Facing the Challenges_THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD WATER_VOLUME 3

8/2/2019 Facing the Challenges_THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD WATER_VOLUME 3

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Cultural OrganizationEducational, Scientific andUnited Nations

ReportFacingthe Challenges

—

The UniTed naTions World WaTer

developmenT reporT 4

Volume 3



Facingthe Challenges

—

THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD WATER

DEVELOPMENT REPORT 4

VOLUME 3



PublishedinbytheUnitedNationsEducationalScienticandCulturalOrganizationplacedeFontenoyParisSPFrance

©UNESCOAllrightsreserved

Chapter‘Investinginwaterinrastructureitsoperationanditsmaintenance’©TheInternationalBankorReconstructionand

DevelopmentTheWorldBankHStreetNWWashingtonDCUSA

ISBN----e-bookISBN----

OriginaltitleTheUnitedNationsWorldWaterDevelopmentReportManaging Water under Uncertainty and Risk (Vol) Knowledge Base(Vol)andFacing the Challenges(Vol)

PublishedinbytheUnitedNationsEducationalScienticandCulturalOrganization

UNESCOPublishinghttppublishingunescoorg

SuggestedcitationWWAP(WorldWaterAssessmentProgramme) The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk ParisUNESCO

ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationomaterialthroughoutthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionoanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoUNESCOconcerningthelegalstatusoanycountryterritorycityorareaoroitsauthoritiesorconcerningthedelimitationoitsrontiersorboundaries

Theideasandopinionsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseotheauthors;theyarenotnecessarilythoseoUNESCOanddonotcommittheOrganization

—

ThecontentsoVolumewerecontributedbytheUN-WatermembersandpartnerslistedonthetitlepagesothechaptersthereinUNESCOandtheUnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentProgramme(WWAP)arenotresponsibleorerrorsinthecontentprovidedorordiscrepanciesindataandcontentbetweencontributedchapters

WWAPprovidedtheopportunityorindividualstobelistedasauthorsandcontributorsortobeacknowledgedinVolumeWWAPisnotresponsibleoranyomissionsinthisregard

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Printed in Luxembourg

WWDRhasbeenpublishedonbehalotheUnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentProgramme(WWAP)withthesupportotheollowingorganizations

United Nations Funds and ProgrammesUnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF)UnitedNationsConerenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)UnitedNationsDepartmentoEconomicandSocialAairs

(UNDESA)

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Specialized UN AgenciesFoodandAgricultureOrganizationotheUnitedNations(FAO)InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)InternationalBankorReconstructionandDevelopment

(WorldBank)InternationalFundorAgriculturalDevelopment(IFAD)InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)UnitedNationsEducationalScienticandCulturalOrganization

(UNESCO)

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United Nations Regional CommissionsEconomicandSocialCommissionorAsiaandthePacic

(UNESCAP)EconomicandSocialCommissionorWesternAsia(UNESCWA)EconomicCommissionorArica(UNECA)EconomicCommissionorEurope(UNECE)EconomicCommissionorLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

(UNECLAC)

Secretariats o United Nations Conventions and DecadesSecretariatotheConventiontoCombatDesertication(UNCCD)SecretariatotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)SecretariatotheInternationalStrategyorDisasterReduction

(UNISDR)UnitedNationsClimateChangeSecretariat(UNFCCC)



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword iii

by Olcay Ünver, Coordinator, United Nations World Water Assessment Programme

Summary iv

Case study development process and highlights o the fndings

AFRICA

Chapter 37. Ghana 779

Chapter 38. Mara River basin, Kenya and Tanzania 786

ARAB STATES

Chapter 39. Jordan 792

Chapter 40. Morocco 798

ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Chapter 41. Murray-Darling basin, Australia 803

Chapter 42. Yellow River basin, China 809

Chapter 43. Jeju Island, Korea 814

Chapter 44. Pakistan, with special reerence to the Indus River basin 820

EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA

Chapter 45. Czech Republic 826Chapter 46. Marseille Provence Métropole Urban Community, France 830

Chapter 47. Tiber River basin, Italy 835

Chapter 48. Tagus River basin, Portugal 842

Chapter 49. St Johns River basin, Florida, United States o America 847

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Chapter 50. Costa Rica 853

Chapter 51. Lerma-Chapala basin, Mexico 860

Boxes, tables, fgures and maps 866

iWWDR TABLEOFCONTENTS



“We can’t solve problems by using

the same kind of thinking we used

when we created them.”Albert Einstein

FACINGTHECHALLENGESii



iii

FromitsrsteditionintheUnited Nations World Water Development Report

(WWDR)hasshownhowdecisionsmadeineveryrealmolieandworkcanhaveanimpactonourwaterresourcesRapidlychangingconditionsacrosstheglobeare

creatingnewpressuresonwaterandintroducingnewuncertaintiesandrisksor

itsuseandmanagementTheresilienceosocietiestocopewiththesechallenges

variesgreatlylargelydeterminedbytheirinstitutionalandlegalrameworksandthe

availabilityonancialandhumanresources

CasestudiesareasignicantpartoeachWWDRCollectivelytheyillustratethe

challengesthatconrontpolicy-makersandwatermanagersaroundtheglobeand

howtheyarerespondingtothemThepresentvolumeFacingtheChallengeseatures

concisesummariesoteencasestudiescompiledoveraperiodothreeyears

providing‘snapshots’owatermanagementandusetodayindiverseregionsotheworldThesecasestudiesbydesigncloselycomplementtheothervolumesothe

World Water Development Report 4,asmostotheactorsinuencingwater

resourcesmanagementdiscussedinthosevolumescanbeobservedinoneormor

anotherinthepagespresentedhere

SincethelaunchotheUnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentProgramme(WWAP)

inthenumberocasestudieshascontinuouslyrisenOverallregional

studiesatthebasinornationallevelhavebeencompletedsoarthroughpartnerships

withnationalbodiesworldwideThemobilizationokeystakeholdersisalsoimportant

tothedevelopmentocasestudyprojectsAswemoveorwardWWAPwillcontinue

workingwithnationalpartnersandotherstakeholderstodevelopurthercasestudies

owatermanagementanduseindiversecountriesandriverbasinstoachieveaswide

aregionalcoverageaspossible

ThisvolumeconstitutesavaluablecontributiontotheinternationalcommunityThe

experiencesandpoliciesitdescribesprovidedierentperspectivesorallthose

workingtowardssustainabledevelopment–notonlywaterproessionalsbut

managersanddecisionmakersatalllevelsandresearchersromwithinoroutsidethe

‘waterbox’–helpingalltomakeinormeddecisionswithbetterknowledge

Olcay Ünver

CoordinatorUnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentProgramme

FOREWORD

by Olcay Ünver, Coordinator, United NationsWorld Water Assessment Programme

—

ııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııı

Note

Theconceptothe‘waterbox’isusedinthethirdeditionotheWorld Water Development Report todescribethespecicsphere(the‘watersector’)towhichquestionsowatermanagementaretoo-otenconned

WWDR FOREWORD



UNEP

—

Authors Xxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx

Contributors Xxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx

Acknowledgements Xxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx

CHAPTER 37

Lorem ipsum dolor

ThisourtheditionotheUnited NationsWorld Water

Development Report (WWDR)eaturescasestudies

romdierentgeographiesotheworldFortherst

timetherearepilotstudiesromNorthAmerica(St

JohnsRiverBasinFloridaUSA)andtheMiddleEast

(Jordan)AswithpreviousvolumesotheWWDRtheocuscontinuestobeonthecommonchallenges

thatthecountriesandregionsincludedareacingthe

managementandallocationoreshwaterresources

shortcomingsininstitutionalandlegalrameworks

environmentaldegradationdecliningwaterqualityand

therisksposedbyclimaticvariationsandclimatechange

Theregionaldistributionocasestudiesthatare

eaturedinthisvolumeisshowninthemapbelow

SUMMARY

Case study development process and

highlights o the fndings

Eightothesepilotprojects(Seemapbelow

casestudiesand)havebeen

conductedattheriverbasinlevelwhiletheothers

showcasenationaleortsAlthoughthemajorityothe

countriesthatparticipatedinthedevelopmentothese

casestudiesarenewWWAPpartnersveothem–ChinaFranceItalyMexicoandtheRepublicoKorea–

havealsocontributedtoearliervolumesotheWWDR

Wewouldliketoexpressourdeepappreciationtoall

ourcountrypartnersortheirsignicantinput

Thisvolumepresentsconcisesummariesothese

casestudyreportstheoriginalversionsowhich

representapproximatelyonethousandpagesThe

amountoworkthatwentintopreparingtheull

iv FACINGTHECHALLENGES

Regionaldistributionothecasestudies

PAC IF IC

OCEAN

PACI FI C

OCEAN

INDI AN

OCEAN

ATL ANTI C

OCEAN

FRICA

1. Ghana

2. Kenya-Tanzania

(Mara River basin)

ARAB STATES

3. Jordan

4. Morocco

SIA and the PACIFIC

5. Australia (Murray-Darling basin)6. China (Yellow River basin)

7. Korea (Jeju Island)

8. Pakistan (with special reference

to the Indus River basin)

EUROPE and NORTH AMERICA

9. Czech Republic

10. France (Marseille Provence

Métropole Urban Community)

11. Italy (Tiber River basin)

12. Portugal (Tagus River basin)13. United States of America

St Johns River basin, Florida)

LATIN AMERICA and the CARIBBEAN

14. Costa Rica

15. Mexico (Lerma-Chapala basin)

Countries included in both Africa and Arab States

Regions of UNESCO

Countries included in both Europe/North America

and Asia/Pacific Regions of UNESCO

9

1

3

4

2

6

7

8

5

14

15

13

1210

11



v

casestudyreportsandtheirconcisesummariesis

noteworthyonaverageeachreportwentthroughtwo

iterationstoensurethequalityothenalstudies

TheareascoveredbythecasestudiesvarygreatlyIn

thiseditionJejuIslandKoreaisthesmallestinsize(approximatelykm²)whereastheYellowRiver

basinChina(approximatelykm²)andthe

Murray–DarlingRiverbasinAustralia(morethana

millionkm²)arethetwolargest

Theconcisesummariesprovideasnapshotoreality

Theypresentthecurrentsituationowaterresources

andtheiruseineachareacoveredthroughacommon

rameworkthatincludesthestateotheresource

howwaterresourcesareutilizedcompetitionamong

sectorslegalandadministrativerameworksthe

statusoecosystemsimpactsoclimatechange

andclimaticvariationswaterrelateddisastersand

moreBoxeshighlightimportantrecentevents(the

catastrophicoodinPakistantherecentdroughtin

theMurray–Darlingbasin)keywater-relatedprojects

(ecosystemconservationeortsinJordansediment

loadreductionintheYellowRiverbasinattempts

tointroducepaymentorecosystemservicesinthe

MaraRiverbasin)andthestructureandunctioning

oriverbasinorganizations(theLerma–ChapalaBasinCouncilinMexicoriverbasindistrictadministrationsin

Portugal)

Regardlessoacountry’slevelodevelopmentwater

resourcesmanagementandprotectionareareas

whereconstantimprovementissoughtAustraliahas

producedablueprintorwaterreorminits

NationalWaterInitiativewhileonJejuIsland(Republic

oKorea)thereisaclearunderstandingothe

importanceointegratedwaterresourcemanagement

oreectiveplanningStrictcontrolowaterallocationatthedistrictlevelintheYellowRiverbasinensures

theowotheriverthroughoutitscourseand

especiallytoitslowerreachesThegovernment

oPakistanisworkingtoreormirrigationwater

managementintheIndusRiverbasinandinthe

StJohnsRiverbasin(FloridaUSA)theWatershed

RestorationActhashelpedcontrolproblemsopollutionTheEUWaterFrameworkDirective

isbeingimplementedbyallEuropeannationswith

dierentcountriescurrentlyatdierentstageso

completingitsrequirements

Climatechangeandclimaticvariationsarelikelyto

posechallengesovaryingdegreeandintensity

Whileseveralmodelssuggestlikelyscenarios

somecountrieshavealreadystartedexperiencing

theeectsoclimatechangeintheshapeomore

requentandintensewater-relatednaturaldisasters

(egoodsdroughtsmudslidestornados)

Almostalloourcasestudypartnersreported

increasingvariabilityintheoccurrenceosuch

eventsAllothesecountrieswithoutexception

havemechanismsandlegislationsinplaceor

disastermitigationhowevertheirinstitutionaland

nancialcapacitytorespondwhensuchdisasters

strikearecloselylinkedtotheirleveloeconomic

development

Cooperationamongripariancountriesinthe

contextointernationalwaterresourcesiscritical

orthesharingandprotectionoscarcewater

resourcesinaneraoincreasingclimaticvariability

andclimatechangeJordanandIsraelreached

anagreementonwaterrightsintheJordanRiver

basinintheirpeacetreatyInthecaseoSpain

andPortugaltheAlbueiraConventionappliesto

severaltransboundaryriversandcoversissuessuch

astheexchangeoinormationpollutioncontrol

andpreventiontheevaluationothetransboundaryimpactsowaterusesandconictresolutionand

WWDR SUMMARY



theassignmentorightsTheConventionallows

oruturerevisionstoensuretheachievemento

environmentalobjectivessetatbasinlevelandto

integrateclimatechangeadaptationmeasures

Cooperationisvitalorsharedwaterresourcesinthe

nationalcontexttooTheYellowRiverbasincrossesnineprovincesoChinahowevertheWater

AllocationSchemeandordinancehavecreated

thebasisorregulatingwaterusetosatisydemandin

allprovincesandimproveenvironmentalconditions

especiallyinthelowerreachesothebasin

Waterandoodsecurityareamongthemost

importantissuesoconcernnotonlyinaridregions

suchasJordanandMoroccobutalsoinregions

thatarewellendowedintermsowaterresources

InGhanaorexampletheabsenceoadequate

storageandagro-processingacilitiesleadstolosses

operishablecropsOverallincreasingdemographic

pressuresandclimaticvariationssuchasoodsand

droughtsthataectcropyieldsareotherdriversthat

diminishoodsecurity

Thecasestudiesrevealthatapproachestowards

sustainableutilizationowaterresourcesareevolving

inthedirectionointegratedwaterresources

management(IWRM)Theneedtointegratesurace

waterandgroundwaterresourceswithinbasinsandto

balancecompetingsectoralinterestswiththeneedsoecosystemsareincreasinglyacceptedatalllevels

ogovernanceHoweverconsiderableprogressis

necessarytomaketheIWRMapproachamainstream

objectiveatthegloballevelThesameobservation

appliestotheattainmentotheMillennium

DevelopmentGoals(MDGs)orwhichthereare

blatantregionaldisparities

Thecasestudiesclearlyhighlightthediversityo

circumstanceschallengesandprioritiesacing

dierentregionsConsequentlyeortstowards

attainingwidercoveragewillcontinueinsubsequent

editionsotheWWDRasadditionalcasestudy

partnersaresought

vi FACINGTHECHALLENGES



CHAPTER 37

Ghana

—

Acknowledgements KodwoAndahBenAmpomah

ChristineYoungAdjeiWinstonEkowAndah

©ShutterstockSteveHeap



780 CHAPTER AFRICA

intheextremenorthThehighestannualrainallis

mmintheextremesouth-westothecountry

andthisreducesprogressivelytoalowo mmin

thesouth-eastandabout mminthenorth-east

Disparityinthegeographicalandseasonaldistribution

oprecipitationcauseswaterstressatthelocaland

regionallevelsForexampleeveninthehighrainallbeltinthesouthandwestwaterscarcityinthedryseason

canlastthreetovemonthsInthenorthernandthe

south-easternregionswhererainallisthelowestthedry

seasoncontinuesovereighttoninemonths

Ghanahasarelativelydiverseandrichnaturalresource

base–principallygolddiamondsmanganeseoreand

bauxiteGoldandcocoaareGhana’stoptwoexports

andthecountryhasbeenanoilexportersince

Location and general characteristicsTheRepublicoGhana(Ghanaromhereon)islocated

inWestAricaItisboundedtothenorthbyBurkina

FasototheeastbyTogotothewestbyCôted’Ivoire

andtothesouthbytheGuloGuineaandtheAtlantic

Ocean(Map)Thecountryextendsoveranareao

km²andithas millioninhabitants()ThenationalcapitalAccraishometoaboutmillion

people()

Thetopographyconsistsmainlyorollingplains

escarpmentsandlowhillrangesThehighest

elevationinGhanaMountAadjatointheAkwapim–

TogoRangesrises mabovesealevelGhana

hasawarm humid tropicalclimateMeanannual

temperatures rangerom°Cnearthe coast to°C

MAP 37.1

Ghana

Wa

Sunyani

Kumasi

Koforidua

Tamale

Bolgatanga

Ho

Accra

Sekondi-Takoradi

Cape Coast

V o l t a

B l

a c k

V o l t

a

W h i t

e V o l t a

K o l p a w n

B l a c k V

o l t a

D a k

a

O t i

P r u

T a i n

B i a

T a n o

A n k

o b r a

P r a

A n u m B

i r i m

Af r a m

GULF

OF GUINEA

ATL ANTI C

OCEAN

Lake

Volta

LakeBosumtwi

KetaLagoon

A F A S NU R K I

T O G O

B E N I N

Ô T E

D ' I V O I R E

0 25 50 75 100 km

City

Hydroelectric

power plant

National park

Basin

Ramsar site

International boundary



781WWDR GHANA

rechargeGroundwater abstractionisprojectedto

increasebyapproximatelyinordertomeetthe

waterdemandin

SincethebeginningothestheGovernment

oGhanahasintroducedanumberopolicyreorms

thatwerespeciallyintendedtoimproveeciencyinruralurbanandirrigationwateruseaswellasto

attainmeasuresoenvironmentalprotectionand

conservationThekeyproblemwastheabsenceo

aholisticwaterpolicythatincludedallaspectso

waterresourcesmanagementTheWaterResources

Commissionwhichwasestablishedintoregulate

andmanagetheuseoreshwaterresourcesandto

coordinatepoliciesinrelationtothemrespondedto

thischallengebyintroducingthedratWaterPolicyin

Awiderconsultativeprocesswasinitiatedlater

intoincorporatepoliciesthatwerespecictowatersupplyandsanitationservicesThedratPolicy

wasurtherenhancedthroughintegrationothe

principlesoenvironmentalassessmenttopromote

thesustainabilityonaturalresourcesInthe

NationalWaterPolicy–whichtookanintegrated

waterresourcesmanagementapproachasoneoits

coreprinciples–wasapprovedThepolicyrecognizes

thevariouscross-sectoralissuesrelatedtowater

useandthelinkstootherrelevantsectoralpolicies

suchasthoseonsanitationagriculturetransport

andenergy(MWRWH)Thisholisticapproach

makesthewaterpolicycomplementarytothenational

PovertyReductionStrategyandthe‘AricaWater

Vision’putorwardbytheNewPartnershiporArica’s

Development(NEPAD)

Intermsoinstitutionalrameworkwatersector

reormsthatstartedinthesledtothe

establishmentoGhana'sEnvironmentalProtection

AgencyinandtheWaterResourcesCommission

inThePublicUtilitiesRegulatoryCommissionwaslaunchedintoregulateandoverseethe

provisionoutilitiesGhanaWaterCompanyLimited

wassetupintoprovidewatersupplytourban

areasThesameyeartheCommunityWaterand

SanitationAgencywasestablishedtoadministerrural

watersupplies

Climate change, water-related disasters andrisk managementGhanaotenexperiencesoodsanddroughts

particularlyinthenorthernSavannahbeltThecountryacedwidespreadoodsinandThen

Water resources availability, their useand managementGhanaisdrainedbythreemainriversystemsThese

aretheVoltaSouth-WesternandCoastalriversystems

whichrespectivelycoverandothe

countryTheVoltariversystemconsistsotheOtiand

DakariverstheWhiteandBlackVoltaandthePruSeneandAramriversThesouth-westernriversystem

comprisestheBiaTanoAnkobraandPrariversThe

coastalriversystemincludestheOchi-NakwaOchi

AmissahAyensuDensuandTordzieriversThe

totalannualrunoromalltheriverscombinedis

billion m³owaterowhich billion m³is

accountedorbytheVoltaRiverApproximately

ototalwaterresourcesavailabilityoriginatesoutside

Ghana’sterritory

TheonlysignicantnaturalreshwaterlakeisLakeBosumtwiwhichhasasuraceareao km²anda

deptho mLakeVoltawhichisthereservoirothe

AkosomboDamisoneotheworld’slargestarticial

lakesanditcoversanareao km²

Intotalwaterwithdrawalwasapproximately

millionm³Othisabout million m³()

wasusedorirrigationandraisinglivestock

million m³()wasusedorwatersupplyand

sanitationand million m³()wasusedby

industryNon-consumptivewateruseorgenerating

hydroelectricity(onlyattheAkosomboDam)is

around billion m³peryear(FAO-Aquastatnd)

Theconsumptivewaterdemandorisprojected

toreach billion m³

Agricultureormsthemostimportantsegmento

theeconomy(Box)accountingorabout

ogrossdomesticproduct(GDP)andabout

oormalemploymentIndustryincludingmining

manuacturingconstructionandelectricitygenerationaccountsoraboutoGDPTheservicessector

hasbeengrowingastandnowgenerateshalo

nationalGDP()Povertyratesinthecountryare

notevenlydispersed

WhileGhanahasoverboreholesandhand-

dugwellsthecountry’sgroundwaterresourcesare

notwellstudiedHoweverannualrenewablecapacity

isestimatedtobearound billion m³()Inthe

Voltabasinannualgroundwateruseisapproximately

million m³Measurementsinotherbasinssimilarlyshowedthatactualuseiswellbelowgroundwater



782 AFRICACHAPTER

betweenandthereweresixmajoroods

Theoodaectedapproximatelymillion

peopleandthecatastrophicoodsinthenorthin

aectedmorethanGhanaianswith

closetorequiringassistancetorestore

theirlivelihoods(UN-ISDRWB)Inthere

weremanyoodsacrossthecountryespeciallyin

theeasternandnorthernregionsScienticstudies

suggestthattheperiodicityoyearsishighly

signicantoroodoccurrenceAttheoppositeend

othespectrumGhanaalsoexperiencedsignicant

droughtsinandInactthe

oodwasollowedimmediatelybyaperiodo

droughtthatdamagedtheinitialmaizeharvestTheeconomicimpactowater-relateddisastersatthe

nationalandregionallevelsisnotwelldocumented

WithinternationalsupportGhanadevelopednational

climatechangescenariosandclimatechange

vulnerabilityassessmentstudiesorwaterresources

andthecoastalzoneMajorndingswerethatover

a-yearperiodromtotemperatures

rosebyabout°Crainallwasreducedbyand

streamowsdroppedbyFlowreductionso

betweenandwereobservedorsimulationsusingclimatechangescenariosor;and

reductionsobetweenandwereobserved

orsimulationsusingclimatechangescenariosor

Thesimulationspredictedthatthereductionin

groundwaterrechargewouldbebetweenand

byandbetweenandbyThe

maizeyieldwaspredictedtodecreasebyabout

inItwasoundthatmilletyieldwouldprobably

notbeaectedbecauseitismoretolerantohigher

temperatures

Itwasoundtoothatirrigationwaterdemandcould

beaectedconsiderablybyclimatechangeThe

simulationsrevealedthatinthehumidpartothe

countrytheincreaseinirrigationwaterdemandcouldrangeromabout()and()o

thebaseperiodwaterdemandForthedryinterior

Savannahthecorrespondingincreaseinirrigation

waterdemandinandcouldbeabout

andrespectivelyHydropowergeneration

couldalsobeseriouslyaectedbyclimatechange

Theprojectedreductionotheamountoelectricity

generatedbycanbeaboutInthecoastal

zoneover km²olandmaybelostdueto

sealevelrisewhichcouldbeashighasonemetre

ConsequentlyoverresidentslivingalongtheeastcoastareconsideredtobeatriskImportant

InGhanaoverallsustainedeconomicandagriculturalgrowthhasbeenaccompaniedbyrapidpovertyreductionGrowthhas

createdavibrantmarketorlocalarmersandhigherincomeshavereducedpovertyandledtoincreasesinooddemand

ThankstoeconomicreormsthatbeganinGhanawasabletoturnitsagriculturesectoraroundAstableeconomy

marketliberalizationandimprovedinrastructurehaverestoredincentivestoarmwhichhasbothbenetedsmallarmers

andencouragedsomelarge-scaleinvestmentincashcropssuchaspineapplesandpalmoilAteragriculturegrewat

anaverageannualrateoFoodsupplyhasbeengrowingasterthanthepopulationgrowthratemakingGhanalargely

sel-sucientintermsostaplesAtthesametimeoodpriceshaveallenMoreaccessibleoodhelpedtolowertherate

oundernourishmentromindowntobyChildmalnutritionalsodeclinedwiththeproportionounder-

weightinantsallingromintoinTheproportionothepopulationlivinginpovertyellromin

toinwithruralpovertyallingromtooverthesameperiodThemostrecentestimatessuggestthat

onlyotheurbanpopulationlivesbelowthepovertyline(IFADnd)OverallGhanaisontracktoachievetheMillennium

DevelopmentGoalohalvingpovertyandhunger(MDG)

HoweverinspiteothesedevelopmentsoodsecurityisnotinplaceinGhanaOkm²opotentiallyirrigableland

onlykm²isirrigated()InadditiontherehabilitationomanyotheirrigationschemesislongoverdueAnother

challengeacingGhanaislossesinperishablecropsasaresultotheabsenceoadequatestorageandagro-processinga-cilitiesClimaticvariationssuchasoodsanddroughtsthataectthecropyieldandarapidlygrowingpopulationalsohave

anegativeimpactonoodsecurity

BOX 37.1

Agricultureandoodsecurity

Source: FAO-Aquastat (n.d.).



WWDR4 783GHANA

wetlandsespeciallyintheVoltaDeltamaybelost

asaresultolanderosionandinundationIncreased

waterdepthsandthesalinizationolagoonsasa

resultosealevelrisecouldhaveanegativeimpact

ontheeedingomigratoryandlocalbirds

Conrontedwithwater-relatedandothernaturalhazardstheGovernmentoGhanawiththehelp

odonorsupportisintheprocessodeveloping

strategiesandstrengtheningitsinstitutionalcapacity

indisasterriskmanagementDisasterriskreductionis

theresponsibilityotheNationalDisasterManagement

Organization(NADMO)establishedintheMinistry

otheInteriorNADMOunctionsunderanational

secretariatandcomprisesanetworkotenregional

secretariatsdistrictmunicipalsecretariats

andlocalocesSinceitsinceptionunder

parliamentaryActinNADMOhascontributedconsiderablytodisastermanagementacrossthe

countryHoweveritsactivitiesandresponsecapacity

onthegroundareconstrainedbyalackoadequate

unding(NADMO)TheNationalDisaster

ManagementPlanwasrevisedinalongwith

aparliamentaryamendmenttoActInorderto

accomplishitsobjectivesNADMOhassetuptechnical

sub-committeestocoveralltypesodisasters

includinggeologicalandhydro-meteorologicalevents

pestandinsectinestationsbushresandlightning

diseaseoutbreaksandepidemics

Water and healthEventhoughopeopleinurbanareashaveaccess

tosaedrinkingwateronlyabouthadhome

connectionsin–comparedtoaboutin

Thisdropincoverageisbecauseinrastructural

developmentisallingbehindtherateopopulation

growthandurbanizationThecoverageinruralareasin

was

Theportionopopulationthathasaccesstoimproved

sanitationacilitiesisverylowInitwasonly

inurbanareasandinruralareas(UNICEFnd a)

Closetooallpublicschoolshavenoaccessto

saedrinkingwater;andaboutopublicschools

havenotoiletacilities()Asaresultwater-

relateddiseasessuchasmalariaschistosomiasis

guineawormandlymphaticlariasisarecommon

AccordingtotheWorldMalariaReport(WHO)

therewere millionreportedmalariacasesin

Othosecasesapproximately millionaectedchildrenundertheageoveMalariaisanationwide

problemthatclaimsthelivesoapproximately

childreneveryyearTheannualeconomicburdeno

malariaisestimatedtooGDP(UNICEFnd b)

Othercommunicablediseasessuchascholeraand

yelloweverarealsowidespreadinGhanaandcause

epidemicsromtimetotimeAsacombinedresulto

theseproblemslieexpectancyisaboutyears

Itisestimatedthatothepopulationlives

inurbansettlementsandinapproximately

millionpeoplewerelivinginslumswithlimitedor

nowatersupply(UN-HABITAT)Thisledtothe

emergenceowatervendorstoservicesuchdeprived

areaswhoarenowgroupedunderthePrivateWater

TankerOwnersAssociationUnortunatelythose

whorelyonwatertankersusuallypaymorethanten

timestheocialrateorpipedwaterandendup

spendingoverotheirincomeonpotablewaterToimprovethesituationaWaterSectorRehabilitation

ProjectwasinitiatedinFurthermorethe

WaterSectorRestructuringProgramme(–

)wasimplementedtoimprovetheprovisiono

waterbybuildingnewproductionandtransmission

acilitiesandrehabilitatingtheexistingonesin

urbanareasConsequentlywaterproductionby

GhanaWaterCompanyLimitedincreasedsteadily

rom million m³to million m³between

andSinceithascarriedoutmajor

expansionandrehabilitationworksonanumbero

urbanwatersupplysystemsthroughoutthecountry

Itmustbenotedthattheunaccountedorwater(ie

non-revenuewater)inthewatersupplynetworkisstill

around(MWRWH)

Environment and ecosystemsThereisalackoinormationonthewealtho

Ghana’sbiodiversitySoaraboutindigenous

plantspeciesshspeciesbirdspecies

dierenttypesomammalsandspeciesoamphibiansandreptileshavebeenrecordedSome

oGhana’slandhasbeendesignatedasorest

reservenationalparkorotherwildliereserveFive

wetlandareas–theDensuDeltatheSongorthe

KetaLagoonComplextheMuni-Pomadzecoastal

wetlandsandtheSakumoLagoon–areRamsarsites

ointernationalimportanceOtherwetlandslocated

intheorestandwildliereservesotheMoleNational

ParktheBlackVoltatheSenetheBiaandtheOwabi

WildlieSanctuariesarealsoprotected(FAO-Aquastat

nd)Despitetheseeortsincreasingpressureromagriculturalexpansionminingtimberextractionand



784 AFRICACHAPTER

othersocio-economicactorshavehadanegative

impactontheenvironmentandtheecosystemsIt

isestimatedthatthecountryisexperiencingarapid

deorestationatabout km²peryearIneconomic

termsthelossobiodiversitythroughdeorestation

andlanddegradationisestimatedtocostabout

US$ billionannually(Agyemang)Thisispartiallytheresultouncoordinatedimplementation

osectoralsocio-economicdevelopmentpolicies

Thesituationwarrantsurgentactioniurther

environmentaldegradationistobeaverted(Ministry

oEnvironmentandScience)

Eventhoughindustrialwaterdemandaccountsor

aroundoannualwateruseindustrialactivities

arethemainsourceopollutionThisaddstowater

stressandimpairsthehealthosocietyMiningisthe

industrialactivitythatcontributesmosttopollutionThereportoGhana'sCommissionorHuman

RightsandAdministrativeJusticestressedthat

riversandstreamsinveminingcommunitiesin

Ghanahadeitherbeenpolluteddestroyeddiverted

ordried-upasaresultominingcompaniesIn

itsevaluationreportGhana'sEnvironmental

ProtectionAgencyconcludedthatminingcompanies’

observationoenvironmentalstandardsispoor

Thisiscausedbyenvironmentallawsthatarenot

sucientlystrictonpollutionpreventionThemajor

concernliesnotwiththebigminingrmswhose

activitiesareeasytomonitorbutwithillegalsmall-

scaleminerswhoseactivitiesareneitherregistered

normonitored

Water and energyGhanahasoneothehighestratesoelectrication

inAricaAccesstoelectricityinurbanareasis

closetoandalmostoruralhouseholds

areconnectedOnaverageaccesstoelectricityin

Ghanaisabout(IEA)TherearetwomainlargedamsinoperationinGhanawithacombined

hydropowergenerationcapacityo MWthe

AkosomboDam( mhigh)andtheKpongDam

( mhigh)Theseplantsharnessapproximately

othecountry’s GWhyearhydropower

potentialTheconstructionotheMWBui

hydropowerplantontheBlackVoltabeganin

andisexpectedtocommenceenergyproduction

towardstheendoSitesoraurther

potentialhydroelectricpowerplantshavebeen

identiedandeasibilitystudieshavebeencarriedoutOncetheseprojectsarephasedinuctuations

inthesupplyoelectricitycausedbydroughtswill

stabilize

ConclusionsGhanaiswellendowedwithreshwaterresources

Howeverdisparityindistributioncauseswaterstress

whichisurtherworsenedbytheuncertaintiesposedbyclimatechangeclimaticvariationrapidpopulation

growthenvironmentaldegradationandpollution

Thankstocontinuouseconomicgrowththecountry

isontracktomeettheMillenniumDevelopmentGoal

(MDG)oneradicatingextremepovertyandhunger

Howeverroughlyoruraldwellersremainpoor

Oneothemostcriticalchallengesacingthecountry

isverypooraccesstoimprovedsanitationacilities

Combinedwithalessthanidealwatersupplynetwork

diseasessuchasmalariacholeraandyelloweverare

widespreadcausingsignicantnumbersocasualtiesFoodsecurityisanotherconcernthatleavesthe

countryatthemercyoclimaticvariationsandmakes

itdependentonimportedoodtoeeditsgrowing

populationIncreasingtheamountocultivatedland

(bothrainedandirrigated)improvingtheirrigation

inrastructureanddevelopingtheagro-industryare

crucialissuesthatrequirebothnationalinvestment

andinternationaldonorsupportMiningactivities

whilecreatingconsiderableamountoincomeare

amongthemaincausesowaterqualitydegradation

Strengtheningenvironmentalprotectionlawsand

enorcingthemrequiresurgentactionInadequateand

unreliabledataonwaterresourcesandtheiruseisthe

majorroadblocktosustainabledevelopment

ıııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııı

Reerences

ExceptwhereotherwisenotedinormationinthisconcisesummaryisadaptedromtheCase Study

Report o GhanapreparedinbyKodwohAndah

(unpublished)

Agyemang IAnalysisothesocio-economicandculturalimplicationsoenvironmentaldegradationinNorthernGhanausingqualitativeapproach Arican

Journal o History and Culture,Vol No pp –wwwacademicjournalsorgajhcPDFpdAugAgyemangpd

FAO-AquastatndGhana Country Prole.RomeFAOhttp

wwwaoorgnrwateraquastatcountries_regionsghanaindexstm(Accessed December)

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/ghana/index.stm.%20(Accessed%2014%CA%84ecember%202011.)










