 100 percent participation among all rendering companies in the United States and 100 percent compliance to the feed ban. This program does not replace FDA inspections, although results are available for FDA review. The American Feed Ingredient Association (AFIA) developed a similar programme for commercial feed manufacturers. The American Meat Industry (AMI) has also developed a programme for cattle producers to certify that the cattle they are offering for slaughter have been fed in accordance with FDA regulations. Harvard Risk Analysis. The United States Department of Agriculture commissioned the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis at the Harvard University School of Medicine to evaluate the potential for BSE to occur in the United States. The ’Harvard Risk Analysis’ was made public in November 2001 (Cohen et al., 2001). The study concluded that the United States is highly resistant to any introduction of BSE or similar disease. Further, BSE is extremely unlikely to become established in this country because measures taken by agencies of the United States’ government were and continue to be effective at reducing the spread of BSE. The feed ban introduced by the FDA in 1997 to prevent amplification of the disease should it ever occur in the United States, was considered to be one of the most important safeguards. The full report is available on the USDA web site located at <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/bse/. Species that animal proteins are derived from differ in risk. Specie and type of tissue used to produce animal protein affects the risk from BSE. Neither pork nor poultry derived proteins have been implicated as potential sources of the BSE agent. Europe is in the process of classifying its animal by-products in case its total ban on feeding animal proteins is lifted. Materials derived from non-ruminant animals approved for human consumption may eventually be available for use in animal feeds. Other countries are not presently classifying animal by-products, although some additional actions may occur in the United States as the various regulatory agencies work to further strengthen BSE prevention efforts, even though additional regulations are not scientifically warranted. A number of governmental agencies around the world are working to develop testing methodologies to assist them in identifying the type of material from which animal proteins were derived. For example, it is possible to identify species-specific DNA using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Species-specific DNA can be identified even if the DNA is partially degraded. It is also possible to differentiate skeletal muscle in protein meals, using ELISA. Detection limits and validation procedures are being completed for these technologies. As these issues


are resolved, acceptable thresholds will be established by the appropriate regulatory agencies. At present the unit sample cost is projected to be moderately high. However, as the technology is adopted, the costs are expected to decrease. Acceptable testing methodologies to identify restricted use proteins in feed for cattle and other ruminant animals will make it simpler to verify compliance to feed bans and restrictions. These regulatory tools will make it possible to validate that animal proteins are used safely in feeds, even in countries known to have BSE present. The greatest challenge will be in establishing uniform threshold limits for the presence of prohibited materials in these feeds. Transmission studies. The majority of experiments designed to study transmission of BSE and other TSEs among animals of the same species or from specie to specie, used the intra-cranial route to introduce raw nervous tissue directly into the brain of the test animals. Oral transmission is assumed to be much less effective because intestinal absorption followed by transport and concentration of the infectious agent in the target tissues must occur. Therefore, oral exposure (i.e. via contaminated feed) is generally assumed to be one hundred thousand-fold less effective than direct exposure by the intra-cranial route (Schreuder et al., 1998). Given the potential losses that may occur via oral exposure, a large number of infectious units must be consumed in order for the disease to develop. For humans, the oral infectious dose (ID50) is estimated to be 1013 BSE prion molecules, which is a very large dose compared to known bacterial and viral pathogens (Gunn, 2001). While heat processing does not destroy the infectious agent, processing at 134° C for 3 minutes caused a 2.5 log reduction in infectivity (Schreuder et al., 1998). Therefore, the risk of spreading BSE by feeding fully processed animal proteins is extremely low. Pearl (2001a) summarized several oral challenge studies that are in progress in the United States and in the United Kingdom. Because BSE has not been found in the United States, BSE challenge studies can only be conducted in Europe. Scientists in the United States use scrapie and CWD infected material in their challenge studies. Chickens orally challenged with BSE. A 57- month study to determine the susceptibility of chickens to BSE was conducted in the United Kingdom. Chickens were challenged with BSE infected brain tissue by intra-cranial, intra-peritoneal and oral (esophageal tube) routes. No infectivity was found in any of the chicken tissue assayed upon completion of the study, regardless of the route used to introduce infective material. These results suggest that BSE is not transmitted to chickens. Cattle orally challenged with Scrapie. An 8-year study conducted in the United States determined the effects of orally or intra-cranially challenging 34 calves with


rendered proteins and fats from scrapie infected sheep. There was no evidence of oral transmission at any time during the course of the study. A second experiment, also in the United States, orally challenged 17 calves with rendered scrapie positive brain tissue from sheep. All animals were negative for BSE (and scrapie) after 8 years. However, 9 calves challenged with intra-cerebral inoculations were positive for a scrapie-like infection. Cattle orally challenged with chronic wasting disease. A total of 26 calves were inoculated (oral or intra-cranial) with brain tissue from CWD infected mule deer in 1997. Three calves from each challenge group (oral or intra-cranial) were sacrificed in 1999 and found to be negative for disease. The remaining animals are still alive and all appear healthy. HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT Rendering companies in the United States, Europe and other countries have adopted HACCP programmes as an important component of their biosecurity and food safety programmes. HACCP programmes require an evaluation of the entire rendering process, identification of potential hazards (such as Salmonella), identification of critical points in the process where the hazard(s) can be controlled and development of procedures to control these processes and ensure destruction or removal of the hazard. Additional controls may also be included at various points in the process to assure quality (QA) of the finished product(s). A generalized HACCP – QA programme for a typical rendering facility is shown in Figure 4. It is anticipated that the FDA will require that the US rendering industry use HACCP programmes within the next two years. Dioxins Concern with dioxin increased because of a clearly criminal act that occurred in Belgium. Prior to this event, most rendering companies developed and implemented sampling and testing protocols to ensure that finished fat and animal proteins were not contaminated with potentially hazardous compounds, such as pesticides and PCB’s. The rendering process does not produce dioxins, as shown in Table 4. Because of the extremely expensive nature of analyzing production samples for dioxins, testing protocols test for PCB’s which are recognized by regulatory agencies all over the world as indicators of dioxins.


Dioxins can enter rendered products by one of two methods: (1) the most likely is

by accidental or intentional contamination and (2) the presence of dioxins in animal tissues. Maximum tolerances for PCB’s already exist. The European Union and the United States FDA are both considering adoption of maximum tolerance levels for all dioxins. As sensitive and inexpensive analytical procedures to test for dioxin in the parts per trillion range are developed, rendering companies will readily adopt the technology to ensure that finished rendered products are safe from dioxins.

Raw Materials

Sizing

Press

Fat Clean-up

Protein

Grinding

Storage/Load out

Quality or Hazard Analysis Critical

Control Points

Figure 4. Basic production flow-chart with HACCP and quality control points

HEAT PROCESSING (Time x Temperature)


SUMMARY Animal proteins are an important class of ingredients for animal nutritionists to use in feed formulas. The United States’ rendering industry produces nutrient rich products that are highly digestible, do not contain anti-growth factors and are safe to use in livestock, poultry, pet and aquaculture feeds. The rendering process kills Salmonella and other food pathogens, although post process contamination can still occur. All feed ingredients may be contaminated with Salmonella. However, reservoirs of Salmonella present in animal production facilities are a much greater hazard to food safety than feed ingredients. Until these sources of contamination are controlled, little benefit to controlling Salmonella prevalence in feed ingredients will be realized. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy continues to be surrounded by myth and misperceptions. If feed-contaminated animal proteins spread this disease, countries that have never reported an incidence of BSE represent a much lower risk than those where the disease has occurred. BSE has never been reported in the United States, despite the presence of a progressive surveillance programme that began in 1990. The United States complimented surveillance with import bans and restrictions to prevent introduction of BSE into the United States. In the event that BSE was ever found in the United States, the FDA preemptively instituted a ban on the feeding of meat and bone meal from ruminant animals to cattle and other ruminants to prevent amplification and spread of the disease. Additionally, the rendering industry voluntarily stopped processing sheep and goat material and recently introduced an industry wide programme to verify compliance with the FDA feed ban using third-party auditors. Differences between the United States and Europe in livestock demographics, feeding practices and governmental policies pertaining to BSE make the occurrence of BSE in the United States unlikely. Oral transmission via infected feed has not been proven and would require exposure to an extraordinarily large number of infectious molecules. The sum of all of these efforts and statistics make it highly unlikely that BSE will occur in the United States. To date, BSE remains a European phenomenon, with 99 percent of all cases in the world occurring in the United Kingdom. Based on current accepted theories, the specific tissues and animal specie from which the tissues were derived as well as the country or regions of the world all interact to influence the risk of BSE. As methodologies are developed that allow identification of the specie and type of tissue that animal proteins are derived from, it will be much simpler for governments to regulate the feeding of animal proteins.


The World Rendering Industry supports programmes to prevent and control BSE. The US Rendering Industry fully complies with the United States Food and Drug Administration’s ban on feeding certain mammalian animal proteins to cattle and other ruminants. Rendering companies also support industry programmes developed to certify compliance with this rule and participate in the APPI compliance certification programme, using third-party auditors. REFERENCES Batterham, E. S., et al. 1990. British Journal of Nutrition, 64: 679. Beumer, H. & Van der Poel, A. F. B. 1997. Feedstuffs, Dec. 29. Brooks, P. 1989. Technical Service Publication, National Renderers Association, Inc. Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1999. Cohen, et al. 2001. Report from the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, Harvard School

of Public Health. Dale, N. 1997. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 6: 169. Davies, P. R. & Funk, J. A. 1999. Proc. 3rd International Symposium on the

Epidemiology and Control of Salmonella in Pork, August 5-7. p. 1-11. Firman, J. D. 1992. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 1: 350. Franco, D. A. 1993. Proceedings of the 54th Minnesota Nutrition Conference. p. 21-35. Gunn, M. 2001. Irish Vetinerary Record, 54(4): 192. Jorgensen, H., Sauer, W. C. &. Thacker, P. A. 1984. Journal of Animal Science, 58:

926. Knabe, D. A. 1996. In: The Original Recyclers. p. 176-202. APPI, FPRF and NRA. McChesney, D. G., Kaplan G. & Gardner, P. 1995. Feedstuffs, Feb. 13. p. 20 & 23. NRC. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry (9th Rev. Ed.). Washington D. C,

National Academy Press. Parsons, C. M., Castanon, F. & Han, Y. 1997. Poultry Science, 76: 361. Pearl, G. G. 2001a. Directors Digest # 308. Fats and Proteins Research Foundation. Pearl, G. G. 2001b. Proceedings Mid-West Swine Nutrition Conference. Sept. 5.

Indianapolis, IN, USA. Schreuder, B. E. C., et al. 1998. Veterinary Record, 142: 474. Sreenivas., P. T. 1998. Feed Mixing, 6(5): 8. Sutton, A. L., Scheidt, A. B. & Patterson, J. A. 1992. Final Research Report. Fats

and Protein Research Foundation. Trout, H. F., Schaeffer, D., Kakoma, I. & Pearl, G. 2001. Directors Digest #312.

Fats and Proteins Research Foundation. United Kingdom Department of Health. 2001. A rapid qualitative assessment of

possible risks to public health from current foot and mouth disposal options - Main Report. June.


Weigel, R., Barber, D., Isaacson, R. E., Bahnson P. B. & Jones, C. J. 1999. Proceedings 3rd International Symposium on the Epidemiology and Control of Salmonella in Pork. August 5-7 p. 180–183.


Codes of good management practice (GMP) for the animal feed industry, with

particular reference to proteins and protein by-products

Dr W. A. McIlmoyle Animal Nutrition and Agricultural Consultants

Northern Ireland, UK

INTRODUCTION In the light of recent food scares, which have resulted from potentially harmful substances entering the human food chain, the issue of food safety has become particularly important for European consumers. Problems associated with food safety have resulted in intense media attention, particularly where the problems have resulted in the death of consumers, with attention being focused on every aspect of the food chain, including complete traceability within the chain. Shortly after his appointment, the European Union Commissioner for Health and Consumers Protection, David Byrne, indicated that “Food safety is my No 1 priority, and I am setting about ensuring that Europe has the highest standards for our consumers”. In order to achieve this objective, the European Commission published a ‘White Paper on Food Safety’ on the 12th January 2000, which set out a co-ordinated approach to food safety across the EU, and included the establishment of a new European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), with specific responsibility to ‘ensure a high level of human health and consumer protection’. The White Paper also clearly identified ‘the whole of the food chain, including animal feed production’, and attributed the ‘primary responsibility for safe food production to industry, producers and suppliers’. The establishment of the European Food Safety Authority followed a trend already begun in some European Union Member States. In 1998, the United Kingdom Government, in an attempt to place the food chain under tighter scrutiny, set up the Food Standards Agency (FSA), with specific Terms of Reference to monitor the quality and safety of all food from ‘farm to fork’.

278 Codes of good management practice for the animal feed industry

Animal feed During 2001, some 124 million tonnes of animal feed was manufactured and marketed throughout the European Union. Feed offered to animals has long been recognised as a potential source of hazards in processed animal food products. Consequently, the animal feed industry, not just in Europe but worldwide, has come under intense scrutiny, as both governments and retailers of food strive to ensure that consumers are adequately protected. Food scares At the end of 1988, Mrs Edwina Currie, then a Junior Minister within the United Kingdom Government, condemned the United Kingdom egg industry for producing too many eggs that were positive for Salmonella. In the wake of media interest, egg sales plummeted and consequently, sales volumes of layers feed fell dramatically. This was indeed a watershed that changed the future of the animal feed industry. Prior to 1988, the industry was quite happy to get on with the business that it knew best, namely the production of animal feed that met the requirements of its farmer customers, with particular emphasis being placed on unit cost and animal performance. Since 1988, food scares have continued to receive major media attention. In November 1996, E.coli O157 caused an outbreak of food poisoning in Scotland, which resulted in the deaths of 18 adults. During 1998, the European Union feed industry encountered severe problems resulting from dioxin contamination of Brazilian citrus pulp. While this affected raw material markets and the animal feed industry, thankfully, there was no disruption to the food chain. This was in stark contrast to the dioxin problems that hit the Belgian feed and food industry during 1999. Fat, destined for the feed industry, became contaminated with mineral oil, leading to a major food scare due to the presence of dioxin in animal feed and the possibility of dioxin contamination in processed animal products. One estimate put the cost of the problem to the whole Belgian feed/food industry at approximately GBP£1.5 billion (GBP£=US$1.52 at 5 July 2002), as a result of feed and processed animal products being withdrawn from the market for destruction. However, this estimate does not take account of the untold damage caused to consumer confidence across the whole processed animal product market, not only in Belgium but also throughout the European Union. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the cattle population across Europe, and it’s possible links with new Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans, has also taken its toll on consumer confidence in beef, while more recent speculation over scrapie in sheep has had implications for sheep meat sales.