WWDR4 785GHANA

IEA(InternationalEnergyAgency)The Electricity Access Debate.ParisIEAhttpwwwworldenergyoutlookorgdatabase_electricityelectricity_database_web_htm

IFAD(InternationalFundorAgriculturalDevelopment)ndRural Poverty Portal, Rural poverty in Ghana. RomeIFADhttpwwwruralpovertyportalorgwebguestcountryhometagsghana(Accessed December)

MinistryoEnvironmentandScienceGhanaNational Biodiversity Strategy or Ghana. AccraMinistryoEnvironmentandSciencehttpwwwcbdintdocworldghgh-nbsap--enpd

MWRWH(MinistryoWaterResourcesWorksandHousingGhana)National Water Policy. AccraMinistryoWaterResourcesWorksandHousingwwwwater-mwrwhcomWaterPolicypd

––––Ghana Water and Sanitation Sector Perormance Report.AccraMWRWHwsmporgdownloadsdcaecapd

NADMO(NationalDisasterManagementOrganization)Ghana National Progress Report on the Implementationo the Hyogo Framework or Action (2009–2011).GenevaPreventionWebhttpwwwpreventionwebnetles_gha_NationalHFAprogress_-pd

UN-HABITAT(UnitedNationsAgencyorHumanSettlement) State o the World’s Cities 2010/2011: Bridgingthe Urban Divide.LondonNairobi EarthscanUN-HABITAThttpwwwunhabitatorgpmsslistItemDetailsaspx?publicationID=

UNICEF(UnitedNationsChildren’sFund)nda At a Glance:Ghana,StatisticsNewYorkUNICEFhttpwwwuniceorginobycountryghana_statisticshtml(AccessedDecember)

––––nd.bGhana Fact Sheet JulyAccraUNICEFhttpwwwuniceorgwcaroWCARO_Ghana_Factsheet_malariapd

UN-ISDRWB(InternationalStrategyorDisasterReductionWorldBank) Disaster Risk Management Programsor Priority Countries: Summary, 2009GenevaWashington DCUNISDRWorldBankwwwunisdrorgles

_thCGCountryProgramSummariespd

WHO(WorldHealthOrganization)World MalariaReport 2009: 31 High-Burden Countries. GenevaWHO

httpwwwwhointentitymalariaworld_malaria_report_all_mal_prolespd




http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/database_electricity10/electricity_database_web_2010.htm






http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/web/guest/country/home/tags/ghana





http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gh/gh-nbsap-01-en.pdf






http://www.water-mwrwh.com/WaterPolicy.pdf






http://wsmp.org/downloads/4d8ca15ec1a12.pdf





http://www.preventionweb.net/files/15600_gha_NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf





http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2917









http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/ghana_statistics.html








http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/WCARO_Ghana_Factsheet_malaria.pdf







http://www.unisdr.org/files/14757_6thCGCountryProgramSummaries1.pdf







http://www.who.int/entity/malaria/world_malaria_report_2009/all_mal2009_profiles.pdf.





















































CHAPTER 38

Mara River Basin,

Kenya and Tanzania

—

Acknowledgements NathanKarres

ImanYazdaniMariaCDonosoMichaelMcClain

©ShutterstockEricIsselée












WWDR4 787MARARIVERBASINKENYAANDTANZANIA

Location and general characteristicsTheAmalaandNyangoresriversoriginateinKenya’s

MauForestandconvergetoormtheMaraRiver

(Map)OthertributariestheEngareTalekand

SandalsoowintotheMaratoormthetransboundary

MaraRiverbasin

TheMaraRiverisaboutkmlonganddrainsinto

LakeVictoriainTanzaniawhichmakestheriverpart

othelargerNilebasinTheMaraRiverbasincovers

anareaoapproximatelykm²owhichis

locatedinKenyaandinTanzaniaTheamounto

annualrainallinthebasinvariesrommminthe

hillsotheMauForestto–mminthedryplains

onorth-westTanzania

Approximatelypeopleliveinthebasin()

–themajorityowhomarehavesettledinruralareasTheKenyanpartothebasinishometoand

theremaininginhabitantsliveintheTanzanian

portionothebasinAccordingtoprojectionsby

theoverallpopulationinthebasincouldalmostdouble

toasmuchasmillion

PovertyisamajorconcerninthebasinInKenyanearly

halothebasin’spopulationlivesbelowthepoverty

lineOntheTanzaniansidetherateopovertyis

aroundIngeneralthoselivinginthebasinearn

theirlivingromgrowingoodcrops()cashcrops

()livestockproduction()shing()and

businessenterprises()

Water resources and their useAsaresultoinsucientdatathereareonlyrough

estimatesothewaterpotentialotheMaraRiver

Thelowerestimateisapproximatelymillionm³

peryearwhichonlytakesintoaccounttheowrates

oitstwomainperennialtributariestheAmalaand

theNyangoresAhigherandprobablymoreaccurateestimatebasedondatarommoreothetributariesand

agaugingstationisaroundmillionm³peryearThe

totalannualwaterdemandintheMaraRiverbasinis

approximatelymillionm³peryear()Irrigated

agricultureisthemajoruserowaterthroughoutthe

basinollowedbydomesticconsumptionandlivestock

production(Table)

MAP 38.1

MaraRiverbasin

TABLE 38.1

WateruseintheMaraRiverbasin()

Use Water demand (m³/year)

Large-scale irrigation 12,323,400

Domestic 4,820,336

Livestock production 4,054,566

Wildlie 1,836,711

Mining 624,807

Tourism 152,634

Total 23,812,454

KENYA

ZAN I ATAN

San d San d

Mar aMar a

M a r a M a r a

M a r

a

M a r

a

T a l e k T a l e k

A m a l a

A m a l a

N y a n g o r e

s

N y a n g o r e

s

E n g a

r e

E n g a

r e

Lake

Victoria

Musoma

Ngoreme

Ronda

Thimjope

NaroSura

Masai Mara

National Reserve

Serengeti

National Park

0 50 km25

City


Wetlands

Basin

National park










































































































































































788 AFRICACHAPTER

Whilewateruseissignicantlylessthanthebasin’s

potentialtheintra-annualvariabilityinsupplyand

poorandoutdatedagronomicpracticesleadto

problemsmeetingthedemandFurthermorethe

requencyowatershortagesandtheirseverityis

likelytoincreaseinparallelwiththeexpansionoirrigatedlandinthebasinPresentlyothewater

demandislinkedtoaewbigarmsinKenyaThese

armsproducemainlymaizebeansgumtreesand

wheat

Biodiversity, tourism and the potentialimpact o climate changeWithinthebasinthereareimportanthabitatsthat

supporttheregion’svibrantbiodiversityAmong

themostimportantothesearetheMauForestthe

MaraSwampandtheMara–Serengetieco-regionwhichisaUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteTheMara–

Serengetialonecontainsovermammalsandmore

thanbirdspeciesTherehavebeenconservation

programmesinthebasinimplementedbytheKenyan

andTanzaniangovernmentsaswellasregionaland

internationalinstitutionsHoweverdespitethese

eortstheconditionothehabitatscontinuesto

declineForexampleoverthepastewdecadesthe

MauForesthasbeenreducedbyasaresulto

orestclearingorteaplantationsarmingandtimber

harvestingEventhoughtherearelawsprotectingthe

buerzonesthecorridororiverineorestalongthe

MaraRiverhasbeengreatlydegradedbygrazingand

cultivationinbothKenyaandTanzania

Socio-economicdemandssuchasagrowingtourism

sectorareaddingtotheproblemThenumbero

touristsvisitingtheMasaiMaraNationalReservein

KenyaandtheSerengetiNationalParkinTanzania

roseromapproximatelyinthestoover

intheearlysThegrowingconcernsareclearlyhighlightedinthemanagementplanothe

MasaiMaraNationalReservewhichstates

The Reserve is faced by unprecedented challenges.

Inside the Reserve, escalating pressures from

tourism development and growing visitor

numbers … are leading to a ... deterioration of the

natural habitats on which the Reserve’s tourism

product is based ... Outside the Reserve, there

is growing pressure from local communities to

use the Reserve’s pastures and water sources for

livestock, because of the diminishing supplies

of these resources in the wider ecosystem and

deteriorating community livelihoods ...

Alltheseissuespointtoaneedoranintegrated

transboundarystrategicplanningapproachto

biodiversityconservationandwaterresourcesmanagementinthebasin

Protectingtheenvironmentandecosystemsis

essentialorensuringthesustainabledevelopment

obothnationsConsequentlyFloridaInternational

UniversitywithintherameworkotheGlobalWater

orSustainability(GLOWS)programmeconductedan

environmentalowassessmentinthreepilotsitesin

thebasinThestudyconcludedthatintheyearswhen

precipitationisnormal(comparedtothelong-term

averageomeanannualrainall)sucientwaterexiststosatisytheneedsothehumanpopulation

andnatureHoweverduringperiodsodrought

especiallyintheupperandmiddlereachesothe

rivernaturalowiswellbelowthethresholdrequired

tomeettheestablishedreserveorenvironmental

needsThismeansthatnowatercanbeallocatedor

otheruses(domesticindustrialtourismagriculture

etc)anditisnecessarytoconstructreservoirsto

meetthesedemandsWhilethestudyislimitedin

scaleitclearlydemonstratesthevulnerabilityoboth

thehumanandthewildliepopulationsinthebasin

Climatechangecancomplicatemattersurther

ScenariospredictthattheowintheUpperMara

Rivermaydecreasesignicantlyasaresulto

increasedambienttemperatureandlessrainallThis

canhaveaseriousimpactonbothhumanlivelihoods

andecosystemsInacttheimportanceotheMara

Riveristhatitisthemainsourceowaterorthe

migratinganimalsotheMara–Serengetieco-region

especiallyduringthedryseasonStatisticalanalysisorainalldatarevealsthatdroughtsarelikelyto

occureverysevenyearsinthebasinDependingon

theseverityotheconditionstoothe

migratingwildebeestmaydieWithadie-o

rateitwilltakeapproximatelyyearsortheanimal

populationtorecoverwhilewithandie-orate

theremaybenopopulationrecoveryatallSuch

ecologicallydisastrousconditionswouldhavesevere

repercussionsortourismintheMaraRiverbasin

aswellwhichinturnwouldaecttheKenyanand

TanzanianeconomiesTheclimatechangescenariosalsopredictanincreaseinperiodsointenserainall





































































































TABLE 38.2

RateoaccesstowaterresourcesintheMaraRiverbasin

*The Mara River basin lies within the southern section o the Rit Valley Province

Piped

water

(%)

Spring/well

(%)

Rain

harvesting

(%)

River/stream

(%)

Pond/dam/

lake

(%)

Other

(%)

Kenya:

Rit Valley Province*22.8 36.3 1.2 29.3 4.7 5.5

Tanzania:

Mara Region14.2 63.2 - 6.6 15.6 -

whichwouldresultinanincreasederosionandadrop

inwaterqualitycausedbyhighersedimentcontent

intheriverThebestmanagementpracticesthatare

proposedasapartothe‘PaymentorEcosystem

Services(PES)’schemes(Box)includepreserving

riparianbuersreinorcingriverbanksbyplanting

treesanddecreasinggrazingaspotentialremediestoalleviateerosionproblem

Water and healthAlargepercentageothepopulationintheMaraRiver

basindoesnothaveaccesstoasaedrinkingwater

supplyoradequatesanitationacilities(Tableand

Table)SurveysconductedintheTransMaraand

BometdistrictsoKenya’sRitValleyProvincerevealed

thelackosewerinrastructurewithpitlatrinesbeing

theonlyaecaldisposalmethodavailabletothe

populationIngeneralthemajoritydidnothaveanyknowledgeobasicsanitationorhygiene

InBometapproximatelyohouseholdsdraw

theirdrinkingwaterromtheMaraRiverduringthe

dryseasonandohouseholdsareorcedtoetch

waterromwaterpointsthatarebetweenkmand

kmawayOnlyohouseholdsinBometreported

anyormowatertreatmentpriortoconsumptionAs

aconsequenceoover-relianceonunprotectedwater

sourcesandpoorhygienepracticesratesodiarrheal

diseaseandintestinalwormsareveryhighinboth

districtsUnortunatelytheunavourableconditionsdescribedabovearesimilarontheTanzaniansideo

thebasin

Water resources management andregulationsKenya’smostrecentconstitutionadoptedinAugust

setstheoundationorthesustainableuse

andecientmanagementonaturalresourcesIt

articulatestheobligationsthattheindividualand

thestatehavetotheenvironmentMoreoveritalso

enablestheormationoaNationalLandCommissionwhichamongitsotherdutieshassupervisory

responsibilityorlanduseplanningthroughout

KenyaThenewconstitutionmandatesthe

decentralizationogovernmentallowingoreective

governanceatthedistrictorbasinlevel

TABLE 38.3

RateoaccesstosanitationacilitiesintheMaraRiverbasin

*The Mara River basin lies within the southern section o the Rit Valley Province

Conventional

sewerage

(%)

Pit latrine

(%)

Septic tank

(%)

No latrine (i.e.

open deecation)

(%)

Other

(%)

Kenya:

Rit Valley Province*3.3 73.3 2.2 20.7 0.4

Tanzania:

Mara Region1.9 77.6 - 20.3 -






























































































790 AFRICACHAPTER

TheecosystemsintheMaraRiverbasincontributesignicantlytotheregion’seconomybyprovidingvaluableserviceswith-

outtheneedoranydirecthumanlabourorinputPaymentorEcosystem–orEnvironmental–Services(PES)isamecha-

nismtointegratethisintrinsicwealthorproductivitywithinaneconomicsystem

InprinciplethePESmechanismwouldalloworsustainablelandusewithinthebasinwithouttheneedoroutsideunding

TheMaraRiverbasinpresentsanidealscenarioorimplementingaPESschemebecauseotheconictointerestbetween

thearmersupstreamandwildlietourismdownstreamThis‘vyingorbenets’createsanopportunityorthetransero

ecosystem-basedbenetstotheupstreamarmersintheormoeconomicsupportortheimprovementoagricultural

practices

TherststeptowardsaPESmechanismwastakeninasapartotheprojectTransboundaryWaterorBiodiversityand

HumanHealthintheMaraRiverBasinAeasibilitystudyidentiedmarket-nancedPESasthemostappropriatemethodol-

ogyoreconomicallyincentivizingconservationeorts

Thankstosurveysanalysesandstakeholdermeetingstheprojecthasmadeconsiderableprogresstowardsthedevelopment

andeventualimplementationoaPESmechanismAnaldocumentisexpectedinwhichwouldpresenttheculmina-

tionotheconsensus-buildingprocessHoweverwhilecurrentpoliciesinKenyaandTanzaniaaregenerallysupportiveoPES

schemestheylackanyconcreteinstrumentsintermsolawsandregulationsorPESagreementsThisobservationpresents

animportantchallengeortranslatingatheoreticalPESmechanismintoaunctionalmarket-basedsystemAlthoughexisting

legalandcontractualmechanismsinbothcountriesmayenabletheormationoabasicrameworkoraPESschemethein-

troductionosupplementalregulationsseemsnecessary

BOX 38.1

Paymentorecosystemservices

KenyaVision(ormulatedin)andthe

WaterAct()constitutethemainelementsothe

country’snationalwaterpolicyKenyaVisiondenes

thegoalsandstrategiesothecountrybetween

andwithparticularattentiontocompensationor

environmentalservicesandtheprovisionoincentivesorenvironmentalcomplianceTheWaterActallowsor

theestablishmentotheWaterResourcesManagement

Authoritywhichhasamandatetomanageand

protectriverbasinsItalsoencouragescommunitiesto

participateinwatermanagementatthebasinleveland

aimstoensurethatsucientandgood-qualitywater

isavailabletosatisybasichumanneedsandtoprotect

ecosystemsTheEnvironmentManagementand

CoordinationActandtheNationalLandPolicy

alsoplayapartinwaterandbiodiversityconservation

inKenya

ButTanzania’sconstitutionunlikeKenya’sdoes

notexplicitlycontainprovisionsorlandandthe

environmentHoweverthereareothermajornational

legalinstrumentssuchastheTanzaniaDevelopment

Vision(launchedin)theNationalWater

Policy()theWaterResourcesManagementAct

()andtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicy()

Alltheseunderpintheconservationobiodiversityand

theregulationowaterresourcesinthecountry

VisionisTanzania’snationaldevelopment

blueprintItprojectsastgrowthwhileeectively

reversingcurrentadversetrendsinenvironmentalresourcessuchasorestssheriesbiodiversityaswell

asreshwaterandlandresourcesUniversalaccessto

saewaterisalsoapartoVisionTheNational

WaterPolicypromotesdecentralizingwaterresource

managementthroughintegratedwaterresources

managementinvolvingwateruserassociationsand

theprivatesectorindecisionmakingensuringthe

sustainableuseowaterresourcesthrougheconomic

incentivessuchasappropriatepricingmechanisms

andestablishinginstitutionssuchastheNationalWater

BoardtheBasinWaterBoardsandBasinandSub-basinWaterCommittees

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyemphasizes

sustainabilityandtheconservationonaturalresources

andallowsoreconomicinstruments(suchasPES

potentially)asapproachestoenvironmentalresource

protectionTheWaterResourcesManagementActgives

eecttotheNationalWaterPolicyandincludes










































































legislationrelatedtotransboundarywaterresources

managementThisActalsoallowsorthecreationothe

LakeVictoriaBasinWaterOcewhichisresponsible

ormanagementotheMaraRiver

Conclusions

TheMaraRiverBasinisacingthemountingchallengesowaterscarcitypollutionandenvironmentaldegrada-

tionasaresultoagriculturalexpansionintensication

oirrigationpopulationgrowthandtheincreasing

impactotourismThemaincompetitionorwater

resourcesinthebasinisbetweenirrigatedagriculture

andtheMasaiMaraandSerengetiWildlieareas

Limitedaccesstosaedrinkingwatersupplyand

practicallytheabsenceoasanitationinrastructure

addtowidespreadpovertythroughaheavyburden

odiseaseLegislationtoaddressissuesrelatedtowaterandothernaturalresourcesisgraduallybeing

developedandputinplaceinbothKenyaandTanzania

Theirimplementationcanhelptooperationalize

mechanismssuchasPaymentorEcosystemServices

(PES)whichcancreatesustainablenancialsupportor

eortstoconserveandprotectnaturalresources

Unlessappropriateactionistakengrowingproblems

willhaveadirectimpactonthelivelihoodsolocal

peopleaswellasonthenationaleconomiesoboth

countries

ııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııı

Notes

TheKenyanpovertylineissetatapproximatelyUS$perdayorruralpopulationsandUS$perdayorurbanpopulations


Reerences

Exceptwhereotherwisenotedinormationinthis

concisesummaryisadaptedromtheCase Study

Report o the Mara River Basin in Kenya and Tanzania,

preparedinbytheGlobalWaterorSustainability

(GLOWS)ProgrammeFloridaInternationalUniversity

supportedbyUSAID(orthcoming)
















































—

Acknowledgements MaysoonAl-Zubi

CHAPTER 39

Jordan

©YannArthus-BertrandAltitude-Paris

Jordan:GardenscreatedinthemiddleotheWadiRumdesert(°'N°'E)











WWDR4 793JORDAN

Location and general characteristicsTheHashemiteKingdomoJordan(Jordanrom

hereon)islocatedintheeasternMediterraneanand

borderedbySyriatothenorthIraqtothenorth-east

theKingdomoSaudiArabiatotheeastandsouth

andtheWestBankandIsraeltothewest(Map )

Jordan’spopulationisaround millionandithasasuraceareaoapproximately km²The

JordanRitValleyanarrowstripohighlands(witha

maximumelevationo mabovesealevel)the

steppethedesertzoneandtheDeadSea( m

belowsealevelin)arethemostdistinctive

topographicaleatures

Climatevariessignicantlyromoneregiontoanother

ThewestoJordanhasaMediterraneanclimate

characterizedbydryhotsummersmildwetwinters

andextremevariabilityinrainallduringtheyearaswellasromyeartoyearTheclimateinthehighlandsis

characterizedbymildsummersandcoldwintersAqaba

GovernorateandtheJordanRitValleyhaveasubtro-

picalclimate–hotinsummerandwarminwinterThe

MAP 39.1

JordanRiverbasin

steppeandthesteppedesertregionshaveacontinental

climatewithlargevariationsintemperature

Precipitationinthecountryisverylimitedandranges

rom mmto mmannuallySomeothe

countryhaslessthan mmorainallandonly

othecountryhasannualprecipitationomorethan mmMostotherainalloccursbetween

NovemberandAprilandingeneraldecreases

considerablyromwesttoeastandromnorthto

southOverallothecountryiscomposedo

desertanddesertsteppe

Water resources availability and their useJordanisoneothemostaridcountriesintheworld

Whiletheaverageannualrainallisapproximately

billion m³othisislostthroughevaporation

TotalinternalrenewablewaterresourcesareseriouslylimitedAtanestimated million m³yearthecountry

isarbelowthewaterpovertylineDevelopedsurace

waterpotentialwasapproximately millionm³in

andisprojectedtoreach million m³by

Lak e

Tiberias

DeadSea

Z a r q a

Y a r m o u k

Wadi e l

Mou ji b

J o r

d a n

Wadi

al Mirba

Wadi

el Janab

Wadi

Al Jafr

WadiMaghar

Wadi

Ruwaishid al Satill

AmmanAmman

IrbidIrbid

Al-MafraqAl-Mafraq

Al-Karak Al-Karak

Ma’anMa’an

AqabaAqaba

S YR I A

J ORDAN

S AUD I

A RAB I A

E

E

S

T B

GULFOF

AQ AB A

M E D I T E R R A

N E A N

S E A

0 20 40 60 80 100 km

City

National park


Dam

Basin

Ramsar site










































































































































































794 ARABSTATESCHAPTER

Onaverageriversconstituteothenational

watersupplyJordan’smostimportantsuracewater

resourcestheJordanRiveranditsmaintributarythe

YarmoukaresharedwithneighbouringcountriesThe

ZarqaRiverthesecondmaintributaryotheJordan

RiverowsentirelywithintheterritoryoJordanThe

YarmoukRiverisparticularlycriticalasitaccountsoralmostothecountry’ssuracewaterresources

Allocationothesetrans-boundarywaterresources

hasbeenoneothemostdicultregionalissues

JordanandIsraelreachedanagreementonwater

rightsintheJordanRiverbasinintheirpeace

treatyAjointwatercommitteewasalsoormedasa

permanentinstitutionchargedwithimplementingthe

agreement

Totalinternalrenewablegroundwaterresourcesare

approximately million m³yearwithasaeyieldo million m³(FAOnd)Atpresentaquiers

arebeingexploitedatabouttwicetheirrecharge

rateInparticulargroundwaterabstractionor

agricultureisbeyondsustainablelimitsresultinginan

annualgroundwaterdecito million m³()

Theproblemisworsenedbytheactthatthereare

hundredsoillegalwellsTheprotectionoaquiersis

criticalasgroundwaterconstitutesapproximately

othenationalwatersupply

Agricultureispractisedoverothenational

territory()whereaspotentiallycultivatable

landisestimatedataroundor km²(FAO

nd)Wateravailabilityandsoilqualityarethemain

obstaclestotheurtherexpansionoagricultureAsa

resultoscarcityonlyabout km²olandmainly

connedtotheJordanRitValleyisirrigated()

Inaneorttomaximizewater-useeciencyimproved

irrigationsystemsarebeingintroducedInacto

theirrigationintheJordanRitValleyandabout

inthehighlandsisthroughmicro-irrigationEvensotheagriculturalsectorstillusesabout million m³

owaterwhichcorrespondstooannualwater

useinJordan()Inspiteoconsuminglarge

quantitiesowateragriculturecontributesjusto

Jordan’sgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)Municipalwater

demandaccountsoraboutooverallconsumption

(approximately million m³)Thisdemandismet

largelyromaquiersWaterusebyindustryand

orlivestockproductionisrelativelyinsignicantat

million m³and million m³respectivelyWhile

tourismaccountsorapproximatelyowaterusethecontributionothesectortoGDPwasin

(Kreishan)

Inadditiontosuracewaterandgroundwaterother

sourcessuchasossilwatertreatedwastewater

( million m³in)andbrackishwaterarealso

usedinJordanOverallrevenuecollectionsystemsare

weakandmorethanothewaterdeliveredtothe

municipalwatersupplysystemcannotbeaccounted

orInadditiontarisarelowanddonotcovertotaloperationandmaintenancecosts

Asignicantincreaseinpopulationhasledtoa

sharpdecreaseinper-capitawateravailabilitywhich

droppedrom m³into m³in

Itisprojectedthatbythepopulationmay

exceed millionandtotalwaterdemandmayreach

million m³Icurrentandplannedprojectsare

ullyimplementedincludingtheDisiwaterconveyance

plantheRedSea-DeadSeacanalprojectandplans

toincreasetheuseotreatedwastewaterJordan'scurrentwaterdecitomillionm()couldbe

reducedtomillionm by

Inordertocopewithwaterscarcitydamswith

atotalstoragecapacityo million m³were

constructedbetweenandAtthesame

timelocationswereidentiedoranumbero

reservoirsthatwouldgivethepotentialtoadd

million m³toJordan’swaterstoragecapacity

Climate change and its likely impactWaterisascarceresourceinJordanandahigh

populationgrowthrateoapproximatelyperyear

isleadingtogrowingdemandsrombothagriculture

andthemunicipalities

Analysesoclimatechangescenariosindicatethat

Jordanwillexperiencemorerequentdroughtsduring

thetwenty-rstcenturyasaconsequenceoyear-

roundincreasesintemperaturethatmayreachashigh

as°C(±°C)inwinterand°C(±°C)insummerbytheendothecenturyThesameclimatechange

simulationsshowlittleornochangeinprecipitationto

osetthesebigincreasesintemperatureInaddition

tothisrunoisexpectedtodecreaseovermostothe

countryexceptortheregionsouthotheDeadSea

(RSCN)Thiscouldhaveaseriousimpactonwater

andoodsecurityInacttheresultsoavulnerability

assessmentshowedthatclimatechangecouldhavea

signicantimpactonagricultureparticularlyonwheat

andbarleyproductionwhichdependheavilyonrainall

Theexpansionoaridrangelandswithdecreasedvegetationwillhaveimplicationsorgrazingaswell

Thiswillaectlivestockproductionandwillhavea












































































































WWDR4 795JORDAN

consequentnegativeimpactonthedietandincomeo

poorarminghouseholds

Water and settlements, water reuseOverthepastyearsJordanhasbecomehighly

urbanizedThepercentageothepopulationlivingin

citiesincreasedromintoin(UNICEFnd)Thisincreaseislargelytheresulto

internalmigrationcombinedwithaninuxoreugees

andmigrantsmainlyromPalestineandIraqOuto

Jordan’stwelvegovernoratesothepopulation

livesinAmmanZarqaandIrbidIntermsoits

regionsothepopulationliveseitherinthenorth

(IrbidJerashAjlumandMaraq)orincentralJordan

(AmmanZarqaBalqaandMadaba)

DuringtheInternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyand

SanitationDecade(–)Jordan'sgovernmentcarriedoutanumberosignicantwastewater

managementprojectsThesewereprimarilyrelated

totheimprovementosanitationThishasraisedthe

levelosanitationservicesimprovedpublichealth

andstrengthenedpollutioncontrolosuracewater

andgroundwaterintheareasservedbywastewater

acilitiesAccordingtotheWHOUNICEFJoint

MonitoringReport(WHOUNICEF)o

thepopulationhadaccesstoasaewatersupply

andhadaccesstoimprovedsanitationin

Approximatelyothepopulationisconnected

toaseweragenetworkthatcollectswastewater

ortreatmentandre-useInapproximately

million m³oefuentwasprocessedintreatment

plantsAsaresultolowwateravailabilitytreated

wastewaterrepresentsasignicantportionotheriver

owinvariouspartsothecountry

Seweragesystemsorcollectingagreaterquantity

owastewaterareexpandinginparallelwith

populationgrowthandincreasedwaterconsumptionItisestimatedthatbyapproximately

million m³owastewaterwillbegenerated

Withpropertreatmentthisrepresentsanimportant

sourceowaterthatcanbeusedorpurposesother

thanordrinking

Water quality, environment and ecosystemsThequalityosuracewaterandgroundwaterhas

deterioratedsignicantlybecauseopollutionThisis

mostnotablytheresultooveruseoagrochemicals

over-pumpingoaquiersseepageromlandllsitesandseptictanksimproperdisposalodangerous

chemicalsanddemographicpressureBecauseo

thediminishingper-capitawatersupplyandquality

issueswastewaterreusehasbeenaneective

methodoreclaimingapercentageoscarcewater

sourcesSincetheearlysthegeneralapproach

hasbeentotreatthewastewaterandtheneither

dischargeitintotheenvironment–whereitmixeswithreshwaterowsandisindirectlyreused

downstream–ortousetheresultingefuent

toirrigaterestrictedrelativelylow-valuecrops

(USAIDnd)Howevertheincreasingdominanceo

efuentinthewaterbalanceandtheoverloading

owastewatertreatmentplantshasraisedconcerns

aboutthehealthrisksandenvironmentalhazards

associatedwithwastewaterreuseTominimizesuch

risksandtheirimplicationsefuentqualitystandards

weresetinandrevisedin(MEDAWARE

)andmostwastewatertreatmentplantshavebeenupgradedtomeetthesestandardsHowever

thereisstillaconstantneedtomonitorthetreatment

plantsandimprovetheircapacity

Becauseoitsaridclimatethereareonlyaewlarge

naturalwetlandsinJordanthebestknownbeing

AzraqOasisintheeasterndesertThislargedesert

oasiswhichormerlycoveredsome km²has

diminishedsignicantlyasaresultoover-exploitation

ogroundwaterandtheconstructionodamsonthe

majorwadisSimilarlytheseasonalmarshesintheAl

Jarareaarealsodiminishingbecauseoagricultural

activitiesConsequentlymanyaquaticspeciesare

endangeredinJordan(Budieri)Deorestationand

deserticationareotherimportantenvironmentalissues

thatrequireattentionToraiseawarenessaboutwater

useandenvironmentaldegradationnewliteratureis

beingintroducedintotheschoolcurriculum(HKJnd)

IntermsolegislationtheEnvironmentProtectionLaw

No()andtheNationalEnvironmentalStrategy

()ormthemainpillarsoenvironmentalprotectioninthecountryAsanovelapproacheco-tourismhas

alsobeenintroducedinJordantodemonstratethat

localdevelopmentandeortsorconservationo

naturecangohand-in-hand(Box)

Water resources management and thenational strategyJordan’sNationalWaterStrategyisasetoguidelines

thatdenethecountry’svisionuptoTheStrategy

aimstoensurethesustainabilityowaterresources

bybalancingsupplyanddemandthroughimprovedwaterresourcesmanagementTheover-archingpriority









































































































Thedevelopmentotheeco-tourismsectorisbeingspearheadedbyalong-establishednon-governmentalorganization

theRoyalSocietyortheConservationoNature(RSCN)TheRSCNisentrustedbythegovernmentwiththeprotectionand

managementoJordan’sspecialecosystemsForseveraldecadestheRSCNmanageditsprotectedareasasisolatedenced

sanctuariesthatwereguardedromthegeneralpublicandhadlittleinvolvementromlocalcommunities

ThisallchangedinwiththeRioSummitandtheBiodiversityConventionAsasignatorytotheConventionJordanwas

therstcountryintheMiddleEasttobeawardedamulti-milliondollarpilotprojectundertheGlobalEnvironmentFacility

(GEF)TheprojectwastodeveloparegionalmodelointegratedconservationanddevelopmentItwasocusedontheDana

NatureReserveinsouthernJordanwherethecreationotheprotectedareainwaslinkedtothesocio-economicde-

velopmentothelocalcommunityThispioneeringinitiativeusheredinanewerainconservationthinkingwhichtheRSCN

continuestoleadtoday

ThenumberotouriststoRSCNsitesexceededingeneratingapproximatelyUS$ millioninrevenueInthe

sameyearoverpeoplerompoorruralcommunitiesweresupportedbythistourismornatureconservationscheme

Thisrevenuestreamalsocoveredovero’sconservationcosts

Source: From Aziz and Szivas (2011)

BOX 39.1

Anewerainconservationalthinking

otheNationalWaterStrategyis‘toachievenational

watersecurityandtoservetheoveralldevelopment

objectives’setoutintheStrategy(HKJnd)Priority

isgiventotheurtherdevelopmentolandandwater

resourcesintheJordanRitValleywhichistheood

basketothecountryThestrategyrecognizesthe

criticalproblemotheexcessiveuseoaquiersand

highlightstheneedorlimitingwaterabstraction

tolevelsthataresustainableoverthelongterm

Controllingandevenreducingwaterconsumptioninall

sectorsisalsooneothemainpillarsothestrategy

Inthiscontextarmers’wateruserassociationsplaya

keyroleinprotectingwaterresourcesrompollution

increasingtheeciencyotheirrigationinrastructure

andminimizingoperationandmaintenancecosts–

allowhicharepartotheNationalWaterStrategy

Asaspecicresponsetotheover-consumptionogroundwaterresourcestheHighlandWaterForum

wascreatedinwiththeaimoachievingthe

sustainablemanagementoaquiersinthehighlands

MoreoverasanoverarchingtargettheForum

promotesstakeholderdialogueocusingonsustainable

groundwatermanagementinJordan

BecauseJordansharesalloitssuracewater

resourceswithripariancountriespursuingbilateral

andmultilateralcooperationwithneighbouringstates

andadvocatingregionalcooperationareamongtheissuesthatarehighlightedinthewaterstrategy

Anumberopolicypapershavebeendrawnup

withintherameworkotheNationalWaterStrategy

Theseidentiythemainthreadsowaterresources

managementTheourpolicypapersaretheWater

UtilityPolicyIrrigationWaterPolicyGroundwater

ManagementPolicyandWastewaterManagement

PolicyTheNationalWaterStrategyandtheourpolicy

paperscoupledwithacomprehensiveinvestment

programmechartaroadmaporsustainable

development(HKJnd)

Untilwaterresourcesweremanagedbytwo

independentauthoritiestheWaterAuthorityo

JordanorwatersupplyandsewerageandtheJordan

ValleyAuthorityorirrigationanddevelopmentinthe

JordanRitValleyInthetwoauthoritieswere

broughttogetherundertheumbrellaotheMinistryo

WaterandIrrigationTheNationalWaterStrategysetsoutthemissionandkeyprioritiesotheMinistry

ConclusionsJordanisamongthepoorestcountriesintheworld

intermsowaterresourcesConsequentlypriorityis

giventostructuralinvestmentswhichhelptodevelop

moreoitswaterpotentialHoweverincreasing

demandandagrowingpopulationhavepushedwater

consumptionbeyondsustainablelimitsandhave

ledtoover-useogroundwaterresourcesClimate

changeprojectionspointtothepossibilityoaurtherreductioninwateravailabilityAsthingsstand














































































WWDR4 797JORDAN

adequatelyaddressingthechallengeoanincreasing

waterdecitrequiresbothsupply-sideanddemand-

sidemeasuressuchasbetterwatermanagement

enhancingwateruseeciencyawarenessraising

tochangewaterconsumptionpatternsredenition

owaterallocationpriorities(suchaslimitingor

reducingagriculturalwateruse)andthedevelopmentotechnologiesoruseonon-conventionalwater

resources(iewaste-waterrecycling)Reversingthe

trendowater-qualitydegradationisimportantto

protectpublichealthwhileensuringthesustainability

oecosystemsandprotectingscarcewaterresources

TheNationalWaterStrategyisamajorpolicy

documentanditsprioritiesareundoubtedlythe

correctonesHoweverachievementoitsgoalswill

requirethecontinuationoinstitutionalchangesto

allowanintegratedapproachtowatermanagement

issues


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromthe Jordan Case

Study Report preparedinbytheUNESCOJordan

Oce(unpublished)

Azis HandSzivas ETourism. Arab Environment:Green Economy.FourthannualreportotheArabForumorEnvironmentandDevelopmentBeirutAFEDhttpaedonlineorgReportPDFEnchaptertourismC&Cpd

Budieri AIntroduction A Directory o Wetlands in TheMiddle East Scott D AGlandSwitzerlandSlimbridgeUKIUCNIWRBhttpramsarwetlandsorgPortalsJORDANpd

FAO(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationotheUnitedNations)ndIrrigation in the Middle East Region inFigures: AQUASTAT Survey 2008RomeFAOwwwaoorgnrwateraquastatcountries_regionsjordan jordan_cppd

HKJ(TheHashemiteKingdomoJordan)nd Jordan’sWater Shortage.AmmanTheHashemiteKingdomoJordanhttpwwwkinghusseingovjogeo_envhtml(Accessed October)

Kreishan F M MTourismandeconomicgrowththecaseoJordanEuropean Journal o Social SciencesVol No pp –httpwwweurojournalscomejss___pd

MEDAWARE(EuropeanCommissionEuro-MediterraneanPartnership)DevelopmentotoolsandguidelinesorthepromotionosustainableurbanwastewatertreatmentandreuseinagriculturalproductionintheMediterraneancountriesTasktechnicalguidelinesonwastewaterutilisationBrusselsEuropeanCommissionhttpwwwuestgrmedawarereportsTask_reviseddoc

RSCN(RoyalSocietyortheConservationoNature)Climate Change Eects on Jordan’s Vegetation Cover,Fire Risk and Runo Changes. httprscnorgjoorgsitePortalsImpacts_o_Future_Climate_Change_on_Vegetationre_and_runopd(Accessed October)

UNICEF(UnitedNationsChildren’sFund)ndCountryinormationwebsiteJordanhttpwwwuniceorginobycountryjordan_statisticshtml(Accessed October)

USAID(TheUnitedStatesAgencyorInternationalDevelopment)ndWastewater Reuse in Jordan: A

USAID Initiative.httpjordanusaidgovuploadeaturesJordanWastewaterReuseCaseStudydoc(Accessed October)

WHOUNICEF(WorldHealthOrganizationUnitedNationsChildren’sFund)Progress on Sanitation and DrinkingWater: 2010 Update.GenevaWHOUNICEF






























http://afedonline.org/Report2011/PDF/En/chapter%208%20tourismC&C.pdf







http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/JORDAN.pdf






http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/jordan/jordan_cp.pdf







http://www.eurojournals.com/ejss_15_2_08.pdf






http://rscn.org.jo/orgsite/Portals/0/Impacts_of_Future_Climate_Change_on_Vegetation,fire_and_runoff.pdf







http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/jordan_statistics.html




http://jordan.usaid.gov/upload/features/Jordan%20Wastewater%20Reuse%20Case%20Study.doc










































—

Acknowledgements AbdelhamidBenabdeladelYousseFilali-Meknassi

CHAPTER 40

Morocco

©YannArthus-BertrandAltitude-Paris

Morocco:DadesGorges(°'N°'W)



WWDR4 799MOROCCO

Location and general characteristicsTheKingdomoMorocco(Moroccohereater)islocated

atthenorth-westendotheAricancontinentItcovers

anareao km²andhas millioninhabitants

()ItisborderedbytheMediterraneanSeatothe

norththeAtlanticOceantothewestAlgeriatothe

eastandMauritaniatothesouth

Morocco’smountainousterritoryhasanaverage

elevationo mThehighestpointinNorthArica

( mabovesealevel)isoundintheHighAtlas

MountainsinthecentreothecountryThelong

coastlinealluviallowlandsmountainchainshigh

plateausandtheSaharadesertmakeorawide

varietyolandscape

MostonorthernandcentralMoroccohasa

MediterraneanclimatewithcoldwintersandhotdrysummersThesouthernpartothecountryhassemi-

aridtodesertclimateThereoretherainallregime

ishighlyvariablebothspatiallyandtemporally

Annualprecipitationrangesrom mminthe

northto mmorlessinthesouth-eastalong

theSaharaTheRiverDraawhichrisesintheAtlas

Mountainsisthelongestriverinthecountryandruns

orapproximately kmbeoredrainingintothe

AtlanticOceanatTan-TanOtherimportantriversare

theSebouandtheMoulouya

Water resources and their useMorocco’sriversareedbyrainallandtheyare

torrentialinnatureOtherthantheMoulouyainthe

northwhichdischargesintoMediterraneanSeaalmost

allthemajorriversowtotheAtlanticordisappearin

theSaharaTheannualwaterresourcespotentialothe

countryisapproximately billion m³owhich

correspondstosuracewaterandtogroundwater

Wateravailabilitypercapitaisaround m³–which

putsthecountryintothe‘waterscarce’categorySuracewaterresourcesthroughoutthecountryare

characterizedbyaverylargeannualandinter-annual

variabilitywhichismarkedbyalternatingwetanddry

periodsinterspersedwithexceptionallywetanddry

yearsThismeansthatreservoirsneedtobebuiltto

regulateriverowandtostorewaterordryseasons

Currentlythereare largedamswithatotal

capacityo billionm³

Thereisalsoacleardisparityintermsodistribution

osuracewaterresourcesAewbasinsinthenorth(theSeboutheLoukkosandtheTangéroisor

example)whichcovermerelyothecountryhave

approximatelyhaloitssuracewaterresourcesThere

aremanyaquiersinMoroccowithgoodwaterquality

Howeveroutoaquierstestedareconsidered

partiallyorullybrackishOverallbrackishwater

potentialisestimatedatabout millionm³peryear

AgricultureisoneothemainpillarsoMorocco’s

economyTheagriculturalsectorgenerates

approximatelyonationalgrossdomesticproduct

(GDP)andcreatesemploymentoruptoothe

population(inruralareas)Cereals(wheatbarley

andmaize)sugarbeetsugarcanecitrusruitgrapes

andlivestockarethemainagriculturalproducts

Approximately km²olandiscultivated

including km²oirrigatedlandGroundwater

isoparamountimportancetoagricultureas

oirrigationwaterisabstractedromwellsWhiletherenewablegroundwatercapacityisestimatedat

billion m³yearactualconsumptionhassurpassed

thesustainablelimitsandreachedapproximately

billion m³

OthersourcesoincomearetourismandsheriesIn

milliontouristsvisitedMoroccogenerating

approximatelyUS$ billionoincomeWhiletourism

constitutesanincreasinglyimportantsectororthe

nationaleconomytheconsumptionowaterby

touristicactivitiesisalsogrowing

OverallwaterconsumptioninMoroccohasrisen

beyondthelevelothecurrentlydevelopedrenewable

waterresourcespotentialInannualwater

demandwas billion m³Othis billion m³came

romnon-renewablegroundwaterresourcesAsaresult

oover-exploitationcoupledwithchangesinclimate

thewaterlevelinmanyaquiersdroppedby mto

mTheagriculturalsectorisbyarthelargestusero

wateraccountingorodemandThisisollowedbymunicipalneedswhichconstitutejustBy

thewaterdecit(thatistheuseonon-renewable

sources)isexpectedtoreach billion m³

Climate change and disastersStatisticalanalysisohydrometeorologicaldatashows

thatrainallincreasesinOctoberandNovemberand

decreasesinspringWhilewinterrainallseemsto

bedecliningthiswasnotstatisticallysignicantAn

analysisovariationsintemperaturebetween

andrevealedanincreaseoupto°Cinthesouth-eastandintheMideltregionocentralMorocco




butthewarmingtrendinthenorthwaslesssignicant

Atemperatureincreaseo°Corhigherwasrecorded

overtwo-thirdsothecountryinsummer;andasimilar

warmingtrendwasobservedinwintertemperatures

Climateobservationsalsoshowthatthesemi-arid

zonehasbeenprogressingnorthwardsoverthepast

ewdecadesAworryingtrendisthatwaterresourcesavailabilityhasdecreasedbysince(Figure)

Estimatesopossibleclimatechangeimpactson

waterresourcesindicateanaveragedecreaseinwater

resourcesintheorderotoby

Floodanddroughthavealsobecomemore

pronouncedInthepastyearsMoroccohasaced

morethanperiodsodrought–theworstinrecent

history–withsomelastingveyearsormoreFloods

havealsohadasocio-economicimpactonsociety

thatisstrongerthanbeoreThisisnotonlybecauseotheindividualoodstendtobeworsebutalso

becauseopopulationgrowthurbandevelopment

andexpandingagriculturalindustrialandtourism

activitiesinvulnerableareasTherecordrainallo

mmatJbelOutkaandtheexceptionaloods

intheOuerghaRiverbasin(maximumdischarge

om³s)areonlyaewexamplesoextreme

eventsthattookplacebetweenand

Frequentoodsanddroughtshavealsoledto

increasedlanderosion

AsapartotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConvention

onClimateChange(UNFCCC)Moroccoormulatedits

rstnationalcommunicationinanditssecond

inThesecommunicationsprovideddetailson

thenationalinventoryogreenhousegasemissions

andmitigationoptionsincludingtheactionplanItis

estimatedthatbytheannualtotalmitigationpotentialothesemeasureswillbeequivalentto

milliontonnesoCO

IntheNationalPlantoFightAgainstGlobal

Warming(LePlanNationaldeLutteContrele

RéchauementClimatique)wasintroducedThePlan

comprisesmitigationandadaptationmeasuresand

identiesanumberopriorityareasoractionincluding

waterresourcesagricultureorestrydesertication

sheriescoastallandusehealthandtourism

Thenationalwaterstrategyincludesanactionplan

to‘reducevulnerabilitytowater-relatednatural

hazardsandadaptationtoclimatechange’The

measurescoveredintheplanincludeimproving

weatherorecastingthedevelopmentowarning

systemsinmajorbasinsandsitesvulnerableto

oodingtheintegrationooodriskplansorland

useurbanplanningandwatershedmanagement

andthedevelopmentonancialmechanismssuch

asinsuranceandnaturaldisasterunds

FIGURE 40.1

Fluctuationinwaterresourcesavailabilitybetweenand

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

1 9 4 5

1 9 4 9

1 9 5 3

1 9 5 7

1 9 6 1

1 9 6 5

1 9 6 9

1 9 7 3

1 9 7 7

1 9 8 1

1 9 8 5

1 9 8 9

1 9 9 3

1 9 9 7

2 0 0 1

2 0 0 5

2 0 0 9

W a t e r r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b i l i t y ( i n b i l l i o n m 3 )



WWDR4 801MOROCCO

Water resources management andinstitutional aspectsSincethe’stheNationalWaterPolicyinMorocco

hasbeenorientedtowardsthedevelopmentowater

resourcesThishasbeendonethroughconstructing

themajorwaterinrastructureprojects–suchas

largereservoirsandwatertranserschemes–thatensurethecontinuityothewatersupplythatthe

countryreliesonIncreasingdemandnecessitated

animprovementinthewayscarcewaterresources

werebeingmanagedWaterLaw-(enactedin

)representsthelegalbasisoraorward-looking

waterpolicywhichtakesintoaccountbothsupply-

relatedanddemand-relatedissuesNotablyitdenes

waterasapublicpropertyandcallsoranintegrated

participatoryanddecentralizedwaterresources

managementmechanismthroughtheestablishmento

nineriverbasinagenciesTheWaterLawrequiresthepreparationonationalwatermanagementplansand

riverbasinwatermanagementplansItalsoaddresses

theissueocostrecoverythroughwaterabstraction

charges(user-pays)andintroducesawaterpollution

tax(polluter-pays)

Becausegroundwaterresourcesaresoimportantthe

protectionoaquiersisanimportantelementothe

WaterLawTothisendseveralmeasuresarebeing

plannedincludingpricingasaninstrument;setting

protectedzoneswheregroundwaterabstractionis

bannedorlimited;imposingstrictproceduresor

grantingdrillingpermits;increasinghumannancial

andinstitutionalcapacitytobeabletobetterenorce

therulesandcontrolmechanisms;andimproved

monitoringogroundwateravailabilityandutilization

Promotingscienticresearchandthearticial

rechargeoaquiersarealsoamongtheissuesthatare

underconsideration

Forbettermedium-termandlong-termplanningtheNationalWaterPlanwasestablishedtointegrate

thevariousregionalplansinordertodevelopa

visionointegratedwaterresourcesmanagement

ThePlanhastwooverarchingtargetsdevelopinga

nationalstrategybasedontheWaterLawand

ormulatingandadoptingspecicactionplansand

investmentprogrammes

TheWaterResourcesDivisionotheMinistryo

EnergyMinesWaterandEnvironment(del’Energie

desMinesdel’Eauetdel’Environnement–SEEE)istheleadgovernmentdepartmentresponsibleor

planningandimplementingthenationalpolicyon

thedevelopmentmanagementandpreservationo

waterresourcesTheDivisionisalsochargedwiththe

protectionotheenvironmentandoverseesthework

othenineriverbasinagenciesThenationalbureau

orelectricity(OceNationaldel’Electricité)and

thenationaloceordrinkingwater(OceNationaldel’EauPotable)bothcomeundertheauspiceso

thesameministryTheSupremeCouncilorWater

andClimate(ConseilSupérieurdel’EauetduClimat)

ormulatesthegeneralguidelinesonationalpolicyon

waterandclimate

Signicantprogresshasbeenmadeonthe

implementationotheWaterLawHoweverurther

improvementotheregulatoryandinstitutional

rameworkincludingtherevisionocertainprovisions

otheWaterLaw(suchaswastewaterdischargeatseadesalinationrecyclingowastewaterandthe

protectionowetlands)isanticipatedEstablishinga

legalrameworkthataimsoramorerationalsystemo

abstractionchargesandenorcementowaterpolicyis

equallycritical–especiallywithrespecttocontrolling

theallocationowaterandrestrictingitsuse

Toaddresscurrentandimminentchallengesanew

nationalwaterstrategywaslaunchedinto

strengthenexistingpoliciesItsmaintenetsarewater

demandmanagementandbettervaluation;urther

developmentowaterresourcesandanimprovement

inthewaytheyaremanaged;thepreservationand

protectionowaterresourcesandtheenvironment;the

mitigationorisksandareductioninthevulnerability

towater-relatedhazards;regulatoryandinstitutional

reorms;andthemodernizationoinormationsystems

andcapacityimprovement

The protection o the environment

and ecosystemsMoroccohasmanywetlandsthatarelocatedmainlyin

themountainsandalongthecoastStudiesconducted

locallyandnationallyonecosystemsandbiodiversity

identiedsitesoecologicalandbiological

signicance–includinginternationallyrecognized

RamsarsitesMorocco’swetlandsarehometomany

speciesoamphibiansreptilesandmammalsand

theyhaveaglobalimportanceaspassagewaysor

migratorybirdsUnortunatelytheecosystemsare

underanincreasingthreatcausedbythedegradation

owaterqualityasaresultodomesticagriculturalandindustrialpollutionaswellasprolongedand




recurrentdroughtsTolimitandreducesuchthreatsa

numberostrategicplanshavebeendeveloped–the

NationalStrategyorSustainableDevelopmentthe

NationalStrategyortheConservationandSustainable

UseoBiodiversitytheNationalActionPlanorthe

EnvironmenttheNationalStrategyonWaterthe

MasterPlanorIntegratedManagementoWaterResourcesandtheDevelopmentStrategyorMountain

Areas

Pollution–notablydomesticandagriculturalpollution

andtoalesserextentindustrialandsolidwaste

–isamajorconcerninMoroccoInnearly

million m³owastewaterromsettlementswas

dischargedintonaturewithouttreatmentAgricultural

pollutionhascausedelevatednitrateconcentration

inwaterbodiesnotablyaquiersBecauseothis

protectingthequalityowaterresourcesisastrategicprioritywhichisstrengthenedthroughintroductiono

variousprogrammessuchastheNationalSanitation

andWastewaterTreatmentProgrammetheNational

ProgrammeorRuralSanitationtheNational

ProgrammeorPreventionAgainstIndustrialPollution

andanumberootherprogrammes

Water and healthSomeoMorocco’spopulationliveinurban

areaswherehaveaccesstosaewater(WHO

UNICEF)Inruralareastoothecoveragehas

beenincreasingsubstantiallyromintoover

inHowevermerelyoruraldwellers

enjoypipedwaterathomeCoverageothesewerage

systemexceedsnationwidebutonlyo

ruraldwellershaveaccesstoimprovedsanitationAs

aresultdiarrhoeaandothergastrointestinaldiseases

continuetobeacauseomorbidityandmortality

especiallyamongruralchildreninthelowestincome

groupsandparticularlyduringthesummerseason

(MinistèredelaSante)

ConclusionsMorocco’scomplexclimateandhydrologymeanthat

ecientwaterresourcesmanagementisvitalMany

importantwaterresourcesdevelopmentprojects

includingtheconstructionolargedamsandwater

transerprojectshavebeenimplementedtomeet

thedemandthatisnecessaryorthecountry’ssocio-

economicdevelopmentThisisurtherbackedbylong-

termnationalplanningactivitiesthatwereinitiated

insandregulatoryandinstitutionaladvances(orexampleLaw-)thatocusonintegrated

participativeanddecentralizedwaterresources

managementHoweverthescarcityowaterresources

isbeingexacerbatedbyclimatechangeandtheover-

exploitationoaquiersThelowvalueattributedto

waterparticularlyinagricultureandthedeterioration

owaterqualityareimportantproblemsthatremainto

betackledThenewwaterstrategylaunchedintoreinorcecriticalaspectsowaterpolicyisintended

toaddresscurrentandimminentchallenges


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheMorocco

Case Study Report preparedinbyAbdelhamidBenabdeladelChieotheDivisionoWater

ResourcesSecretariatoStatewithintheMinistryo

EnergyMinesWaterandtheEnvironmentincharge

oWaterandtheEnvironment(unpublished)

MinistèredelaSanteMoroccoPolitiquedesantédel’enantauMaroc AnalysedelasituationRabatMinistryoHealthhttpwwwemrowhointcahpdchp_mor_pd

WHOUNICEF(WorldHealthOrganizationUnitedNationsChildren’sFund)JointMonitoringProgrammeorWaterandSanitation Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water, 2010 Update. GenevaNewYorkWHOUNICEFhttpwwwwssinoorgleadminuser_uploadresources-JMP_report__enpd

http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf
















—

Acknowledgements MarcLeblancAlbertvanDijk

SarahTweedBertrandTimbal

CHAPTER 41

Murray–Darling basin, Australia

©ShutterstockPhillipMinnis












804 ASIAANDTHEPACIFICCHAPTER

Location and general characteristicsTheMurray–Darlingbasinliesinsouth-eastern

AustraliaandisormedbytheMurrayRiver(km)

anditsthreemaintributariestheDarling(km)

theLachlan(km)andtheMurrumbidgee

(km)(Map)Coveringmorethanamillion

km²orapproximatelyothecontinenttheMurray–DarlingbasinspansmostoNewSouthWales

VictoriapartsothestatesoQueenslandandSouth

AustraliaandtheAustralianCapitalTerritory–which

includesthecountry’scapitalCanberraThebasinis

hometoapproximately millionpeople

Thetopographyothebasinisdominatedbyvast

plainsboundedtotheeastandsouthbytheGreat

DividingRangeAustralia’smostsubstantialmountain

rangewhichreachesamaximumelevationom

abovesealevel

Thebasinhasavarietyoclimaticconditionsand

diverselandscapesrangingromthesub-tropical

arnorthtothecoolhumiduplandstotheeastthe

temperatesouth-eastandthehotsemi-aridandarid

westernplainswhichaccountormorethantwo-thirds

othebasinRainallissummer-dominatedinthenorth

andwinter–dominatedinthesouth

Water resources availabilityApproximatelyothewatercurrentlyusedinthe

basinissuracewaterwithgroundwaterprovidingthe

restWateravailabilityvariesgreatlyacrossthebasin

andalmostothevastcatchmentareacontributes

littleornowatertotheriversThemainrun-ocomes

romthesouthernandeasternboundariesothebasinAverageannualwaterconsumptioninthebasin

isapproximatelybillionm³whichequatesto

otheannualsuracewaterpotentialothebasin

Currentlyothewaterisusedoragriculture

andisusedbytheMDB’stownsandcitiesThe

remainderislostduringthestorageandtransero

irrigationwater(Table)

Tosatisyincreasesinwaterdemandduringthe

secondhalothetwentiethcenturymanystructural

workswerebuiltacrossthebasinThetotalwaterstoragecapacityinreservoirsroseromkm³inthe

stoapproximately km³inThislatest

gurecorrespondstoaboutotheaverage

annualwateravailabilityinthebasinSuracewater

useinthebasingrewwiththeincreaseinpublicand

privatestoragecapacityuptothemid-swhen

theMurray–DarlingBasinMinisterialCouncilimposed

anupperlimitonsuracewaterdiversions(Figure)

MAP 41.1

Murray–Darlingbasin

LakeVictoria

LowerLakesLowerLakesLowerLakes

MenindeeLakes

MenindeeLakes

MenindeeLakes

PACIFIC

OCEAN

SOUTHERN

OCEAN

D a r l i

n g

D a r l i

n g

L a c h l a

n

L a c h l a

n

M u r r a y

M u r r a y

M u r r umb i d g e e M u r r umb i d g e e

QUEEN SLAND

OUT

AU STR

Brisbane

Melbourne

Adelaide

Sydney

Canberra

0 100 200 300 400 500 km

AU STRAL I A

City

Hydroelectric

power plant

State border

Floodplain

Basin




































































































































































WWDR4 805MURRAY–DARLINGBASINAUSTRALIA

TABLE 41.1

SuracewateruseintheMurray-Darlingbasin*

* According to 2006-07 water sharing, water entitlements and irrigation portolios

FIGURE 41.1

TotalsysteminowssuracewateruseanddamstoragecapacityintheMurray-Darlingbasin

Surace water use km³/year % o overall

Net irrigation diversions 9.51 84

Rural stock and domestic 0.08 <1

Urban 0.32 3

Channel and pipe loss 1.24 11

Stream ow loss due to groundwater

pumping0.18 <2

Water and agricultureTheMurray–DarlingbasinisAustralia’soodbowl

Agricultureispractisedapproximatelyinoits

areaaccountingoraboutothecountry’stotal

agriculturalproductionThemaincropsarecotton

ricewheatcorngrapescitrusruitandotherruit

treesCattleandsheepproductionandirrigateddairy

armingarealsocommonsourcesoincomeTheamountowaterusedtomaintainlivestock-related

agriculturalactivitiescorrespondstoaroundhalo

Australia’stotalwaterconsumptionandaroundo

totalagriculturalwateruse

Water management at the national level andin the basinAnincreaseinwaterdiversionsledtoconcernsabout

thehealthothebasinanditsenvironmentalowsButbecausewaterallocationsaregovernedbyseparate

( V a l u e s a r e i n k

m 3 p

e r y e a r )

averagenaturalowthesea

totalsysteminows(yrmovaverage) totaldamstoragecapacitysuracewateruse

averagenaturalowtothesea








































































legislationandpoliciesinthevestatesthatsharethe

basinachievingthenecessaryenvironmentaltargetsis

posingarealchallenge

Sincethestherehasbeenaprogressiveshit

towardsintegratedwaterresourcesmanagementinthe

basinIntheMurray–DarlingBasinCommissionwasestablishedtopromoteandcoordinatetheequitable

andsustainableuseowateracrossthebasinItwas

replacedinbytheMurray–DarlingBasinAuthority

whichactsasagovernmentstatutoryagencyThe

basin’swaterresourcesaremanagedbytheMurray–

DarlingBasinAuthorityinconjunctionwiththestates

andterritoriesthatmakeupitscatchmentareaThe

itsmainresponsibilitiesaretomeasureandmonitor

waterresourcesinthebasin;toprepareimplement

andenorcethemanagementplan;tosetsuraceand

groundwaterabstractionlimits;andtodevelopawaterrightsinormationservicetoacilitatewatertrading

BecauseAustraliahasaederalgovernmentsystemit

wasnecessarytohavenationalagreementtoensure

thattherewouldbecompatibilityinthewayeach

oAustralia’sstateandterritorygovernmentswas

measuringplanningorpricingandtradingwater

TothisendtheNationalWaterInitiativewassigned

bytheCounciloAustralianGovernmentsin

Itisanintergovernmentalagreementsignedbyall

oAustralia’sstateandterritorygovernmentsandis

thecountry’sblueprintorwaterreormEstablished

undertheNationalWaterInitiativetheNational

WaterCommissionisanindependentstatutorybody

thatisresponsibleorhelpingtodrivenationalwater

reormandadvisegovernmentsonwaterissuesThe

commission'sspecicunctionsinthecontextothe

Murray–Darlingbasinincludemonitoringtheeects

ointerstatetradeinwateraccessentitlementsin

thesouthernpartothebasinadvisingthevarious

NationalWaterInitiativesignatoriesabouttheseeectsandauditingtheeectivenessotheMurray–

Darlingbasinwatermanagementplan

Climate change and climatic variabilityTheseveredroughtthataectedmostosouth-

easternAustralia(includingthesouthernpartothe

Murray–Darlingbasin)beganinandcontinuedor

twelveyearsThiscausedsignicanteconomiclosses

acrosstheregion(Box )Theaverageannualrainall

decitothisdroughtissimilartothatothe–

droughtHowevertherecentdroughthasledtoamuchstrongerdecreaseinrunoandgroundwater

rechargeThiscanbeexplainedbyachangeinrainall

patternsduringtherecentdroughtlowerinter-annual

variabilityandlessrainallinautumnandwinterThe

droughtendedwithrainsthatcausedsomeothe

highestoodwatersonrecordin–

Thesemi-aridtoaridnatureotheregionmeansthatitalreadyhasveryhighnaturalhydroclimaticvariability

–addingtheeectsoclimatechangetothisposes

anevengreaterchallengeAcomprehensiveproject

commissionedbytheederalandstategovernments

suggestedthatunderamedianscenariosuracewater

availabilityacrosstheentireMurray–Darlingbasinwould

declinebybyaboutasaresultoclimate

changeTheprojectedreductioninwateravailability

wouldreducesuracewaterusebyHoweverwater

useinthedriestyearswouldbeaectedarmore–by

uptointhebasininVictoria

Thegreatestimpactoclimatechangeislikelytooccur

closetothemouthotheMurrayRiverincludinginthe

ChowillaoodplainstheCoorongnationalparkand

lagoonecosystemandtheLowerLakesTheoutows

romtheMurrayRiverarealreadyaectedbycurrent

waterdiversionsthatreduceannualnaturaloutowsby

Andtheseareprojectedtodropbyanestimated

urtherbyFromanecologicalpointoview

theimpactowaterdiversionsonariverbasinisoten

greaterthantheeectsoclimatechangeHowever

thecombinedeectsoboththewaterdiversionsand

climatechangecouldmorethandoubletheaverage

durationbetweenbenecialoodsThiswouldhave

asignicantimpactonwetlandsandtheirassociated

ecosystemsTowardstheendothetwenty-rstcentury

theimpactoclimatechangecouldsignicantlyincrease

dependingonemissionsscenariosWhatisevenmore

concerningisthatthecurrenttrendingreenhousegases

emissionisalarminglyinexcessomostscenariosthat

arecurrentlyconsideredinclimatechangeprojections

Water and the environmentTherearenearlywetlandsintheMurray–

Darlingbasinthatareimportantornativeshand

theeedingandbreedingolocalandmigratory

waterbirdsThemajorwetlandslocatedalong

theDarlingbasinincludetheMacquariemarshes

theGreatCumbungSwamptheoverowlakeso

theParooRivertheNarranlakesandtheGwydir

wetlandsThelargestwetlandsontheMurrayarethe

Barmah–MillewaGunbowerandKoondrook–PericootawetlandstheChowillaoodplainsandtheLower








































































































WWDR4 807MURRAY–DARLINGBASINAUSTRALIA

LakesandCoorongLakessystemsattheinteracewith

theSouthernOcean(Map)