While not posing any direct threat to the consumer, the outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease in the United Kingdom and some other Member States of the European Union, also had severe repercussions for consumer confidence in food. These problems have highlighted consumer concerns over food safety and the impact on consumer confidence has been dramatic. In an attempt to restore consumer confidence, the animal feed industry in the European Union has introduced codes of good manufacturing practice (GMP). The implementation of codes, which are externally audited, and invariably incorporate a Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) plan, have helped to provide transparency within the industry and, hence, restore some of the lost consumer confidence. Other aspects, such as ‘open declarations’, which list all the raw materials used to manufacture the feed, have helped in this transparency, by providing more information to both animal feed customers and consumers alike. This paper is not about identifying who began to take the whole issue of ‘safe feed – safe food’ seriously. Suffice it to say that the feed industry worldwide now recognises that safe feed is part and parcel of the food chain (see Appendix 1) and, as such, must be open to scrutiny by supermarkets and consumer organisations if it is to survive. After all, without consumers, there would be no animal feed industry. CODES OF PRACTICE It is perhaps appropriate to point out the relative differences between a Code of Practice and legislation. The adoption of a Code of Practice is purely voluntary, with the ultimate decision to implement resting with the feed compounder. However, while the decision may be up to the compounder, the United Kingdom Government has made it clear that in view of the implications for consumer safety, any lack of action by the compound feed industry to police itself would result in legislation being drawn up to ensure that what should be done is in fact carried out. This realisation has spurred the industry to draw up it’s own Code of Practice to reflect the importance of animal feed in the food chain. Within the United Kingdom, the animal feed industry is represented by the United Kingdom Agricultural Supply Trade Association (UKASTA). Association members, of which there are approximately 350, with an estimated annual turnover of £5 billion, include agricultural merchants, manufacturers of animal feed and road hauliers. The feed compounding membership manufacture approximately 90 percent of animal feed marketed in the United Kingdom. In view of this overwhelming interest in the United Kingdom animal feed sector, the decline in consumer confidence in processed animal food products was of major concern to UKASTA. Accordingly, UKASTA set about developing a ‘Code


of Practice for the Manufacture of Safe Animal Feedstuffs’, which has now become known as the UKASTA Feed Assurance Scheme (UFAS). The first UFAS Code was published in September 1998 and since then, there have been several revisions, with the latest version ‘Edition 2’ being published in November 2000. The European Union, meanwhile, was following it’s own timetable. Council Directive 95/69/EEC, which later became known as the ‘Establishments & Intermediaries Directive’ was issued in December 1995. However, legislation introduced within each of the Member States under this Directive was not implemented until 1998/99. In preparing the UFAS Code, UKASTA was able to incorporate all the necessary legislative aspects that required implementation under Directive 95/69/EEC. ‘The Feedingstuffs (Establishments & Intermediaries) Regulations, 1999’ embodies all aspects within the Council Directive and all United Kingdom feed compounders must now comply with these regulations. However, compounders able to comply with the standards within UFAS have no problem meeting the standards under the Regulations, since standards within UFAS more than satisfy the requirements of the regulations. This is in contrast to the situation within some other Member States, where compounders have chosen to meet the requirements set by legislation, rather than attempt to comply with a voluntary Code of Practice, which incorporates standards that tend to be higher than those set by legislation. Throughout this paper, implementation of the UFAS Code in feed mills will relate specifically to the United Kingdom. It is, however, recognised that other countries have also implemented codes of GMP to fulfil a similar objective (see Appendix 2). Publication of the Pennington Report (April 1997), on the circumstances leading to the 1996 outbreak of food poisoning resulting from E. Coli O157 in Scotland, highlighted the need for the implementation of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points. Included as one of the recommendations in the report was: “HACCP should be adopted by all food businesses to ensure food safety” While Pennington targeted his comments directly at premises which prepared both raw and cooked meat for sale, the recommendation was nevertheless applied to “all food premises”, taking the wider definition of ‘all food premises’ to include feed mills manufacturing compound animal feed as part and parcel of the food chain. Careful consideration was given to ensure that UFAS incorporated the requirements of both Council Directive 95/69/EEC and HACCP into all aspects of feed manufacture.


UKASTA Feed Assurance Scheme By implementing the UKASTA Feed Assurance Scheme, feed compounders can provide their customers, working at the production end of the food chain, and consumers alike, assured feed safety. Safety measures within UFAS have been designed to combat problems that may compromise feed safety. During the implementation of UFAS, it was quickly realised that a feed mill is not an island. While management and staff may strive to minimise or even eliminate problems that may compromise feed safety during the manufacturing process, this alone will not be sufficient to ensure that all feed is safe. Raw material sourcing It must be recognised that a wide range of raw materials are utilised by modern feed mills in the manufacture of animal feed. While cereals and oil seed products make up a large proportion of these raw materials, a wide range of by-products (co-products) from the human food industry are utilized as raw materials in the feed industry. Storage times and conditions can influence quality parameters of raw materials, which, in turn, can affect feed safety. It is important, therefore, if feed quality and safety is to be assured, that only high quality raw materials must be sourced. Raw material quality must feature high on any HACCP plan implemented by a feed mill. Sourcing raw materials exclusively from stores that have implemented a HACCP plan, and have been externally audited and ‘approved’, is a useful starting point, if raw material problems that can impact on feed safety are to be avoided. Equally, constant monitoring and evaluation of all raw materials must be carried out to ensure that documented standards are maintained. Transportation Transportation, of both raw materials and finished feed products, can introduce hazards that may compromise feed safety. Good, well managed stores for raw materials will not prevent the introduction of hazards if vehicles used for their transportation are not clean or have previously been used to transport hazardous materials that may contaminate the load. Clearly, this applies not only to vehicular transport, but also to railcars, ships, barges etc., and there have been several instances in recent years of ship’s cargoes being contaminated with heavy metals etc., with the contamination going undetected until animal health has been affected and it is too late. Raw material importers and brokers must also carry out their own HACCP, to ensure that raw materials arriving at the port are in good condition, have not been repeatedly treated with pesticides (to the extent that there are excessive pesticide residues) and


have not been stored in unsatisfactory warehouses which have bird/vermin/roof leaks, etc. Normally, in the United Kingdom, feed compounders only have control of the final leg of the transport chain, with raw materials entering the mill after being transported by truck from the port or store. Where raw materials are transported to the feed mill by road, only hauliers ‘approved’ by the mill should be used. This avoids the risk of feed safety being compromised by unscrupulous hauliers who may be tempted to utilize the same vehicles to transport raw materials and other products, such as broiler litter, domestic waste, glass, etc. Code of Practice for Road Haulage. In an attempt to control what can and can not be transported in vehicles used in the feed industry, UKASTA have drawn up a Code of Practice for Road Haulage of combinable crops, animal feed materials and as-grown seeds. Road hauliers and vehicles carrying feedingstuffs in bulk at any stage must conform to the Code, including the requirements of the Haulage Exclusion List (Appendix 3) and the Haulage Contaminant Sensitive List (Appendix 4). Hazards introduced via the raw material route, as a result of either poor storage or transportation, may not be eliminated by further processing through the feed mill. Consequently, storage and transportation must be tightly controlled, as these can be identified as possible Critical Control Points (CCP’s) in an HACCP plan for a feed mill. Cross contamination A contentious issue for feed mills over the years has been the avoidance of cross contamination between batches of medicated and non-medicated feed. In general, medication in feed must be included at pre-determined levels, as specified by either the manufacturer or the veterinary surgeon, or both. Non-medicated feed, manufactured immediately following a batch of medicated feed, is likely to become contaminated with low and variable dosage levels of the medication included in the preceding batch. It is now accepted that cross contamination of non-medicated feed, which is frequently destined for non-target species, is unacceptable. Precautions must be implemented to minimise the risk of cross contamination, particularly where the medication has only been licensed for the target species. Opportunity also exists for feed to become cross contaminated after it has left the mill on its way to the farm. Cross contamination can occur during transportation, as indicated below: • Over filling of compartments on the vehicle can lead to spillage between

compartments during off-loading.


• Ideally, only deliveries of non-medicated feed should be carried on the same vehicle. If this is not feasible, medicated feed should always be loaded at the front of the vehicle, so that non-medicated feed (loaded in compartments at the rear of the vehicle), is off-loaded first. This enables the vehicle to be cleaned and checked, prior to being reloaded.

UFAS CODE – THE BASIS FOR ‘GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE’ The background The UFAS Code was launched in September 1998. Once implemented, a mill must submit to an external audit to ensure that the Code is properly implemented and maintained. Only after audit will feed mills that reach the standards required by UFAS be listed as “approved” in the register. After allowing a lead-in period of approximately 9 months to enable feed mills time to comply, the register went public in May 1999. By then, 53 mills had been fully “approved”, a further 11 had been audited and awarded “provisional approval”, while a further 72 mills had applied for first audit. According to the latest copy of the register, published by UKASTA on the 8th March 2002, there were 234 mills on the register, with 199 having been fully “approved”, while a further 35 are listed as having ‘applied for first audit’. Data published by UKASTA indicate that feed production from ‘approved’ mills now represents approximately 95 percent of commercially manufactured feed available throughout the United Kingdom. UFAS guidelines As required by Council Directive 95/69/EU, the UFAS Code provides a set of standards, based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points for the production of safe animal feed. This includes sourcing quality raw materials, which have been stored in audited storage facilities, transport of those raw materials to the feed mill for the manufacture of animal feed, and includes the transport of that feed from the mill to the farm. The guidelines, incorporated within UFAS, embody the principles of good manufacturing practice as listed below: • design and maintenance of plant; • source and quality of feed materials; • manufacturing, including HACCP principles applied to operation of the

plant, scheduling and packaging; • storage of both raw materials and finished products; • loading, transport and delivery;


• quality control; • complaints; • product recall; • personnel and training; • documentation and traceability.

Special provisions are also included for the manufacture of safe additive premixes (vitamin/mineral premixes) and authorized intermediate products (high protein concentrates which are further mixed with cereals). HACCP HACCP was developed during the early sixties by Pillsbury Co., the United States Army Laboratories and NASA, to assist in the development of food for the American space programme. Food accompanying astronauts had to be 100 percent free of all pathogens and toxins, and it quickly became apparent that testing the finished product was incapable of achieving the necessary 100 percent safety target. Hence, HACCP was conceived as a system that takes an in-depth examination of a product and all the components and manufacturing stages that go into producing that product. The process is scrutinised in a logical manner to determine ‘what can go wrong in the total system?’. From its beginnings during the 1960’s, HACCP has come a long way. Various expert groups and committees have recommended the use of HACCP to demonstrate “due diligence”. In 1993, the Codex Alimentarius Commission published their guidelines on the application of HACCP, and this was followed in 1995/96 by recommendations from the World Health Organisation (WHO) which further encouraged the use of HACCP. Also in 1995, in the United Kingdom, the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries & Food (MAFF) as it was then, published a Code of Practice for the Control of Salmonella in Animal Feed. The use of HACCP was recommended to identify critical points in the manufacturing process. During 1997, Professor Pennington in his Report on the E. coli O157 outbreak in Scotland (referred to earlier) also recommended HACCP. The HACCP principles are attached at Appendix 5, together with a list of the 14 stages involved in implementing an HACCP study attached at Appendix 6. Given the concerns of consumers over safe food, UKASTA introduced the Code of Practice for the Manufacture of Safe Compound Animal Feeds in 1998. Within the Code, Section 1.3 deals specifically with the implementation of HACCP, as follows: “The whole process must be examined in detail to identify potential


hazards with particular attention to those which may affect human or animal health, by carrying out an HACCP study”. However, the fact that an HACCP plan is in place does not remove the responsibility of adequate quality control throughout the production process and there is a separate section on quality control which states that: “there must be a comprehensive system so designed, documented and controlled and so furnished with personnel equipment and other resources as to ensure that feedingstuffs will be consistently of a quality appropriate to their intended use.” Benefits of HACCP While some feed compounders have resisted the introduction of yet more administration and red tape into the industry, others quickly realised that the introduction of a Code that relied heavily on the implementation of a sound HACCP plan had benefits, as follows:- • HACCP embraces all aspects of product safety from crop production, raw

material selection and storage, raw material haulage, manufacture through to finished product storage and transport to farm, etc.

• Emphasis was shifted from testing occasional samples of finished product to a policy of preventative quality assurance.

• Attention was focused on critical areas within the production chain to identify all possible hazards.

• Any reduction in product losses or time spent dealing with re-works, would represent a reduction in overhead costs.

• HACCP represents an accepted system of quality assurance, which is internationally recognised.

• HACCP has become a useful ally in supporting a defence of “due diligence”.

• The implementation of an HACCP plan is complimentary to ISO9002. HACCP and the ISO9002 Quality Management System can be developed independently. While both are concerned with the prevention and detection of safety problems, in the case of ISO9002, the scope is widened to include all quality control measures, over and above those relating solely to feed safety. Feed mills already operating ISO9002, can incorporate an HACCP plan into their ISO9002 system.


Scope of HACCP HACCP had been applied to a wide range of operations, ranging from small, local feed compounders with low daily outputs (blending a range of raw materials but with no pelleting facilities), to large manufacturers with computer controlled, sophisticated plant, capable of thousands of tonnes per day. Its use helps to ensure feed safety at all stages of the production chain. HACCP may be applied equally to both new and existing products, and its scope may be broadened to include the effectiveness of its support operations, such as cleaning and maintenance of the plant, as well as flushing operations, etc. Product safety Properly implemented and monitored, HACCP is applicable to issues of product safety that can be categorised under the following hazards:- • biological • chemical • physical

Any one, or a combination of these hazards, can affect product safety, but more recently HACCP has also been used to identify control measures, that are more frequently associated with other aspects of product quality. These include issues such as ensuring that the specification satisfies the requirements of the feedingstuffs regulations or, alternatively, taking account of physical quality (pellet size, pellet hardness and proportion of meal relative to pellets, etc.). HACCP implementation In order to implement an HACCP plan, management must provide for the necessary team members to have sufficient time available to enable them to contribute to a series of meetings. The team members must have a thorough understanding of all the processes involved in the manufacture of feed through their particular plant. The time commitment and the number and duration of the meetings involved will depend on the complexity of the process and the number and types of hazards to be identified, and it is good policy that during the introductory phase, the Terms of Reference for the plan should be kept simple, dealing with a limited number of hazards that are likely to impact directly on product safety. Auditing A vital aspect of the UFAS Code is the fact that it’s implementation must be externally audited up to EN 45011 standards by a professional auditor who is totally familiar with feed manufacturing and the requirements of UFAS. The audit,


can normally be completed in one day but may extend into a second, depending on the complexity of the operation. It is designed to check that the documentation encompasses all the requirements of UFAS, and that procedures are being implemented meticulously. PROTEINS AND PROTEIN BY-PRODUCTS Processed animal proteins and protein by-products have long been associated with an increased risk of microbiological hazards, the most common being Salmonella. Other animal derived organisms, such as Campylobacter and E. coli O157, have also been associated with increased incidence of food-borne hazards for consumers, but in the case of animal feedstuffs, Salmonella contamination remains the main cause for concern. During the 1980s and 1990s, the unprecedented rise of food-borne salmonellosis spurred the animal feed industry into closer examination of control measures designed to reduce the incidence of Salmonella in feed. The fact that Salmonella still features as a major hazard within the feed industry is confirmed by data published by the Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) on the incidence of Salmonella in animal feedstuffs and raw materials as shown in Table 1, covering the period January – December 2001. While Table 1 shows a range of positives for Salmonella, ranging from 2.4 percent in processed animal protein raw materials for use in animal feedstuffs, down to 0.38 percent in heat treated, extruded pig feed, it is perhaps reassuring, that there were only 12 isolations of Salmonella enteritidis (Se) and S. typhimurium (St) from all feedstuffs and feed raw materials monitored by DEFRA during the 12 month period (see Table 2). This represents a decrease of 37 percent in the number of samples that tested positive for Se and St compared with the previous year, but it could be argued that there should be zero incidence of Salmonella contamination. Table 2 also confirms that the overall trend for the number of positives over the past 8 years is downward, from a high of 44 positive samples in 1994, to a low of 12 over the year January – December 2001. The source of samples that tested positive for Salmonella enteritidis and typhimurium from products monitored by DEFRA, during the period January to December 2001, indicated that 2 samples of compound poultry feed and 1 sample of fishmeal tested positive for Salmonella enteritidis. In the case of Salmonella typhimurium, 3 samples of wheat tested positive together with one sample of pig feed. The remaining 5 samples were listed as ‘environmental’ (1), ‘other’ (1) and ‘unspecified’ (3). The fact that Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from 3 samples of wheat is very concerning, and highlights the need for constant


vigilance, since all raw materials and not just processed animal products, should be regarded as potentially serious hazards. TABLE 1 Incidence of Salmonella across a range of animal feedstuffs and raw materials, tested by DEFRA, January – December 2001 Product No. of tests No. of tests

positive Percent positive

Processed animal protein at a Great Britain

protein processing premises.