SixteenotheMurray–Darlingbasin'swetlandsare

identiedasinternationallyimportantandlistedunder

theRamsarConventionSimilarlythe Directory o

Important Wetlands in AustraliaincludesapproximatelysitesinthebasinTherearealargenumbero

nationallyandinternationallysignicantplantand

animalspeciesinthebasinHoweverasaresulto

pollutionandmodiedriverowsassociatedwith

large-scalewaterresourcesdevelopmentspecies

arelistedasthreatenedmorethanhaloitsnative

shspeciesareconsideredtobeinneedoattention

andshpopulationsareestimatedtobeonlyabout

opredevelopmentlevels

The–droughtexacerbatedtheseverityo

theseproblemsForexampletherecord-lowows

attheoutletotheMurray–DarlingledtoasharpdeclineininundatedareasItalsoledtoadegradation

owaterqualityasaresultoincreasedsalinity

whichcausedsevereecologicalandsignicantsocio-

economicimpactsDuringthedroughtthewater

levelatLakeAlexandrinawhichisthelargestwater

bodyintheLowerLakessystem(Map)dropped

Duringthe–droughtsuracewaterstoragedroppedtolessthanostoragecapacityandgroundwaterde-

clinedbyasmuchaskm³Thisimposedseverewaterrestrictionsonbothurbancommunitiesandarmerswhodepend

onirrigationOverallestimatesotheeconomiccostothisdroughtarenotreadilyavailablethoughsomestudieshaveesti-

matedaspectsoit

Agriculturalexportsaccountorone-thototalAustralianexportsIndroughtwasestimatedtohaveloweredgross

domesticproduct(GDP)by(morethanUS$billion)owhicharoundwastheresultoreducedagriculturalexport

Thedroughtwasalsoimplicatedinanationaldeclineinemploymentandwages

Regionalimpactsweremuchstrongerwithgrossregionalproductiondownbymorethanandemploymentdropping

bymorethanintheworst-aectedregionsotheMurray–DarlingBasinTheAustralianReserveBankestimatedthatthe

–dryyearinAustraliareducedGDPbyalmostwhereasarmGDPellbyaroundMorerecentlyitwases-timatedthatbetweenandthegrossvalueoirrigatedagricultureellbyapproximatelyUS$millionperyear

Duringtheperiods–and–thetotalareaoirrigatedlandellby

BOX 41.1

Drought’sheavytollonAustralia

rice cotton

P r o d u c t i o n i n

d e x

ProductionocottonandriceintheMurray-Darlingbasin(=averageannualproductionor-)







































































byaboutmandthesalinitylevelincreasedsix-

oldTheexposureolakebedsthatarenaturallyrich

inironsulphidescausedtheproductionosulphuric

acid–threateningtherichoraandaunaothelake’s

ecosystems

ThesalinizationolandandwaterresourcesisalsoenvironmentalprobleminthebasinSalt

concentrationsinsoilwaterandgroundwaterare

predominantlyhighinthebasinbecauseothe

concentrationocyclicsaltscausedbymillenniao

evapotranspirationThisnaturalconditionhasbeen

urtheraggravatedbytheextensivelandclearance

thatstartedinthenineteenthcenturytoincrease

theamountolandavailableorarmingCropsand

pastureallowedmoregroundwaterrechargethandid

thearea’snativevegetationwhichcausedrisinglevels

osalinegroundwatertocontaminatethelandandthesuracewaterTheareaaectedbydrylandsalinity

intheMurray–Darlingbasinstates(includingsites

outsidethebasin)wasestimatedatkm²in

ConclusionsTheMurray–Darlingbasincoversavastareathatis

roughlyequaltothesizeoFranceandGermany

combinedExtensiveagriculturalpracticeshave

madethebasintheoodbasketoAustraliaanda

majorsourceoincomeHoweverusagepatterns

haveputgreatstressonwaterresourcesandhave

passedbeyondthecriticallimitosustainableuse

Landandwaterresourcesdevelopmenthavealtered

thehydrologicalconditionscausedenvironmental

degradationandsignicantlyaectedecosystems

Inrecentdecadeswatermanagementobjectives

haveshitedromlarge-scaledevelopmentothe

waterresourcesorirrigationtoenvironmental

concernsInparallelwatergovernanceisgradually

movingtoacoordinatedandintegratedmanagement

thatissharedbetweenthestateandtheterritory

governmentsinthebasincatchmentareaTheseveredroughtthatlastedmorethanadecaderomto

causedsignicanteconomicandenvironmental

damageandbroughtthetensionbetweenagricultural

andenvironmentalobjectivestoaheadHoweverthe

NationalWaterInitiativeandtherecentlyestablished

Murray–DarlingBasinAuthoritygivehopethatwater

consumptionpatternswillbereevaluatedwithaview

toimprovinghydrologicalconditionstoapointwhere

theycansustainthesocialecologicalandeconomic

systemsthatdependonthem


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheCaseStudy

ReportThe Murray–Darling Basin: A Major Food Bowl

In Crisis – Lessons rom the Past and Challenges Ahead

preparedinbyLeblancetal(orthcoming)































































—

Acknowledgements HongqiShangFengSunYangboSunHuiPangWuDong

RuipengSonZhenGongHaiJinZhaoHaoJingXuRamasamyJayakumarKeLiu

HaoLiuBingWang

CHAPTER 42

Yellow River basin, China

©YellowRiverConservancyCommission(YRCC)














TheYellowRiverbasinwascoveredindetailinthe

casestudyvolumeothethirdeditionotheWorld

Water Development Report (WWAP)Inagree-

mentwiththeYellowRiverBasinCommissiona

ollow-upstudywasdevelopedtoprovideup-to-date

inormationwherepossibleandtourtherocuson

criticalchallengessuchasclimatechangeerosionsedimenttransportandwaterquality

Location and general characteristicsTheYellowRiverthesecond-longestinthePeople’s

RepublicoChina(called‘China’romhereon)rises

inthewesternpartothecountryatmabove

sealevelItrunsthroughnorthernandcentralChina

wherethetemperatecontinentalmonsoonclimateis

dominantThesoutheasternsectionothebasinhas

ahumidclimatewhereasthenorth-westernareas

areconsiderablydrierTheriverpassesthroughnineprovinces–QinghaiSichuanGansuNingxiaInner-

MongoliaShaanxiShanxiHenanandShandong

–beoredrainingintotheBoHaiSea(Map)

GeographicallytheYellowRivertraversestheTibetan

Plateau(upperbasin)theLoessPlateau(middle

basin)andtheNorthChinaPlain(lowerbasin)

TheYellowRiverbasincoversanareao

km²whichishometoapproximately million

inhabitants–oraboutoChina’spopulationin

Howeverthepopulationisunevenlydistributed

withaboutlivinginthelowerthirdothebasin

RegardedasthecradleonorthernChinesecivilization

andtheheartomodernChina’spoliticaleconomic

andsocialdevelopmenttheYellowRiverisknownas

‘themotherriveroChina’

Water and land resources in the basinTheaveragesuracewaterpotentialotheYellow

Riverbasinisbillionm³andaveragegroundwater

potentialisaboutbillionm³Inwater

consumptioninthebasinwasbillionm³owhich

overcameromsuracewaterandalmost

romgroundwaterresourcesSincetherate

ogroundwaterexploitationhasincreasedrapidly

reachingunsustainablelevelsInactlocations

spreadoveranareaonearlykm² haverelatively

largegroundwaterdepressions

Therearekm²opotentiallycultivableland

inthebasinOthiskm²(orothe

basinterritory)iscultivatedincludingkm²

oirrigatedlandSincethestheimportanceo

agriculturetotheeconomyhasdeclinedandother

sectorsaremakingabiggercontributiontothegross

domesticproduct(GDP)othebasin(Table )

ManynewindustrialcitieshavebeenoundedXining

LanzhouYinchuanBaotouHuhehotTaiyuanXi’an

LuoyangZhengzhouandJinanHoweveragriculture

stillaccountsorowaterdemand

MAP 42.1

YellowRiverbasin

Tengri

Desert

LanzhouLanzhou

YinchuanYinchuan

BaotouBaotou

WuyuanWuyuan

Yan’anYan’an

LinfenLinfen

BaojiBaoji

Xi’anXi’anLuoyangLuoyang

ZhengzhouZhengzhouTongchuanTongchuan

TaiyuanTaiyuan

HuhehotHuhehotBeijing

JinanXiningXining

CHINA

MONGOLIA

F e n

H e

W e i

Y e l l o w

R i v

e r

Y e l l o

w R i v

e r

Qinghai HuQinghai Hu

Bo HaiBo Hai

0 100 250 km

CH INA

City

National park

Dam

Basin

Ramsar site


















































































































































WWDR4 811YELLOWRIVERBASINCHINA

Climate changeBetweenandannualaverageprecipitation

inthebasindecreasedslightly–byonaverage

mmeverytenyearsHoweverthistrendwas

signicantatonlynineothestationsOverthe

longtermtheamountoprecipitationinJanuary

mayincreasebylessthanmillimeterbyBased

onscenariostherainallinthemiddleandlower

reachesothebasinmightbehigherthaninthe

upperreachesDuringthesameperiodtheannual

meanairtemperatureacrossthebasinincreased

atarateo°CeverytenyearsOverothe

monitoringstations(ostations)showeda

signicantincreaseintheannualmeanairtempe-

ratureTogiveanexampleattheMenyuanand

Hezuostationsbothowhicharelocatedinthe

upperYellowRiverbasintheaverageairtemperatureinwas°ChigherthaninAccordingto

modelsJanuarymeantemperaturescouldincrease

byasmuchas°CbySignicantwarming

couldreducetheavailabilityothewaterresources

(Zhangetal)Consequentlybetterwater

managementandtheadaptationotechnologyto

improvetheeciencyowaterusewillneedtobe

consideredtopreventacriticalwatershortageinthe

basininthiscenturyandbeyond

TABLE 42.1

GDPoprovincesintheYellowRiverbasin()

Provinces Agriculture

(million US$)

Industry

(million US$)

Service Industry

(million US$)

Total GDP

(million US$)

Increase since

2000

(million US$)

Qinghai 68 241 237 546 435

Sichuan 4 3 3 10 8

Gansu 224 957 846 2,027 1,736

Ningxia 101 441 354 896 705

Inner Mongolia 271 1,889 1,146 3,306 2,625

Shaanxi 455 2,822 1,792 5,069 3,969

Shanxi 218 2,406 1,277 3,901 3,164

Henan 369 1,908 1,033 3,310 2,645

Shandong 205 1,296 994 2,495 2,011Yellow River basin 1,915 11,963 7,682 21,560 17,298

Concerns about environmental degradationand water-related disastersWaterpollutionisasevereprobleminthebasinIn

onlyothecourseotheYellowRiverwastor

drinkingwaterThishadadirectnegativeimpacton

humanhealthandthebasin’secosystemsInmore

thanothealgaetypesoundintheYellow

Riverwereeitherseverelyormoderatelypolluted

Furthermoreanalysisohistoricdatasincethes

showsareductioninthenumberoshspeciesand

totalshquantityintheriver(Ruetal)

TheYellowRiverConservancyCommission(YRCC)

oneosevencommissionsotheMinistryoWater

ResourcesinChinawassetuptoaddresstheproblem

owaterqualityandmanagewaterresourcesin

thebasin(Box )TheYRCChasintroducedtheollowingmeasures

• Settingamaximumpollutantdischargequantityor

theprovincesaccordingtotheinowotheYellow

River;

• Strengtheningthewaterqualitymonitoringonthe

provincialboundary;and

• Enorcingthelegislationonwaterpollution

preventionandprotection

Thankstotheseeortsthewaterqualityinthemain

streamotheYellowRiverhasimprovedconsiderably

Inapproximatelyothecourseotheriverwasinthe‘goodquality’categoryAndbetween























































































andtheareasotheriverthatwererankedas

‘badquality’ellromto

ErosioninthebasinoccursmainlyalongtheLoess

PlateauandisamajorproblemTheplateaucovers

anareaokm²withaveragethicknesso

loesssoilrangingrommtomThevolumeosedimentintheYellowRiverthatoriginatesrom

thisregionisaboutbilliontonnesperyearThat

accountsoroChina’stotalsoilerosionand

otheworldtotalInactitistheyellowcolourothe

suspendedsedimentsthatgivestheriveritsname

Whiletheerosionintheloesssoilbandisanatural

phenomenonithasincreasedgreatlyasaresulto

theenvironmentaldegradationcausedbyhuman

activitiesespeciallydeorestationovergrazingand

over-cropping(Box )

Whileaportionotheheavysedimentloadis

transportedtotheseamostoitisdepositedon

theriverbedandontothebanksConsequentlythe

riverowsinachannelthatishigherthanground

levelTogiveanexampletheriverbedismabove

groundlevelinXingxiangcitymaboveinKaieng

cityandmaboveinJinancityThetotalregion

wherethelandislowerthantheriverbedcovers

somekm²andishometoapproximately

millioninhabitantsBecausedikebreaches

couldresultindevastatingoodstheleveesonthe

TheYellowRiverConservancyCommissionisanagencyotheMinistryoWaterResourcesItisinchargeomanagingland

andwaterresourcesinthebasinincludingprotectingitsecosystemsTheYRCCoperateswithinanestablishedlegaland

regulatoryrameworktoplanimplementandmaintainsoilandwaterconservationprogrammes

Sincethemid-stheCommissionhasputanumberolarge-scalelandmanagementprojectsintooperationinthebasin

particularlyintheLoessPlateauregionThishasincludedconstructingdamsaorestationandterracingeortsandconvert-ingcroplandonslopesintograzinglandIngeneralthekeystrategiesaimedatmanagingsedimentloadintheYellowRiver

basininclude

• Soilconservationworks–aorestationterracingandconstructingbarriers;

• Improvinglandusepractices–regulatingcroppingonslopesenhancingtillagepracticesetc;and

• Commissioningengineeringworkstocontrolowsandreducesedimentdepositionintheriversystem

TheseactivitiescoupledwithoodcontrolsupporthavebeensuccessulinreducingthesedimentloadotheYellowRiver

HoweverthesoilconservationprojectsintheLoessPlateauareexpectedtoreduceriverrunobyasmuchasbillionm³

byGiventheincreasingdemandorwaterthereductioninwateravailabilitywilladdtoexistingcompetitionbetween

sectorsorthispreciousresource

Source: Adapted rom UNESCO and IRTCES (2011).

BOX 42.1

SedimentmanagementstrategiesintheYellowRiverbasin

YellowRiveroodplainareregularlymaintained

andrebuiltHoweveralltheseeortswouldnotbe

enoughtocopewithamajorcatastrophesuchasa

-year-oodwhichcouldcausesignicantsocio-

economicdamageAmajoroodinaected

millionpeopleandclaimedlivesToday

approximatelymillionpeoplelivingintheinneroodplainothelowerpartoYellowRiverbasinare

acingimminentthreat

Water resources managementAsaresultoasubstantialincreaseinwaterdemand

intheupperandmiddlereachesothebasinpartso

therivercourseweredrytwenty-onetimesbetween

andIninanattempttostrikeabetter

balancebetweensupplyanddemandChina’sState

CouncilsetuptheYellowRiverWaterAllocation

SchemeThiswasollowedinbyanordinancetoregulateandcontrolwatervolumeintheYellowRiver

ThisordinanceputswaterextractionromtheYellow

Riverunderstatecontrolinordertosatisydemand

andimproveenvironmentalconditionsbyensuring

owespeciallyinthelowerreachesothebasin

(Zhao)Italsoaimstopromotesocio-economic

developmentinthebasin

Theordinanceoreseesanintegratedwaterallocation

schemeItvestsintheYRCCtheresponsibilityo

dratingtheannualwater-useplaninconsultationwith


















































































WWDR4 813YELLOWRIVERBASINCHINA

elevenprovincesandautonomousregionsTheplan

setsthequotaoreachprovinceaccordingtoriver

oworecastsThesequotasarethenupdatedona

monthlybasistakingintoconsiderationactualwater

availabilityintheriverTheprovincialgovernments

areresponsibleortheallocationowaterresourcesin

theirjurisdictionwithinthelimitsotheirquotaToensurethatthewaterallocationsystemunctions

properlyadministrativeandlegislativemeasuresare

backedbytechnicalmethodsForexampleduring

theoodseasonallreservoirsareoperatedinan

integratedmannertoregulatetheriverowand

subsequentwaterdistributionInadditiononlineriver

inormationsystemsallowaccurateobservationo

wateravailabilityalongthecourseotheYellowRiver

Theyalsoallowtheallocationschemetobeadapted

toguaranteethewaterrightsotheprovincesinthe

lowerreachesothebasin

Sincetherehasbeennocut-ootheowin

thelowerYellowRiverbasinandenvironmentalows

haveincreasedbybillionm³ inthelow-owseason

Overallthetotalow reservedorsedimentushing

andenvironmentalneedshasreachedapproximately

tobillionm³Consequentlyestuarywetlandshave

increasedinsizebykm² andbiodiversityhas

improved

ConclusionsThechallengesdescribedinthepreviousWorld

Water Development Report havenotchangedin

thepastthreeyearsConsequentlywaterquality

environmentaldegradationtheunsustainableuse

owaterresources(notablygroundwater)and

sedimenttransportarestillhighontheagendao

theYellowRiverConservancyCommission(YRCC)

OnthepositivesidemeasurestakenbytheYRCCto

limitpollutantdischargeandtoenorcelegislation

havehelpedtoimprovewaterqualityintheriverAsaresultotheallocationschemeriverowin

thelowerbasinhasmettheminimumlevelrequired

toushthesedimentandsustainbasicecosystem

needsThephysicalcharacteristicsotheLoess

Plateaumeanthatsedimenttransportwillcontinue

tobeaprobleminthebasinHowevermanagement

practicesparticularlyaorestationandtillagehave

reducedsedimentloadsintheYellowRiverand

itstributariesInspiteoprogressmadeinvarious

eldsthegrowingimbalancebetweensupplyand

demandwillrequirehardchoicestobemadeinordertoaddressdivergingneedsandreducewater

consumptioninagriculturewhilemakingother

sectorsmorewaterecient


Notes

TheUnited Nations World Water Development Report 3 (WWAP)reportedthattheminimumowrequiredtoushoutsedimentiscalculatedat billionm³andanadditionalbillionm³isnecessaryorotherenvironmentalrequirements

ıııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııııı

Reerences

ExceptwhereotherwisenotedinormationinthisconcisesummaryisadaptedromtheYellow River

basin Case Study Report preparedinbythe

YellowRiverConservancyCommissionMinistry

oWaterResourcesPeople’sRepublicoChina

(unpublished)

Ru HWang HZhao WShen YWang YandZhang XFishesinthemainstreamotheYellowRiverassemblagecharacteristicsandhistoricalchangesBiodiversity ScienceVol pp –

UNESCOandIRTCES(InternationalResearchandTrainingCenteronErosionandSedimentation)Sediment Issues in the Yellow River Basin, China InternationalSedimentInitiativeParisBeijingUNESCOIRTCEShttpwwwirtcesorgisiisi_documentISI_Fact_Sheetspd

WWAP(UnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentProgramme) ChinaTheYellowRiverbasin United Nations World Water Development Report 3, Case StudiesVolume: Facing the ChallengesParisUNESCOhttpwwwunescoorgnewennatural-sciencesenvironmentwaterwwapcase-studiesasia-the-pacicchina-

Zhang QXu C-YZhang ZRen GandChen Y DClimatechangeorvariability?ThecaseoYellowriverasindicatedbyextrememaximumandminimumairtemperatureduring–Theoretical and Applied Climatology vol Nos–

ZhaoHYellowRiverwaterusetoberegulatedChina Daily Augusthttpwwwchinadailycomcnchina-content_htm

























































































http://www.irtces.org/isi/isi_document/2011/ISI_Fact_Sheets.pdf







http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/case-studies/asia-the-pacific/china-2009/










http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-08/02/content_654981.htm




















—

Acknowledgements YongjeKimGi-WonKohSungKimJaeHeyonPark

CHAPTER 43

Jeju Island, Korea

©JejuSpecialSel-GoverningProvince










WWDR4 815JEJUISLANDKOREA

Location and general characteristicsJejuProvinceisthelargestislandintheRepublico

Korea(Korearomhereon)Locatedothesouth-

westcoastotheKoreanpeninsulaintheSouth

KoreaStraitthissel-governingprovinceishome

toapproximatelyinhabitantsandhasa

suraceareaokm²

RightinthecentreotheislandvolcanicMountHallaisJeju’sdominating

geographicaleature(Map )andtops metres

atitshighestpointJejuProvincehastwomaincities

JejuinthenorthandSeogwipointhesouthIntotal

thereareseventownsandvedistrictsontheisland

Jeju’sgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)isslightlylower

thanthatotheKoreanmainlandItalsohasalow

populationgrowthrate(in)andisnot

subjecttosignicantmigratorymovements

AlthoughrelativelysmallJejuProvincehasbothsub-tropicaloceanicandtemperateclimateswith

ameanannualrainallommAbout

oannualprecipitationoccursduringthesummer

monsoonbetweenJuneandSeptemberAlow

evapotranspirationrateandhighpermeabilityo

geologicormationsallowyear-roundrechargeo

MAP 43.1

JejuIsland

groundwaterasapproximatelyhalotheannual

rainall(billionm³)permeatesintotheground

Water resources and their useWhilesuracewaterpotentialismillionm³itis

ephemeralincharacterThereoregroundwateristhe

primarysourceowaterontheislandanditisheavilydrawnonInannualabstractioncorrespondedto

oestimatedsaeyield(Table)

TABLE 43.1

GroundwaterdevelopmentanduseinJejuIsland

* Food processing, etc.+ Estimated sae yield: 1,768,000 m³/d

ConsumptionAmount

(m³/d)%

Domestic 202,000 57.1

Agriculture 144,000 40.7

Industry and others* 8,000 2.2

Total+ 354,000 100.0

0 5 10 Km

National Park

Hallasan

Jeju

Seogwipo

Halla Mountain

National Park

Halla Mountain

National Park

S O U T H S EA

Ha l l i m

Chan

g g o

Y e r a e

J u n g

m

u n

D o

s

u n

H y o d o

n

S a n g h y o

S e o j u

n g

S i l l y

e

C h e o

n m

i

g

O e

d o

D o g e u n H

a n

S a m s u

H w

a b

u k

A n j a w

G

a

n

g j

e o n

Ha l l i m

Chan

g g o

Y e r a e

J u n g

m

u n

D o

s

u n

H y o d o

n

S a n g h y o

S e o j u

n g

S i l l y

e

C h e o

n m

i

g

O e

d o

D o g e u n H

a n

S a m s u

H w

a b

u k

A n j a w

G

a

n

g j

e o n

S a e g d e l

Geum s e o

n g

S o n g

G a

s i

O UT H O R A

J A P A N

N O R T H K O R E

City

National park

Basin

Ramsar site















































































































































































































































































































AgricultureispractisedoverotheislandThe

mostimportantagriculturalproductsareorangesand

mandarinsollowedbyothercropssuchasbeans

radishesgarlicandpotatoesRiceiscultivatedon

analmostnegligiblescaleBetweenand

thesizeotheagriculturalareaincreasedatarateo

peryearHoweversincethentherehasbeenadecliningtrendwhichisexpectedtocontinue

Theareaoirrigatedlandisapproximatelykm²

whichcorrespondstoothetotalcultivatedarea

asoAlthoughmoreagriculturallandcanbe

irrigatedtheavailabilityowateristhelimitingactor

Whiledripirrigationandsprinklersareusedthere

isstillthepossibilityoimprovingeciencyOverall

oirrigationwaterisdrawnromaquiers

Unortunatelygroundwatercontaminationasaresult

oagriculturalactivityisevidentincoastalareasMeasurementsindicatethatogroundwater

resourceshaveincreasedlevelsonitratessodium

magnesiumcalciumandsulatewhicharethe

chemicalcomponentsotheertilizersused Livestock

productionalsocontributestopollutionlevels

Climate change, climatic variations andwater-related natural disastersAnalysisorainalloverthepasteightyyearsshows

aslightlyincreasingtrendinannualprecipitationand

rainallintensityAnnualprecipitationincreasedrom

mminthestomorethanmminthe

sTheextremevalueodailyprecipitationhasalso

increasedbymmbetweenandThedaily

precipitationommrecordedduringtyphoon

NariinSeptembercorrespondedtotherainall

intensityoaonce-in-a-thousand-yearevent

Therehasbeena°Cincreaseinaveragewinter

temperaturessincethesAsaresultboththe

depthosnowathighelevations(suchasMountHalla)andthetotalnumberodaysosnowallhave

beentrendingdownwardsSincetheaverage

annualrateosea-levelrisearoundJejuIslandhas

beenapproximatelymmwhichisaboutthree

timestheglobalaverageBecauseothisriseand

theaccompanyingseawaterintrusionthequalityo

groundwaterisdeteriorating–particularlyaroundthe

coastwherethepopulationdensityisthehighest

Intermsowaterrelatednaturaldisastersrom

toJejuIslandwashittimesbytyphoonsTheseasonalvariationinprecipitationresultsinoodsin

summeranddroughtduringotherseasonsInact

heavyrainallotenaccompaniedbytyphoonsbrings

aboutoannualprecipitationbetweenApril

andOctoberOverthelastyearstherequency

andtheintensityooodsanddroughtshasbeen

increasing(Figure )Thesocio-economicimpact

osuchnaturaldisastersisurtheraggravatedbyland-usechangesespeciallyduetodevelopmentin

mountainousareasForexampleinSeptember

heavyrainallromTyphoonNaricausedamajorood

necessitatingtheevacuationomorethan

inhabitantsThirteenpeoplelosttheirlivesinthe

oodsandthecostopropertydamagewasaround

US$millionThispromptedlocalgovernment

torevisetheexistingmasterplantoprovidebetter

protectionagainstextremeevents(Box )

EventhoughtheannualmeanprecipitationishighinJejutheIslandotenexperiencesdroughtcausedby

thelargevariationsinrainallConsequentlytobeable

tobettermanagegroundwaterresourcesandcarry

outdroughtimpactassessmentsacomprehensive

real-timemonitoringnetworkhasbeenputinplace

tocollectinormationoncriticalvariablesnotablythe

groundwaterlevelTheinormationcollectedallows

theauthoritiestotakeappropriateactionsuchas

limitingtheuseogroundwatertominimizetherisk

odegradationoaquiersthroughseawaterintrusion

andcontamination

Water resources managementAllaspectsowatermanagementromresource

developmenttopolicymakingandimplementation

arethedirectresponsibilityothewaterandsewage

administrationothelocalgovernmentGrowing

concernsabouthowtoprotectgroundwaterresources

romover-pumpingandpotentialseawaterintrusion

promptedthedevelopmentoaspecialActin

whichlaidtherameworkorgroundwatermanagementandregulatedthedrillingowellsOther

administrativemeasuresincludedregularwater-quality

inspectionsacrosstheislandandataxincreaseor

groundwateruseIntheJejuWaterResources

DevelopmentPlanledtotheestablishmentoamulti-

regionwatersupplysystemTherstphaseothe

systemwascompletedinensuringasupplyo

m³owateradayromourteengroundwater

abstractionsitesontheeastotheislandThesecond

phasewaslaunchedinGiventheimportanceo

groundwaterresourcesinthelocalgovernmentputaspecicmanagementplaninplacetopromote












































































































theimprovedmaintenanceowellsmoreecientuse

owaterinagricultureandthediversicationowater

resourcesdevelopmentFollowingstructuralreormsin

aheavilyragmentedcityandcountyapproach

towater-resourcesmanagementwasabandoned

andreplacedbytheconsolidationoallunctionsin

theJejuWaterSupplyandDrainageManagement

HeadquartersThisinadditiontobettermanagement

owatersupplyhelpedinthestandardizationo

environmentalpracticesthroughtheadoptionoISOWithinthiscontextsewage-relatedoperations

previouslyadministeredbycitieswereintegrated

intoregionalsystemsintoensureamore

environmentallyconsciousoverallapproach

Waterpricingisalsogearedtowardsdiscouraging

themisuseoscarcewaterresourcesInlinewith

guidelinessetbycentralgovernmentthosewater

rateshavebeenincreasinggraduallywiththe

eventualaimoreachingullcostrecoveryAso

theunitpriceowatercorrespondedtooitsestimatedcost

ThelocalgovernmenthasplanstoinvestoverUS$

millionoveratimespanotwentyyears(–)

onwatersupplyandinrastructureimprovementA

limitedportionotheseundswillcomeromthe

privatesectorInactpublicprivatepartnershipsand

privatizationocertainservicessuchastheoperation

osewagetreatmentplantsarebecomingmoreand

morecommonAsaresultarangeostrategiesis

currentlyunderdevelopmenttopromotegreater

involvementbytheprivatesector Water and ecosystemsJejuProvinceisrichinoraandaunaForexample

theGotjawalForest(locatedonthemiddleslopes

oHallaMountain)coversapproximatelyothe

islandandislistedasaninternationallyimportant

wetlandundertheRamsarConventionThenear-

shoreotheislandprovidesathrivingenvironmentor

itsreportedinvertebrateanimalspeciesamuch

highernumberthaninotherpartsoKoreaThewarm

currentsandcoralreeormationsalongthesouthernshoreprovideanidealhabitatorsomedierent

FIGURE 43.1

JejuIsland:water-relateddisastersto*

* Including typhoon, food, and heavy snow; Casualties include victims, death and disappearances.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

C a s ul a t i e s ( P e r s on s )

T o t a l d a m a g e ( Mi l l i on U

S $ )

N o .

o f d i s a s t e r s

120

~

~

No. of disastersTotal damage (Million US$)Casualties (Persons)





































































































































TABLE 43.2

AccesstoimprovedwatersupplyinJejuProvince

WithgrowingpopulationdensityextendedlanduseandmorerequentweatherextremesJejuIslandisbecomingmuch

morevulnerabletowater-relateddisastersConsequentlythelocalgovernmentestablishedacomprehensivemasterplanor

oodcontrolinwhichshitedtheemphasisinextreme-eventmanagementtoanapproachwhichemphasizedsharing

thewatershedwithnatureThisinvolvedthepreparationosite-specicoodcontrolplansthatcombinedbothstructural(suchasstream-beddredgingbuildingoembankmentsdamsetc)andnon-structuralmeasures(includingaoodorecast

andwarningsystem)theimprovementoresidentialland-useplanningandtheintroductionoaoodinsurancesystemthat

tookintoaccounttheeectsoclimatechange

Howevertheheavysocio-economiclossassociatedwithTyphoonNaripromptedtheexpansionothatcoveragetoinclude

individualstreamsinFortherststageotheplanageneraldisasterpreventionschemewasdevelopedorour

streams(theHantheByeongmuntheSanjiandtheDoksa)intheoldsectionothecapitalJeju-siwherethetyphoon

damagewasmostsevereAsaresultoodmitigationreservoirswithatotalvolumeom³wereplannedand

partiallyconstructedNeartheHanstreamtwoothesereservoirswereconnectedtoarticialgroundwaterrechargesys-

temstoaugmentthereplenishmentothisvitalresourceDebrisbarriersandscreenswerealsoputinplacetopreventthe

cloggingochannelsinthestream

BOX 43.1

Managementtoolsagainstextremeevents

speciesoshTheislandisalsohometomany

birdspeciesmammalsreptilesandamphibians

Unortunatelyuncontrolledhuntinginthepastalong

withover-useoagriculturalchemicalsandrapid

urbanizationhasdoneconsiderableandirreversible

damagetoecosystemsIntermsoeco-parks

Mulyeongari-oreuminSeogwipo-sibecametherst

protectedareainKoreawiththeenactmentonew

wetlandprotectionlawsin

Water and settlementsSincethesthenumberoinhabitantsliving

intheisland'sruralareashasremainedthesame

whileitsurbanpopulationhassteadilyincreasedIn

approximatelyotheisland’spopulation

livedinurbansettlementsIntermsoaccesstosae

drinkingwateralmostallthepopulationirrespective

owhetheritisurbanorruralisserved(Table

)Averagewaterconsumptionpercapitaper

dayislitres()Minimizinglossesrom

inrastructureisamongthemainprioritiesothelocal

government

Inotheisland’spopulationwas

connectedtocentralizedwaste-watertreatment

acilitiesAtcoverageinurbanareasis

signicantlyhigherthaninruralsettlements

whereonlyothepopulationisconnected

Asubstantialeortwillberequiredbythelocal

administrationtoimprovethisserviceinrural

settlementswhilekeepingupwiththeurbangrowth

Thedailycapacityoallsewagetreatmentacilitiesis

m³()operatingatapproximatelyo

theirdesigncapacity

Population

(person)

Water supply capacity

(m³/day)

Water supply rate

(%)

Daily water

consumption per

capita (litre)