5,866 128 2.2

Great Britain and imported processed animal

protein arriving for feedingstuffs use.

1,350 33 2.4

Great Britain crushing premises - oil extracted

seed meals (rape, sunflower, linseed, soya, palm)

14,482 323 2.2

Non-oilseed meal vegetable products 14,370 227 1.6

Pig and poultry meals 5,274 58 1.10

Poultry extrusions 6,320 27 0.43

Pig extrusions 2,124 8 0.38

Ruminant concentrates 2,655 24 0.90

Protein concentrates 805 12 1.49

Minerals/other 1,837 18 0.98

TABLE 2 Isolations of S. enteritidis & S. typhimurium from all feedingstuffs and feed ingredients monitored under DEFRA Codes of Practice Type of material 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Se St Se St Se St Se St Se St Se St Se St Se St

Finished feeds 4 25 2 20 0 18 2 7 0 8 0 7 0 9 2 4

Animal Protein 0 4 0 1 0 10 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0

Vegetable Material 1 6 4 10 5 6 0 9 0 9 1 9 1 3 0 3

Minerals 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Miscellaneous 0 4 1 5 1 2 1 6 2 3 1 1 1 3 0 2

TOTALS 5 39 7 36 6 36 3 24 2 20 2 18 2 17 3 9

Se - S. enteritidis, St - S. typhimurium


From data presented in Table 3, feed mills sourcing imported, processed animal protein must be particularly vigilant due to the increased risk from imported compared with home processed product. For example, approximately 0.2 percent of samples out of a total of approximately 400 taken from processed animal protein and fishmeal produced in the United Kingdom, tested positive (see Figure 1), whereas over 15 percent of imported processed animal protein and fishmeal, taken from approximately 150 samples, were positive (see Figure 2). The epidemiology of Salmonella infection in animals is extremely complex, involving two-way transmission between man, animals, the environment, animal feedstuffs, rodents, birds and flies.

Figure 1. Home produced processed animal protein and fishmeal. Official (DEFRA) testing results: (January to December 2001) * Rendering and fishmeal premises must register under the Animal By-Products Order 1999. This Order requires monitoring of finished products for Salmonella (termed "Private" testing). Additional monitoring is carried out by Ministry Staff. This figure reports the results of the official testing

Home Produced Animal Protein (2001 January - December)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001 Year

Num

ber

of s

ampl

es te

sted

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

% p

ositi

ve

Number of tests % of samples positive

Percentage Salmonella contamination in samples tested


TABLE 3 Incidence of Salmonella positives isolated from samples of a range of products (DEFRA, 2002)

Percentage testing positive Product 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Processed animal protein at a Great Britain protein processing premises

2.2

(10203)

1.9

(10341)

3.2

(10023)

3.1

(9603)

1.7

(9661)

2.7

(6431)

2.1

(7488)

2.2

(5866)

Great Britain and imported processed animal protein arriving for feedingstuffs use

4.1

(6137)

4.4

(4548)

4.3

(2927)

4.9

(3085)

4.4

(1308)

2.3

(1277)

2.9

(1979)

2.4

(1350)

Oilseed meals and products for feedingstuffs use*

4.9

(15169)

3.3

(15028)

4.6

(18719)

3.5

(20500)

1.7

(21893)

3.3

(18706)

1.9

(19638)

2.2**

(14482)

Non oilseed meal vegetable products

2

(14422)

1.5

(12560)

1.7

(14091)

1.8

(14216)

1.3

(11922)

0.8

(13131)

1.0

(16551)

1.6

(14370)

( ) Number of samples tested; * Linseed, rape, soya, and sunflower meals at a United Kingdom crushing premises, including all other oilseed meals and products arriving for feedingstuff use; ** United Kingdom crushing premises only – oil extracted seed meals ( rape, sunflower, linseed, soya and palm)


Figure 2 Imported processed animal protein and fishmeal. Official (DEFRA/MAFF) testing results. (January to December 2001)* Samples of imported processed animal protein are taken by Ministry staff and tested for Salmonella under The Importation of Processed Animal Protein Order 1981 (as amended). This figure records the results of that testing (termed "Official" testing) in terms of the number of contaminated consignments. Vermin A survey carried out in 1995 by Davies and Wray (Davies and Wray, 1995) reported that 35 percent of mice carried Salmonella enteritidis in the liver, 46 percent carried it in the intestine and 10 percent had it in their droppings; as a result, mice are probably recognised as being more of a threat than rats. Birds, particularly pigeons, seagulls and sparrows (Wray and Davies, 1996), are also a threat in and around feed mills. Uncovered bulk delivery vehicles, open raw material intakes, unsealed raw material and finished product silos are all at risk of Salmonella contamination from bird droppings and steps must be taken to prevent direct contamination. GMPs must, therefore, include adequate control of all vermin, including mice, rats and birds.

Imported animal Protein

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

70019

88

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

Num

ber o

f bat

ches

sa

mpl

ed

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

% b

atch

es p

ositi

ve

Number of batches % of batches positive

Percentage Salmonella contamination in samples tested under the

Importation of Processed Animal Protein Order 1981 (as amended)


Similarly, drivers must avoid walking on loads of feed or raw materials. This prevents contamination from dirty yards which are popular with birds. In this respect, all spillages should be cleared immediately to minimise the amount of feed available to birds and vermin. Heat treatment Feed mill technology for heat treating feed has improved dramatically in recent years, with feed pasteurisation now being possible. However, under practical field conditions, complete control or “near zero tolerance” of Salmonella and other pathogenic bacteria cannot rely completely on heat treatment. Salmonella are readily killed by heat, e.g. 71.7oC for 15 seconds, and by acid, e.g. less than pH 4. A combination of both heat and acidity can provide excellent control of Salmonella, and hence help to minimise the likelihood of animal feed becoming a vector in the transmission of Salmonellosis. Maintaining the status of near-sterile feed right through to the stage that feed is consumed by animals, is extremely difficult. Bacterial multiplication downstream from the site of heat treatment can lead to significant bacterial counts in feed by the time it reaches the farm. This has meant that chemical control methods, using organic acids, organic acid salts, etc., have been introduced to complement heat treatment and help prevent recontamination, while in other cases, chemical treatment has completely replaced heat treatment. Sampling and identification Salmonella can be difficult to isolate in both feed and raw materials, due to the uneven distribution of the bacteria and associated sampling errors. Since Salmonella and E.Coli bacteria both belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae, both bacteria are often found together. Consequently, counts of Enterobacteriaceae in samples of raw material or finished feed can provide a useful assessment of the overall microbiological quality. Samples containing high Enterobacteriaceae counts should always be suspected as being positive for the presence of Salmonella, and accordingly, suitable precautions or controls should be put in place. CONCLUSION Compound animal feed forms a significant link in the chain of production of food products from animal origin (meat, milk and eggs). The production of safe animal feed is a question of good management practices at every stage of the process - from sourcing high quality raw materials, their storage and transportation, feed production, finished feed storage, through to delivery of feed to farm. It is


imperative that each stage of the process is rigorously assessed for hazards or risks that could compromise either animal health, human health or both. European Union legislation now requires that these objectives are achieved through the application of an HACCP plan covering every stage of the process. HACCP may be developed within an ISO9002 or equivalent quality management system and it is widely recognised that within such a system, HACCP will be stronger and more robust, since its effectiveness relies on proper implementation and ongoing maintenance. REFERENCES Davies, R. H. & Wray, C. 1995. Mice as carriers of Salmonella enteritidis on

persistently infected poultry units. Veterinary Record, September 30, p. 337-341. Wray, C. & Davies, R. H. 1996. A veterinary view of Salmonella in farm animals.

PHLS Microbiology Digest 13(1): 44-48.


ANNEX 1 The Food Chain

Feed Raw Materials (Wheat, Maize Gluten, Soya, Pollard, etc)

Feed mill

(Coarse Feed, Compound Feed)

Farm (Dairy, Beef, Sheep, Pigs, Poultry)

Livestock/ Livestock Products

(Beef, Sheep, Pigs, Broilers, Turkeys, Milk, Eggs)

Abattoir / Dairy / Poultry Processor

Distributors / Retailers / Supermarkets

Consumer


ANNEX II National Codes of Practice developed by FEFAC Members Associations Codigo de boas practicas para a fabrica de premisturas e de alimentos para animais

(IACA – Portugal). GMP-regeling diervoedersector (Productschap Diervoeder – The Netherlands).

Product Board Animal Feed (PDV) have implemented a ‘GMP – Regulation Animal Feed Sector’ together with a ‘Code for the Quality Control of Feed Materials for Animal Feed’.

Code GMP général pour le secteur de l’alimentation animale (BEMEFA/APFACA –Belgium).

Codice di buone pratiche per la produzione e la commercializzazione di alimenti composti per animali da reddito (ASSALZOO – Italy).

Code de bonnes pratiques pour la fabrication d’aliments médicamenteux – Guide de mise a niveau pour l’agrément des établissements fabricants des aliments pour animaux (SNIA – France).

Leitfaden fur eine Gute Herstellungspraxis von Futtermitteln (DVT – Germany). ‘Quality and Safety Charter’ – A Good Manufacturing Practice Code, based on HACCP, designed to provide ‘Quality and Security for food from producer to consumer’.

UKASTA Feed Assurance Scheme (UFAS) – Code of Practice for the Manufacture of Safe Compound Animal Feedingstuffs (UKASTA – UK).

Code of practice and general operating standard for poultry feed processing (DAKOFO – Denmark).

Leitfaden fur eine “Gute Herstellungspraxis von Futtermitteln”, GHF (VSF – Switzerland).


ANNEX III Haulage Exclusion List (Extract from the UKASTA Code of Practice for Road Haulage of Combinable Crops, Animal Feed Materials and As-Grown Seeds) The following materials must not, since 1 July 1998, 1 July 2000 or 1 July 2001, as appropriate, have been carried in vehicles or trailers used for the transportation of goods covered by this Code of Practice. Hauliers must be prepared to give an undertaking to this effect if required: • Toxic & Corrosive Materials and any Packaging used for these Materials • Radio-active Materials • Livestock including Poultry, also including their carcasses • Animal & Poultry Wastes, including Manures/Litter • Mammalian Protein, e.g. Meat & Bone Meal, Meat Meal, Cull Cake and Other

Mammalian Based Products. (Milk & Milk Products, Gelatin, Amino Acids, Dicalcium Phosphate, Dried Plasma and any other Blood Products are permitted to be carried)

• Specified Risk Material/Cull Tallow • Mineral Clays which have been used for Detoxification purposes • Cereal & Other Seed Treated with Toxic Dressing (excluding Bagged or

Packaged Seed) • Glass (including cullet) • Hides treated with Tanning Substances and its Waste • Scrap Metal, including Fragmented Metal and “Frag Rubber” • Sludge from Sewage Plants Treating Waste Waters • Solid Urban Waste, such as Household Waste • All wastes obtained from the various phases of the urban, domestic and

industrial waste water treatment process, irrespective of any further processing of these wastes and also irrespective of the origin of the waste waters

• Untreated Waste from Eating Places, except Food Stuffs of Vegetable Origin considered unsuitable for Human Consumption for Reasons of Freshness.

The following materials must not, since 1st July 2000, have been carried in vehicles used for the transportation of goods covered by this Code of Practice: • Bituminous products and other products not responsive to normal detergent

cleaning • Any materials (e.g. timber) which have been treated with protection products


The following materials must not, since 1st July 2001, have been carried in vehicles used for the transportation of goods covered by this Code of Practice: • Processed Animal Protein, e.g. Bone Meal, Blood Meal, Dried Plasma and other

Blood products, Hydrolysed Protein, Hoof Meal, Horn Meal, Poultry Offal Meal, Feather Meal, Dry Greaves, Dicalcium Phosphate and Gelatin.


ANNEX IV Haulage Contaminant Sensitive List Where vehicles are presented for the carriage of goods, their load carrying areas must, at all times, be kept in a clean, dry and fit state to avoid harm to the goods being carried. Vehicles for carrying liquids should be in a condition fit for the purpose. It must be remembered that the Food Safety Act requires that any surface which comes into contact with food must be clean. Pressure Cleaning / Sanitising Lorries must be pressure cleaned with a 1 percent hot (70-80°C) solution of any combined detergent/sanitiser after they are used for carrying the goods listed below. The vehicle sheet must also be pressure cleaned in this way. The vehicle and sheet must be drained and dry before re-use for other loads. Proof will be required to be given that appropriate cleaning operations have been undertaken and they must be recorded on the consignment note of a subsequent load. • Tallows (other than Specified Risk Material/Cull Tallow) • Strong smelling materials, excluding fish meals • Dicalcium Phosphate and Hydrolysed Protein from approved premises (other

than Processed Animal Protein – see Appendix 3) • Any product known to be Salmonella positive • Packaging and parts of packaging from products used in agriculture or the

food industry • Silage

Washing / Brushing / Vacuuming Proof will be required to be given that appropriate cleaning operations have been undertaken, when the following materials have been carried prior to the carriage of goods covered by this Code. In most cases where the material is dry, thorough brushing or vacuuming will be sufficient. However, if the material is caked or damp, washing will be necessary. • Aggregates • Coal / Fly Ash / Coal By-Products • Fertilizer • Medicated Feed Products • Root Crops • Salt • Untreated Wood, Sawdust or other Materials derived from Wood


Moist Co-Products Vehicles used exclusively for the delivery of one moist co-product, must be cleaned and sanitized with a food grade sanitizer once a week. The cleaning should include the vehicle body, trailer (if appropriate) and sheet inside and out. Vehicles must also be cleaned and sanitized between each load if different co-products are to be transported. Vehicles which have carried products included in the Haulage Contaminant Sensitive List must be cleaned, as detailed under (a) above. Infested Products Vehicles which have carried infested products must be thoroughly steam cleaned. The vehicle sheet must also be steam cleaned in this way. The vehicle’s load carrying area and sheet must be drained and dry before re-use for other loads. Proof will be required to be given that appropriate cleaning operations have been undertaken, and they must be recorded on the consignment note of a subsequent load. The use of smoke bombs is not likely to be effective and is not recommended. Nuts, Nut Products and Sesame Seed (NB. Attitudes towards and acceptance of nuts and nut products (including food waste containing nuts) and sesame seed, differ between end user companies. Hauliers must check individual companies’ policies, which are influenced by the allergic reaction to these products suffered by some people, resulting in severe anaphylactic shock). Fish Meal If a vehicle is used for the transport of Fish Meal and is subsequently used for the transport of other products, it must be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized, in accordance with (a) above, and inspected before and after the transport of the Fish Meal.


ANNEX V HACCP Principles Principle 1 Conduct a hazard analysis - Prepare a flow chart of the steps in the process - identify and list the potential hazards - specify the control measures to eliminate or control those hazards. Principle 2 Determine the critical control points (CCPs) - Use a decision tree to identify the points at which control can eliminate or reduce the hazard. Principle 3 Establish critical limits - These must be met to ensure that each CCP is under control. Target levels and tolerances must be met to ensure that the CCP is under control. Principle 4 Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP - Regular scheduled testing or observations. Principle 5 Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not under control (or is moving out of control). Principle 6 Establish procedures for verification to confirm that HACCP is working effectively - may include appropriate supplementary tests, together with a review. Principle 7 Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application.


ANNEX VI Stages in an HACCP study

0 Management Commitment 1 Scope (Terms of Reference) 2 Select Team Members 3 Write Product Description 4 Describe Intended Use

PART 1 Preparation

5 Draw up Mill Flow Chart 6 Confirm Flow Chart on site 7 Identify all likely Hazards 8 Decide on CCPs 9 Set Targets and Limits for CCPs 10 Set up Monitoring Procedures

PART 2 Teamwork

11 Set up Corrective Actions 12 Verification (Audits etc) 13 Records

PART 3

Documentation 14 Review the Study


303

The use of food waste as a protein source for animal feed - current status

and technological development in Japan Tomoyuki Kawashima

National Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science Japan

INTRODUCTION Food waste used to be well utilized as animal feed in Japan. The use of food waste, however, declined due to the introduction of commercial concentrate feed and high performance exotic breeds, accompanied by a change of producer’s strategy in pursuing more efficient production. The quantity and quality of food waste also altered due to a change in lifestyle. The system used in the past can no longer be applied. The relatively low price of imported animal products and feed, due to foreign currency rates, has also been disturbing the efficient use of food waste as animal feed in Japan. While some of the food industry’s by-products, whose quality and quantity do not fluctuate, are being used as a part of dried concentrate feed or Total Mixed Rations (TMR), the quality of most food wastes fluctuates considerably and its safety is of concern. Consequently, its use as animal feed is limited. Such wastes have been incinerated and put into landfill. This process induces emission of global warming gases and toxic substances such as dioxin and heavy metals. It is reported that the amount of food waste in Japan is 20 million tonnes per year, of which the amount used for fertilizer and feed are 3 percent and 5 percent, respectively (Table 1). In order to alleviate the environmental burden from food waste, a food-recycling law has been in force since May, 2001. Under this legislative system, many projects have been initiated. Most of activities have been related to the production of compost but, as there has been limited acceptance of this by crop farmers, it was proposed that the waste which can be safely used should be processed into feed.

The use of food waste as a protein source for animal feed

304

TABLE 1 Disposal of food waste in Japan

Disposal Recycled

Generation (t/annum) Incineratio

n /landfill Compost Feed Other Total Municipal Waste

16 000

Commercial waste

6 000 15 950 50 - - 50

Household waste

10 000 (99.7%) (0.3%) (0.3%)

Industrial Waste 3 400 1 770 (52%)

470 (14%)

1 040 (31%)

120 (3%)

1 630 (48%)

Total commercial waste (Total – Household waste)

9 400 7 750 (83%)

490 (5%)

1 040 (11%)

120 (1%)

1 650 (17%)

Total 19 400 17 ,720 (91%)

520 (3%)

1 040 (5%)

120 (1%)

1 680 (9%)

Source: Derived from the statistics of Ministry of Health and Welfare (1996) In September 2001, just after the introduction of this law, an incidence of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) was reported in Japan. So far, only three cases of BSE have been diagnosed. This created a serious problem for the activities promoted by the food-recycling law. The use of food waste containing mammalian meat was temporarily banned. It was announced later by the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, however, that food waste containing meats, which were originally processed for human consumption, could be fed to swine, but not to ruminants. To change the feeding system from the one based on imported concentrate to a recycling system, it is necessary to develop a series of technologies, as follows: Feed evaluation • Processing • Feeding system • Meat quality • Feed safety.


305

In this report, the current status of the use of food waste as animal feed and the development of related technologies will be discussed mainly for swine production. PROCESSING OF FOOD WASTE FOR ANIMAL FEED The methods of processing food waste for animal feed can largely be classified into the following three categories: • dehydration, • silage, and • liquid feeding

Distribution range, delivery system, costs of processing, ease of preservation, etc., differ depending upon the processing method, which is mainly related to the differences in moisture contents. After the enforcement of the food recycling law, several kinds of model plant were built up to manufacture feed from food waste using dehydration. The methods involved in dehydration are: • conventional dehydration by heat, • fermentation-dehydration, and • fry cooking.

The dry matter of products processed by these methods ranged from 70 to 97 percent. Farmers can feed it to swine without any modification of their feeding system if feed composition is appropriate, or the products can be used as ingredients for commercial concentrate feeds. In Sapporo city, the Sapporo Kitchen Garbage Recycle Centre was set up. This collects 50 tonnes of garbage from a total of 188 schools, hospitals and companies and processes it into dehydrated feed by fry-cooking. Fry cooking is a new system of dehydrating food waste according to the method of Templar 211 in which it is cooked in waste vegetable oil under reduced pressure at relatively low temperature (about 110°C). Variation of chemical composition of this feed is shown in Table 2 (Sayeki et al., 2001).

1 see the details:http://www.mes.co.jp/english/product/environ/a04.html


306

TABLE 2 Chemical composition of dehydrated meal manufactured from garbage by fry cooking (n=59) (%) Item Organic

matter Crude protein

Crude fat Carbohydrates

Mean 92.2 23.4 9.7 59.1 Maximum 94.7 25.8 12.4 67.7 Minimum 90.2 19.8 7.2 52.0 SD 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.8

Source: Sayeki et al., (2001) Dry matter content is about 95 percent with little fluctuation. It is generally understood that the quality of garbage fluctuates considerably. However, the variation of chemical composition in this manufactured feed ranged from only 1.2 to 1.8 percent. It is suggested, therefore, that the chemical composition of garbage becomes constant when it is collected from many places. The manufactured feed is approved by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the certified nutritive values are listed in Standard Tables (National Agricultural Research Organization, 2001) (Table 3). Consequently, it can be used as an ingredient of commercial concentrate feed. TABLE 3 Composition, digestibility and nutritive value of dried waste food for swine and poultry Moisture

CP EE NFE

CF CA Digestibility (%) TDN DE

% % DM

% DM

% DM

% DM

% DM

CP

EE

NFE

CF

% DM

MJ/KgDM

4.6 23.4

9.7 54.7

4.5 7.8 60 86 88 45 83.1 15.33

Source: National Agricultural Research Organization. 2001 Ensiling is another method of processing food waste for feed. However, it is not practically utilized in swine production due to: 1) cost of preparation and transportation of silage, and 2) silage cannot be delivered through conventional feeding systems for concentrate feed. Liquid feeding is not popular in Japan in comparison with the situation in


307

Europe. There are only a few farmers using liquid feed from food waste. It requires a high investment to renew the feeding system. However, it has great potential to exploit high moisture food waste as an animal feed. As dehydration of the food waste is unnecessary, the cost of processing is considerably lower and little protein is lost during the low temperature process. Fermented liquid feeding is a process that involves fermentation to decrease pH and extend shelf life. During the process of fermentation, anti-nutritional factors, such as phytate and non starch polysaccharide, can be broken down by either endogenous or exogenous enzymes. However, lactic fermentation creates a probiotic effect on animals (Brooks, 2001) and a Government supported research project has just been initiated to develop fermented liquid feed. Swill is the traditional method of utilizing garbage for swine feeding. In 1998 in Japan, 1004 farmers used swill to feed 194 186 animals, while the total number of swine farmers and total number of swine were 14 400 and 9.8 million head respectively. It is often reported that the fat of pigs given large amounts of swill becomes soft, and the price of pork is reduced. In order to solve this problem, farmers in Osaka established a group which gets together periodically to compare their pork and to discuss methods of improving meat quality when the pigs are given large amounts of food waste. To overcome this problem, the farmers have developed a common approach to utilizing different kinds of food waste and aim to collect low fat materials and as a result prolong the fattening period. As plate wastes from hospitals are low in fat and salts, they provide a good source of feed. By feeding these, the quality of pork is dramatically improved and some shows high marbling, which increases its value. These farmers therefore make a lot of profit due to the improved price and low cost of feed. The effect of processing on the availability of protein Wastes are heated for dehydration and sterilization. Temperatures for this process range from 70 to 230°C but higher temperatures tend to decrease the availability of protein. Sayeki et al. (personal communication) examined reports describing the digestibility of nutrients in dehydrated food waste produced by different methods. From these they established relationships between the nutrient content and its digestible fraction. While regression coefficients in Ether Extract (EE), Nitrogen Free Extractives (NFE) and carbohydrate (total of Crude Fibre, (CF) and NFE) were very high, that of Crude Protein (CP) was low. The low uniformity of CP is considered to be due


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to the process of dehydration. Each method applied a different temperature in the range 60 to130 °C. During the process of dehydration, protein was degenerated and the degree of degeneration was proportional to the temperature. The difference in heating temperature would therefore seem to be the major reason for the low uniformity in protein. The degeneration of protein during the process of heat treatment is one of the most serious problems in the utilization of food waste as animal feed. It is important, therefore, to develop an analysing method to monitor the magnitude of degeneration. Various feed samples, which were produced from food waste, such as tofu cake, bread, rye bran, vegetables etc., were analysed by an in vitro enzymatic method using pepsin and pancreatin (Boisen and Fernandez, 1995), and a detergent analysis described in Cornel Net Carbohydrates and Protein System (CNCPS, Sniffen et al., 1992). Nitrogen depletion rates of the food waste analysed by the in vitro enzymatic method were affected by the temperature of the dehydration treatment and its duration. These depletion rates negatively correlated with detergent insoluble protein fractions. It suggested that detergent insoluble protein fractions could be utilized to estimate availability of protein in feed for swine (Sayeki et al., personal communication). An analysis method for these protein fractions is also being developed with Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Further advances in the technology for predicting protein availability in processed food waste by the in vitro method or NIRS would promote greater use of food waste for animal feed. Detection of animal materials in processed feed The occurrence of BSE in Japan has lead to serious concern about feed safety. Methodologies for the detection and identification of animal materials in feed have been reported since BSE was recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. Therefore, detection of animal materials in feed processed from food waste is also important. There are several methods of detection, such as microscopic observation, NIRS, Enzyme-linked Immunoasorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Momcilovic and Rasooly, 2000). The National Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science has developed a PCR method for the detection of materials from ruminants, pigs and chickens with primers designed using a sequence of Art2, PRE-1 and CR1 short interspersed repetitive elements (SINEs), respectively. These primers are able to amplify each SINE with the total DNA extracted from feed. Each primer’s sensitivity


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for detecting animal materials is less than 0.01 percent. The method can therefore be used to detect the micro-contamination of feed with animal materials (Tajima et al., personal communication). CONCLUSION Self-sufficiency of food in Japan is only 40 percent. The very low self-sufficiency of animal feed (only 20 percent) is one of the major reasons for this and the poorly balanced feed supply makes the livestock sector unsustainable. The use of recycled food waste for feed is an effective method of improving feed self-sufficiency and reducing the environmental burden from food waste.

In many Asian countries, urbanization induces an imbalance of nutrient accumulation. While large amounts of nutrient accumulate in urban areas as food waste, livestock in the countryside are suffering from malnutrition. Technological development in the use of food waste for animal feed will contribute to the improvement of self-sufficiency of food. This will help correct the imbalance in nutrient accumulation and make animal-agriculture more sustainable. REFERENCES Boisen, S. and & J. A. Fernandez, J. A. (1995). Prediction of the apparent ileal

digestibility of protein and amino acids in feedstuffs and feed mixtures for pigs by in vitro analyses. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 51: 29-43.

Brooks, P. H., J. D. Beal, J. D. and & S. Niven, S. (2001). Liquid feeding of pigs: potential for reducing environmental impact and for improving productivity and food safety. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia,. 13: 49-63.

Momcilovic, D. and & A Rasooly, A. (2000). Detection and analysis of animal materials in food and feed. Journal of Food Protection, 63: 1602-1609.

National Agricultural Research Organization, (2001). Standard Tables of Feed Composition in Japan.

Sayeki, M., Kitagawa, T., Matsumoto, M., Nishiyama, A., Miyoshi, K., Mochizuki, M., Takasu, A. and Abe, A. 2001. Chemical composition and energy value of dried meal from food waste as feedstuff in swine and cattle. Animal Science Journal, 72 (7): 34-40.

Sniffen, C. J., J. D. O’Connor, J. D.,P. J. Van Soest, P. J.,D. G. Fox, D. G.J. B. & Russell, J. B. (1992). A net carbohydrate and protein system for evaluating cattle diets: II. Carbohydrate and protein availability. Journal of Animal Science,. 70: 3562-3577.


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Livestock production, protein supplies and the animal feed industry in Malawi

Andy C.L. Safaloah Senior Lecturer in Monogastric Nutrition, Department of Animal Science,

University of Malawi; Bunda College of Agriculture Lilongwe, Malawi

This paper outlines the current status of livestock production, protein supplies and the animal feed industry in Malawi. Livestock production in Malawi is primarily subsistent where the majority of animals and poultry are kept under the extensive free-range system of management with little or no supplementation. Large-scale commercial livestock and poultry enterprises are few in number and are primarily the intensive type where the use of concentrates and/or protein feed ingredients is common. Available feed resources are either of animal (fishmeal, meat and bone meal) or plant origin (soybean meal, sunflower meal, cottonseed cake and groundnut cake). Neglected or underutilized protein sources include pigeon peas, cowpeas and chickpeas. Some protein sources used in the animal feed industry are imported from neighbouring countries. Most protein sources are incorporated in compounded feed for intensive poultry, pig, beef cattle and dairy production. The animal feed manufacturing industry is generally small with two main feed manufacturers supplemented by on-farm feed mixing. There is urgent need to explore the utilization of unconventional feedstuffs in order to increase the protein resource base and so improve livestock productivity. INTRODUCTION Livestock production is an integral part of agricultural production in Malawi. Compared to crop production, livestock constitute a relatively small sub sector in Malawi’s agriculture. The livestock sector is typically a low-input-low-output management system with over half a million smallholder families (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation [MoAI], 1999). Higher outputs of livestock production are experienced by a relatively small number of large-scale intensive commercial livestock/poultry enterprises, most of which are located in the urban and periurban areas of Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu cities. Intensive production enterprises include broiler and layer production, beef cattle feedlots and pig and dairy production. These form the major outlets for protein sources.