Jeju Province 559,747 316,548 100.0 340

Urban areas 387,885 207,600 100.0 357

Rural areas 171,862 108,948 99.9 302





































































Allocating water between uses and usersWiththeexceptionotheperiodduringthesummer

monsoonsmostoJeju’sriversandstreamsare

ephemeralincharacterHowevernearthecoastand

acrossthemid-slopesoMountHallagroundwater

dischargeromracturesinthebedrockorms

numerousspringsHistoricallyvillageswereestablishedinareaswheresuchspringswere

abundantAsaresultcommunitieslearnedtoshare

suracewaterandgroundwaterinpeacethrough

thecenturiesHoweverwithincreasingdemand

conictshavebeguntoariseWhiletheconstitution

oKoreaandlocallawsinJejuprovidebasicjudicial

andadministrativeguidanceintermsodeveloping

groundwaterspringsandstreamsthelacko

specicityastoairuseandallocationremainsa

problemthatneedstobeaddressedwithurgency

ConclusionsThankstoinvestmenttheoJejuProvincehasmade

signicantprogressintermsosocio-economic

standardswithitsinhabitantsboastingthehighest

longevityinthecountryAquiershavelongprovided

adependablesupplyoreshwaterordevelopment

needsHowevercurrentlevelsousecoupledwith

challengessuchaspollutionseawaterintrusionand

increasingdemandmeanthatmoreeectiveplanning

throughintegratedwaterresourcemanagement

isessentialTherewillalsobeneedoradditional

legislationsupportedbypracticalmechanismsorthe

allocationolimitedwaterresourcesamongcompeting

sectorsJejuIslandisoneotheareasinKoreawith

thehighestrainallandhydro-meteorologicaldata

showsatrendtowardsincreasingintensityThemasterplanoroodcontrolandcontinuingimprovements

ininrastructureprovideastrongbasisordisaster

mitigationintheutureOverallthenecessarynancial

andhumanresourcesareinplacetoaddressthe

water-relatedchallengesacingJejuIsland


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheRepublico

KoreaCaseStudyReportTime or Solutions: An

Assessment o Water Development in Jeju, Korea, a

WWAPstudypreparedortheourth editionothe

United Nations World Water Development Report by

theMinistryoLandTransportandMaritimeAairs

RepublicoKorea(orthcoming)



























































—

Acknowledgements KozueKayNagataArslanSyed

CHAPTER 44

Pakistan, with special reerence

to the Indus River basin

©ShutterstockAsianet-Pakistan











WWDR4 821PAKISTANWITHSPECIALREFERENCETOTHEINDUSRIVERBASIN

MAP 44.1

IndusRiverbasin

Location and general characteristicsPakistanisborderedbyAghanistantothenorth

theArabianSeatothesouthChinatothenorth-

eastIndiatotheeastandtheIslamicRepublico

Irantothesouth-west(Map )Therearethree

majorgeographicalareasthenorthernhighlandsthe

IndusRiverplainandtheBalochistanPlateauThenorthernhighlandsincludepartsotheHimalayas

TheIndusPlainmadeupoalluviumdepositedbythe

IndusRiveranditstributariesstretchesromtheSalt

RangetotheArabianSeaTheBalochistanPlateauis

composedodryhillsanddesertsthatrunromnorth-

easttosouth-west

Pakistanhasasuraceareaokm²and

apopulationoapproximatelymillionpeople

()Thecountryisdividedintoouradministrative

provincesthePunjabSindhKhyberPakhtunkhawandBalochistanaswellasseveralareaswithspecial

administrativestatus

Ingeneraltheclimateisaridandmeanannual

precipitationrangesromlessthanmminparts

otheLowerIndusPlaintoovermminthe

UpperIndusPlainTheMonsoonsandthewestern

disturbances–extratropicalstormsthatoriginatein

theMediterranean–arethemajorsourcesorainall

two-thirdsowhichusuallyallsbetweenJulyand

SeptemberOntheIndusPlainsmostotherainalls

duringtheMonsoonsinearlyJuly

OriginatinginthemountainsotheTibetanPlateauat

analtitudeomabovesealeveltheIndusRiver

isPakistan’smostimportantsourceoreshwaterWithadrainageareaoapproximatelymillionkm²

theIndusRiverbasincoversapproximatelyo

theterritoryoPakistan(FAO–Aquastat a)and

extendsintotheneighbouringcountriesoIndiaChina

andAghanistan

Water resources and potential impact oclimate changeTheIndusRiveranditstributaries(theJhelumthe

ChenabtheRavitheSutlejtheBeasandtheKabul)

haveanaveragecombinedpotentialobillionm³

owaterTheIndusBasinTreatygivesPakistan

exclusiveuseothreewesternrivers(theIndusthe

JhelumandtheChenab)whereasthreeeasternrivers

(theRavitheSutlejandtheBeas)areallocatedto

India(Map )ThePermanentIndusCommission

witharepresentativeromeachcountryservesasthe

regularchannelocommunicationonmattersrelating

totheimplementationotheTreatyparticularlythe

exchangeodataandinormationMostotherivers

Z h o b

C h e n

a b

S u t l e j

I n d

u s

I n d

u s

J h

e l u m

K a b u l

I n d u s

H u b

R a v i

M a s h k

a i

Gom a l

B e a

s

Hamun-i-

Mashkel

Hamun-i-

Mashkel

-- -----

KarachiKarachi

IslamabadIslamabad

KabulKabul

PeshawarPeshawar

LahoreLahore

H INA

H i m

a l a y a s

AFGHAN I S TAN

AK I S TAN

I S LAM IC

REPUBL IC

OF

I R AN

I N D IA

0 100 200 300 km

A R A B I A N S E A

City

Hydroelectric

power plant

National park

Basin

Ramsar site

















































































































































































outsidetheIndusRiverbasinareinsubstantialstreams

whichowonlyduringtherainyseasonanddonot

contributesignicantlytotheavailabilityosurace

water

BeneaththeIndusRiverbasinisanaquierextendingoveranareaokm²Whilethesaeyieldis

estimatedtobeaboutbillionm³thevolumeo

groundwaterabstractionbydierentsectorsincluding

domesticconsumptionisalreadyapproaching

billionm³(FAO–Aquastatb)Overthelasttwo

decadesgroundwaterhasplayedanimportantrolein

sustainingirrigatedagricultureinPakistanwithmore

thanotheirrigationwatercomingrommore

thanonemillionprivatelyownedwellsHoweverthe

currentrateouseisnotsustainableandgroundwater

levelsaredeclininginmanyareas

Himalayanglaciersarethemajorsourceothe

reshwaterthateedstheIndusRiverandits

tributariesAccordingtoclimatechangescenarios

ollowinganinitialperiodohighowscausedby

acceleratedglacialmeltitispredictedthatthe

amountowaterowingintotheIndusRiversystem

maydecreasebyasmuchastowithinthe

nexttwodecadesFurthermoretheeectsoclimate

changeandsiltationmayreducealready-lowreservoir

capacityinthebasinbyTheoverallreduction

inwateravailabilitymaypotentiallyhaveaserious

impactonirrigationThisinturnmayaectood

securitynationwideThereisalreadyconcernabout

orecaststhatincreasingtemperaturesmayreduce

grainyieldsinAsiabytoby(IFPRI

)

ClimatechangeisalsoexpectedtoaecttheSouth

AsianmonsoonAccordingtotheIntergovernmental

PanelonClimateChange(IPCC)anincreaseinrainallouptomayampliytherequencyand

magnitudeooodsTheood(Box )isan

examplethatillustrateshowdevastatingthesocio-

economicimpactosuchcalamitiescanbeatthe

nation-widelevelAmorerecentexamplethe

oodingoSindhprovincehasaectedmillion

peopletodateThenumberodeathshasreached

andoverhomeshavebeendamaged

ordestroyedNearlypeoplethemajorityo

whomarewomenandchildrenarecurrentlyliving

incamps(OCHA)Theseextremeeventsclearlydemonstratethatplanningandmitigationmeasures

arerequiredithecountryistobepreparedtocope

withclimatechangeandclimaticvariations

Water and agricultureInPakistankm² oland(approximately

othecountry)iscultivatedIrrigationisusedonoarablelandnationwideandispractisedmainly

intheIndusRiverbasinTheirrigationsysteminthe

IndusRiverbasinisoneothelargestintheworld

withatotalokmocanalsOverallalmost

oallagriculturalproductionissupportedby

irrigationLivestockproductionisalsowidespread

particularlyinBalochistanprovincewhereitis

responsibleoralmostoagriculturalincome

Whileagriculturalyieldgrewatanaverageannual

rateooverthelastdecadeitscontributiontogrossdomesticproduct(GDP)hasbeensteadily

decreasingovertheyearsInitssharewasdown

towhiletheservicesectorhasgrownto

andindustrytoHowevertheimportanceo

agricultureliesintheactthatitemploysabout

othenation’sworkorcesupportsaboutothe

populationandaccountsormorethanoexport

earnings

Irrigationhashadanegativeimpactonsoilertilityin

thebasinasaresultowaterlogging(oversaturation

osoilbygroundwater)andsoilsalinizationwhich

betweenthemhavealreadyaectedoverkm²

olandTheseproblemsresultromacombination

oseveralactorsincludingseepageromunlined

earthencanalsystemsinadequateprovisionosurace

andsub-suracedrainagepoorwatermanagement

practicesandtheuseopoorqualitygroundwateror

irrigation

AsocialproblemlinkedtoirrigationistheinequityowaterdistributionTheoperationothebasin'sirrigation

systemisbasedonacontinuouswatersupplyandis

notrelatedtoactualcropwaterrequirementsThe

distributionowaterromthecanaloutletsisdone

onaseven-dayrotationalsystem(locallyknownas

warabandi )Farmersareallowedtotakeanentire

owotheoutletonceinsevendaysandoraperiod

proportionaltothesizeotheirlandholdingHowever

thewarabandi systemdiscriminatesagainst‘tail-enders’

whoendupgettingorlesswaterthan‘head-

enders’Thishasseriousimplicationsnotonlyintermsoequitybutintermsocropproductivity











































































































Asaresultoageandneglectmuchothe

inrastructureinthebasin'sirrigationsystemisin

poorshaperesultinginconsiderablelossesacross

thesystemandlowperormanceincarryingwater

tothelowerreachesocanalsManyelementso

thevasthydraulicsystemarenowreachingtheendotheirdesignlivesandhavetoberehabilitated

orreplacedatanestimatedcostoaroundUS$

billionUnortunatelythereisahugebacklogo

deerredrepairandmaintenanceaproblemwhichwas

aggravatedbytheoodso(Box )

Agricultureistheprimaryuserowaterresources

Inactagriculturetookothebillionm

owaterusedinollowedbymunicipaland

industrialuses(FAO–Aquastatb)Projections

clearlyshowthatwatersupplyintheIndusRiverbasinwillgraduallybegintoallshortodemandwiththe

requirementorirrigationwaterexpectedtoriseto

billionminasagainstavailabilityo

billionmThisimminentchallengecallsormore

ecientuseowaterinagriculturetheadoptiono

water-conservationmeasuresandtheaugmentation

owaterstoragecapacityinordertopreventproblems

eedingthegrowingpopulation

Water and healthAccesstosaedrinkingwaterandsanitationin

Pakistanisanissuethatrequiresconsiderable

attentionandinvestmentInaboutothe

urbanpopulationhadaccesstowatersupplies(WHO

UNICEFa)butonlysomeothatnumber

hadhouseholdconnectionsInruralareasalmosthal

othepopulationuseswaterromsourcesthatarenot

properlysuitableorhumanconsumption–sources

suchasstreamscanalsvillagepondsandspringsIn

actanestimatedotheurbanpopulationand

otheruralpopulationdonottreattheirwaterpriortouseInnationaltermstherateoaccessto

sanitationis(WHOUNICEF b)Giventhis

lowvalueitwillbediculttoachievethenational

targetocoveragebyThenancialcost

othediseaseburdenthatislinkedtolackosae

drinkingwaterandpropersanitationisequalto

approximatelyoPakistan’sGDP

Amongthereasonsorsuchlowratesoaccess

towatersupplyandsanitationarelowtarisand

inadequaterevenuecollectionTheseproblemsresultinmeagreinvestmentandthedegradationowater

andsanitationinrastructurecausedbyalacko

periodicalmaintenanceInactwater-relatedpublic

investmentcorrespondstoonlyoGDP(ADB–

APWF)Consequentlytariadjustmentthat

betterreectsthetruevalueowaterandcoversthe

costoserviceprovisionisconsideredvitalicurrentchallengesaretobeaddressed

PovertyisaseriousprobleminPakistanSome

othepopulationlivesonlessthantwodollarsaday

whileanotherlivesonlessthanonedollaraday

Morethanochildrenundervearemalnourished

withothoseseverelyunderweightPoorhealth

inchildrenislinkeddirectlytolackoeducationor

womenAsaresultosubstantialgenderinequalitythe

literacyrateorwomenisjustcomparedtoor

menAndbroadlyspeakingwhiletherehasbeensomesuccessintheghtagainstpovertythedevastation

causedbythemassiveoodin(Box )islikely

tohavehadadetrimentaleectonthistrend

Water and energyThepotentialohydropowergeneratedbytheIndus

RiverisestimatedatMWandoverMW

ortheentireIndusRiversystemWhileonlyo

thatoverallpotentialotheIndusRiveriscurrently

beingtappedthecompletionoprojectsthatare

alreadyunderwayorattheplanningstagewillmean

thattheoverallhydropowergenerationcapacityo

PakistancanbeincreasedtoMW

Withdemandgrowingatanannualrateoand

theabsenceoanyhydropowerdevelopmentsince

theenergymixinPakistanhasshitedtowards

carbon-basedsourcesThishasledtomoreexpensive

electricityandshortagesthataecteverysector

otheeconomyparticularlyindustryCoalreserves

remainasapotentialsourceorthermalenergygeneration

Environment and ecosystemsDespiteitsgenerallyaridclimatetherearemore

thansignicantwetlandsinPakistanOthese

areinternationallyrecognizedundertheRamsar

ConventionTheIndusRiveranditsoodplainsorm

themainaxisothesewetlandsbothman-madeand

naturalwhichcoveratotalareaoapproximately

km²InadditiontheTharThalCholistanKharan

andIndusValleydesertsalsosupportawiderangeoanimalandplantspeciesInalltherearethreatened




















































































































speciesowetlandsdependentmammalsincluding

theIndusRiverdolphinThereisnowaveryrealthreat

tothetwentybirdspeciestwelvespeciesoreptile

twoendemicspeciesoamphibianandmorethan

indigenousreshwatershspeciesthataresupported

byPakistan’swetlands

TheIndusRiverbasinwetlandsinadditiontotheir

intrinsicvalueasarichsourceobiodiversityalso

contributetotheghtagainstpovertythroughtheraw

materialstheyproducethathelptosustainsubsistence

living

Whileorestcoverisonlyaroundbusinesses

associatedwithorestryemployalmosthalamillion

peopleFuel-woodproductionwhichprovides

onethirdothecountry’snationalenergyneedsis

unortunatelyoneothemajorcausesoshrinking

orestsThecontinuinglossooresthabitatandthe

associatedaunaandorahaveseriousimplications

ortheregion’secosystemsaswellasortheght

againstpoverty

ThewaterqualityotheIndusanditsmaintributariesdeterioratestowardstheirdownstreamendasaresult

omunicipalandindustrialcontaminantsandreturn

Pakistanexperiencedtorrentialrainallbetweenmid-

JulyandSeptember Thiscausedtheworstoods

sincewhichaectedtheentirecountryThesocio-

economicimpactothedisasterwasoverwhelmingAccordingtotheNationalDisasterManagementAuthority

(NDMA) peoplediedandovermillionwere

displacedManyothosedisplacedsueredromvari-

ousmaladiesincludingatleastcasesoacute

diarrhoeacasesoacuterespiratoryinection

nearlyamillioncasesoskindiseaseandalmost

casesosuspectedmalariaFlashoodsandlandslides

triggeredbytheraincausedseveredamagetoinrastruc-

tureurbansettlementsandagriculturalproduction

AccordingtotheWorldBank–AsianDevelopmentBank

jointdamageandneedsassessmenttheoverallrecov-eryandreconstructioncostassociatedwiththeoodsis

expectedtobebetweenUS$billionandUS$bil-

lionwhichincludesestimatedcostsorrelieearlyrecov-

eryandmediumtolong-termreconstruction

Source: Adapted rom ADB RelieWeb (2010) and CNN (2010).

BOX 44.1

TheFloodinPakistan

waterromirrigationwhichispollutedwithertilizers

Howeverthedissolvedoxygenlevelinallrivers

remainshigherthanthethresholdvalueomgl

Water resources managementAttheederalleveltheMinistryoWaterandPower

isresponsibleorwaterandenergy-relatedissuesTheWaterandPowerDevelopmentAuthoritywas

establishedinasagovernment-ownedpublic

instituteortheplanningdesignandimplementation

oirrigationdrainageandpowerprojects

Uptothedistributionoirrigationwaterto

armersthecollectionowatereesandtherepair

andmaintenanceotheirrigationinrastructure

wastheresponsibilityotheProvincialIrrigation

DepartmentsHoweverollowingagovernmental

reormbackednanciallybytheWorldBanktoaddressproblemsinirrigatedagricultureandwater

managementtheProvincialIrrigationDepartments

weretransormedintonewlyestablishedautonomous

ProvincialIrrigationandDrainageAuthoritiesAsa

partothisreormatthemainandbranchcanals

levelcommerciallyorientedAreaWaterBoardswere

establishedAtthesametimetheoperationand

managementothesystematdistributorandminor

levelswashandedovertoindependentlyelected

armerorganizationsOverallatotaloarmer

organizationshavebeenormedowhichhave

takenoverthemanagementoirrigationsystems

Theseorganizationsareresponsibleorcollecting

waterchargessettlingwater-relateddisputesand

supplyingirrigationwaterequitablyandecientlyto

usersWhilecollectionorevenuesincreasedinitiallyit

graduallyellback(insomecasesbyasmuchas)

becauseothelackotechnicalassistanceprovided

toarmerorganizationsbygovernmentagenciesand

insucientundsbeingallocatedortheirecient

unctioningUnortunatelythissituationraisesquestionsaboutthelong-termsustainabilityoarmer

organizationsinPakistan

ConclusionsTheIndusRiversystemistheliebloodoPakistan

Itisthemajorsourceoreshwaterthatallowsthe

countrytothriveinanotherwisearidenvironment

Irrigatedagricultureistheonlywaytosecurethe

oodproductionthatisnecessarytoeedagrowing

populationHoweverthecountryisnowacing

criticalproblemssuchasdeterioratinginrastructurethatcausessignicantlossesduringirrigationwater

transerlowagriculturalproductivityandawater






































































































managementsystemthatisunabletoadequately

addressthechallengesonthegroundWater-use

projectionsshowclearlythatunderabusiness-as-

usualscenariowaterdemandwillexceedsupplyby

Climaticvariationsandclimatechangecoupled

withlowwaterstoragecapacitymayurtheraggravate

thissituationConsequentlyitiscrucialtodevelopnewstrategiesandpoliciesthattakeintoaccountthe

potentialeectsoprojectedclimatechangewitha

viewtopromotingsustainablewateruseinallsectors

Thiswillhelptoensureoodsecurityhelpintheght

againstwidespreadpovertyandhelptoprotectthe

environment


Notes

CholistanDesertwascoveredasacasestudyinUnited NationsWorld Water Development Report 3 (WWAP)httpwebworldunescoorgwaterwwapwwdrwwdrcase_studiespdCase_Studies_AsiaPacicpd#page=


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromthePakistan Water

Development Report preparedinbyUNESCO

IslamabadOce(unpublished)

ADB–APWF(AsianDevelopmentBank–Asia-PacicWaterForum) Asian Water Development Outlook 2007.ManilaADBwwwadborgdocumentsbooksawdocrpd(Accessed June)

ADBRelieWebPakistan Floods 2010: Preliminary Damage and Needs Assessment ManilaADBhttpreliewebintnode(AccessedJune)

CNNPakistanooddamageestimatedat$billionCNN World Octoberhttparticlescnncom--worldpakistanoodcost__southern-sindh-province-malaria-cases-world-bank?_s=PMWORLD(AccessedJune)

FAO–Aquastata. Country Prole: PakistanRomeFAOhttpwwwaoorgnrwateraquastatcountries_regionspakistanindexstm(Accessed June)

––––bCountry Fact Sheet: PakistanRomeFAOhttpwwwaoorgnrwateraquastatcountries_regionsindexstm(Accessed July)

IFPRI(InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute)

Threatstosecurityrelatedtooodagricultureandnaturalresourceswhattodo?WashingtonDCIFPRIhttpwwwipriorgpublicationthreats-security-related-ood-agriculture-and-natural-resources-what-do(Accessed July)

OCHA(UnitedNationsOceortheCoordinationoHumanitarianAairs)Pakistan Floods: Rapid Response Plan. SeptemberGenevaOCHAhttppakresponseinoLinkClickaspx?leticket=ItqeJaMD&tabid=&mid=(AccessedNovember)

WHOUNICEF(WorldHealthOrganizationandUnitedNationsChildren’sFund)aEstimates or the Use o

Improved Drinking Water. JointMonitoringProgrammeorWaterSupplyandSanitationGenevaSwitzerlandandNewYorkWHOandUNICEFhttpwwwwssinoorgleadminuser_uploadresourcesPAK_watpd(AccessedJuly)

––––bData and Estimates Table. JointMonitoringProgrammeorWaterSupplyandSanitationGenevaSwitzerlandandNewYorkWHOandUNICEFhttpwwwwssinoorgdata-estimatestable(Accessed July)



















http://webworld.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/case_studies/pdf/Case_Studies_AsiaPacific.pdf#page=13






http://www.adb.org/documents/books/awdo/2007/cr08.pdf






http://reliefweb.int/node/374745





http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-14/world/pakistan.flood.cost_1_southern-sindh-province-malaria-cases-world-bank?_s=PM:WORLD







http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/pakistan/index.stm





http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/index.stm







http://www.ifpri.org/publication/threats-security-related-food-agriculture-and-natural-resources-what-do






http://pakresponse.info/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=1Itqe86Ja9M%3D&tabid=41&mid=597







http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/PAK_wat.pdf











http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/
























































—

Acknowledgements JaroslavPlainerMichalVrabecJoseHladný

CHAPTER 45

Czech Republic

©ShutterstockLianeM










WWDR4 827CZECHREPUBLIC

MAP 45.1

CzechRepublic

Location and general characteristicsTheCzechRepublicisaninlandcountrylocatedin

centralEuropeItsneighboursarePolandtothenorth-

eastGermanytothewestAustriatothesouthand

Slovakiatothesouth-east(Map )Thetotalarea

otheCzechRepublicisaround km²In

itstotalpopulationwasapproximately millionItshighestpointisSněžkaatanaltitudeo mabove

sealevelissituatedinthemountainsinthenortho

thecountryThelowestpointisintheLabeValley

wheretheLabeRiverleavestheCzechRepublicat

analtitudeo mabovesealevelTheaverageair

temperatureothecountryis°C

Water resources, their use and managementBecauseoitsrelativelyhighaltitudeandclimatic

conditionstheCzechRepublicreceivesanaverageo

mmoprecipitationannuallyTherearemorethanriversthathavebasinso km²orlargerThese

includethesourcesoanumberomajorEuropean

riverssuchastheElbe(LabeinCzech)theOder

(OdrainCzech)andtheMoravawhichisatributary

otheDanubeTheElbehasthelargestbasininthe

CzechRepublicollowedbytheMoravaandtheOder

(Table )TheseriversdischargeintotheNorthSea

theBlackSeaandtheBalticSearespectively

Groundwaterresourcestendtobeunconnedor

slightlyartesianincharacterandusuallynotvery

deepbelowthesuraceThelargestusableaquiers

arelocatedinthelowlandsGroundwateraccountsor

approximatelyototalavailablewaterthereore

itsimportanceintermsooverallwatersupplyis

relativelylowBecauseoitshighqualityhowevergroundwaterisrequentlyusedasdrinkingwater

Thehighestdemandorsuracewatercomesrom

theenergysectormainlyoruseinthermaland

nuclearpowerplantsThelevelsodemandorwater

orindustrialusedrinkingwaterandsanitation

(includingsettlementsandanimalarms)arebroadly

comparableAgriculturaldemandislowbecause

cropproductionmainlydependsonrainallWith

theexceptionoenergyproductiontherehasbeen

adecliningtrendinwateruseinallsectorssince

(Figure )Risingwaterpricesandthe

TABLE 45.1

Basiccharacteristicsomajorriverbasinsinthe

CzechRepublic

*Morava basin at Strážnice, upstream o the Dyje river

Elbe

basin

Morava*

basin

Oder

basin

Extent o the

basin (km²)

51,410 24,109 4,715

Average annual

discharge (m³/s)

309 59.6 48.1

M z e

Ú h l

a v a

S á z a v a

E l b e

L a b e O h re

a y a

O d e r

O t a v a

R a d b

u z a

E l b e

B er o u n k a

B l a n i

c e J i h l a v a

M o r

a v a

V l t

a v a

M z e

Ú h l

a v a

S á z a v a

E l b e

L a b e O h re

a y a

O d e r

O t a v a

R a d b

u z a

E l b e

B er o u n k a

B l a n i

c e J i h l a v a

M o r

a v a

V l t

a v a

POLAND

ERMANY

LOVAK I A

US TR I A

LipnoLipnoLipnoBudweisBudweis

BrnoBrno

Ústí nad Labem

Ústí nad Labem

Hradec KrálovéHradec Králové

OstravaOstravaPardubicePardubice

KarlovyVary

KarlovyVary

LiberecLiberec

ZlínZlín

OlomoucOlomouc

PraguePrague

JihlavaJihlava

Pilsen

City

Hydroelectricpower plant

National park


Dam

Basin

Ramsar site

0 60 km20 40



























































































































































































































































































828 EUROPEANDNORTHAMERICACHAPTER

increaseduseoadvancedtechnologyhaveboth

contributedtothisdeclineForexamplein

waterabstractionwasalmostlessthanin

Inparalleltheunitpriceodrinkingwaterandwater

orsanitationroseromapproximatelyUS$

intoUS$inAsanetoutcome

wastewatergenerationdroppedbybetween

and

WaterresourcesmanagementintheCzechRepublic

involveslocalregionalandnationalauthoritiesAt

nationallevelresponsibilityisspreadbetweenthe

ministriesoagriculturetheenvironmenttheinterior

healthandtransportThemanagementoimportant

watercoursessuchastheVltavatheElbetheOhřetheMoravaandtheOderisentrustedtotheRiver

BasinBoardsestablishedbythegovernmentTheir

maintaskistooperateandmaintainthemajorwater

structuressuchasdamsreservoirsweirsandlocks

InthatcontextkeylegislationincludestheWater

Act(NoColl)andtheWaterSupplyand

SewerageSystemsorPublicNeedsAct(No

Coll)InActNocameintoorceamending

theWaterLawTheseactstogetherwiththeEuropean

UnionWaterFrameworkDirectiveestablishedthe

rameworkorcommunityactionintheeldowaterpolicy

Climate change and hydrologic extremesWhilethereareclimatechangescenariosorcentral

Europenoneothesehasbeenabletoproduce

reliablemodelsthatcanbeusedtopredictchangesin

precipitationandhydrologicalconditionsInactthere

havebeennostatisticallysignicanttrendsavailable

ormonthlyorannualprecipitationintheCzech

Republicsince(EEA)

Floodsarerequentbutarenotaregular

phenomenonIntheperiodromtotheir

requencyincreasedsomewhatandtheoodsin

andwereamongthemostseriousinthe

country’shistoryThereisacomprehensivemechanism

inplaceoroodpreventionemergencyresponseandprotectionwhichinvolveslocalregionalandnational

authoritiesTheCentralFloodProtectionCommittee

whichoperatesatthehighestlevelisappointedby

thegovernmentInlinewiththeEUFloodDirective

(EU)theCzechRepublicisincompliance

withtherequirementsooodriskassessmentThis

isaprocessinwhichthecountryhasdrawnonits

experienceandpreviousknowledgeintheeldo

naturaldisasterrelatedriskmanagement

DroughtalsooccursinrequentlyintheCzechRepublicShortperiodsodroughtoccurmostlyinthesecond

FIGURE 45.1

SuracewaterabstractionintheCzechRepublicbetweenand

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1 9 8 0

1 9 8 2

1 9 8 4

1 9 8 6

1 9 8 8

1 9 9 0

1 9 9 2

1 9 9 4

1 9 9 6

1 9 9 8

2 0 0 0

2 0 0 2

2 0 0 4

2 0 0 6

2 0 0 8

W a t e r u s e ( i n m i l l i o n m 3 )

Energy

Industry

Municipal

(Water supply

and sanitation)

Agriculture

Other uses

2 0 1 0






















































































































































































WWDR4 829CZECHREPUBLIC

halothevegetationseasonTheworstdroughtin

thetwentiethcenturywasinwhentherecorded

rainalldecitinBohemiaduringthevegetationperiod

reachedalmostothelong-termaverageWithin

thelast yearstherehavebeenvevegetation

seasonswithsimilarrainalldecits

Water and the environmentWaterusedinindustryandortheproductiono

electricityisreturnedalmostentirelytotherivers

Howeverdischargedwateris‘thermallypolluted’

(thatisitiswarmerthantheambienttemperature

onormalwaterbodies)Suchelevatedwater

temperaturemaycausevariationsindissolved

oxygenlevelswhichadverselyaectsecosystems

Theinuenceoothertypesoindustry–particularly

chemicalpulp-paperandsteelactories–onwater

qualitywassignicantinthepastbecauseotheabsenceowastewatertreatmentsystemsHowever

intheswaterqualitybegantoimprovegradually

asaresultorestrictionsonindustrialwastewater

dischargeandtheintroductionoadvancedtreatment

technologiesIntheproportionopollution

causedbyindustrywasapproximatelyor

tonnesBythisproportionhaddropped

toalmostorapproximately tonnes

Fromthesgrowthinagricultureandthe

increaseduseoertilizersinsecticidesandherbicides

causedsoilandwaterpollutionFollowingthepolitical

changesthattookplaceinagriculturalpolicies

thathadbeenpartotheormersocialistregime’s

‘plannedeconomy’wereabandonedAgricultural

modernizationaswellastheprivatizationand

restitutionopropertyledtoreducedwaterdemand

romtheagriculturesectorOverallagricultural

productionhasdroppedbyaboutFurther

developmentoagriculturehasbeenaectedbythe

CzechRepublic’smembershipotheEuropeanUnion(EU)Asacombinedresultothesechangestheuse

oarticialertilizershasbeendropping

Alongsidethesocialandpoliticalchangeso

theprinciplesoenvironmentalprotectionhavebeen

introducedandimplementedrigorouslyTheNatureand

LandscapeAct(No)cameintoorceinandthe

ProgrammeorRevitalizationotheRiverSystemswas

introducedthesameyearTheCzechRepublicjoinedthe

EUinandsincethenhasbeenboundbytheEU

WaterFrameworkDirectiveThishasalsocontributedtoanoverallimprovementinenvironmentalconditions

ConclusionsApartromlocalshortagestheavailabilityowater

resourcesissucientintheCzechRepublicInthe

sandswaterqualitydeterioratedrapidly

asaresultoboomingwaterdemandanddischarges

owastewaterromindustryagricultureandhuman

settlementsHoweverpoliticalreormsinitiatedinthesbegantoreducethatdemandandthe

associatedpollutionThispositivetrendgainedurther

momentumollowingEUaccessionThenational

watermanagementpolicyreectsthetopprioritieso

thecountrysustainablemanagementoreshwater

resourcesandtheprotectionoecosystemsCzech

Republicisnowworkingtowardsmeetingthetargets

otheEUWaterFrameworkDirective


Notes

ThismeasurementindicatesthecorrespondingBODvalue

BODisanindexusedtoassessaquaticorganicpollutionand

commonlyusedtomonitororganicloadorenvironmentalandprocesscontrolinindustry


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheCzechRepublic

CaseStudyReportWater and Water Resources in

the Czech Republic preparedinbytheCzech

NationalCommitteeortheInternationalHydrological

ProgrammeoUNESCO(orthcoming)

EEA(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency)Czech Republic:Climate Change Mitigation.httpwwweeaeuropaeusoercountriesczsoertopic_view?topic=climatechange(AccessedNovember)

























































































http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/cz/soertopic_view?topic=climate%20change