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Major constraints to livestock production include lack of improved breeds, lack of cheap quality feed, a weak livestock extension system, lack of appropriate managerial skills, lack of appropriate technology and weak livestock veterinary services. Of these, lack of good quality feed at affordable prices is the major problem. With low productivity, the livestock sector contributes less than its potential to national economic and agricultural growth. In an attempt to facilitate the sustainable development of the livestock sub sector in Malawi and to respond to current national development objectives, the Malawi Government developed a National Livestock Master Plan in 1999 (MoAI, 1999). The plan includes a coherent strategic framework of desired policies, institutional reforms, legislative adjustment and investment programmes. Encouragingly, the plan recognizes the functional link between the crop and livestock sub sectors in relation to the livestock feed base. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION Management systems The livestock sub sector in Malawi primarily comprises small and large-scale sectors. At the smallholder level, there is little financial input in terms of housing, use of drugs and supplementary feeding. On the other hand, large-scale livestock production is intensive in nature and commonly uses concentrates as sources of protein. The Malawi Government is currently encouraging expansion of beef cattle stall feeding and dairy production among the estate sector. Expansion and intensification of this sector entails increased use of protein sources such as cotton seed cake or urea/molasses/mineral blocks to supplement high quality protein forage/legumes. Large-scale intensive monogastric production (poultry and pigs) is mostly influenced by supply of good quality feed at reasonable and affordable prices. Small ruminants such as goats and sheep are basically kept under the free-range system. Indigenous chickens comprise more than 80 percent of the chicken population in Malawi. These are kept under the free-range system. Broiler enterprises range from small units of 200–500 birds and large enterprises of more than 30 000 birds. Livestock population/numbers The national livestock database is particularly weak when compared with that developed for crops. Estimates of livestock populations incorporate a large margin of error. Discrepancies have always been seen between the two sources of livestock statistics: the National Statistical Office (NSO) and the Department of Animal Health and Industry-DAHI, (MoAI, 1999). DAHI maintains a record of livestock


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numbers through annual surveys carried out by Veterinary Assistants scattered throughout the country. The NSO, on the other hand, conducts periodic surveys of agriculture that include livestock. The discrepancies between these two institutions warrant establishment of a proper nation-wide livestock monitoring system. It is clear from Table 1 that chickens are the most common type of stock kept. The MoAI (1999) reported that there were 61 200 pigs, 1 583 200 broiler chickens, 187 800 layers and 27 500 cattle (both dairy and beef) kept under intensive production systems. TABLE 1 Estimates of numbers for different types of livestock kept in Malawi.

Livestock specie Numbers

Cattle 768 501

Goats 1 662 930

Sheep 112 882

Pigs 465 419

Chickens 7 206 377

Guinea Fowls 74 640

Doves 363 416

Ducks 114 817

Rabbits 127 029

Donkeys 2 276 Source: Department of Animal health and Industry, 2000 PROTEIN FEED SUPPLIES/SOURCES Information on availability of protein sources and their utilization in Malawi is scarce and the pattern of their use not fully known. This is mainly due to lack of funds and adequate expertise with which to conduct appropriate studies to determine the available feed resource base. There is also a lack of adequate and reliable laboratory facilities for chemical analyses to determine the nutrient composition of feedstuffs for feeding trials. Similarly, there is limited expertise in animal nutrition with only seven animal nutritionists at national level.


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Rapid expansion and intensification of livestock production, especially poultry, have led to a sharp increase in requirements for concentrates. As a result there has been an increase in the requirements for the supply of protein sources. Protein feed sources in Malawi are either of plant or animal origin. The commonly available type of animal protein is fishmeal. Fishmeal is produced from a mixture of fish remnants, non-gradeable fish and/or broken fish pieces. Fishmeal is currently sold at US$0.46/kg compared with US$0.25 for full fat soybean meal. Assuming crude protein content of 60 percent for fishmeal and 38 percent for full fat soybean meal, proteins from these sources cost US$0.77 and US$0.66 per kg respectively. Fishmeal is also imported from other countries such as South Africa and Chile. Fishmeal is generally expensive and its use in animal feed is limited. It is a major source of protein for humans. The major source of fish is Lake Malawi with lesser quantities being supplied by small rivers. Use of animal by-products from processing plants/slaughter houses such as meat and bone meal is limited due to low supply. One other potential protein source that goes to waste is that from the two major hatcheries. This is primarily due to lack of appropriate processing facilities. Oilseed meals and grain legumes form the bulk of plant protein used in livestock feeds used by the animal industry. The main source of plant protein used in Malawi is soybean meal, most of which is the full fat type. This is due to the fact that there are very few plants processing oil from soybean in Malawi. Other plant protein sources include sunflower cake, cottonseed cake and groundnut cake. There is apparently very little use of legumes such as pigeon peas, cowpeas, and chickpeas. Traditional and unconventional plant protein sources are presented in Table 2. The Table indicates that the yield from legumes is low, probably due to poor husbandry practices. With proper management and use of the correct inputs, yields could be greatly improved. Production of grain legumes in Malawi for the past five seasons is presented in Table 3. These are the legumes currently being evaluated by the Animal Science Department of the University of Malawi. Plant protein sources are fed directly or after on farm feed mixing as complete feeds, where maize meal is the main basal ingredient. Oil seed meals and legumes normally comprise 15-30 percent of the livestock diets.


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TABLE 2 Commonly used and potential plant protein sources available in Malawi

Source Scientific name Area grown

(ha)

Yield/ha

(kg)

Potential yield

(kg/ha)

Soybean meal Glycine max 18 433 800 2500

Sunflower meal Helianthus annuus 15 460 500 3 000

Beans Phaseolus vulgaris 106 627 700 2 500

Ground nuts Arachis hypogaea 95 399 750 2 400

Pigeon peas Cajanus cajan 87 758 800 2 500

Cowpeas Vignia unguiculata 48 157 600 2 000

Chick peas Cicer arietinum 1 070 700 2 000

Bambara or

groundbeans

Vigna subterranea 3 128 800 3 000

Sesame Sesamum indicum 97 500 1 000

Green grams Vigna aureus 1 216 700 2 000

Source: Guide to Agricultural Production In Malawi: 1994/95, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation TABLE 3 Production of soybeans, cowpeas and pigeon peas from 1996-2001

Production (tonnes) Season

Soybean Cowpeas Pigeon peas

1996/97 32 771 15 533 72 850

1997/98 30 170 25 582 79 507

1998/99 40 811 25 838 91 569

199/2000 48 699 22 196 99 261

2000/2001 37 401 25 973 105 849

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Department, 2001 Soybean meal is used most extensively as a source of protein, especially in poultry diets. In general, soybean meal accounts for more than 70 percent of the protein source used in compound feeds for poultry and other livestock. Use of other legumes such as beans, pigeon peas, groundnut meal and cowpeas is limited due to a number of factors such as:


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• their importance as sources of cheap plant protein for human consumption; • lack of processing facilities; • high cost of transport from areas of production to the location of feed mills; • the unattractive price that farmers receive from the sale of these products to

the animal feed industry; • Loss of crops to overseas markets. Large quantities of pigeon peas are

exported to other countries such as India, making the legume unavailable for use in Malawi.

Until recently, not much had been done on the chemical and feeding properties and utilization of these plant proteins by livestock in Malawi. The University of Malawi is currently embarking on the chemical analysis and characterization of national protein feed resources. Current studies show that proper processing is required before legumes such as soybeans, cowpeas and pigeon peas can be incorporated in animal diets. Simoongwe (1998) reported that roasting legumes can decrease the content of trypsin inhibitor (TI) in such crops as soybeans (Table 4). TABLE 4 Effect of roasting on trypsin inhibition of soybeans, pigeon peas and cowpeas

Protein type Trypsin inhibition (%)

Raw Roasted

Soybean meal (full fat) 37.60 7.68

Cowpeas 56.68 30.92

Pigeon peas 43.53 35.02 Source: Simoongwe, 1998 Although advocated for use in poultry diets for a long time, Phaseolus beans are rarely used in livestock feeds. Edje (1975) reported that Phaseolus beans contain 22 percent crude protein, 57 percent carbohydrates and a low fibre content of 4 percent. On the other hand, Mwangwela (2000) reported that the crude protein of Phaseolus beans ranged from 17 percent to 20 percent depending on variety used. The potential use of beans as a protein source in the animal feed industry needs to be explored. The TI content of beans could be improved by boiling or germinating the seeds. Kalimbira (2000) reported that boiling soybeans reduced trypsin inhibition from 30.2 percent to 3.5 percent. Germinating the seeds was also reported to reduce inhibition from 27.2 to 3.7 percent.


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THE FEED INDUSTRY The compound feed industry in Malawi is small with both big and small scale feed millers. The animal feed industry produces concentrates for both on-farm feed mixing and complete feeds. Due to lack of data on chemical composition of available feed ingredients, the majority of feed compounders rely on composition tables for feed formulation. These tables are produced in other countries. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that most feed millers do not have laboratory facilities for analysis of the nutrient content of their ingredients. Feed mills in Malawi are mainly used for grinding, dosing and mixing feeds from cereals and oil seed meals. Recently, the pelleted feed has been introduced in Malawi. The animal feed industry compounds more feed for monogastric animals (pigs and poultry) than for ruminants. Protein sources used by the feed industry are either bought from within the country or imported from the neighbouring countries of Zimbabwe, Zambia or South Africa. The proportion of protein used in the diets varies according to the relative price of the available protein sources such as legumes, fish meal and milling by-products. Production of compound feed in Malawi has grown substantially and almost in parallel with an increase in intensive livestock production systems. This has seen an increase in the emergence of feed manufacturing companies. Most feed mills are concentrated in the urban areas of Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu where these is a large number of pig and poultry enterprises. Prices of feed from these manufacturing companies tend to vary depending on their source of ingredients and where they are located. Farmers in the countryside face significantly higher costs of feed than those within towns. Due to the high cost of purchasing compounded feed, some farmers have resorted to on farm feed mixing. These farmers grow their own legumes as sources of feed, or import concentrates which they use for mixing with maize meal. This trend has seen an increase in the production of legumes such as soybeans. The feed industry in Malawi is not without problems. Technical constraints include: • low and unreliable supply of feed ingredients, especially protein sources; • lack of laboratory facilities for chemical analysis of ingredients; • frequent interruptions in power supply; • inconsistent and sometimes substandard feed quality; • lack of trained feed technologists; • lack of appropriate feed processing equipment;


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• lack of spare parts for maintenance of equipment which is imported from other countries. The need for adapted equipment that can easily be maintained using local resources becomes obvious.

Lack of appropriate feed ingredients is aggravated by persistent incidences of drought or floods that have affected the country over the past three years. Where there is a limited availability of protein sources and other ingredients, quality is often compromised. Samples of broiler starter feed from one small scale feed manufacturer which was analyzed at the Animal Nutrition Laboratory at Bunda College had a crude protein content of 14.6 percent, which is too low for broiler starter diets. When contacted, lack of adequate protein sources was implicated. Under such circumstances, the farmer becomes the victim. Quality Control As mentioned above, most feed manufacturers lack laboratory facilities that can be used to check the quality of their feed. The Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS) is mandated by the Government to ensure that standards are adhered to. Implementation of feed quality assurance leaves a lot to be desired. Lack of staff and insufficient financial support from Government have been implicated in MBS’s failure to monitor feed millers, operators, feed ingredient producers and suppliers. With no strict control measures, adulteration of animal feed, especially protein sources, becomes the norm. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PROTEIN SOURCES Lack of research funds and reliable laboratory facilities limit the extent of research on protein sources in Malawi. Currently, the Animal Science Department of the University of Malawi is involved in the evaluation of grain legumes, such as pigeon peas and cowpeas, as potential substitutes for soybean. Simoongwe (1998) evaluated the use of soybeans, pigeon peas and cowpeas in the diets of local and exotic pigs. One major finding in that study was the need to process the legumes to remove TI. However, further studies are required to determine the inclusion levels that do not compromise performance, since rates of more than 70 percent proved to be too high. Chisowa (2002) reported that the daily weight gains of rabbits within a 12 week growing period were 15.6, 14.4 and 10.7 g for soybean, pigeon pea and cowpea supplemented diets respectively. Chisowa (2002) also reported that cowpeas contain more tannins (10.75 mg/kg) than soybean (3.25 mg/kg) and pigeon peas (3.75 mg/kg).


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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Expansion of intensive livestock production in Malawi has concomitantly resulted in an increase in demand for protein sources. The current protein resource base cannot meet the additional demand for protein by the animal feed industry, as manifested by protein imports. In order to ensure increased productivity of the livestock sector, the following recommendations are made:

1. Strengthening of animal nutrition research should focus on utilization and processing of unconventional protein feedstuffs. This will allow them to be properly evaluated as sources of protein and other nutrients for incorporation in livestock diets. Unconventional protein sources such as cowpeas, chickpeas, pigeon peas, common beans, bambara nuts, cotton seed cake and sesame seeds, should be explored.

2. A protein feed resource data base should be developed to provide a reference and textbook for the animal feed industry, researchers and students of animal nutrition/science and extension workers.

3. Government should promote cultivation and intensification of plant proteins such as soybeans to increase supply and availability of plant proteins for use by the animal feed industry.

4. Government and associated institutions should develop appropriate and cost effective feed processing technologies for both animal and plant protein sources, that can be used by both small and large scale feed compounders.

5. Investigations should be made to evaluate potential incorporation of animal waste as protein sources (such as that from the hatchery industry). Converting biological waste as animal feed would create a new industry and market, and would reduce pollution.

6. The Government should also seriously promote investment in oil crop refining companies. This could increase the availability of oilseed meals which are good protein sources.

7. There should be an increase in institutional capacity for human resource development in animal nutrition and feed technology, as well as support in terms of animal nutrition laboratory facilities for chemical analyses.

REFERENCES Chisowa, D. M. 2002. Comparative evaluation of performance of growing rabbits fed

Leucaena leucocephala-cereal basal diet supplemented with legume grains. University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture. (M.Sc. thesis)

Edje, O. T. 1975. Phaseolus Beans. Agriculture, Report No. BC/CP/95/75, University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture.


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Kalimbira, A. A. 2000.The effect of incorporating legumes on quality acceptability of cassava-based complementary foods. University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture. (M.Sc. thesis)

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI). 1999. National Livestock Development Master Plan. Malawi, Department of Animal Health and Industry.

Mwangwela, A.M. 2000. Relation of phytic acid and calcium to culinary characteristics of freshly harvested dry beans. University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture. (M.Sc. thesis)

Simoongwe, V. 1998. The performance of large white and local Malawian pigs fed rations based on soybeans, cowpeas and pigeon peas. University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture. (M.Sc. thesis)


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Feed status in Myanmar Myat Kyaw

Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department Yangon,

Myanmar INTRODUCTION Myanmar is an agricultural country with a net annually sown area of 1 million ha (Tables 1 and 2). Multiple cropping is practised throughout the year. Almost all cultivation is carried out by draught cattle and buffaloes. Traditionally, livestock and poultry farming have been carried out alongside other agricultural activies. With the advent of a market economy, the livestock and other sectors have made significant progress. New technologies, breeds and inputs have been introduced. Livestock and poultry production have increased to meet the requirement of the growing human population (Table 3). As a result, the demand for feed has continued to increase. TABLE 1 Sown area and output of major crops in Myanmar Crop 1998-99 1999-2000

Area (1000 ha) Output (1000 t) Area (1000 ha) Output (1000 t)

Paddy 5 759 17 078 6 284 20 126

Wheat 99 93 1 05 126

Maize 188 303 210 349

Pulses 2 459 1 685 2 680 1 882

Groundnut 503 562 567 634

Sesame 1 199 210 1 357 296

Sunflower 343 189 487 160

Cotton 325 158 341 176

Jute 40 33 38 33

Sugar cane 126 5 429 135 5 449

Tobacco 4 4 4 5

Rubber 149 23 170 27


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TABLE 2 Land utilization in Myanmar

Type of Land Area ( M ha) Percentage of total area

Net sown area 9.67 14%

Fallow land 0.78 1%

Waste land capable of cultivation 7.25 11%

Reserved (conservation) forest 12.57 19%

Other forest 20.24 30%

Other land 17.15 25%

Total 67.66 100%

TABLE 3 Animal population census and forecast (Number of animals, million)

Species 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03

Buffalo 2.34 2.39 2.44 2.47 2.50

Cattle 10.49 10.74 10.97 11.06 11.15

Sheep/ Goat 1.69 1.73 1.78 1.83 1.88

Pig 3.50 3.72 3.91 4.05 4.19

Chicken 36.13 39.53 43.52 45.89 48.39

Duck 5.87 6.14 6.45 6.56 6.67

Goose/ Muscovy 0.86 0.89 1.10 1.12 1.14

LIVESTOCK SECTOR The Government has laid down policies to encourage the production of locally produced food to meet the nation’s demands. Priorities are given to boost production from the arable and livestock sectors (Table 4). Both foreign and local companies have become involved in livestock and poultry farming activities. Farming has changed from small scale into semi- commercial and commercial systems. Intensive poultry farming has developed not only in the peri urban area but also in rural and remote places. Livestock production is traditionally characterized by small scale back yard farming.


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TABLE 4 Livestock and livestock products in Myanmar Particulars Unit 1998-99 99-2000 2000-01

Working cattle 1000 7 258 7615 7 928

Milk 1000t 5 81.5 651.7 738.2

Meat ( total) 1000 t 308.6 378.5 444.8

Egg ( total) 1000 1 457.2 1 905.6 2 255.6

Hides (cattle) 1000 520 293 661

Hides ( sheep/ goat) 1000 942 1044 1172

Ruminant farming Each and every farmer keeps at least a pair of working cattle or buffaloes. In addition, one or two pigs and a small flock of poultry are kept to meet food requirements and to sell in emergencies (Tables 3 and 4). Extensive farming is common practice at village level. Large and small ruminants are usually grazed on common land in the morning and brought back home in the afternoon. Animals rely totally on natural vegetation in the rainy season. In summer time, maize, rice straw and other roughages are provided. Small animal production Intensive small scale livestock and poultry farming has increased since the market economy was introduced (Table 3). New breeds of pig and poultry were imported for further breeding. Eggs for hatching and day old chicks (DOC) have been brought into poultry production (Table 5). Local hatcheries were set up to fulfill the demands from poultry farming. All these activities have created an increased demand for animal feed (Table 6). Large and medium scale feed mills were built in large cities using locally produced feedstuffs. Foreign companies (e.g. Thai and Indonesian) were set up to launch the livestock enterprise in the country. TABLE 5 Import of livestock commodities

Particulars Unit 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01

Eggs for hatching 1 000 - 6 230 5 741

Day old chicks (DOC) 1 000 425 2 449 4 831

Breeding sows No. 168 16 -


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TABLE 6 Minimum feed requirement for livestock and poultry (1000 t)

Particulars 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03

Straw 7 999 8 114 8 402 8 610 8 824

Paddy 47 47 50 52 53

Broken rice 483 525 576 629 687

Rice Bran 215 234 256 279 305

Coarse Bran 1 044 1 087 1 165 1 231 1 300

Fish meal 190 213 235 261 290

Maize 98 105 113 121 130

Oil cake 127 141 155 171 189

Gram & Pigeon Pea 23 23 24 25 25

Salt 71 74 80 85 90

FEED RESOURCES Feeds are derived from two sources, agriculture and fisheries, details of which are given in Tables 7 and 8. Roughages Most roughages are by-products and wastes from the agricultural sector (Table 6). They originate from rice and wheat straw, maize stover, legume stems and leaves and cane tops. Natural grass is available only in the rainy season on grazing land and on road sides. Since rice has been multiple cropped in irrigated areas, the volume of paddy straw has doubled. A certain proportion is used as feed and the remainder is burned for the improvement of soil fertility. Straw treatment with urea for ruminant feeding was introduced under the FAO UNDP programme. But the increasingly high price of urea is a limiting factor for further extension. In addition to agricultural wastes, trees such as gliricidia, leucaena and sesbania planted under forestry activities, are widely used as fodder for ruminants.


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TABLE 7 Feed production in Myanmar (1000 t)

Particulars 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03

Roughages

Straw 17 171 20 252 20 847 21 460 22 091

Groundnut leaf and stem 253 285 290 295 299

Cane tops 814 817 930 1 058 1 204

Maize stover 564 630 667 706 748

Grass 8 000 8 000 8 000 8 000 8 000

Total 26 802 29 984 30 734 31 519 32 342

Concentrates

Maize 303 349 370 393 417

Broken rice 854 1 006 1 035 1 065 1 095

Rice Bran 181 213 221 229 237

Groundnut Cake 298 336 341 348 354

Sesame cake 126 178 180 187 190

Fish Meal 202 234 271 314 364

Total 1 964 2316 2 418 2 536 2 657

Grand Total 28 766 32 300 33 152 34 055 34 999

TABLE 8 Prices for feeds in Myanmar

Feed price (Kyat/kg)

Feed 1998-99 99-2000 2000-01

Broken Rice 27.13 35.17 42.90

Rice Bran 17.51 18.32 22.90

Wheat Bran 27.60 32.50 41.07

Maize 31.91 33.75 40.46

Groundnut Cake 33.42 39.08 45.92

Sesame Cakes 28.58 32.50 38.40

Fish Meal 126.50 147.12 168.80


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Concentrates Agricultural by-products such as broken rice, rice bran and maize are used as energy feed. Groundnut and sesame cakes are commonly used as sources of protein. These products come from the middle and upper parts of the country where oil crops are extensively grown (Table 1). Out of 67.6 million ha of land, 14 percent is under crop cultivation whereas 49 percent is under conservation and other forest. At present 9.67 million ha is under cultivation. Of the total area sown, about 1 million ha, or 7 percent, is under perennial, and the remainder under seasonal crops. About 65 percent is cultivated during the monsoon season, 25 percent during the winter and the remaining 10 percent in the summer. Of the total cultivated land, cereals constitute 48 percent, oil crops 17 percent and pulses 18 percent. Due to the multiple cropping of rice, the country has a surplus of roughages for ruminants. But practically, some of these roughages are inaccessible to the animals because of weather and geographical constraints. If the surplus fodder is not accessible to animals until the next growing season, it is usually burnt for ash fertilizer. In addition to animal feed, some agro-by products are used for other purposes such as local snacks, food and brewing. Preservation techniques such as silage or hay making, are encouraged to maintain the nutritive quality of feed and to preserve it for future use. Fisheries Fish and prawn meals are derived from the fisheries sector. Fisheries resources are divided into fresh water and marine . Fresh water fisheries are mainly dependent on the riverine system of the country. The four main rivers, namely the Ayeyarwaddy, at 2150 km, the Chindwin at 844 km, the Sittaung at 563 km and Than Lwin at 2400 km long, are natural resources for open flood fisheries. The inundated flood plains are estimated to form a water surface of about 6 million ha for a period of 4-5 months of the year. The total number of fisheries leased is about 3722 and the total area of fish ponds in 1999 was 53 123 ha.The coast line that stretches from 21º to 10º North has an area of 1800 km2. With its large number of estuaries and islands the length of the entire coast line will be close to 3000 Km. The continental shelf (0-200 m in depth) covers an area of 225 km2 . Ungradable fish and fish wastes are used as feed meal for animals. A certain proportion is used for human consumption by preserving it as fish paste, which is an essential food for the rural population. In the past, most of the ungradable fish and wastes were thrown back into the water because the wet weather prevented sun drying. But nowadays, these fish wastes are dried artificially to use as animal feed.


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Compound Feed Production There are 12 feed mills in Yangon (Table 9). Their average production capacity is 60 tonnes per day. A number of small scale feed mills that can produce 1-2 tonnes per day have been set up in areas where livestock populations are high. In Mandalay, there are 5 feed mills with a capacity of 50 tonnes per day and 3 similar mills in other regions. The total production from these feed mills amounts to about 2.6 Mt per year. About 70 percent of the feed meal produced from Yangon City is for fish and the rest is for pig and poultry. Most of the small scale farmers feed their animals with home mixed feed, or feed compound produced at the feed mill in accordance with their own preferred ration formula. Supply for poultry farming fluctuates with the prices of locally available feed. TABLE 9 Compound feed mills in Myanmar

Capacity Location Feed Mill t/day t/year

Yangon City ( Private) Thein Than Win 40 9 600 " CP 100 24 000 " May Kha 80 19 200 " Sein Pan 30 7 200 " Anawarmon 60 14 400 " Golden Flower 80 19 200 " Top 30 7 200 " Nay La 20 4 800 " B&B 30 7 200 " Super power 50 12 000 " Moon Light 30 7 200 Government LFME 133 31 920 Total 683 163 920 Mandalay (Private) Sanpya 50 12 000 Thein Gabar 50 12 000 CP 40 9 600 May Kha 32 7 680 Shwe Win Oo 60 14 400 Total 232 55 680 Other Cities( private) Shwe Bo KT 100 24 000 Taungyi Techaung 60 14 400 Loikaw Nyein Chan Ye 20 4 800 Total 180 43 200 Grand Total 1095 262 800


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CONCLUSION In order to boost livestock production in Myanmar, quality feed must be available in sufficient quantities at reasonable prices. Variation in production from livestock farming is due to fluctuations in the price of feed available. It can be expected that the production of feed from agriculture and fisheries will rise as a result of future increases in production from these sectors. To gain maximum utilization of locally available feed it is necessary to identify its potential as a resource and the most effective means of using it. The search for and the production and utilization of alternative feed resources should be encouraged.


329

Livestock production and the feed industry in Malaysia

T.C. Loh Animal Science Department

Universiti Putra Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION The Malaysian livestock industry is an important and integral component of the agricultural sector, providing gainful employment and producing useful animal protein food for the population. It contributes about 18 percent to the total Food Sector Agriculture Value Added and export earnings (NAP, 1998). The gross output value of livestock in 1999 was RM5.2 billion (DVS, 1999 [RM3.8/US$ at 5 July 2002]). The industry can be classified into the non-ruminant and the ruminant sub-sectors. It has shown a steady growth over the years attributed mainly to the active participation of the private sector, particularly in the sub-sectors of poultry, eggs and pork. Within a relatively short period of time the pig and poultry industries have been able to transform themselves from backyard subsistence levels to highly modern, commercial and efficient production systems. The ruminant sub-sector, however, is not well developed in spite of the emphasis and priority it has received from the Government in its development plans. Cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep constitute the ruminant sub-sector and smallholders are the principal producers within this sub-sector. Malaysia is able to produce its own requirements for pork, poultry meat and eggs but has to import milk, beef and mutton (Table 1). Self-sufficiency for milk, eggs and beef are below 20 percent. As a result, the country has seen an increase in its food import bill from RM4.6 billion in 1990 to RM10.0 billion in 1997. Thus, the Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3, 1998-2010) emphasizes that “the further growth of the agricultural sector requires that the nation address the challenge of efficient and optimal utilization of existing resources in order to further improve competitiveness. Resource constraints and rapid changes in the global trading environment necessitate the development of a resilient agricultural sector and the enhancement of its global competitiveness … The competitiveness of the sector will, among other things, be enhanced through productivity improvements, developing and strengthening markets, removal of market and trade distorting measures …”.


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TABLE 1 Gross output value of livestock (DVS, 1999)

Value (Ringgit Malaysia

million)

Contribution

(%)

Poultry meat 2 903.0 55.7

Eggs 1 105.0 21.1

Pork 906.8 17.4

Beef 248.7 4.8

Mutton 12.9 0.2

Dairy 43.5 0.8

Total 5 219.9 100

Note: United States dollar = RM3.8; Source: DVS, 1999 LIVESTOCK INDUSTRIES Poultry industry This industry has been self-sufficient since 1984. The poultry sub-sector contributes RM4.0 billion (poultry meat RM2.9 billion and eggs RM1.1 billion) or 76.8 percent of the ex-farm output value of the industry (Table 1). During the years 1998-2000, the broiler and egg industries increased their output at a rate of 8.9 percent and 3.3 percent per annum, respectively (Table 2). ‘Integrator’ is a major commercial player in the production of broilers and eggs, and presently contributes 75 percent of total output in Malaysia. Per capita annual consumption of broiler meat is 31 kg and for eggs, 16.6 kg. The export earning from this industry was RM440 million in 1999 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2001). Pig industry This industry has been self-sufficient since 1981. It was one of the fastest growing industries before the outbreak of Nipah virus in 1998/99. It contributed RM906.8 million in 1999, representing about 17.4 percent of total livestock production (Table 1). In 2000, the country was only 79 percent self-sufficient in pork due to massive culling of pigs during the Nipah virus outbreak. Prior to that, the country was 137 percent self-sufficient in pork with the excess being exported to Singapore. The average annual per capita consumption is 30 kg, which is considered among the highest in the region (Table 2). Pork will continue to be the major meat diet for more than 30 percent of the Malaysian population.


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Ruminant industry Beef and mutton contributed 4.8 percent and 0.2 percent, respectively to total livestock production (Table 1). Both industries recorded progressive growth during the period 1998-2000 with an average rate of 34 percent and 19 percent, respectively (Table 2). Despite this growth in meat production however, beef and mutton still meet only 21 percent of total annual domestic demand. Production of milk during the same period increased at a rate of 7 percent annually. The per capita consumption of milk in 1998 was 33 litres and by 2005 is projected to rise to 45.3 litres. The rate of self-sufficiency of milk was only 4.8 percent in 2000 and there is therefore a heavy dependency on the import of milk and milk products to meet local demands. TABLE 2 Production and consumption of livestock products (1998-2000) in Malaysia and percentage self sufficiency (SS)

Parameters 1998 1999 2000 Broilers Production (tonnes)

Consumption (tonnes) Per capita consumption (kg) SS (%)

680 960 578 607

29.0 117

739 520 612 166

30.0 121

803 120 647 670

35.3 124

Eggs

Production (tonnes) Consumption (tonnes) Per capita consumption (kg) SS (%)

401 504 369 200

16.6 109

414 790 379 540

16.7 109

428 480 390 160

16.8 110

Pork


262 910 191 150

31 137.5

149 420 177 390

27 83.7

148 410 187 500

29 79.2

Beef


16 630 85 600

4.7 19.4

19 530 91 420

4.9 21.4

27 860

122 500 5.3

21.7 Mutton


750

13 500 0.6 5.6

790

14 010 0.6 5.6

1040

14 000 0.6 7.4

Milk


30.8

690.8 32.8

4.5

32.7

711.5 33.0

4.6

35.1

732.8 33.2

4.8 SOURCE: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, MALAYSIA; 2001


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ISSUES OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION Land/farm zoning Many farms have to cease operations because of the public’s non-acceptance of farming. The authorities suggested all the farms should be concentrated in a ‘safe’ area. With the endorsement of the Government (1991), pig farms were relocated to a designated area known as pig farming area (PFA) to abate pollution and to allow a systematic development of the pig industry. To date, the proposal has not been well received by the state authorities. The PFA guidelines included a 1 km buffer zone between the PFA perimeter and the first pig house. In addition, poultry farms were encouraged to cluster into certain areas. Effluent management A 3-phased compliance schedule initiated in 1990 was introduced for pig farms. In 1997, the second compliance phase was implemented. One of the parameters, Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), was set at 250 mg/litre for this second phase, while 50mg/litre was set for the third phase in the year 2000. Currently, no specific technical effluent standards have been set up for other livestock farms. Globalization and Lliberalization An important issue is the livestock industry’s need to prepare for the full implementation of the Asian Free Trade Area (AFTA) by 2003. Initially this will only affect livestock products, but by 2010 it will include whole chicken, whole eggs, day-old-chicks and swine. AFTA is essentially meant to: • create an integrated domestic market among the Association of Southeast

Asian Nations’ (ASEAN) 13 million population; • promote ASEAN as an efficient and competitive base to attract foreign direct

investment; • benefit from the increased scope for complementary trade among ASEAN

member countries; • promote greater intra ASEAN trade and industrial linkages.