—

Acknowledgements MarseilleProvenceMétropole

–WaterandSanitationAgency

CHAPTER 46

Marseille Provence Métropole

Urban Community, France

©ShutterstockGiancarloLiguori












WWDR4 831MARSEILLEPROVENCEMÉTROPOLEURBANCOMMUNITYFRANCE

MAP 46.1

MarseilleProvenceMétropoleUrbanCommunity

Location and general characteristicsTheMarseilleProvenceMétropole(MPM)Urban

Communitywascreatedinandishometo

approximatelyonemillioninhabitantsTheMPMis

locatedintheProvence-Alpes-Côted’Azurregion

oFranceontheshoresotheMediterraneanSea

Itcoversasuraceareaokm²comprisingthecityoMarseilleandeighteenmunicipalities

concentratingotheregion’spopulationonjust

overoitsterritory(Map)Marseillealone

France’ssecond-largestcityaterParisextendsover

anareaokm²

TheMPMliesinthetemperatezoneandhasa

MediterraneanclimateAverageannualrainallis

aroundmmwhichisconcentratedintoaperiod

oapproximatelydaysmostlyinthespringand

autumnmonthsasviolentlocalizedprecipitationTheareaissubjecttosummerdroughts

Water resources, their management andsanitationTheregionalproverbEici, l’aigo es d’or (herewateris

gold)clearlyillustratestheshortageotheresource

Inactthelackowaterandthehealthconsequences

thatunderliethishavebeentheprincipalcauseo

severeepidemicsinthepastsuchastheoutbreaks

obubonicplagueinand andthecholera

epidemicsinand–allowhichresultedin

signicantnumbersodeaths

Toalleviatewaterscarcityadiversioncanallocally

knownasCanaldeMarseillewasbeguninto

transertheowotheDuranceRivertothecityo

MarseilleTodaythemainarteryothecanalis

kmlonganditsminorarteriesextendover

kmThecanalsystemcomprisestwodamsanumber

oundergroundcanalsandtwentyaqueductsThecapacityothecanalhasalmosttripledsincethe

middleothenineteenthcenturyromm³sto

m³s–althoughtheowvariesdependingonseasonal

conditionsandonanallocationagreementbetween

theCityoMarseilleandthenationalutilitycompany

ElectricitédeFrance

Onaveragethecanalprovidesmillionm³owater

peryeartomillioninhabitantsinmunicipalities

Todaythecanalaccountsortwo-thirdsothewater

broughttoMarseillewiththerestcomingromtheVerdonRiverthroughtheCanaldeProvence

Undergroundwaterresourcesarealsousedinthe

MPMtoincreasewateravailabilityinMarseilleand

toprovidedrinkingwatertothetownsoAubagne

andGemenosAsaresultprotectionzonesarebeing

establishedtominimizetheriskopollutionosurace

waterandgroundwaterresourcesincludingthe

networkotheCanaldeMarseille

AnnualwaterconsumptionintheMPMisabout

millionm³owhichisprocessedinwastewater

treatmentplantsbeorebeingreleasedbackintothe

C a n a l d

e M a

r s e i l l e

C a n a

l d e P r o v e n c e

Marseille

Berre

Lagoon

10 km

The Calanques

MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

City

National park

MPM

Protected area

FRANCE




















































































































environmentSinceMarseille’swatersupplyhas

beenmanagedbytheSociétédesEauxdeMarseille

ThishasincludedtheoperationotheCanalde

Marseilleaswellastheproductionanddistributiono

drinkingwaterTheSocietedesEauxdeMarseillea

privatecompanyalsomanageswatersupplyino

theMPM’smunicipalitiesMarseille’srstlarge-scalesewersystemthecombinedlengthowhichis

kmwascompletedinThesewernetworkhas

beenextendedimprovedandmodernizedoverthe

pasthundredyears

Therstphysico-chemicaltreatmentplantwas

putintoserviceinIntheMPMUrban

Communitycompletedtheconstructionooneo

theworld’slargestundergroundbiologicaltreatment

acilities–aninvestmentosomeUS$million

SincethemanagementotheCityoMarseille’ssanitationsystem(sewageandstorm-water)hasbeen

delegatedtoaprivatecompanyInseventeenothe

otherMPMmunicipalitiessanitationservicesarealso

almostexclusivelyprovidedbyprivatecompanieson

anoperationandmaintenancebasis

Toensurethatthewatersupplyissecurepotential

risksareconstantlybeingevaluated–toprevent

orexampleaccidentalpollutionandailureinthe

puricationplantsordistributionnetworkSuch

studieshaveprovidedthebasisopreparationoa

ve-yearwaterplanTheplanissubmittedtotheMPM

UrbanCommunity'selectedrepresentativeswho

selecttheprojectsthataretobecarriedoutTherst

MPMplanwasapprovedinandrepresentedan

investmentoUS$millionThegoalothisplan

wastoidentiytheweaknessesotheregion’sdrinking

watersupplysystemandhelptorectiythemSome

otheanalysissectionothisplanwasachieved

andotheprojectimplementationwascompleted

bytheendoTheMPMUrbanCommunityisnowpreparingasecondve-yearplanthistimewiththe

objectiveoensuringwatersecurityorallthemember

municipalitiesThebudgetorthenewplanhasnotyet

beenestablished

Climate change and risk managementAlthoughwaterresourcesarelimitedoccasional

heavyrainallintheautumnandwintermaycause

severeoodsTheDuranceRiverinparticularhas

causedrequentandviolentoodsSimilarlyintense

precipitationcausesoodsinMarseilleToaddressthesechallengestheMPMonbehalotheCityo

Marseillehasintroducedastrategythatcombines

regulatoryarrangementsandcrisismanagement

Otherdevelopmentstoohavehelpedtomitigate

climatechangeeects–anextensivehydrographic

networkwithsensorstransmittingdatainrealtime

riverchannelimprovementsandtheconstruction

ooodcontrolreservoirsCurrentlytheretentioncapacityothereservoirsinMarseilleis m³

andtheMPMUrbanCommunityisstudyingthe

easibilityoconstructingmoretoprovidean

additionalstorageo m³

Intheeldoriskmanagementraisingpublic

awarenessandinvolvinglocalresidentsarehigh

prioritiesForexampleinthedistrictoSaintLoupan

SMS-basedinormationsystemwassetupollowing

themudslidesinThisistoinormresidentso

hazardoussituationsasquicklyaspossibleandtomakethemanintegralpartocivilsecurityoperations

Whileanalysisohydrometeorologicaldatagathered

bytheMPMUrbanCommunitydoesnotshowany

specictrendthatpointstoclimatechangethelikely

consequencesoclimatechange–suchasrisesinsea

levelsandtheacceleratedmeltingothesnowandice

thateedtheriversbringingwatertotheMPM–could

beseriousSwollenriverscouldoodbecausethe

storagecapacityoreservoirsmightnotbesucient

toregulatehigherowratesandrisingsealevels

couldcauseseawaterintrusionintocoastalaquiers

andsewersystemweirsRecentstudiespointoutthe

needtoidentiyoodproneareasandadaptwater

workstobeabletomitigatetheeectsoapotential

changeinrainallregimeOntheotherhandthe

oodingocoastalsettlementsislesslikelybecauseo

Marseille’stopography

Environmental protection and use o

modern technologyEnvironmentalprotectionandtheoptimizationo

wateruseisapermanentpriorityortheMPMUrban

CommunityConsequentlytheollowingmeasureshas

beentaken

• UnusedwaterintheCanaldeMarseilleisnow

returnedtotheenvironment;

• Inspectionstodetectinrastructureleaksarecarried

outperiodically;

• Out-datedleadconnectionshavebeenchanged;

• Thesewernetworkismaintainedregularly;and

• Street-cleaningvehiclesarespeciallydesignedtominimizewateruse











































































































WWDR4 833MARSEILLEPROVENCEMÉTROPOLEURBANCOMMUNITYFRANCE

AsaresultaverageannualwateruseintheMPM

hasremainedrelativelystableovertheyears

(Figure )TheMPMUrbanCommunityalsodeals

withwastewatermanagementthroughoperating

kmoseweragenetworksandwastewater

treatmentplantsMoreoveritmonitorstheimpactthat

dischargeshaveonthemarineenvironment

Drinkingwaterproductionandwastewatertreatment

plantsintheMPMareupgradedregularlyinlinewith

regulatoryrequirementsandtechnologicaladvances

(Box )Forexamplethedrinkingwaterproduction

plantatSainteMarthewhichwasbuiltinstill

complieswithcurrentstandardsInadditionthesewage

treatmentplantatEnsuès-la-Redonnehasbeenusing

advancedbio-reactortechnologysinceHowever

inspiteothesophisticatedtechnologyutilizedtreatedwastewaterisnotre-usedintheMPMbecauseo

potentialenvironmentalandsanitaryrisks

Allmajormodernizationprojectsaswellasmaintenance

operationsaresubjecttopublicconsultationThese

aresubmittedorapprovaltotheRegionalCommittee

ortheEnvironmentandtotheregionalandnational

commissionsthatoverseesiteswitharecognized

naturalecologicalorculturalvalueThiscanleadto

changesintheproposedprojectsForexamplea

projecttomodernizethesludgeacilityotheMarseillewastewatertreatmentplantwhichislocatedininthe

FIGURE 46.1

EvolutionowaterconsumptionintheMPMromto

Asapartoitsenvironmentallyconsciousapproach

varioussourcesorenewableenergyareusedtoreduce

emissionsintheMPMForexampletheSainteMarthedrinkingwaterplantisequippedwithaturbinethat

generatesenoughelectricityortheacilitytobesel-

sucientiAnotherturbinewasinstalledontheBatarelle

maindownstreamotheVallonDolreservoir iiThe

Marseillewastewatertreatmentplantusesthermophile

anaerobicdigestiontoproducemethanethatisusedin

theplantorthermalprocessesorwheneconomically

easibletoproduceelectricityiii

TheMPMUrbanCommunityisalsostudyingthe

possibilityocapturingtheenergythatiscontainedin

wastewaterthroughtheinstallationoheatexchangers

Implementationotheseinnovativemethodsisbeingprioritizedintheconstructiononewinrastructureor

inmodernizingthecurrentsewernetworkThesitesare

selectedaccordingtotheirpotentialintermsoconnected

populationequivalent(PE)iv

i Mean annual electricity production at Sainte Marthe: 3 million kWh or 266 TOE

ii Mean annual electricity production at Batarelle:820,000 kWh or 70 TOE

iii Production o biogas in the sludge treatment plant:10 million Nm³ in 2010, or 6300 TOE.

iv PE is an estimation o the organic biodegradable load that will

be entering a treatment plant. Thus, it is an estimate o theusage o sewage acilities and not a measure o population.

BOX 46.1

TheuseorenewableenergyintheMPM

85

90

95

100

105

1 9 9

5

1 9 9

7

1 9 9

9

2 0 0 1

2 0 0 3

2 0 0 5

2 0 0 7

2 0 0 9

W a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n ( i n m i l l i o n m 3 )

Annual consumption Average annual consumption

































































































































































classiedsiteotheCalanqueshadtobemodiedto

adapttothebiologicalcharacteristicsothelocalora

andauna

ToensureenvironmentalowtheMPMUrban

CommunityagreedtoallocatewaterromtheCanal

deMarseilletocompensateorlowwaterlevelsinriverssuchastheArcandtheTouloubreollowing

discussionswithlocalstakeholdersandrepresentatives

orelevantgovernmentalorganizations

ConclusionsTheMarseilleProvenceMétropole(MPM)ishometo

alargeurbancommunityinaregionwherewater

isratherlimitedLocaleortstosecurereshwater

resourcesandpropersanitationinrastructurebegan

morethanacenturyagoTheambitiousprojectsthat

havebeencarriedoutsincehaveallowedthepeopleintheregiontoenjoyhighlivingstandardsreeothe

diseasesthatprevailedinthepastThecanals(Canal

deMarseilleandCanaldeProvence)inconjunction

withgroundwaterresourcesprovideasucient

quantityowatertomeetthegrowingdemandThe

challengeistominimizetheenvironmentalootprint

othisurbanconglomeratewhichhasapproximately

onemillioninhabitantsUseomoderntechnology

theintroductionoinnovativeapproachesandthe

handlingooperationandmaintenancebytheprivate

sectormakestheMPMUrbanCommunitycondentoitsabilitytoovercomethedicultiesitaces


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheMarseille

ProvenceMétropoleUrbanCommunity(MPM)Case

StudyReportManaging Water and its Risks, romMountain to SeapreparedinbytheWaterand

SanitationAgencyotheMarseilleProvenceMétropole

UrbanCommunity(orthcoming)














































—

Acknowledgements GiorgioCesariRemoPelilloGiorgioPineschiGiuseppeBortone

KatiaRaaelliMaurizioBaudoneFrancescaCaparriniEnzoDiCarloSergioPaderi

RanieroDeFilippisLucaFegatelliMauroLasagnaAngeloViterboNicolaBerniMario

SmargiassoEmidioPrimaveraSabrinaDiGiuseppeTizianaDiLorenzo

CHAPTER 47

Tiber River basin, Italy

©ShutterstockDmitryAgaontsev















MAP 47.1

TiberRiverbasinandCentralApenninesDistrict

Location and general characteristicsTheTiberRiverbeginstheinthenorthernpartothe

ApennineMountainsinItalyandtravelsabout km

beoredrainingintotheTyrrhenianSea(Map )The

riverrunsthroughtheItaliancapitalRomeTheTiber

Riverbasincoversanareaoabout km²which

crossessixadministrativeregionsAlmostothebasinliesintheregionsoUmbriaandLazioandthe

remainderallswithintheregionsoEmilia–Romagna

TuscanyMarcheandAbruzzoThebasinliesullyinthe

CentralApenninesDistrictwhichincludesalltheregions

othebasinandItaly’snewestregionMolise(Table)

TheTiberRiverbasinhasapproximately million

inhabitants()someowhomliveinRome

Overallothepopulationiscomposedourban

dwellersThetopographyothebasinvariesrom

lowlandstohighlandsandismainlycharacterizedbyatemperateclimatewithhotdrysummersandcool

wetwintersThehighestprecipitationinboththeTiber

RiverbasinandtheCentralApenninesDistrictisusually

recordedintheautumnandspringwithapeakinearly

winterandadryseasonduringthesummer

Water resources availability and their useTheannualaveragedischargeotheTiberRiverinto

theTyrrhenianSeais m³sorapproximately

billion m³(calculatedonalong-termaverage)

(Cesari)Dependingonthehydrologic

conditionsthemaximumdischargecanexceed

m³sorcanbeaslowas m³sGroundwater

availabilityinthebasinisabout billion m³

WiththeexceptionotheEmilia–Romagnaregion

thebasinanditsimmediatesurroundingsaremainly

characterizedbysmallarms(Table )Irrigationispractisedthroughsprinklersdripsystemsandcanals

overacombinedareao km²whichcorresponds

toapproximatelyoagriculturallandintheve

regionsThemostcommonlycultivatedproductsare

ruitandvegetables(suchascerealsandpotato)and

tobacco

TheterritoryisnotveryindustrializedHowever

thereareimportantsteelworksinTerniandbeverage

tobaccoagro-processingandpaperactoriesin

thebasinSincethesindustrialactivityhasbeenreducinggraduallyandtheservicessectorhas

becomethemaincontributortotheregion’sgross

domesticproduct(GDP)(Table )

InthelargelyruralEmilia–Romagnaregionagriculture

isthesectorwiththehighestwaterdemandollowed

bymunicipaluseandindustryInactirrigation

accountsorooverallwaterconsumptionInother

regionsagriculturalwaterdemandisrelativelylow

Howevergenerallyspeakingallregionsare

implementingvariousprojectstoimprovewater

I T A LY

TYRRHENIAN

SEA

ADRIAT IC

SEA

Rome

0 40 80 120 160 200 km

City

Central Appennines District

Basin

Ramsar site

National park

Hydroelectric

power plant

T e

n n a

N e

r a

V o m a na

T r o n t o

T i b

e r

T i b

e r

T i b

e r

PerugiaLake

Trasim eno

LakeBolsena

LakeVico

Lake

LakeBracciano

Campotosto






























































































































WWDR4 837TIBERRIVERBASINITALY

TABLE 47.2Basicregionalstatisticsaboutagriculturallanduse()

TABLE 47.1

ExtentoregionsanddistributionotheTiberRiverbasin

Region Proportion o national

territory (%)

Proportion o Central

Apennines District (%)

Proportion o Tiber River

basin (%)

Emilia–Romagna 7.45 0.08 0.1

Tuscany 7.63 3.46 6.7

Umbria 2.81 22.37 46.8

Marche 3.11 12.17 1.2

Abruzzo 3.57 25.31 3.7

Lazio 5.72 36.26 41.5

Molise 1.47 0.36 -

Region Average land holding size

(km²)

Irrigated area

(km²)

Cultivated area

(km²)

Irrigated/cultivated area

(%)

Emilia–Romagna 1.28 2,966 10,525 28.20

Tuscany 0.10 472 8,064 5.90

Umbria 0.09 244 3,394 7.20

Marche 0.10 245 4,964 4.90

Lazio 0.07 861 6,740 12.80Abruzzo 0.07 345 4,340 8.00

TABLE 47.3

ContributionovarioussectorstoGDPatthenationalCentralApenninesDistrictandTiberRiverbasinlevels

Sector/Region Italy Central Apennines

District

Tiber River

basin

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing 2.5% 2.0% 1.7%

Industry 27.2% 22.0% 19.8%

Services 70.3% 76.0% 78.5%

demandmanagementandtoreduceseasonalwater

decitsUmbriaandTuscanyhaveacilitatedaccess

toinormationbydevelopingdatabasesonwater

usethatarelinkedtoonlineportalsSimilarlyEmilia–

Romagnaintroducedan‘Irrinet’servicetoreduce

waterconsumptioninagricultureandhasachieved

successulresults(Box )Thisregionhasalsohaditssuccessesinthemunicipalsectorwithadropin

waterusebetweenandUmbriaisaiming

toincreasepublicawarenessotheneedtoreduce

waterconsumptionandhasmadeimprovementstoits

inrastructuretominimizewaterlossromthenetwork

InRome’smunicipalwaterrequirementwas

approximately million m³andintherestotheTiberRiverbasinitwasabout million m³Thesame































































yearwateruseordrinkingandsanitationinthewider

CentralApenninesDistrictwasaround billion m³

owhichwaswithdrawnromspringsand

aquiersIngeneralasignicantincreaseinwateruse

isnotexpectedandthereareplanstoreducewater

consumptionbyasmuchasby

IntheCentralApenninesDistrictthereare

approximatelydamsoverowhichare

hydroelectricpowerplants(HEPP)withaninstalled

capacityo MWHEPPsintheTRBaremainly

concentratedontheTiberandNeraRiversAbout

onationalelectricityproductioncomesrom

hydropowerintheregionandalmostallthe

powerthatisproducedisconsumedlocallyWhile

hydropowergenerationisanon-consumptive

wateruseitrequiresabout billion m³peryear

andthereoreaddstothecompetitionromother

sectorsAlthoughareductionintheproductiono

hydroelectricitycouldincreasewateravailabilityorotherwaterusersitwouldhaveanegativeimpacton

thenationaltargetoproducingoenergyrom

renewableresources(Cesarietal)

Climatic variability, climate change and riskmanagementTheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

(IPCC)predictsthattheMediterraneanregionin

generalwillsuerromareductioninwaterresources

availabilityInadditionthemostsevereclimate

changescenariosorcentralItaly–wherea°Cto°Cincreaseintemperatureisorecastby

The‘Irrinet’projectwhichaimstoreduceirrigationalwateruseisaninitiativeoEmilia–Romagnaregionandpart

othe–RuralDevelopmentProgrammeTheIrrinetserviceisreelyavailableontheinternetandprovides

irrigationaladviceusingdataromtheRegionalAgencyorEnvironmentalProtection(AgenziaRegionaleperlaProtezione

Dell’Ambiente–ARPA)theregion’sgeologicseismicandsoilserviceandtheexperimentalactivitiesotheconsortiumotheCanaleEmiliano–Romagnolo

Basedontheirgeographicallocationitispossibletoindicatetoarmerswhentoirrigateandhowmuchinordertoachieve

thehighestproductivityIthasbeenestimatedthattheIrrinetservicehashelpedtosaveaboutmillionm³owater

betweenandSinceIrrinethasevolvedintoIrrinetPluswhichprovidesarmerswithurtherinormation

speciyingtheeconomicbenetsassociatedwithaparticularirrigationroutinethatusesanintuitiveadvisorysystem

Thisprojectprovidesinstitutionswithapracticalinstrumentormanagingthewaterdemandorirrigationandhelping

armerstousetherightamountowatertominimizetheriskooveruseAlsoinstitutionscanmonitortheirrigationalwater

consumptionthusacilitatingwaterrationingespeciallyindroughtperiods

BOX 47.1

Developingknowledgeandcapacity:IrrinetandIrrinetplus

–oreseeadecreasingtrendinrainallthroughoutthe

yearmostnotablybetweenOctoberandAprilwhere

precipitationcoulddropbyasmuchas

Thesepredictionsarepartiallyconrmedby

measurementsDatacollectedbetweenand

showaconsistenttrendograduallydecreasing

annualprecipitation(mainlyinwinterwithallsoup

to)withrisingsuracetemperaturesThroughout

theTRBtheamountoprecipitationhasdecreased

by billion m³inthesameperiodWhiletherehave

beenexceptionallydryyears()andexceptionally

wetyears()theTiberRiverbasiningeneral

hasexperiencedprolongeddryperiodsInactmajor

droughteventsthataectedtheentirebasinoccurred

inandThe

droughtsattheturnothetwenty-rstcenturydid

notgetmuchattentionromthepointoviewo

waterscarcityInsteadwhatwerehighlightedwere

theweaknessesinsupplysystems–includingpoorexibilityintheoperationoreservoirs–andthelack

ointegratedmanagement

FloodsareusualalongtheTiberRiverTherewere

requentoodsintherstdecadeothemillennium

ortunatelynoneothemwasamajoreventandlosses

wereeconomicinnature

Becauseclimatechangeisexpectedtoexacerbate

droughtsandoodstherearepoliciesandstructural

measuresinplaceinItalyandthroughouttheTiberRiverbasintodealwithdisastermitigationanddisaster
















































































preparednessForexampleatnationalleveltheLocal

ActionProgrammeusesmeteorologicalandagro-

meteorologicalindicatorstohighlightrisksrelatedto

droughtanddeserticationthatcouldhaveanimpact

onagriculturetheenvironmentandsocietyingeneral

IntheEmilia–Romagnaregionadditionalsmall

reservoirswerebuiltatertheProgrammeidentiedthattherewasinsucientcapacitytomeetagricultural

waterdemandindryperiodsduringthesummerThe

nationalcivilprotectionservicerunssimulationsto

orecastwaterrequirementsunderdierentclimate

scenariosandissuesdroughtalertsRegionsarealso

cooperatingtoalleviateseasonalwatershortagesFor

instanceinTuscanyandUmbriaextensivestudieson

watersharingledtoanagreementbetweentheregions

orthejointuseotheMontedoglioreservoirwhichis

locatedintheupperTiberRiverbasin

Floodmanagementisensuredthroughnational

directivesthatincludeearlywarningsystemsand

thereareregionalocestoimplementthenecessary

measuresLegislativeDecree whichcameinto

orceintransposedtheEUFloodsDirective

()intonationallawInacttheTiberRiver

BasinAuthorityhadanticipatedthecontentsothe

EUdirectiveandhadalreadydevelopedaplanning

tool(inlinewithLawonsoilprotection)or

theidenticationoood-proneareasandthelevel

oriskexposureHowevertwomainrequirements

otheFloodsDirectiveremaintobeimplementedin

theCentralApenninesDistrictpublicparticipation

intheplanningprocessandtheeconomicanalysis

anddevelopmentocivilprotectionplansRegarding

publicinvolvementtheTiberRiverBasinAuthority

participatedintheEUproject‘integrativeood

riskgovernanceapproachorimprovementorisk

awarenessandincreasedpublicparticipation(IMRA)’

todevelopamethodoriskcommunicationand

participationinlocalcommunitiesthatarelocatedinood-riskareas

Policy ramework and decision-makingAtnationalleveltheItalianRoyalDecree

recognizedwaterresourcesasapublicgoodIn

Lawestablishedmajorbasinauthoritiesand

identiedtheriverbasinasthebasicunitorwater

resourcesmanagementwaterpollutioncontroland

soilprotectionactivitiesInLawintroduced

areormunderwhichmunicipalutilitieswere

aggregatedintoOptimalTerritorialAreaswhichareresponsibleorthemanagementandsupplyowater

servicessuchaswastewatertreatmentsanitationand

theprovisionodrinkingwater

LegislativeDecreewasintroducedinto

protectwaterresourcesbypreventingandreducing

pollutionandimprovingwaterqualityThisDecree

delegatedcertainresponsibilitiestotheregionsAccordinglyeachregionhadtherighttomakeits

ownlawsandsharedtheresponsibilityorlocal

implementationwiththeprovinces(sub-unitsothe

regions)InLegislativeDecreeincorporated

thecontentsotheEUWaterFrameworkDirective

andreplacedtheLegislativeDecreeThe

newdecreesetoutorthecreationoaCentral

ApenninesDistrictAuthoritywithseveralministries

(EnvironmentInrastructureandTransportEconomic

DevelopmentCulturalHeritageAgricultureCivil

FunctionandCivilProtection)andregions(Emilia–RomagnaTuscanyUmbriaMarcheLazioAbruzzo

andMolise)asmembersAlthoughtheCentral

ApenninesDistrictAuthorityremainstobeestablished

someoitsunctions(suchasthecoordination

andimplementationothedistrictRiverBasin

ManagementPlans)havebeentemporarilyassigned

totheriverbasinauthoritiesincludingtheTiberRiver

BasinAuthorityAsanongoingprocesswiththeull

implementationotheEUWaterFrameworkDirective

andFloodsDirectiveCADAwilltakeoverastheTRBA

willmergeintothisAuthority

Theregionalgovernmentshaveadoptedstrategiesto

reversethecurrenttrendoenvironmentaldegradation

andtointegratesustainabledevelopmentprinciplesinto

theirworkprogrammesThesestrategieswhichorma

partotheCentralApenninesDistrictManagementPlan

(PianodiGestionedelDistrettodell’AppenninoCentrale)

aredenedbytheRegionalPlanorWaterProtection

(PianoRegionalediTuteladelleAcque)andidentiy

bothquality-relatedandquantity-relatedmeasuresthatmakeupaholisticapproachTheregionshave

alsodevelopedotherstrategiestoaddressmattersnot

includedinthewaterprotectionplanincludingnatural

disasterriskmanagementagriculturaldevelopment

environmentalprotectionandenergyproductionrom

renewableresources

Acomprehensiveapproachinvolvingtheclose

interactionodistrictandregionalauthoritiesis

ollowedtopreventpollutionandtoprotectwater

resourcesItistheresponsibilityothedistrictauthoritytobalancewateravailabilitywithwater








































































































demandTodothisitdenesappropriategoalsand

prioritiesTheregionsthendenetheactionsthat

arenecessarytoachievethosetargetsincluding

recoveringthecostowatersupplyandsanitation

servicesThedistrictauthorityauditstheseactions

toensurecompliancewiththegoalsandpriorities

OncetheactionsareapprovedtheregionsadoptandimplementtheRegionalPlanorWaterProtection

Intermsowaterresourcesmanagementregional

governmentsplanorandmanagetheservicesthat

areprovidedForirrigationpurposeseachdistrict’s

ruraldevelopmentplanistakenasbasisorhelping

toimproveirrigationnetworkswastewatertreatment

plantsandaqueductsForelectricitygeneration

regionalgovernmentsprepareplanstodevelop

renewableenergysourcesandidentiytheareasthat

aremostsuitableortheconstructionohydroelectricpowerplants

Water and the environmentTheheavyanduncontrolledexploitationosurace

waterandgroundwaterresourceshashadanegative

impactonwaterqualityinthebasinFertilizersused

inagriculturealongwithmunicipalandindustrial

pollutionhavealladdedtoenvironmentaldegradation

InoriversandolakesintheTIber

basinwereassessedtobeosucientqualityor

higherButduringthesummerwhenthereislittlerain

anddemandorwaterpeakstheowothesome

streamsissustainedmainlybywastewaterreturnsThe

RegionalPlanorWaterProtectionaimstoaddress

environmentalandwater-qualityrelatedproblems

byholdingopendiscussionswiththeparticipationo

allstakeholdersinaneorttoidentiyappropriate

actionsFurthermoretheCentralApenninesDistrict

managementplanemphasisesEUDirective

onstrategicenvironmentalassessmentregardingthe

maindriversowaterconsumptionandpollutionsuchasagricultureindustryhydropoweranddrinking

water

Thecentralandregionalgovernmentsareproactive

whenitcomestondingsolutionstoenvironmental

challengesThisisbecausetheiroverarchingobjective

istomaintainthequalityowaterresources(which

isanintegralpartotheCentralApenninesDistrict

ManagementPlanandtheRegionalPlanorWater

Protection)ForexampletheAbruzzoandUmbria

Regionsareimplementingtheiractionplanstocombatthehighlevelonitratepollutionwhichisacommon

probleminItalyTheseplansocusonthecorrect

useoertilizersandpromotebestpractices–such

assuggestingtheappropriateamountoertilizerto

useorvariouscropsrecommendingthebestperiods

duringwhichtouseitandadvisingonthebestways

ostoringandtransportingitTheactionplansdo

thisthroughdirectcommunicationwitharmersandlandownersInaddressingtheissueonitratepollution

theCentralApenninesregionsputsignicantemphasis

onpublicparticipationCommunicationtoolssuchas

websitesinormationsheetsandmeetingsareusedto

acilitatebetterinteractionbetweenlocalauthorities

andstakeholdersThisapproachalsoaimstoinorm

stakeholdersandhelpthemtotackletheproblems

associatedwithnitratepollution

AnongoingprojectintheMarcheRegionin

cooperationwiththemajorItalianenergydistributioncompanyEnelaimstodeterminethedegreeto

whichincreasingtheamountowaterdischargerom

damsaectsthequalityosuracewaterresources

andtherechargerateoaquiersespeciallyindry

periodsThendingsothisprojectwillcontribute

toabetterunderstandingohowtoadjustminimum

environmentalowrequirements–anareawhere

experimentalresearchislacking

ConclusionsThewaterresourcesotheCentralApenninesDistrict

andtheTiberRiverbasinareimportantorthesocio-

economicdevelopmentocentralItalyandthe

country’scapitalRomeAgriculturewhichispractised

throughoutthebasinisthesectorwithhighestwater

requirementaccountingoroveroannualwater

demandThesectorcontributeslittletoregionalGDP

howeverandisoneothesourcesotheongoing

problemonitratepollutionConsequentlyregional

authoritieshavebeenimplementingprojectsto

curbagriculture’simpactontheenvironmentandtoreducetheamountowateritusesDecliningwater

availabilitycausedbyclimaticvariabilityandclimate

changehasalsonecessitatedarevisitocurrent

waterpoliciesonallocationandsupplyImplementing

theEUWaterFrameworkDirectivewhichwas

onholduntilrecentlycanhelptoaddressthe

aorementionedchallengesoseasonalwaterscarcity

andenvironmentalpollutionwhileimprovingpublic

participationindecisionmaking






































































































Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheTiber River Basin

Case Study Report preparedinbytheTiberRiverBasinAuthorityandRegionalServices(orthcoming)

CesariGIlbacinodelTevereilsuoambienteidricoel’impattoantropicoPrimo rapporto annuale del ConsorzioTiberinaRomeConsorzioTiberinaOctoberhttpwwwabtevereitsitesdeaultlesdatisitopubblicazioniarticolo_giorgio_cesaripd

Cesari GandPelillo RCentral Apennines District:River Basin Management Plan o District (PGDAC) –Problems and Expectations. PaperpresentedattheEuropeanWaterAssociationthBrusselsConerenceImplementingtheRiverBasinManagementPlansth

NovemberBrusselsRomeEWATiberRiverBasinAuthority












http://www.abtevere.it/sites/default/files/datisito/pubblicazioni/articolo_giorgio_cesari.pdf














—

Acknowledgements ManuelLacerdaSimonePioSantaClaraGomestheOceor

InternationalRelationsotheMinistryoAgricultureSeaEnvironmentandSpatial

PlanningPortugalDHVSAHidroprojecto–EngenhariaeGestãoSALaboratório

NacionaldeEngenhariaCivil(LNEC)InternationalCentreorCoastalEcohydrology

(ICCE)InstitutoNacionaldeRecursosBiológicosIPIPIMAR;BiodesignLda

ARHdoTejoteam

CHAPTER 48

Tagus River basin, Portugal

©RuiCunha



WWDR4 843TAGUS RIVER BASIN, PORTUGAL

Location and general characteristicsTheRiverTagushasitssourceinSpainandowsinto

theAtlanticOceannearLisboninPortugalTheTagus

Riverbasinishometomillionpeopleandcovers

anareaokm²–almostone-thirdowhichis

inPortugalAtkmlongtheTagusisthelongest

riverintheIberianPeninsulaanditisanimportantsourceowaterorbothSpainandPortugalThe

capitalsMadridandLisbonrelyontheTagusRiver

basinortheirwatersupplywhichurtherincreasesits

criticalvalue

Thiscasestudyocusesonthelowersectionothe

basinwhichissituatedinPortugal(Map)In

approximatelymillionpeoplewerelivingin

thisareaThebasinissubdividedinto sub-basins

threeowhich(TejoSuperiorErgesandSever)are

transboundary

Water resources, their use and potentialefects o climate changePortugalhasamildMediterraneanclimatewithdistinct

wetseasonsinautumnandwinterAnnualprecipitation

inthebasinvariesrommminthemountainous

north-easttomminitswesternmostregions

Generallyinsummermostothesmallerriversdryup

whereasintenseprecipitationintheautumnandwinter

MAP 48.1

TagusRiverbasin

monthsotencausesoodsHowevertheowregime

otheTagusanditstributariesisquiteirregularasa

resultorainallvariationromyeartoyearaswellason

aseasonalbasis

Inthestudyareathesuracewateravailability(

billionm³)inaverageishigherthanthegroundwaterpotential(billionm³)(ECOSOC)However

groundwaterusepredominatesinthemajorityothe

sub-basins

Whileagricultureandagro-orestryemployonly

othelabourorceapproximatelyotheriver

basinisgivenovertoarmingandorestryThewater

requirementothissector(millionm³)accounts

orothetotalwaterdemandinthebasinThe

remainderislargelyusedbymunicipalities()and

toamuchlesserextentbyindustry()