The major elements are to reduce tariffs to 0-5 percent and to remove all non-tariff barriers. Since almost all livestock products carry 0 percent tariff for imports into Malaysia, the industry is already exposed to the liberalization of trade. As noted in the NAP3, globalization and liberalization will open new opportunities for export of livestock production, and facilitate competitive sourcing of raw materials. The country has the capability to specialize and to be competitive in the production of certain livestock products, especially the poultry sub-sector. The sub-sector is expected to integrate and consolidate further to become more efficient and more productive in order to capitalize on the export market. To strengthen


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competitiveness and institutional support, the NAP3 suggests that the installation of effluent treatment systems will should be encouraged through the abolition of import tax for specialized on-farm treatment equipment. Suitable incentives for investment in automation will also be provided and the import tax on all specialized livestock farm and processing equipment will be abolished. In the area of strategic sourcing, it encourages overseas investments in meat and feed production (Chiew, 2001). FEED INDUSTRIES Feed constitutes a large proportion of the cost of production in any livestock industry. Raw ingredients for animal feeds are not produced in Malaysia. As such the intensive livestock industries, particularly pig and poultry, are dependent on imported feedstuffs. The imported ingredients range frorm cereal grains, vegetable and animal proteins such as soybean meal, corn gluten meal, fish meal and meat and bone meal, mineral sources and various micro-ingredients - vitamins, minerals and other additives used to improve feed efficiency and growth (Table 3). In contrast, the ruminant industry depends primarily on locally available feedstuffs, with only some supplementation provided by imported ingredients. The major local materials used are crop residues and other agro-industrial by-products such as rice bran, copra cake, palm kernel cake (PKC), oil palm frond, sago, tapioca and broken rice. There are 43 compound feed mills in West and East Malaysia ranging from small to medium to highly complex operations, which produced 3.9 million tonnes annually. However, there are also home-mixers which supply of 275 ,000 tonnes annually (Raghavan, 2000). Table 4 shows the sources of imported feed ingredients used by the livestock industry.


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TABLE 3 Raw materials used by the local feed industry

Local Imported

Degree of

use/availability

Degree of

use/availability

1. Rice bran ** Maize **

2. Wheat pollard ** Soybean meal **

3. Wheat bran ** Skimmed milk powder **

4. Limestone ** Whey powder

5. Palm kernel cake ** Fishmeal **

6. Palm oil sludge ** DCP/MCP **

7. Palm oil ** Salt

8. Molasses ** Meat and bone meal **

9. Rock salt ** Rice bran

10. OPF * Groundnut cake

11. Broken rice ** Sesame cake **

12. Fish meal * Chinese leaf pellet

13. Tapioca * Wheat

14. Sago * Vitamins / Minerals **

15. Copra cake ** DL-methionine **

16. Brewer grains * L-lysine **

17. Rice husk ** Blood meal

18. Cocoa meal * Feather meal **

19. Rubber seed meal * Rapeseed meal **

20. Oyster shells ** Corn gluten meal **

Note: ** commonly used by the industry, * less availability; Source: Modified from Raghavan, 2000


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TABLE 4 Sources of imported feed ingredients

Feed ingredients Source countries

Maize Thailand, China, Argentina, USA

Wheat Australia and Canada

Fishmeal Thailand, Chile and Denmark

Meat and bone meal Australia and New Zealand

Skim milk powder Australia and New Zealand

Whole milk powder Australia and New Zealand

Dried whey powder New Zealand, Canada and Europe

Groundnut cake India and China

Soybean meal China, USA, India and Argentina

Dicalcium phosphate China, India, Holland, Korea and

Germany

Monodicalcium phosphate Germany, Korea and Holland

Salt Germany, UK and Australia

Sesame cake India and Myanmar

Corn gluten meal EEC countries

Tapioca Thailand

Micro ingredients China, India, Germany, Switzerland,

France, Australia, Holland, Spain

Non-ruminant feeds Most compound feeds for non-ruminants (poultry and pig) are based on maize mixed with other ingredients and numerous additives to provide the necessary amino acids, vitamins and minerals. The quantity of imported maize from 1992-1999 is shown in Table 5. Most of the ingredients used in the rations are imported, although to some extent locally produced ingredients are also included. However, use of locally produced ingredient depends on supply, cost and also quality. The locally produced ingredients are tapioca and fishmeal. However, the amount


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produced is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the local feed industry. The by-products of oil extraction and the milling factories that produce rice bran, soybean meal, wheat bran and pollard, are always available and usually included in pigs and poultry feeds. TABLE 5 Importation of maize in Malaysia from different countries (1992 to 1999) (tonnes)

China USA Argentina Others Total 1992 1 280 284 72 062 79 845 384 973 1 817 164

1993 1 581 070 136 124 420 353 823 2 059 449

1994 1 503 705 7 977 43 887 424 648 1 980 217

1995 66 643 1 158 439 555 186 603 526 2 383 794

1996 16 590 1 128 811 648 433 574 782 2 368 616

1997 1 119 080 650 701 861 282 99 508 2 730 571

1998 1022 372 159 521 258 562 567 401 2 007 856

1999 (Aug) 886 964 188 511 306 800 153 079 1 535 354

Total 7 476 708 3 366 158 2 878 415 3 161 740 16 883 021

% 44 20 17 19

Source: US FGC, June 2000 Ruminant Feed The ruminant industry is not well developed in Malaysia and is mainly operated by smallholder farmers. The systems of production vary from extensive to semi-intensive and depend on native pasture often supplemented with locally available feedstuffs, for instance PKC, palm oil sludge, oil palm frond and soy waste (Table 3). FEEDSTUFFS PRODUCTION IN MALAYSIA As mentioned previously, the majority of feedstuffs used in rations for monogastric livestock (i.e. pig and poultry) are imported. Maize and soybean meal are the major imported ingredients. Locally available raw materials make up about 30 percent of the total feed ingredients in Malaysia. PKC is obtained after extraction of oil, a by-product from the oil palm industry. It contains 15-17 percent crude protein and 16 percent crude fibre, but its palatability is poor. Moreover, it lacks several amino acids and has a low lysine availability. Its use is often determined by its price in relation to other protein supplements and the cost of balancing amino acids content. In Malaysia, PKC has


337

been successfully used as a ruminant feed rather than as a feed for monogastric animals. Amino acid profiles for local feed ingredients have not been fully determined. In normal practice, if any local ingredients are used; extra amino acids must be supplied or other more protein rich ingredients added for maximum performance. Locally produced fishmeal supplies only 17 percent of the total requirement (Table 6). The quality is poorer than imported fishmeal because the ash content is higher and the protein concentration not usually greater than 55 percent (Raghavan, 2000). Furthermore, local fishmeal production depends on the supply of fish waste, and the fish industry is not large enough to support production for fishmeal as well as for human consumption. This may cause the supply to be irregular and as a consequence, the local feed millers prefer to import rather than use locally produced fishmeal. Soybean meal is produced in small quantities and is obtained after extraction of oil from soybean and after the production of soybean curd and soybean drinks. It is estimated that locally produced soybean meal provides 50 percent of the total requirement (Table 6). TABLE 6 Requirement of major feed ingredients and importation Ingredients Requirements (m.tonnes. per year) Imported (m.tonnes. per year)

Soybean meal 800 ,000 400 ,000

Fishmeal 120 ,000 100 ,000

DCP/MCP 80 ,000 All

Salt 8,000 All

Meat and bone meal 120 ,000 All

Corn gluten meal 120 ,000 All

DL-Methionine 4,000 All

L-lysine 4,000 All

Choline chloride 4,000 All

Vitamns (all) 200-300 All

Minerals (all) 150-200 All

Source: Raghavan, 2000


338

THE FUTURE OF THE FEED INDUSTRY The growth of the feed industry was badly affected during the economic crisis in 1997 and the pig Nipah virus outbreak. However, the industry is still growing and this is mainly due to the growth of the poultry industry. It had been projected that the increase in production of animal feed would be proportionate to the increase in demand for food (Table 7). The major problem of this industry is its heavy dependence on imported feedstuffs which account for 30 percent of the total food bill and amounts to RM10 billion a year. Moreover, the price of imported feed ingredients is often subjected to price instability. In addition, alternative formulations of feed using locally available raw materials is poorly developed. It has been suggested that by growing the major feedstuffs, or fully utilizing agricultural wastes the importation bill problem could be solved. However, the domestic production of grain for animal feeds is not feasible (Chiew, 2001); probably due to several factors such as poor returns, lack of arable land and high cost of cultivation. In addition, utilization of agricultural waste is not encouraged due to its poor palatability and nutrient content. Table 7 shows the projected livestock feed production from 1996 to 2008 which is predicted to grow at an average of 2.8 percent per year for another 5 years. TABLE 7 Projected livestock feed production (1996-2008) (thousand tonnes)

Feed 1996 1998 2000 2004 2006 2008

Poultry 2, 720 2, 860 2, 980 3, 100 3, 224 3, 353

Pig 1, 240 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300

Total 3, 960 4, 160 4, 340 4, 400 4, 524 4, 653

Percentage

Rate/year

6.7

5.0

4.3

1.4

2.8

2.8

Note: ‘000 metric tons CONCLUSION In Malaysia, poultry and pig production has developed to a stage where it is self-sufficient and internationally competitive. This is mainly due to successful technology transfer into the poultry and pig production systems. In contrast, the ruminant sub-sectors are not competitive, underlining the dichotomy between these and the monogastric sectors. Domestic feed-grain production is not financially or economically feasible at the present level of productivity. Nevertheless, more research and development are required to identify and improve the grain varieties in order to suit local agro-climatic conditions and to further improve yields.


339

Government should provide more incentives to encourage farmers to plant improved varieties of feed grain and to recycle livestock manure as a fertilizer for this feed grain. All these are necessary before Malaysia can hope to reduce its dependence on imported feed grain and improve the competitiveness of its livestock industry. REFERENCES NAP. 1998. Third National Agriculture Policy (1998-2010). DVS. 1999. Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia. Raghavan, V. 2000. Managing risks by the feed industry for safe food. 22nd MSAP

Annual. Conference., p. 27-48. Chiew, F.C. 2001. Globalization and trade liberalization implications on livestock

industry in Malaysia: Threat or opportunity. Proceedings. of the 23rd MSAP Annual. Conference., p. 27-29.


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Developments and issues relating to livestock production, protein supplies

and the feed industries of Vietnam Dr. Bui Thi Oanh

Department of Agricultural and Forestry extension Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vietnam

THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY IN VIETNAM – AN OVERVIEW With the open policies, developed economy and forward looking marketing system in Vietnam, the annual average economic growth rate is 7 percent and the average annual income per capita is also increasing significantly (Table 1). TABLE 1 Human population and income/person/year in Vietnam

Year Human population, million Income/person/year, 1000 VND

1990 66.23 633.4

1995 73.96 3 003.0

1996 75.35 3 431.9

1997 76.71 3 854.7

1998 78.09 4 630.7

1999 76.33 5 239.8

2000 76.32 5 717.1

2001 78.69 6 157.3

In the period 1990-2000, income/person/year increased by 9.7 times and the population growth was 1.7%/year. Because the average income increased, the demand for foodstuffs in general and animal products in particular, also rose. This increased demand was exacerbated by a population growth rate in Vietnam of 1.7 percent/year. To meet this rising demand, the livestock sector has been developed significantly both in terms of number of head and animal products (Tables 2 and 3)

Livestock production, protein supplies and the feed industries of Vietnam

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TABLE 2 Livestock numbers in Vietnam (million head).

Year Cattle and buffaloes Pigs Poultry

1990 5.97 12. 26 103.8

1995 6.60 16.31 140.0

1996 6.75 16.92 151.4

1997 6.85 17.64 160.6

1998 6.94 18.13 166.4

1999 7.02 18.89 179.3

2000 7.03 20.19 196.2

2001 7.10 21.7 213.8

The growth rate of the buffalo herd in the period 1990-1995 was 2.1 percent/year, from 1995 to 2000 1.3 percent/year and with an average growth rate in the period from 1990 to 2000 of 1.76 percent/year. The growth rate of the pig herd over the same periods was 6.6, 4.8 and 6.5 percent/year respectively. The growth rate of poultry stock in the period 1990-1995 was 6.9 percent/year, from 1995 to 2000 8.0 percent/year giving an average growth rate of 8.8 percent/year over the whole period from 1990-2000. TABLE 3 Livestock products ( 1000 tonnes)

Years Total meat production

Pig meat Chicken meat Beef and Buffalo meat

Eggs

Milk

1990 995.6 724.0 151.7 119.9 94.8 9.3 1995 1 332.1 1 006.9 197.1 118.0 141.2 20.9 1996 1 408.3 1 076.0 212.9 119.3 154.2 27.9 1997 1 503.0 1 154.2 226.1 122.7 158.4 31.3 1998 1 594.5 1 227.6 239.2 127.8 161.3 32.8 1999 1 711.7 1 318.1 261.8 131.7 172.0 39.6 2000 1 836.0 1 409.0 146.9 146.9 185.0 52.0 2001 2 000.0 1 523.0 200.0 66.0

The growth in total meat production in the period 1990-1995 was 6.8 percent/year and from 1995-2000 7.6 percent/year, with an average growth rate in the period 1990-2000 of 8.4 percent/year. Of this production, pork occupied 75 percent, poultry about 15 percent, buffalo and beef 8 percent and ‘others’ about 2 percent (Table 4).