Overallthelocalwaterstresscausedbytheseasonal

andothertemporalvariationsismoreoaconcern

thanwateravailabilityInordertocopewiththis

problemoverdamshavebeenbuiltwithatotal

storagecapacityobillionm³

Climatechangescenariosindicatedapotential

decreaseintheamountoprecipitationintheordero

PortalegrePortalegre

LisbonLisbon

CasteloBrancoCasteloBranco

SantaremSantarem

M a i o r

C a n h a

L a v r e

Z e z e

r e

M e i moa

A v i z

R a i a

D i v o r

T a g u

s

P o n s u

l

E r g e

s

S e v e r

N a b a o

O c r e z

a

M a r a

t e c a

S o r

S o r r a i a

M a i o r

C a n h a

L a v r e

Z e z e

r e

M e i moa

A v i z

R a i a

D i v o r

T a g u

s

P o n s u

l

E r g e

s

S e v e r

N a b a o

O c r e z

a

M a r a

t e c a

S o r

S o r r a i a

ORTUGAL

0 100 km50 7525

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

City

Hydroelectric

power plant

Protected areas

Dam

Basin

Ramsar site





mmperyearparticularlyinthecentreoPortugal

andtothesouthTheregionalmodelhoweverpredicts

atoincreaseinprecipitationinwinterThis

patternochangemaysubstantiallyincreasetherisko

oodsThepredictionisthatbytheannualmean

runoromtheTagusRiverbasinwillbeto

lowerSuchareductionimplieslongerperiodswithlowowandthatislikelytohaveanegativeimpact

onagricultureandtourismItisalsoexpectedthata

reductioninwateravailabilitywillaectecosystems

energyproductionandwaterqualitywhichisextremely

importantintermsohumanhealthecosystemservices

andotherwateruses

Toanalysethelong-termtrendsPortugal’snational

waterauthority(InstitutodaÁgua–INAG)carried

outaclimateassessmentontheperiodromto

ThisstudyrevealedthatPortugal’smeanannualairtemperaturehadbeenincreasingsincethes

Precipitationdataorthesameperiodshowedaweak

decreasingtrendthatbecamemorepronounced

aterAnalysisodataalsoshowedanincrease

intherequencyobothheavyprecipitationevents

andsevereandextremedroughts–particularlyinthe

southernregionsbetweenand

Thenationalwaterauthorityassessmentalsopointed

outtheimminentthreatorisingsealevelsAbout

oPortugal’spopulationlivesalongthecoastal

zoneandogrossdomesticproduct(GDP)is

generatedthere(Santosetal)Inaccordance

withPortugal’sNationalClimateChange

Programmeanditsadaptationstrategiesanumber

ocomplementaryactionshavebeentakenincluding

enactingthenewWaterLaw()arevisiono

theStrategicPlanorWaterSupplyandSanitation

or–(PEAASARIIMAOTDR)a

revisioninotheoriginalNationalClimate

ChangeProgrammeandtheScenariosImpactsandAdaptationMeasures(SIAMandSIAM)research

project(Santosetal;SantosandMiranda;

daCunha)

Transboundary cooperationSpainandPortugalshareseveralriversTheAlbueira

ConventionappliestotheMinhoLimaDouroTagus

andGuadianariversandcoversissuessuchasthe

exchangeoinormationpollutioncontroland

preventiontheevaluationothetransboundaryimpacts

owaterusestheassignmentorightsandconictresolutionTheAlbueiraConventionisadministeredby

theCommissionortheApplicationandDevelopment

otheConventionThisisanintergovernmental

technicalcommissioncoordinatedbytheoreign

ministriesobothripariancountrieswithtechnical

supportromtheirenvironmentministriesUnderthe

Conventionwhichcameintoorceinandwas

revisedinSpainguaranteestoreleasebillionm³owatertoPortugalmeasuredatthedownstream

sectionotheCedillodamThiscorrespondsto

approximatelyotheannualaverageriverow

(modiedhydrologicregime)Thecurrenttexto

theConventionallowsoruturerevisionsothe

establishedhydrologicregimesinordertoensurethe

achievementotheenvironmentalobjectivessetat

basinlevelandtointegratetheclimatechangeissue

andadaptationmeasures

Environmental status and legal rameworkTheRiverTagusowsintotheTagusestuaryoneo

thelargestestuariesinWesternEuropeBecauseoits

richbiodiversityandvarietyohabitatstheestuaryis

protectedundertheECDirectiveontheConservation

oWildBirdswhichalsomakesitpartotheNatura

networkItisalsoclassiedasnaturereserve

underPortuguesenationallegislation

Waterqualityinthebasincontinuestobeanissue

thatdemandsattentionAseriesoconsultations

withstakeholderswasconductedasapartothe

preparationoariverbasinmanagementplan

Theseconsultationsidentiednutrientenrichment

pollution(organicmicrobialheavymetalsdangerous

substances)andeutrophicationasthemostsignicant

issuesinuencingwaterqualitydegradationinthe

basinThepreliminarywaterstatusassessmentshows

thatothesuracewaterbodiesandothe

groundwaterbodiesareclassiedasgoodorexcellent

(ARHdoTejo)

Nutrientenrichmentparticularlyintheormonitrogen

andphosphorusismainlytheresultoertilizeruse

inagricultureandwastewaterdischargeromother

sectors(includingmunicipaluse)Toreducenitrate

concentrationsinwaterbodiestheCodeoGood

AgriculturalPracticewasdrawnupandstepshave

beentakentoraisearmers’awarenessbymeanso

nationwidetraininginitiativesThecodesetsoutgeneral

guidelinesmainlywithaviewtohelpingarmersto

rationalizetheuseoertilizersItalsoproposesa

rangeogrowingtechniquesandmethodsthatprotectsuracewaterandgroundwaterrompollution(EEA



WWDR4 845TAGUS RIVER BASIN, PORTUGAL

)Anationalstrategyoragriculturalandagro-

industrialwastewatertreatment(EstratégiaNacional

paraosEuentesAgro-PecurioseAgro-Industriais)

wasapprovedintodeneenvironmentally

sustainablesolutionsandtoensurethereductionorthe

eliminationothepollutionbeingcausedbydischarges

romagro-industrialactivities

Inrelationtoreducingurbanpollutionthesecond

phase(-)otheStrategicPlanorWater

SupplyandWastewaterTreatment(PlanoEstratégico

deAbastecimentodeÁguaedeSaneamentode

ÁguasResiduais–PEAASARII)wasadoptedtomake

urtherprogresstowardsattainingtheobjectiveso

theEUdirectives(MAOTDR)PEAASARIIaims

tooptimizethemanagementandenvironmental

perormanceowatersupplyandsanitationutilities

toreducecostsandtomaximizeeciencyInthesewagetreatmentplantconnectionratewas

inthebasinagainstanationaltargeto(ARHdo

Tejo)

Water resources managementand institutionsTherstwaterresourcesplanningexercisetook

placeduringtheEUWaterFrameworkDirectiveco-

decisionprocedure(–)Itresultedinthe

preparationoPortugal’snationalwaterplanaswell

asteenseparateriverbasinplansandtworegionalwaterplansWorkisstillongoingontheormulation

otherevisednationalwaterplanandtheriverbasin

managementplans

TheWaterLawwasadoptedinaspartothe

EUWaterFrameworkDirectiveimplementation

process(Box)Thelawhasabroaderscopethan

theEUDirectiveasitincludesalltheelementsothe

integratedwaterresourcesmanagementapproach

includingbothquantitativeandqualitativeaspects

aswellasmitigatingtheeectsoextremeeventsTocompletethelegalrameworkonwaterresources

managementanumberoadditionalregulationswere

alsointroducednotablyDecree–A()onthe

TheWaterLawadoptedinestablishedanewinstitutionalmodelinPortugalItisbasedonveriverbasindistrictadmin-

istrationsandPortugal’snationalwaterauthoritytheInstitutodaÁgua(INAG)whichisresponsibleorwaterresourcesplan-

ningandcoordinationinallpartsothecountryThedistrictadministrationsareinchargeowaterresourcesmanagementatthebasinlevel–inparticulartheylookaterplanninglicensinginrastructuremanagementmonitoringandinormationand

communicationactivities

InthiscongurationtheriverbasindistrictcouncilsandtheNationalWaterCouncilaretheadvisorybodiesThedistrictcouncils

provideadvicetothedistrictadministrationsandarecomposedorepresentativesromcentralgovernmentmunicipalitiesthe

privatesectorandcivilsocietyTheNationalWaterCouncilmakesitsrecommendationsatthegovernmentallevelparticularlyto

theMinistryoAgricultureSeaEnvironmentandSpatialPlanningAllveriverbasindistrictadministrationsunctionaccord-

ingtotheprinciplesostakeholderparticipation(userassociationsorexample)transparencycoherenceresponsivenessand

accountability

BOX 48.1

TheWaterLawandtheriverbasindistrictadministrations

MinistryoAgricultureSeaEnvironmentandSpatial

Planning

NationalWaterAuthority(INAG)

RiverBasinDistrictAdministrations

NorthCentreTagusAlentejoAlgarve

A d v i s o r y B o d i e s :

- R i v e r b a s i n d i s t r i c t c o u n c i l s

- N a t i o n a l W a t e r C o u n c i l




establishmentoalicensingsystemorwaterresources

usesDecree()ontheestablishmento

waterusersassociationsandDecree()onthe

establishmentoaneconomicandnancialregime

orwaterresourcesDecreeaimstoimplement

the‘polluter-pays’and‘user-pays’principlesand

integratesthesocialandeconomicvaluesowateraswellastheenvironmentalaspectsowaterresources

management

ConclusionsAnnualseasonalandgeographicvariabilityinthe

levelsorainalltheTagusRiverbasinreceivescauses

waterstressatalocallevelHoweverthecurrent

challengeacingthebasinistoimprovethequalityo

waterresourcesTheinterestsotheagricultural(such

aslarge-scaleirrigation)andagro-industrysectors

otenconictwiththeenvironmentalstandardssetbytheEUWaterFrameworkDirectiveleavingwater

managersanddecision-makerswithanumbero

complexproblemsWhileresourceavailabilityhas

beenimprovedbyconstructingmanylargedamsthis

hasalsocausedsignicantchangesintheowregime

whichhavehadconsequencesortheecosystems

Climatechangeandclimaticvariabilityareconcerns

inatransboundarysettingConsequentlyitis

importanttoassessthewaterallocationagreement

betweenPortugalandSpainbasedonclimatechange

studiesandtomeetenvironmentalobjectivessetby

EUWaterFrameworkDirectivePortugalhasbeen

makingsignicanteortstoaddresscurrentand

imminentchallengesbydevelopingnationalstrategies

andimplementingprogrammesthatareholisticand

broaderinscopethantheDirectiveItiscriticaltokeep

upthismomentumastheTagusRiverbasinliesatthe

heartobothPortugalandSpain


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheTagus River

Basin Case Study Report,preparedinbytheAdministraçãodaRegiãoHidrogrcadoTejo

MinistériodoAmbienteedoOrdenamentodo

Território(orthcoming)

ARH(AdministraçãodaRegiãoHidrogrca)doTejoTagus River Basin Management Plan.Dratversionorpublicreview(InPortuguese)wwwarhtejopt

daCunha L VAdaptationstrategiesrelatedtowatermanagementandwaterservices–anexampleothesituationinsouthernEuropeacasestudyoPortugalPresentationattheconerence‘TimetoAdaptClimate

ChangeandtheEuropeanWaterDimension–Vulnerability ImpactsAdaptation’LisbonMAOTDRINAGandNovaUniversityhttpwwwclimate-water-adaptation-berlinorgdocumentsveigapd

ECOSOC(UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCouncil)AssessmentotransboundarywatersdischargingintotheNorthSeaandeasternAtlanticNotepreparedbytheSecretariatortheECEWorkingGrouponMonitoringandAssessmenthttpwwwuneceorgleadminDAMenvdocumentswatWGECE_MP_WAT_WG___North_Sea_Eastern_Atlanticpd

EEA(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency)Freshwater (Portugal): Why Should We Care about this Issue? Country

ProleseriesCopenhagenEEAhttpwwweeaeuropaeusoercountriesptsoertopic_view?topic=reshwater

MAOTDR(MinistériodoAmbientedoOrdenamentodoTerritórioedoDesenvolvimentoRegional)PortugalPEAASARII(PlanoEstratégicodeAbastecimentodeÁguaedeSaneamentodeÁguasResiduais–)LisbonMAOTDRhttpwwwmaotdrgovptAdminFilesDocumentsPEAASARpd

Santos F DForbes KandMoita R(eds)Climate Change in Portugal. Scenarios, Impacts and Adaptation Measures – SIAM 1.LisbonGradivaExecutivesummaryandconclusionshttpwwwsiamculpt

SIAMExecutiveSummarypdSantos F DandMiranda P(eds) Alterações

Climáticas em Portugal: Cenários, Impactos e Medidasde Adaptação – SIAM 2. (Climate Change in Portugal.Scenarios, Impacts and Adaptation Measures – SIAM 1 [InPortuguese])LisbonGradiva

http://www.climate-water-adaptation-berlin2007.org/documents/veiga.pdf.








http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2011/wat/WG2/ECE_MP_WAT_WG2_2011_15_North_Sea_Eastern_Atlantic.pdf







http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/pt/soertopic_view?topic=freshwater






http://www.maotdr.gov.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/PEAASAR.pdf






http://www.siam.fc.ul.pt/SIAMExecutiveSummary.pdf






































—

Acknowledgements RadhaPyatiHeatherMcCarthyGretchenBielmyerStuartChalk

DanielMcCarthyGerryPintoLucindaSonnenbergPatrickWelsh

CHAPTER 49

St Johns River basin, Florida,

United States o America

©ShutterstockSteveBower




MAP 49.1

StJohnsRiverbasin

Location and general characteristicsTheStJohnsRiverbasinliesincentralandnorthern

Florida–themostsouth-easterlystateintheUnited

StatesoAmericaTheriverwhichiscomposedo

uppermiddleandlowersub-basinsrisesinIndian

RiverCountyinCentralFloridaandowsintothe

AtlanticOceanatMayportJacksonville(Map )TheStJohnsisoneoveryewriversintheUSA

thatrunsromsouthtonorthThemajortributaries

thateedintoitaretheOcklawahaRiverDunns

CreekBlackCreektheWekivaRiverandthe

EconlockhatcheeRiverOveritskmlongjourney

theriverowsveryslowlyasthetotaldrop(the

dierenceinaltitudebetweenthesourceandpointo

owintotheocean)ismerelymetresJacksonville

thelargestcityinthebasinhasapopulationo

about()Moreoversomesectionso

theOrlandometropolitanareaalsolieinthebasinWithadrainageareacoveringkm²orabout

oFloridatheStJohnsRiverbasinishometo

approximatelymillioninhabitants(StJohnsRiver

WaterManagementDistricta)

Water resources and their useStJohnsRiverlieswithinahumidsubtropicalzone

andrainalltypicallyoccursinlatesummerandearly

autumnTheaverageannualprecipitationinthebasinisapproximately cmperyearandtheaverage

annualdischargeatthemouthotheriverisaround

billionm³TheFloridanaquierisanimportant

groundwatersourcethatextendsoveranareao

km²whichincludesalloFloridaandparts

oGeorgiaAlabamaMississippiandSouthCarolina

Nearlyallthedrinkingwaterorcentralandnorthern

FloridaincludingtheStJohnsRiverbasincomes

romthisaquier(MarellaandBerndt)The

populationothebasinisgrowingrapidly–between

andthenumberoinhabitantsinFloridaincreasedsixoldTheamountowaterwithdrawal

romthisaquierhasalsosteadilyincreasedand

LakeMonroe LakeHarney

LakeJesup

LakeWeir

LakeGeorge

Newman’sLake

LochloosaLake

OrangeLake

LakeGriffin

LakeHarris

LakeEustis

LakeApopka

Blue CyprusLake

C r e s c e

n t

L a k e

Doctor’sLake

LakeMonroe LakeHarney

LakeJesup

LakeWeir

LakeGeorge

Newman’sLake

LochloosaLake

OrangeLake

LakeGriffin

LakeHarris

LakeEustis

LakeApopka

Blue CyprusLake

C r e s c e

n t

L a k e

Doctor’sLake

O c k

l a w a h

a

S t . J

o h n s

S t . J o

h n

s

MayportJacksonville

Palatka

Bunnell

DeLand

Orlando

VeroBeach

MERRITT

ISLAND

National forest

City

County border

Basin

Wetland

0 10 20 30 40 kmA



WWDR4 849STJOHNSRIVERBASINFLORIDAUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

TABLE 49.1

AnnualwaterusebycategoryintheStJohnsRiverbasin

reachedapproximately billionm³peryearin

NearlyothiswaterwaswithdrawninFlorida

WhileastudybytheUSGeologicalSurveyiscurrently

underwaytodeterminehowsustainablecurrent

ratesowaterwithdrawalaretheStJohnsRiver

WaterManagementDistrictestimatesthatthelevel

oabstractionogroundwaterisabouttoreachthelimitosustainableuse(District)Themattero

quantityisurthercomplicatedbytheactthatwater

qualityisthreatenedbysaltwaterintrusionandthe

introductionocontaminantstotheaquier

Thevariouscategoriesowaterusesarelisted

inTable Accordingtoprojectionsby

agriculturalconsumptionwilldecreasebywhereas

municipalconsumption(thatisthedemandorthe

publicwatersupply)mayincreasebyasmuchas

(StJohnsRiverWaterManagementDistrict)

Intermsoimportanceagricultureissecondonlyto

tourisminFlorida’seconomyImportantagricultural

activitiesincludegrowingorangesandothercitrus

ruitaswellascattleranchingorbothbeeanddairy

productsFloridapossessesothemarketshare

oorangeproductionintheUSATheseactivitiesare

alltypicalotheStJohnsRiverbasin

CategoryFreshwater

(million m³)

Saline water

(million m³)

Water reuse

(million m³)

Total water use

(million m³)%

Public supply 742.29 0.00 0.00 742.29 40.26

Domestic sel-supply and

small public supply systems93.62 0.00 0.00 93.62 5.08

Commercial/industrial/institutional sel-supply

134.52 3.84 31.32 169.68 9.20

Agricultural irrigation

sel-supply570.95 0.00 10.57 581.52 31.54

Recreational sel-supply 88.03 0.00 157.48 245.51 13.32

Thermoelectric power

generation sel-supply11.18 0.00 0.00 11.18 0.61

Total 1,640.59 3.84 199.37 1,843.80 100.00

Note: Source o domestic sel-supply is assumed to be groundwater and domestic sel supply is an estimate. Estimated amounts are based onbest available data at the time o publication.Source: St Johns River Water Management District (2011a).

Climate change and climatic variabilityPrecipitationpatternsinFloridaaredependenton

larger-scaleclimaticanomaliessuchasElNiñoand

theAtlanticMultidecadalOscillationClimatechange

couldampliytheeectsotheseanomaliesand

makerainallpatternsevenmoreunpredictable

Howeverinthesouthernpartsothestatetheeectsareexpectedtobeadecreaseinrainall

duringboththedryandthewetseasonsalossin

dryseasonreugia andsaltwaterintrusionSealevel

riseaphenomenonassociatedwiththemelting

opolaricecapsasaresultoglobalwarming

posesasignicantthreattotheStJohnsRiver

basinbecauseoitslow-lyingnatureAccording

toestimatessealevelsinFloridamayrisebyas

muchascentimetresbyThegeneral

consequencesothisincludetheinundationolow-

lyingareasandsalt-waterintrusionintoaquiersandestuariesPreliminaryresultsomodellingstudies

beingconductednearthemouthotheStJohns

Riverindicatedthatareasoopenwaterandestuary

channelsmayalreadybeelevatedandthemarshes

neartherivermoutharelikelytobeinundated

morerequentlyHoweveronlyasmallareaothe

marshwouldactuallychangerombeing‘regularly

submerged’to‘ullysubmerged’




Droughtsoodsandhurricanesarethenatural

disastersthatcausesocio-economiclossesintheState

oFloridaTheandhurricaneseasonswere

especiallynotableortherequencyomajorstorms

andtheextentohurricanedamageTheseason

includedourmajorstormsthatcausedthehighest

cumulativesingle-yeardamagecostsinFlorida’shistory(Malmstadetal)

Droughtsandoodsalsohaveasignicantimpactonthe

StJohnsRiverbasinTropicalstormFaydepositedover

cmoraininave-dayperiodinBrevardCountyin

Thewaterlevelrosebyapproximatelytwometres

inSeminoleCountyinourdayssettingarecordOverall

thestormledtosevereoodinginthemiddlesection

othebasinandcauseddamageoanestimatedhal

abilliondollarsoverthreeneighbouringstatesFlorida

GeorgiaandAlabama(StewartandBeven)Inspiteouncertaintyinpredictingtheimpactoclimate

changeonmeteorologicalextremesthereisapossibility

thattheseeventswillbecomebothmorerequentand

moresevere

Environment and ecosystemsTheStJohnsisablackwaterriverDissolvedorganic

matterromdecayingplantsinswampsdissipates

acrossthebasinreducingthedeptholight

penetrationandgivingtheriveritsdarkcolourOther

issuesthataectwaterqualityandenvironmental

conditionsinthebasinareslowowsalinity

uctuationmarshlanddestructionandhuman-induced

pollution(StJohnsRiverWaterManagementDistrict

b)

Theriver’sextremelylowgradientslowstheowholds

backdrainagedeceleratestheushingopollutants

andintensiesoodingandpoolingowateralong

itslengthThiscreatesnumerouslakesandextensive

wetlandsthroughouttheStJohnsRiverbasinTheretentiontimeothewater(anditsdissolvedand

suspendedcomponents)intheriverisaroundthree

toourmonthsThehighretentiontimesopollutants

havesevereimpactsonwaterquality

Anumberosaltyspringseedintothebasinand

causelocalizedareasoelevatedsalinity(>ppt)in

otherwisereshwatersectionsotheriverReverse

owstriggeredbyweatherconditionsandmassive

oceantidescausetherivertoowinanupstream

directionAndthistooresultsinabruptchangesinsalinityReverseowshavebeendetectedasaras

kmupstreamSuchvariationsinsalinityhave

prooundhydrologicalandecologicaleects

WetlandsarevitaltotheNortheastFloridaecosystem

HoweverintheUpperStJohnsRiverbasinthemarshes

havebeendrainedtogrowcitrusruitandoranimal

husbandryTrendsinwetlandcoveragecannotbeaccuratelyestablishedbecauseoinsucientand

inconsistentinormationOntheotherhandsince

theStJohnsRiverWaterManagementDistrict

andtheUSArmyCorpsoEngineershaverestored

andenhancedmorethankm²omarshesinIndian

RiverandBrevardcounties(StJohnsRiverWater

ManagementDistrictb)Howeverbecauseo

habitatlossincreasedboatingtracanddrought

somespeciessuchastheFloridamanateethewood

storktheshortnosesturgeonthepipingploverthe

Floridascrubjayandtheeasternindigosnakecontinuetobevulnerableandaceextinction

Everyyearmorethantonnesonitrogen

andphosphorusentertheStJohnsRiver–mainlyas

aresultothedisposalopartiallytreatedsewage

(StJohnsRiverWaterManagementDistrictc )

Othersignicantpollutionsourcesincludearmsin

theagriculturalareasoFlaglerPutnamandStJohns

countiesAgriculturalrunoromarmingareascarries

animalwasteertilizersandpesticidesintotheriver

Stormwaterromurbanareasalsotakespollutants

suchaslawnertilizerssedimentspesticidesand

trashintotheriverConsequentlynutrientlevelsin

theriver’smainstemandaecalcoliormlevelsin

thetributariesexceedlimitssetbywaterquality

standardsInadditionbecauseotheriver’sslow

owthelowerStJohnsRiverinparticularisacing

pollutionproblemsTheseincludethegrowthoalgal

bloomswhichblocksunlightromreachingunderwater

vegetationproducetoxinsdepletedissolvedoxygen

andendangershandotherwildlieEortsareongoingtoreducenutrientloadingbysettingatotal

maximumdailyload(TMDL)bydrawingupaBasin

ManagementActionPlanthroughcollaboration

betweengovernmentandindustryandpublic

education

Water resources managementFederallawsonwaterresourcesincludetheClean

WaterAct(CWA)andtheSaeDrinkingWaterAct

(SDWA)TheCWAwhichwaspassedinand

amendedinandshitedtheocusopollutioncontrolrombeingsolelyorientedtowards



WWDR4 851STJOHNSRIVERBASINFLORIDAUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

water-qualitystandardstolookingatwaysolimiting

efuentrompointsourcesFollowingtheCWAthe

SDWAwaspassedinandamendedinWith

itcametheestablishmentomonitoringandwater-

qualitystandardsorallpublicwatersupplysystems

IntheStateoFloridatheFloridaDepartmento

EnvironmentalProtection(FDEP)andotherentitiesimplementtheseeorts

IntheFloridaLegislaturepassedtheFlorida

WaterResourcesActwhichestablishedvewater

managementdistrictsinthestatesupervisedbythe

FDEPEachdistrictwastaskedwithmanagingwater

resourcesinitsbasingrantingpermitsorwater

usedevelopingandimplementingoodcontroland

droughtplanningprojectsperormingtechnicaland

scienticevaluationsowaterresourcesinthebasin

andacquiringlandtoprotectwaterresourcesandhabitatsTheStJohnsRiverWaterManagement

Districtisoneothesevedistricts

Unortunatelyintheyearssinceitwaspassedthe

FWRAhasnotbeenabletoassurewateravailability

orqualityThisisbecausemanyexceptionshave

beenmadetothelaws–mostlyinordertoenable

populationgrowthandlanddevelopmentinFlorida–

whichhavesignicantlyweakenedtheimpactothe

ActTheCWAhadmoredirectimpactonwater

qualityissuesbutsomeoitsprovisionsparticularly

onTMDLswerenotactivelyenorcedbytheUS

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)untilcitizen

lawsuitsinthelatesorcedtheagencytostart

collectinginormationromstatesonwaterresources

thatdidnotmeetqualitystandards

Florida’senorcementoTMDLseectivelybeganin

withthepassageotheWatershedRestoration

ActFollowingthatlawallthewaterbodiesinthe

statewereorganizedintobasinswhichwereurthercollectedintogroupsThebasinswereassessedina

ve-yearcycletoaddresstheirTMDLsBasicallythe

TMDLprogrammeestablishestotalamountsora

numberopollutants(bothpointsourcesandnon-

pointsources)Thesetotalamountsarethemaximum

levelsthatcanbeabsorbedbyaspecicwaterbody

withoutbreachingthewaterqualitystandardssetto

protecthumanhealthandaquaticlieOnceaTMDL

isdratedandapproved(whichincludesatimeperiod

orpubliccommentsanddiscussion)itisimplemented

throughaBasinManagementActionPlanwhichprescribesstrategiessuchaswastewatertreatment

improvementsredirectingwastewaterdischarge

towardreuseprescribingbest-managementpractices

inagriculturalurbanandruralsettingsandacilitating

environmentaleducationNutrientTMDLshavebeen

successullyestablishedorthelowermiddleand

upperbasinsInadditionBasinManagementAction

Planhavebeendevelopedoralargenumberowaterbodiesandpollutantsincludingseveralwithinall

stretchesotheriveranditstributariesHoweverthe

lowerStJohnsRiverbasinistheonlysectionothe

riverwithanutrientBasinManagementActionPlan

whichitadoptedin

ConclusionsDespitehighlevelsorainallwatersupplyhas

becomeacontentiousissueinFloridaThegrowing

populationandevergreaterdemandsorwater

areputtingincreasingpressureonwaterresourcesnotablyontheFloridanaquiersystemthatprovides

drinkingwaterorvestatesTheriver’sslowowand

continuousdisposalopartiallytreatedwastewater

meanthatbothphosphorusandnitrogenlevels

generallyexceedEPArecommendedstandardsinboth

themainstemotheStJohnsRiveranditstributaries

Dissolvedoxygenconcentrationsalsoallbelowthe

site-specicminimumstandardinseveraltributaries

Consequentlywaterqualityinbothsuraceand

groundwaterisbecomingamajorconcernAlthough

institutionsareinplacebothederallyandatstate

levelalackoenorcementothelegislationupto

theshascausedbasin-widedegradationWhile

restorationandpreventionactivitiesbystateandlocal

governmentsintheStJohnsRiverbasinareongoing

thereisaclearneedtocompoundtheseeortsby

involvingothergovernmentalagenciesorganizations

andthepublic





Notes

Reugiaarethewater-holdingareasthatoerreugetoavarietyospeciesduringadryseason

HurricanesCharleyFrancesIvanandJeannecauseda

combineddamageoUS$billioninFlorida


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheCase Study

Report o St Johns River basin, Florida, USAprepared

inbyPyatietal(orthcoming)

Malmstad JScheinKandElsnerJFloridahurricanesanddamagecostsSoutheastern Geographer Vol No pp –httpwwwstormriskorgadmindownloadsMalmstadtEtAlpd

Marella R LandBerndt M PWater Withdrawalsand Trends rom the Floridan Aquier System in theSoutheastern United States, 1950-2000RestonVaUSGeologicalSurveyScienticcircularphttppubsusgsgovcircpdcirpd

StJohnsRiverWaterManagementDistrictWater Supply SJR–WMDwebsitehttpwwwsjrwmdcomwatersupplywaterusedatamanagementhtml

––––aSt. Johns River Water Management District 2009 Annual Water Use Survey Palatka FlaSJR–WMDhttpwwwsjrwmdcomtechnicalreportspdsFSSJ-FSpd

––––bndWater Bodies, Watersheds and Storm Water:The St Johns River SJR–WMDwebsitehttpwwwsjrwmdcomstjohnsriverindexhtml(AccessedOctober)

––––c Water Bodies, Watersheds and Storm Water:Lower St Johns River BasinSJR–WMDwebsitehttpwwwsjrwmdcomlowerstjohnsriverindexhtml(Accessed October)

StewartS RandBeven J LTropical Cyclone Report:Tropical Storm Fay, 15–26 August, 2008MiamiFlaNationalHurricaneCenterhttpwwwnhcnoaagovpdTCR-AL_Faypd

http://www.stormrisk.org/admin/downloads/MalmstadtEtAl2009.pdf






http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1278/pdf/cir1278.pdf







http://www.sjrwmd.com/watersupply/waterusedatamanagement.html





http://www.sjrwmd.com/technicalreports/pdfs/FS/SJ2011-FS1.pdf








http://www.sjrwmd.com/stjohnsriver/index.html







http://www.sjrwmd.com/lowerstjohnsriver/index.html








http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/TCR-AL062008_Fay.pdf



































—

Acknowledgements JoséMiguelZeledónJuanCarlosFallasCarlosRomero

CarlosVargasSadíLaporteMaríaElenaRodríguezFabioHerreraAndreiBourrouet

FedericoGómez-Delgado

CHAPTER 50

Costa Rica

©ShutterstockErkki&Hanna













854 LATINAMERICAANDTHECARIBBEANCHAPTER

MAP 50.1

CostaRica

Location and general characteristicsCostaRicaislocatedinthenarrowestpartoCentral

AmericaborderedbyNicaraguatothenorthand

PanamatothesouthTotheeastitormsacoastline

withtheCaribbeanSeaandtothewestwiththe

PacicOcean(Map )Thesuraceareaothe

countryisaround km²

CostaRica’spopulationinwasslightlyover

million–aboutowhomliveinurban

areasThecapitalSanJoséisthelargestcityinthe

countrywithapopulationo millionThereare

sevenprovinces–AlajuelaCartagoGuanacaste

HerediaLimónPuntarenasandSanJosé(FAO–

Aquastatnd)Theprovincesaredividedintosix

regionsorplanningpurposes–ChorotegaHuetar

AtlanticHuetarNorthCentralPacicCentraland

Brunca

Therearemanyvolcanoesinthecountrysomeowhich

arestillactiveThePos( mabovesealevel)

locatedintheCentralHighlandsisoneoCostaRica’s

largestandmostactivevolcanoes(Arenalnetnd)

ThecountryliesinahumidtropicalzoneWhilethe

amountorainallvariesromonebasintoanother

CostaRicahasannualaveragerainallo mm

(UNESCOIHP)Ingeneralthenorthothe

countryonthePacicsideisdrierthantheCaribbean

regionwhichishumidalmostallyearroundTherainy

seasonextendsromMaytoNovemberonthePacic

sideandromMaytoFebruaryontheCaribbean

sideForestscoverapproximately km²orapproximatelyhalthecountry’slandsurace

Water resources availability and their useThereareriverbasinsinCostaRicaranginginsize

rom km²to km²(FAO–Aquastatnd)