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TABLE 4 The average growth rate of animal products per year (%)

Period Meat (total)

Pig meat Poultry meat

Beef and buffalo meat

Eggs Milk

1990-1995 6.8 7.8 6.0 -0.4 9.8 24.8

1995-2000 7.6 8.0 7.9 4.9 6.2 29.8

1990-2000 8.4 9.46 8.1 2.3 9.5 45.9

The growth rate of pork and poultry meat was much higher than that of beef and buffalo meat. In the period 1990-2000, the average growth rate of pork was 9.5 percent/year and poultry meat 8.1 percent/year, compared with only 2.3 percent/year for buffalo meat and beef. The production of meat, eggs and milk per capita have increased (Table 5). The average live weight meat production per capita/year in 1990 was 15.2 kg rising to 18.8 kg in 1995 and 23 kg in 2000, giving a 5.1 percent average growth rate per year from 1990-2000. Within these data it can be seen that pork had the highest growth (6.0 percent/year), followed by poultry meat (4.8 percent/year). Buffalo meat and beef seem to have remained static at 1.7 kg/capita/year. Production of eggs increased by 6.4 percent/capita/year over the ten year period from 1990-2000. Fresh milk production in Vietnam is still very low, rising from only 0.14 kg/capita/year in 1990 to 0.65 kg/capita/year in 2000, meeting only 5 percent of the requirement (95 percent from importation). Production is however increasing rapidly (36.4 percent/capita/year). TABLE 5 Animal products/capita/year from 1990 to 2000

Animal product

Unit

1990

1995

2000 Increase rate/year

(%) Total meat (LW). Kg/person/year 15.2 18.0 23.0 5.1

Of which: Pig meat ditto 11.0 13.6 17.6

Poultry meat ditto 2.5 2.7 3.7

Beef and buffalo meat ditto 1.7 1.7 1.7

Eggs Number/person/year 28 38 46 6.4

Kg/person/year 1.4 1.9 2.3

Milk Kg/person/year 0.14 0.28 0.65 36.4


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In Vietnam, the average arable land area per capita is low (0.1 ha) and as a result it is difficult to develop the ruminant industry. Pigs and poultry on the other hand have increased significantly and as a result, the demand for cereal and processed feed has developed rapidly. In 1990 there were only 0.51 million tonnes of processed feed (equivalent to a complete feed); in 2000 that had increased to 2.7 million tonnes representing a 53 fold expansion in demand (Table 6). TABLE 6 Utilization of animal feed (1000 tonnes)

Year Total consumption

Concentrate

Processed feed (complete feed equivalent)

1990 22 542.9 5 245.1 51.0

1995 25 667.7 6 563.8 884.0

1996 26 458.6 6 915.6 1 470.0

1997 27 050.2 7 233.4 1 851.0

1998 27 614.0 7 543.3 2 030.0

1999 29 285.8 8 000.0 2 250.0

2000 31 756.0 8 720.0 2 500.0

2001 34 280.0 9 417.6 2 700.0

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEED INDUSTRY Because of a high demand for animal and poultry feed (Table 7) as well as the open and market-orientated policies of the Government of Vietnam, feed mills established very quickly. To date there are 110 feed mills with a total capacity of 3.5 million tonnes/year. Included in these are some foreign companies and joint ventures with mill capacities ranging from 200 000 - 400 000 tonnes/year (CP Group; Vietnam/French joint venture; Proconco; Cheljidang; Uni-President; New Hope; Cargill etc.). Vietnamese enterprises participating in animal feed production have also increased significantly during the last ten years, but their individual capacities are still small, the highest producing 100 000 tonnes/year, but most falling within 1000-5000 tonnes/year. The number of cattle in Vietnam is still small, and they can use the non protein nitrogen feeds and forage currently available. This allows us to focus on the calculation of protein needs for the pig and poultry industry only. On average, there is 12 percent protein in a pig feeding diet and 15 percent in a feed for poultry. Cereal grain, together with its by–products, contains around 8 percent protein. Thus, for a properly balanced pig feed, the amount of protein that


345

needs to be derived from rich protein feed resources is 4 percent (33.3 percent total protein in the ration); for poultry it is 7 percent (46.7 percent total). TABLE 7 Feed consumption by different kinds of animal (million tonnes)

Year Cattle Pig Poultry Protein Equivalent to SBM 44% CP

1990 16.907 4.509 1.127 2.063 4.7

1995 19.251 5.134 1.283 2.349 5.3

1996 19.844 5.292 1.323 2.421 5.5

1997 20.287 5.410 1.352 2.47 5.6

1998 20.710 5.523 1.381 2.53 5.7

1999 21.964 5.857 1.464 2.68 6.1

2000 23.817 6.351 1.588 2.90 6.6

2001 25.710 6.856 1.714 3.14 7.1

Notes: The crude protein in cattle feed, pig feed and poultry feed is 8%, 12%, and 15% respectively According to the Development criteria (Table 8), over 11 million tonnes of feed grain will be needed in 2005, and 15.5 million tonnes by the year 2010. Of this, it is estimated that four million tonnes and six million tonnes respectively will need to be processed feed (complete feed equivalent). Thus by 2005, Vietnam will need 0.233 million tonnes of protein derived from rich protein feed, and 0.314 million tonnes by 2010. This is equivalent to 0.53 million tonnes of soybean meal with a 44 percent crude protein content (Table 9). Calculations suggest that the domestic demand for protein from protein rich feed ingredients will be 1.18 million tonnes by the year 2005 and 1.36 million tonnes by 2010 (equivalent to SBM 44 percent protein). Even with Government plans to increase area and gross output of soybean, and that the share of the soybean meal for animal feed will grow by up to 50 percent between 2005 and 2010, Vietnam will still be short of about 0.6 million tonnes (44 percent protein SBM equivalent) of protein rich feed ingredients (Tables 10, 11 and 12).


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TABLE 8 Development criteria of animal, poultry and animal products in Vietnam in 2005 and 2010

Criteria Unit 2005 2010

Buffalo and cattle

In which:

Dairy cattle

Million head 7.2

0.10

7.6

0.20

Pig Million head 24.0 30

Poultry Million birds 297.0 350.0

Total meat production Million tonnes 2.4 3.0

In which:

Pork

Beef and buffalo meat

Poultry meat

2.0

0.2

0.4

2.2

0.3

0.5

Eggs Billion 5.0 7.0

Fresh milk 1000 tonnes 102 230

Concentrate

of which:

Processed feed

(complete feed equivalent)

Million tonnes 11.5

4.0

15.5

6.0

TABLE 9 Estimated requirement of protein and rich protein feed for pig and poultry in Vietnam in 2005 and 2010 (million tonnes)

Year Total mixed feed

Total protein needed

Protein derived from cereal

Protein derived from rich protein feed

Equivalent to SBM 44% CP

2005 10.47 1.32 0.800 0.52 1.18

2010 14.10 1.77 1.130 0.60 1.36


347

TABLE 10 Domestic production of soybean and fish meal Year Criteria 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Planned

2005 2010

Area

(1 000 ha)

110 121 110 129 129 122 150 500 700 Soya

Production

(1 000 t)

125.5 113.8 113.0 146.7 144.7 141.9 187.5 1000 1500

Fish

meal

1 000 t 15 16 17 19 20 30 40 60 90

Source: Vietnam Statistic Year book 1996; 2000; Ministry of Fishery; Department of Agr. and Forestry Extension - MARD TABLE 11 Importation of rich protein feed ingredients (1 000 tonnes)

Year Soybean Soybean and other meals

2000 1. 2 352. 8

2001 12. 30 504. 4

TABLE 12 Demand and protein supplies in the future (million tonnes)

Domestic production Year Fish

meal

Soybean Demand Shortfall

Total

production

50% for

animal

Total of protein rich

feed resources

(Equivalent SBM 44%

CP)

2005 0.06 1.00 0.50 0.49 1.18 0.69

2010 0.09 1.50 0.75 0.74 1.36 0.62


349

List of participants AUSTRALIA Ron LENG Agriculture Consultant (Ruminant Production, Animal Nutrition) PO Box 361, Coolum Beach QLD 4573 Australia Mike NUNN Manager (Animal Health Science) Office of the Chief Veterinary Officer, Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, GPO Box 858, Canberra ACT 2601 Australia BHUTAN Tenzin DHENDUP Director, Dept. of Agriculture and Livestock Services Ministry of Agriculture Thimphu Bhutan CHINA Guang-Hai QI Professor and Assistant Director, Feed Research Institute Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences 12 Zhongguancun Nandajie, Beijing 100081 The People's Republic of China

List of Participants

350

DENMARK Freddy IB (World Renderers Organization) President, Global Biosourcing (Europe) Filippavej 9 71000 Vejle Denmark HONG KONG Yong Jiu CAI Technical Manager Asia Bioproducts Division ADM Asia Rm 1701 Jubilee Ctr 18 Fenwick St. Wanchai, Hong Kong INDIA V. BALAKRISHNAN Professor and Head Department of Animal Nutrition, Madras Veterinary College Chennai 600 007, India Manget Ram GARG Senior Scientist (R&D ANFT) National Dairy Development Board 60165 Anand - 388 001 India


351

IRAN Seyed Farzad TALAKESH Department of Public Health I.R. Veterinary Organization P.O. Box: 14155-6349, S. Jamaledin-assad abadi Ave. Teheran, Iran Azizollah KAMALZADEH Acting Deputy Minister for livestock affairs Ekbatan, phase 1, block A 3, Entry 1, No 123 Teheran, Iran ITALY Piero SUSMEL University of Udine Di.S.P.A. – Dept. of Animal Science Via S. Mauro, 2; 33010 Pagnacco (UD) Italy JAPAN Yasuhiko TORIDE Group Manager, Research & Development Animal Nutrition Dept. Global Foods & Amino Acids Company Ajinomoto Co., Inc. 15-1, Kyobashi 1-Chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-8315, Japan


352

Tomoyuki KAWASHIMA Laboratory of Feed Evaluation Department of Feeding and Management National Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, 2, Ikenodai, Kukisaki, Inashiki, Ibaraki 305-0901, Japan Kazuki NAKAGAWA Amino-Science Lab. Ajinomoto Co., Inc. 1-1, Suzuki-cho, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa-ten, Japan 210-8681 Izuru SHINZATO Researcher, Amino-Science Lab. Ajinomoto Co., Inc. Ajinomoto Co., Inc. - Japan 1-1, Suzuki-cho, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan 210-8681 LAOS Nivath PHANAPHET Senior Animal Production Officer Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Department of Livestock and Fisheries P.O. Box 811, Vientiane, Laos MALAYSIA Teck Chwen LOH Department of Animal Science, University Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.


353

MOHD NORDIN MOHD NOR Director General of Veterinary Services Department of Veterinary Services, Block A, 8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Chase Perdana, Damansara Heights, off Jalan Semantan Bukit Damansara, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Syed Hussein ABDULLAH Research Officer Institut Haiwan (Veterinary Institute) Department of veterinary Services Kluang, Johor Malaysia Azhar KASIM Veterinary Officer (poultry nutritionist) Institute for Poultry Development Department of Veterinary Services Jalon Datin, Halimah, P.O. Box 147, 80710, Johor, Bahrn, Malaysia MALAWI Andy SAFALAOH Monogastric Nutrition and Poultry Specialist National Consultant FAO Special Programme on Food Security University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi


354

MEXICO Surinder K. VASAL CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) Apdo. Postal 6-641 C.P. 06600; México, D. F. Sergio GOMEZ ROSALES Swine and Poultry Nutrition Research CENIFYMA – INIFAP (National Institute of Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research) Jose M. Michelena, 7 – Col. La Era Queretaro, Qro 76150 Mexico MYANMAR Myat KYAW Deputy Director, Head of Magwe Division; Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department Magwe Division, LBDV Head Office Yangon, Myanmar NEPAL Shubh Narayan MAHATO Director General Department of Livestock Services, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal


355

OMAN Saleh Rabie AL-KHODOURY In charge of poultry development section Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries International Relations Department PAKISTAN Rafaqat Hussain RAJA Animal Husbandry Commissioner Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock 79, Al-Rahman Chambers, Blue Ared. Islamabad PAPUA NEW GUINEA Miok K. KOMOLONG Lecturer in Animal Nutrition and Agricultural Biochemistry Department of Agriculture Papua New Guinea University of Technology Private Mailbag, Lae 411 Papua New Guinea PHILIPPINES José Q. MOLINA Director of Bureau of Animal Industry Bureau of Animal Industry Department of Agriculture, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City Philippines


356

SINGAPORE Suxi HUANG Degussa SEA 3 International Business Park # 07-18, Singapore 609927 SRI LANKA N. PRIYANKARAGE Veterinary Research Officer/ Animal Nutrition Veterinary Research Institute Department of Animal Production and Health Peradeniya, Sri-Lanka SWITZERLAND Uwe WEHRMANN Managing Director Feed Technology Postfach 51 CH-9240 Uzwil, Switzerland THAILAND Metha WANAPAT Professor, Khon Kaen University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Animal Science Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand


357

S.OHMOMO Representative of Thailand Office JIRCAS Thai Office, Bangkok c/o Division of soil science, Department of Agriculture Phaholythin Rd., Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand Cherdchai THIRATINARAT Director, Feed Quality Control Division Department of Livestock Development Bangkok 10400 Sompop KASSUMMA Senior Animal Science Officer Animal Husbandry Division Department of Livestock Development Bangkok 10400 Thailand Chaweewan LEOWIJUK Director, Foreign Livestock Affairs Division Department of Livestock department Bangkok 10400, Thailand Anurojana PUNYAWAN Feed Technology Office Charoen Pokphand Group 313 CP Tower 14th flr. Silom Road Bangrak Bkk 10500


358

Supot ANANTHANASUWONG Charoen Pokphand Group Group 313 CP Tower 14th Rlv Silom Road Bangrak Bkk 10500 Julaporn SRINHA Veterinary Medicine Feed Quality Control Division Feed Inspection Subdivision Department of Livestock Development Bangkok 10400, Thailand Prompoj WANAPORN Senior Fisheries Biologist Department of Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Marine Shrimp Research and Development Insttute Kaset Klang, Chatuchak Bangkok, 10900 Thailand Saksit SRINONGKOTE Director, Research General Manager Bangkok Animal Research Center 487/1 Si Ayutthaya road Khwaeng Thanon Phaya Thai Khet Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400 David E. STEANE Consultant Livestock Production and Animal Genetic Resources Management 99 Moo7, Baan Rong Dua Tha Kwang, Saraphi, Chiang Mai 50140 Thailand


359

TURKEY H. PIRINCCI Agriculture Engineer, MSc Head of the Department of Food and Feed Tarim ve Koyisleri Bakanligi (Turkish Agriculture Ministry) Tarimsal Arastirma Genel Mudurlugu (General Directorate of Agriculture Research) P.O. Box 78, 06071, Yenimahalle Ankara Turkey A. GULEREN Veterinarian, MSc Central Institute of Food Research P.O. Box 3, Hurriyet/osmangazi Bursa Turkey UNITED KINGDOM Eric L. MILLER University Senior Lecturer in Nutrition Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, 307 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0JQ, UK W. Paul DAVIES Vice-Principal and Professor of Agricultural Systems The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, Gl7 6JS UK


360

Stephen A. CHADD Senior Lecturer in Animal Science and Production Vice-President EAAP Pig Commission Royal Agricultural College Cirencester, Glos. GL7 6JS UK Alan McILMOYLE Animal Nutrition/Feed Safety Consultant W. Alan McIlmoyle & Associates 20 Young Street, Lisburn, Co. Antrim BT27 5EB; UK Roger GILBERT Secretary General IFIF (International Feed Industry Federation) 214 Prestbury Road Cheltenham, Glo., GL52 3ER UK USA Doug HARD Vice-President, Regulatory Affairs and Public Acceptance Renessen LLC, 3000 Lakeside Dr. Suite 300 S., Bannockburn, IL 60015 Nick BAJJALIEH President, Integrative Nutrition, Inc. 451 Shoreline Drive, Decatur, IL


361

C. Ross HAMILTON Director Research and Nutritional Services Darling International Inc. 251 O' Connor Ridge Boulevard, Suite 300 Irving, Texas, 75038, VIETNAM Thi Oanh BUI Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development No 2, Ngoc ha-Badinh Hanoi FAO R.B. SINGH Assistant Director-General/Regional Representative for Asia and Pacific FAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand Denis HOFFMANN Senior Animal Production and Health Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand Hans WAGNER Senior Animal Production Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand


362

Andrew W. SPEEDY Senior Officer (Animal nutrition and feed) FAO - Animal Production and Health Division Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome Italy Daniela BATTAGLIA Animal Production Officer (Feed Safety and Feed Utilization) FAO - Animal Production and Health Division Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome Italy

Documents

FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH proceedings · Codes of good management practice (GMP) for the animal feed industry, with particular reference to proteins and protein by-products