Unortunatelyreliableinormationisavailableoronly

othosebasinsThecountryhastotalrenewable

waterresourcesoslightlymorethan billion m³

(MINAETa)Othissuracewateraccountsor

billion m³

Researchinitiativesbegunintheshelpedto

identiyaquiersacrossthecountryowhich

arecoastalAsaresultoseasonalshortagesinthe

availabilityosuracewaterandgrowingpollution

theexploitationogroundwaterhasbecomemore

commonAccordingtoestimatesannualwater

demandisapproximately billion m³()almost

owhichismetbyaquiersConsequentlythe

T e l i r a T e l i r a

C o t o B r u s

C o t o B r u s

Estr e l l a

Estr e l l a

I n t

e i

e r n i l l o

I n t

e i

e r n i l l o

Frio Frio

PACIF IC

OCEAN

C A R R I B E A N

S E A

LakeCaño Negro

LakeCaño Negro

LakeArenal

LakeArenal

LakeCaño Negro

LakeCaño Negro

LakeCaño Negro

LakeArenal

LakeArenal

LakeArenal

AlajuelaAlajuela

Puerto Limón

Cocos Island

Liberia

Heredia

Cartago

L a A m i s t a d

IrazúIrazú Turri alba Turri alba

PoásPoás

MiravallesMiravalles

ArenalArenal

Rincón de la ViejaRincón de la Vieja

IrazúIrazúIrazú Turri alba Turri alba Turri alba

PoásPoásPoás

MiravallesMiravallesMiravalles

ArenalArenalArenal

Rincón de la ViejaRincón de la ViejaRincón de la Vieja

San JoséPuntarenas

P

A

N

A

M

A

National park

City

Volcano

Basin

Hydroelectric

power plant

Ramsar site

0 20 40 60 80 100 km













































































































































































































































WWDR4 855COSTARICA

sustainableexploitationogroundwaterresourcesiso

greatimportance

TheCentralregionhasthebiggestdemandorwater

inthecountrybecausemorethanhalthepopulation

liveshereandthereisahighconcentrationo

industrialandeconomicactivity(MoraValverdend)Nationwidegeneratinghydroelectricityaccountsor

ototalwaterdemandollowedbyagriculture

atTheremainingisusedordrinkingwater

andbyindustryandtourismGiventhatthewater

usedorhydropowergenerationreturnstotheow

withoutlossagricultureremainsthelargestuser

( billion m³)intermsoactualconsumptionIn

agriculturalactivitieswerepractisedover

approximately km²oland(onational

territory) km²owhichwereirrigatedSome

otheirrigatedlandisdevelopedbytheprivatesectorandthemostimportantagriculturalproductsgrown

arecoeericeAricanpalmsugarcanebananaand

pineapple(SEPSA)

Thesectorsthatcontributemosttoeconomic

growthareindustryatandagricultureat

(MINAETIMN)Unortunatelyowater

contaminationoriginatesinthesetwosectorsUrban

settlementsarealsoabigsourceopollutionbecause

onlyaroundowastewateristreatedpriortobeing

disposedointonature(FAO–Aquastatnd)

Accordingtovariousscenarioswaterdemandmay

substantiallyincreasebytoreachapproximately

billion m³theupperlimitoreshwateravailability

inthecountryHowevertheenergysectorwill

continuebyalargemargintobethemajor(non-

consumer)wateruserprocessing billion m³in

hydroelectricitygenerationConsequentlythemain

challengewillnotbewaterscarcitybuttoplanor

wateruseinanintegratedashiontobeabletosatisythedemandoallsectors

Natural disasters, national strategiesand climate changeCentralAmericaandtheCaribbeanregionare

highlyvulnerabletoextremesoclimateO

hydrometeorologicaldisastersbetween

andsomewereoodstropicalstorms

landslidesormudslideswhileweredroughts

BecauseothesteepslopesothemountainousterrainriversrunastinthecentralpartoCosta

RicaandareknowntocauseviolentoodsUrban

developmentdeorestationandchannelmodication

especiallyintheCaribbeanslopeandtheSouth

Pacichaveworsenedtheseconditionscausing

oodstoaecteverlargerhumansettlements

agriculturalareasinrastructureandnaturereserves

Consequentlybetweenandapproximatelypeopleandhousingunitswere

reportedtohavebeenaectedbyoodslandslides

andwindstormsAsrecentlyasheavyrainand

mudslidesaectedover kmonationalroads

andcausedUS$ millionworthodamageThe

sameyearoverhousesweredamagedatan

estimatedcostoUS$ millionThelosstoagriculture

wasinthevicinityoUS$ millionToalesserextent

thecountryisalsopronetodroughtInactrecurring

droughtsinandandagainincauseda

combinedeconomiclossoUS$ million

RiskmanagementinCostaRicahasgonethrougha

processoinstitutionalizationTheEmergencies

ActledtotheestablishmentotheNational

CommissionorRiskPreventionandEmergency

Response(ComisiónNacionaldePrevenciónde

RiesgosyAtencióndeEmergencias)andtheNational

EmergencyFundsLateramendmentstothelaw

requiredtheintegrationoriskmanagementintothe

planningactivitiesoallnationalinstitutionsaswellas

intoallnationaldevelopmentpolicies

CostaRicaisunderstandablyconcernedwiththe

likelyeectsoclimatechangeCurrentclimatic

modelsindicatethepossibilitythatby

temperaturesmayhaveincreasedasmuchas°C

precipitationmayhavedecreasedbyupto

andthesealevelmayhaverisenbyasmuchas

onemetre(WorldBank)Underabusiness-

as-usualscenario(thatisnoreductionincarbon

emissions)bythecumulativecostoclimatechangeinCentralAmericancountriesisestimated

toreachapproximatelyUS$ billion(US$

reerence)InCostaRicaaloneadditionalinvestment

oasmuchasUS$ billionmayberequiredor

theadaptationosectorsrelyingonwaterand

biodiversityortheprovisionotheirservicesGiven

thatheavynancialburdenandthepotentiallysevere

implicationsoclimaticextremesaNationalStrategy

onClimateChangehasbeenestablishedandisbeing

overseenbytheMinistryoEnvironmentEnergyand

Telecommunication(MINAET)Thisstrategyaimstoimproveoveralleciencyinallsectorswiththegoal










































































































oreducinggreenhousegasesThestrategydocument

alsoestimatesthatthelargestamountoinvestment

()needstobemadeintheenergysectorollowed

byagriculture()tocompensateortheeects

oclimatechange(Box )Thesetwosectorshave

traditionallybeennancedthroughexternalunds

ThemostimportantsourceointernalundingorclimatechangeadaptationistheNationalFundor

ForestFinancing(FondoNacionaldeFinanciamiento

Forestal)establishedbytheForestryLawandlinked

topaymentorecosystemservicesInlinewiththe

‘PeacewithNature’initiativepromotedbyPresident

OscarAriasSnchezCostaRicahaspledgedto

becomeacarbonneutralcountryby

Water resources management: Nationalstrategy and water policy

CostaRica’snationalstrategyhastheoverarchingaimsoboostingeconomicdevelopmentandincreasing

humanwelareinharmonywiththeenvironment

(MINAETb)Integratedwaterresources

management(IWRM)iscentraltothisstrategyAsa

resulttheStatehasestablishedanumberoguiding

principlesorwaterpolicythatidentiywaterasapublic

goodandaccesstodrinkingwaterasahumanright

undertheconstitutionOtherimportantissuesidentied

bythestrategydocumentincludetheequitableuseo

waterresourcestheimprovementowaterinrastructure

andtheapplicationotechnologytoimprovethe

eciencyowateruseandcurbwaterpollutionItalso

highlightstheimportanceotheeconomicvaluationo

waterthepromotionointegrateddecentralizedand

participatorybasinmanagementprogrammesandthe

protectionowaterresourcesorhumanwell-beingand

theprotectionoecosystems

TheNationalWaterPolicyseekstoharmonizethe

prioritiesoeconomicgrowthpovertyreduction

andnatureconservationthroughIWRMtheaimbeingtoensurethatbothwaterquantityandquality

meetthedemandsosustainablenationalgrowth

(MINAET)Intermsonationalwatersecurity

thepolicyhassixstrategicprioritiesincreasingthe

competitivenessodomesticindustrypromoting

holisticwatermanagementensuringthesustainable

useowaterresourcescreatingawaterculture

mitigatingtheeectsoclimatechangeandinvolving

publicparticipationindecision-makingprocesses

ThereareanumberoinstitutionsinvolvedinimplementingandoverseeingtheNationalWater

PolicyMINAETistheleadagencyresponsibleor

implementingtheWaterLawTheWaterBoard

(DireccióndeAgua)andtheNationalRegistero

Concessionsareothernationalbodiesthatsupport

MINAET’seortsthroughpromotingtherationaluse

owaterresourcesandcentralizinginquiriesorwater

abstractionTheNationalServiceoGroundwaterIrrigationandDrainage(ServicioNacionaldeAguas

SubterrneasRiegoyAvenamiento)isapublicagency

thatpromotessustainableagriculturaldevelopment

throughecientmanagementandtheuseosurace

waterandgroundwaterTheCostaRicanWaterand

SewerInstitute(InstitutoCostarricensedeAcueductos

yAlcantarillados)providesdrinkingwaterand

sanitationservicesinbothurbanandruralsettlements

TheInstitutealsoaimstoconserveriverbasinsand

toreducewaterpollutionTheCostaRicanInstitute

oElectricity(InstitutoCostarricensedeElectricidad)isthemainoperatorprovidingelectricityand

telecommunicationsservices

IntermsoalegalrameworktheWaterLawwhich

hasbeenreliedontoregulateallaspectsowateruse

isoutdatedTherealityisthatinatimeoincreasing

demandorwaterandgrowingcompetitionamong

dierentsectorsortheresourceitnolongerprovides

sucientmeanstomanageandprotectthecountry's

waterresourcesInrecognitionothisMINAETis

dratingawaterbilltomodernizethecurrentwater

managementpolicy

Poverty, access to water supply andsanitation servicesAccordingtotheNationalHouseholdSurvey(INEC

)approximatelyoCostaRica'spopulationlives

inpovertywhileaceextremepovertyeveryday

Theincidenceopovertyinruralareasissignicantly

higheratthaninurbanareasatThereisa

markeddierencealsointermsogenderequalitywiththenumberomeninworksignicantlyhigherthanthe

numberowomen(andrespectively)This

illustratesthegreaterdicultythatwomenaceinthe

labourmarketandingainingaccesstoemployment

Ingeneralothepopulationhasaccesstosae

drinkingwater()almostallowhichispiped

totheirpremisesInruralareastherateoaccessis

Accesstoimprovedsanitationisequallyhigh

atHoweveronlyotheurbanpopulation

andoruraldwellersareservedbythesanitationinrastructure(WHOUNICEF)








































































































WWDR4 857COSTARICA

Protection o Environment and BiodiversityCostaRicainspiteoitssmallsizeaccountsor

approximatelyotheworld’sbiodiversityThatis

becauseoitsgeographicallocationanditsvarying

landscapewhichrangesromislandsandbeachesto

rainorests(EmbassyoCostaRicand)Sincethe

middleothelastcenturyCostaRicahasdevelopedanextensivenetworkoprotectedareastotalling

approximatelyoitslandsuraceCocosIsland

andLaAmistadorexamplearetworenowned

nationalparkswhichhavereceivedinternational

recognitionasUNESCOWorldHeritageSites

CostaRicaasasignatorytointernational

environmentaltreatieshasalsoenactedanumbero

regulatoryinstrumentssuchastheOrganicLawdrawn

upbytheMinistryoEnvironmentandEnergy()

theEnvironmentLaw()andtheForestryLaw()TheBiodiversityAct()dealsspecically

withtheprotectionobiodiversityandendangered

speciesTheNationalSystemoConservationAreas

whichoperateswithintheMINAETisresponsible

orpromotingtheconservationobiodiversityand

thesustainableuseoorestsmangroveswetlands

andorestplantations(EmbassyoCostaRicand)

InadditiontheNationalBiodiversityInstitutewas

establishedinasaprivatenot-or-prot

organizationtocarryoutmonitoringandresearch

Itskeyaimsaretheestablishmentoabiodiversity

inventorythepromotionoconservationactivitiesand

theprovisionodatawhichinormdecision-making

inrelationtotheprotectionandsustainableuseo

biodiversity

CostaRicahaspioneeredtheuseo‘paymentor

environmentalservices’byestablishingacountrywide

mechanism–locallyknownasPagodeServiciosAmbientales–tochargeusersortheenvironmental

servicestheyreceiveInspiteoinitialdiculties

causedbythereluctanceoserviceuserstopayor

conservationtheprogrammeisnowwellestablished

withinCostaRicaandwidelyperceivedassuccessul

(Pagiola)

InlinewiththePeacewithNatureinitiativewhichaims

tomakeCostaRicacarbonneutralbyo

electricityisgeneratedusingrenewablesourceso

energynotablyhydropowerSimilarlythe–strategicplandevelopedbytheCostaRicanInstitute

oElectricity(InstitutoCostarricensedeElectricidad)

oreseesurtherdevelopmentohydropowerthrough

theconstructionodamswiththeminimumpossible

environmentalimpactandtheuseoalternative

sourcesopowersuchaswavewindandgeothermal

energyThisplanwillrequireaninvestmento

US$ billion(US$reerence)

Howevertheothersideothecoinisthatpopulation

growththeexpansionourbansettlementsindustrial

developmentandtheintensicationoagricultural

InapproximatelyocultivatedlandinCostaRicawasirrigatedAvulnerabilitystudyhasbeenconductedinthe

threemostimportantriverbasinstheReventazóntheGrandedeTerrabaandtheGrandedeTrcolesusingclimatescenar-

iosinwhichtemperaturesincreaseby°Cto°Cwithchangesinprecipitationo±onthePacicsideand±onthe

AtlanticsideResultspredictthatmarkedvariationsinwaterowwilloccurintheseareaswhichwillaectagricultureespe-ciallyduringthetransitionbetweenthedryseasonandtherainyseason

Thereisalsoexpectedtobeanincreaseinoodswhichwillhaveadirectimpactonirrigationsystemsandleadtomoresoil

erosionAtthesametimetherewillbeanincreaseintherequencyodroughtsinsomepartsothecountryleadingtoless

waterorirrigation

Accordingtoananalysisothevulnerabilityowaterresourcestoclimatechangethecountry’smostvulnerableregions

arethosewheremostlandisusedoragricultureorareaswherethereisconictinglanduseInCostaRica’sSecond

NationalCommunicationtotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeexaminedseveraladaptation

measuresconcerningwaterresourcesTheseincludedtheollowingwaterstorageacilitiestheprotectionoaquiersthe

monitoringowaterresourceswaterrationingandprojectsaimedatincreasingwatereciencyinirrigation

Source: Modied rom the World Bank (2009).

BOX 50.1

Potentialimplicationsoclimatechangeonagriculture















































































activitiesincludinglivestockproductionhaveallledto

anincreaseintheamountocontaminantsTheserange

romindustrialagriculturalandsolidwastetoagro-

chemicalsandsewageandtheyarebeingdischarged

intoCostaRica’swaterbodiesNationwideonlyo

sewageistreatedConsequentlymanystreamsrivers

andaquiersarepollutedtovaryingdegrees

Anexampleothiscomplexandgrowingproblemis

theTrcolesRiverbasinwhichishometoothe

populationandothecountry’sindustriesSevere

pollutioninthemajorriversothisbasinandinsome

tributariesotheVirillaRiver(suchastheMaríaAguilar

theTorresandtheTiribírivers)hasconsiderablylimited

wateravailabilityinthemosteconomicallydeveloped

regionothecountryWhilethisisanimpedimentto

sustainabledevelopmentitalsoraisesserioushealth

andenvironmentalconcerns(GWP)

ConclusionsCostaRicawithaverageannualwateravailabilityo

m³percapitaiswellendowedintermso

waterresourcesWhilerainallisabundantseasonal

shortagesinsuracewaterhavepromptedthe

widespreadexploitationoaquiersHowevergreater

useowaterinallsectorscombinedwithincreasing

populationdensityhasledtothecontaminationo

riversandsomeaquierssuchasthoseintheCentral

Valleywheremorethanhalthepopulationlives

OnthepositivesideCostaRicaistherstcountry

intheworldwhichhaspledgedtobecomecarbon

neutralbyThisaspirationgoeshandinhandwith

theeortstoprotectthecountry’srichbiodiversity

andenvironmentAlmostoelectricityproduction

alreadycomesromrenewableresourcesandthe

governmentaimstopromoteurtherdiversication

intorenewableormsoenergysuchaswavewind

andsolarpowerinadditiontohydroelectricity

CostaRicaisalsoapioneerinLatinAmericainterms

otheimplementationoPaymentorEcosystem

Serviceswhichinturngeneratesnationalundsor

climatechangeadaptationThemajorchallengesareto

updatetheobsoleteWaterLawimprovelegislationand

mechanismsthatdealwithextremeeventsandreduce

povertyEnhancinghydrometeorologicalinormation

byextendingresearchandmonitoringactivitiesto

alltheriverbasinsensuringthesustainableuseo

groundwaterresourcesextendingsanitationcoverage

andcurbingpollutionaresomeotheissuesthatnow

requireurtherattentionatnationallevel


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromtheCostaRicaCase

StudyReportInorme de Recursos Hídricos de Costa

Rica (Recopilación)preparedinbytheCosta

RicaIHPNationalCommitteetheNationalInstituteo

StatisticsandtheCostaRicanInstituteoElectricity

(orthcoming)

ArenalnetndVolcanoes o Costa Ricahttpwwwarenalnetcosta-rica-volcanoeshtm(Accessed August)

EmbassyoCostaRicaUnitedStatesndEnvironment.Washington DCEmbassyoCostaRica httpwwwcostarica-embassyorg?q=node

FAO–AquastatSistema de Inormación sobre el Usodel Agua en la Agricultura y el Medio Rural de la FAO. FAOCountryProlehttpwwwaoorgnrwateraquastatcountries_regionscosta_ricaindexespstm(Accessed August)

GWP(GlobalWaterPartnership) Situación de losrecursos hídricos en Centroamérica: hacia una gestión

integrada. TegucigalpaHondurasGWP

INEC(InstitutoNacionaldeEstadísticayCensos)Encuesta Nacional de Hogares : Ciras básicas sobre uerzade trabajo, pobreza e ingresos de los hogares, julio 2010.SanJoséCostaRicaINEC

MINAET(MinisteriodeAmbienteEnergíayTelecomunicacionesCostaRica) aElaboración deBalances Hídricos por cuencas hidrográcas y propuesta demodernización de las redes de medición en Costa RicaSanJoséCostaRicaMINAET

––––bPlan Nacional de Gestión Integrada delos Recursos Hídricos. SanJoséCostaRicaMINAET

httpwwwgwpcentroamericaorguploadedcontenteventpd(Accessed November)

––––Política Hídrica Nacional SanJoséCostaRicaMINAEThttpwwwdrhgocrtextosbalancepoliticahidrica_novpd

MINAETIMN(InstitutoMeteorológicoNacional)Segunda Comunicación Nacional, a la convención marcode las naciones unidas sobre cambio climático.SanJoséCostaRicaMINAETandIMNhttpuncccintresourcedocsnatccorncpd(Accessed August)
































































http://www.arenal.net/costa-rica-volcanoes.htm




http://www.costarica-embassy.org/?q=node/12







http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/costa_rica/indexesp.stm







http://www.gwpcentroamerica.org/uploaded/content/event/1814341097.pdf








http://www.drh.go.cr/textos/balance/politicahidrica_30nov09.pdf





http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/cornc2.pdf






























WWDR4 859COSTARICA

MoraValverde MndEstructura socio-productiva y surelación con el Ordenamiento urbanoSanJoséCostaRicaURBANOandUniversidaddeCostaRicaObservatoriodelDesarrollohttpwwwodducraccrphocadownloadestructura-socioproductiva-y-su-relacion-con-el-orde-urbanopd(Accessed August)

Pagiola SPayments or Environmental Services inCosta RicaWashington DCWorldBankhttpwwwoiredvtedusanremcrspdocumentsresearch-themespesPESCostaRicapd

SEPSA(SecretaríaEjecutivadePlanicaciónSectorialAgropecuaria)Boletín Estadístico Agropecuario 19SanJoséCostaRicaSEPSA

UNESCOIHP(UnitedNationsEducationalScienticandCulturalOrganizationInternationalHydrologicalProgramme)Balance hídrico supercial de CostaRica. Período: 1970–2002. DocumentosTécnicosdelPHI-LACNo MontevideoUruguayUNESCOIHP

WHOUNICEF(WorldHealthOrganizationUnitedNationsChildren’sFund)CostaRicacountryproleEstimates or the Use o Improved Sanitation FacilitiesJointMonitoringProgrammeorWaterSupplyandSanitation(JMP)httpwwwwssinoorgleadminuser_uploadresourcesCRI_sanpd(Accessed October)

WorldBankCosta Rica Country Note on ClimateChange Aspects in Agriculture, 2009Washington DCWorldBankhttptinyccgqr(Accessed August)




http://www.odd.ucr.ac.cr/phocadownload/estructura-socioproductiva-y-su-relacion-con-el-orde-urbano.pdf








http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/documents/research-themes/pes/PESCostaRica.pdf






http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/CRI_san.pdf

























—

Acknowledgements GerenciadeIngenieríayNormasTécnicas

(SubdirecciónGeneralTécnica)ComisiónNacionaldelAgua

-MarioLópezPérezColinHerronMestreRodríguez

CHAPTER 51

Lerma–Chapala basin, Mexico

©CONAGUALerma-Santiago-PacifcRiverBasinOrganization






relationtogroundwaterresourcesBecauseothis

substantialuseoaquiersoverdratinghasbeena

concernsincetheearlysTodayabouto

aquiersinthebasinmostnotablyinGuanajuato

arebeingpushedbeyondtheirsustainablelimitsIn

actsincetheswaterdemandhascommonlyexceededavailabilityalmosteveryyearOveralltotal

annualabstractionexceedsrechargebyapproximately

billionm³()Whenthisiscombinedwithwater-

qualitydegradationandimmigrationitisclearthatthe

currentwateravailabilityperpersonwhichstoodat

m³inislikelytoworsen

Thebasinboaststhehighestrateoagriculturalland

useinMexicothankstoacombinationoertile

soilandavourableclimaticconditionsIn

approximately km²oland(othebasin)wasallocatedtoagricultureRainedagricultureis

mostcommonpractisedoverothebasinwhile

therestothecultivatedland()isirrigatedMaize

andsorghumarethemaincropsandareplantedon

otheagriculturallandWaterdemandrom

thissectoraccountsorroughlyoallwater

abstractionwhereasthesector’scontributiontoGDP

isaroundBycomparisonwaterdemandrom

industryaccountsorlessthanooverallwateruse

whilethesectorgeneratesaroundothebasin’s

GDP()

Toimprovewatereciencyinallsectorswater

tarishavebeenincreasedtoreectmoreaccurately

therealcostoserviceprovisionandmaintenance

Betweenandthepriceoirrigation

waterincreasedten-oldInadditionsubsidieswere

oeredavouringarminvestmentsthatledtomore

ecientwateruseUnortunatelypublicinterestis

waningbecausethepay-outisseenasinsucient

andinsomeareastarisarestillwellbelowrealcostsFurthermorebecausethewaterrevenuegoes

straighttotheMexicanFederalTreasuryandregions

donotbenetdirectlypeople’swillingnesstopay

remainslimitedConsequentlythereisanimmediate

needtodeneappropriatemechanismsorthe

redistributionowaterrevenue

Climate change and water-related disastersSincetheearlystherehasbeenagradual

increaseinthedierencebetweenmeansummer

temperaturesandmeanwintertemperatures–orinotherwordswarmersummersandcolderwinters

Suchtrendscanbeseenclearlybetweenand

whenaveragetemperaturesrosebyalmost

°Cinspringandsummeranddroppedbyasimilar

averageinwinter

Rainallpatternsalsoindicateamovementtowardsextremeslessprecipitationduringthedryseason

withmoreviolentstorms;andgreatersuracerun-o

inthewetseasonOverallinthe-yearperiodupto

annualrainallandsuracerun-ohasdecreased

bysomeSincethesanalysisolong-term

rainalldataindicatesaseriesoalternatingwetand

dryperiodseachlastingseveralyearsDroughtsoccur

inthebasinalmosteverydecadeandmaylastupto

veyearsormoreThemostrecentdroughtwhich

lastedoryearsromuntilisanotable

exampleInthewaterlevelinLakeChapaladroppedtooitscapacitythesecond-lowest

levelrecordedsincedatacollectionbeganin

Theworstdroughtsusuallyoccurinthenorthernsub-

basinswheretheclimateisdrier

Greaterclimaticvariationshaveaectedtheopposite

endothespectrumtooleadingtomorerequent

oodsHeavyrainall(denedasormoreabove

themonthlyoryearlyaverage)oanintensitythat

leadstooodingdisasterstypicallyreturnsevery

threetosixyearsTheprobabilityooodsishigherin

thesouthernpartothebasin;howeversuchevents

alsoaectthecentralandwesternportionsothe

basinwithconsiderabledamagetourbansettlements

industryandarmland

Over damsandreservoirsinthebasinprovide

structuralsaeguardsagainstwater-relatednatural

disastersHoweverincreasingvulnerabilityspecically

tooodscallsortheadoptionoabasin-wide

integratedstrategicplanthatcombinesbothlegislativeandengineeringmeasures

Water and settlements: Health issuesand povertyTheLerma–Chapalabasinishighlyurbanizedandan

estimatedothepopulationisconcentratedin

itscitiesInadditionthewaterresourcesothebasin

areusednotonlybythe millioninhabitantsothe

basinareaitselbutalsobyanadditional million

peoplelivingoutsidethebasininthemetropolitan

areasoMexicoCityandGuadalajaraTotalannualwaterdemandisaround billionm³Othisis



WWDR4 863LERMA–CHAPALABASINMEXICO

suppliedromgroundwaterresourcesThewatertari

inthebasinrangesromUS$toUS$the

averagebeingUS$Tarisystemsaredesigned

tobenetthepoorandmarginalizedgroupsand

asaresultchargesorlowwaterconsumptionare

relativelyinsignicantOverallcollectedeescover

onlyaroundooperatingcosts

Water-relateddiseaseshavebeenonthedecline

sincetheearlysAtthesametimethe

CleanWaterActrequiredlocalwaterutilitiestomeet

nationalwaterqualitystandardsConsequently

morbidityandmortalitycausedbywater-related

diseasesarenowadayspracticallynegligibleHowever

problemsdopersistinremoteruralareaswhichoten

alsosuerromlowincomeslowleveloeducation

poorinrastructureandwaterscarcityApproximately

millionbasininhabitantslivebelowthenationalpovertyline()andtheglobalnancialcrisisis

expectedtoaddtothisproblemHoweverextreme

povertyandaminearenon-existentinthebasin

Environment, ecosystems and water qualityMexicoisveryrichintermsoplantspeciesanimals

andmicro-organismsTheregioninwhichtheLerma–

Chapalabasinislocatedostersawidediversityo

oraandaunathankstothevaryinglandscapewith

itsmountainslakestheextensivemarshesothe

TolucaValleyandtheLermaRiveritselOverallthere

areoverspeciesooraandaunaintheLerma–

Chapalabasinincludingmorethanspecieso

mammalsbirdsreptilesamphibiansandshThe

basinisparticularlydistinctiveinitsreshwatersh

endemismasothespeciesoshoundhere

areuniqueInadditionaccordingtotheNational

EcologyInstituteoMexicoplantspeciesound

herehavevalueeitherromaneconomicorroman

ecologicalpointoview

ThereareprotectedareasincludingtheMonarch

ButterySanctuaryinMichoacntheNevadode

TolucaareaintheStateoMexicoandtheSierra

GordainQueretarolistedasCommonHeritageo

MankindUnortunatelychangesinlandusepatterns

stemmingromurbanizationaswellasagricultural

andindustrialdevelopmenthaveputincreasing

pressureonthisenvironmentanditsecosystemsFor

exampleuntreatedefuenthascausedseriouslocal

andregionalpollutioninthebasinBymost

otheriversinthebasinwerepollutedandothereservoiroChapalaLakewasunsuitableor

drinkingororbreedingshGroundwaterquality

alsochangeddramaticallywithseveralaquiers

aectedbycontaminationromurbansettlements

andindustrialzonesGiventhiscriticalsituationthe

ederalgovernmentandthevestategovernmentsin

theriverbasinsignedanagreementinwithour

mainobjectivesormulationoanewwaterallocationpolicytreatmentorawmunicipalandindustrial

efuentstoimprovewaterqualityincreasedeciency

inthewaywaterisusedandtheprotectionand

conservationothewaterresourcesothebasinInline

withthisagreementtherstphaseotheRegional

WaterTreatmentPlanwasputintoeectwiththeaim

oconstructingnewtreatmentplantsormunicipal

wastewaterInthesecondphaseothePlanwas

agreedbytheLerma–ChapalaRiverBasinCouncil

withtheaimoenlargingthosetreatmentplantsand

allowingthemtotreatlsoefuentTakingthosetwostagestogethertheaimwasthatabout

oallmunicipalwastewaterwouldbetreated

Therstphasewasstartedduringthesand

continuedduringtherstdecadeothemillennium

Howevermostotheprogrammehasnotbeen

implementedyetThesecondphaseisacingnancial

dicultiesIngeneralthebasinhasthelargestwater

treatmentcapacityintheregionandsincethes

newtreatmentacilitiesandtechnicalimprovements

havebeenintroducedWhilethereisprogressand

waterqualityhasimprovedinthebasinoverallthe

ourobjectivesotheagreementhaveyettobe

accomplishedThisslowprogresshasbeenattributed

topoorenorcementolawslackopoliticalsupport

inadequatenancingthelackoawaterculturebased

onthe‘polluterpays’principleandalackoawareness

insocietyabouttheimportanceowater

Anotherenvironmentalproblemthataects

othebasinissoildegradationincludinglossoertilityanderosionTheormeristhemore

criticalasithasanimpactonothebasin

area–withseriousconsequencesoragricultural

productionUnortunatelytherearenolarge-scale

soilconservationprojectsorcapacitybuilding

programmesorarmerstoaddresstheseproblems

Water resources managementand legislationInMexicowateristhepropertyothenationand

itsmanagementistheresponsibilityotheederalgovernmentArticleotheConstitutionsetsoutthe




RiverbasincouncilsinMexicoderivetheirlegitimacyromtheNationalWaterLawTheyhavethesustainableandintegrated

managementandprotectionowaterresourcesastheirultimatetargetTheLerma–ChapalaRiverBasinCounciloneo

riverbasincouncilsinMexicocoordinatesactionamonggovernmentinstitutionsandstakeholdersToaccomplishthisgoal

itbringstogethergovernmentocialswaterusersandrepresentativesoNGOsBydenitionthecouncilisaconsultative

bodythatcanproposeprogrammesorimplementationandspecicactionstoaddresschallengesandsurveytheirperor-

manceItisalsoentitledtointervenetoconciliateproblemsbetweenusersandtorecommendspecicactionstoCONAGUA

thoughitisnotentitledtomakedecisions

TheLerma–ChapalaRiverBasinCouncilisneitheraregulatorybodynoraserviceproviderItisaorumwithinwhichstake-

holderscanmeetoneanotherandmeetgovernmentocialstoexaminecomplaintssearchorsolutionsraiseissuesand

promoteprojectsovaryingscopeInsummarythecouncilisamechanismoridentiyingproblemsanddealingwithcompe-titionandconicts

mainguidelinesorwaterresourcesmanagementand

landresourcesmanagementAederalwaterlawderived

romthisarticlewasenactedduringthesThiswas

ollowedbytheNationalWaterPlaninIn

theNationalWaterCommission(ComisiónNacionaldel

Agua-CONAGUA)wasestablishedastheederalwater

authorityresponsibleoroverallplanningmanagementandthedevelopmentonationalwaterresourcesIts

broadresponsibilitiesincludedtheallocationowater

amongitsusersthecollectionowatertarisandthe

planningconstructionandoperationohydraulicworks

IntheNationalWaterLawwasenactedto

improvewatermanagementOnenotableaspectwas

theestablishmentoawaterrightssystemandthe

creationoapublicregistryenablinguserstobuy

andsellwaterrights(Arreguín-Cortésetal)

TheNationalWaterLawalsoprovidedthelegal

oundationorthecreationoriverbasincouncils

(RBCs)ascoordinatingagenciesAso

RBCswereestablishedBeingattheorerontothenationalwaterresourcesdevelopmentagendathe

rstbasincouncilinLerma–Chapalawascreatedas

earlyasbringingwaterusersromdierent

sectorstogetherTodayitscompositionismuchlarger

withrepresentativesoederalstateandmunicipal

governmentwateruserassociationsandsocial

organizations(Box )

BOX 51.1

TheLerma–ChapalaRiverBasinCouncil

*MinistryoEnvironmentandNaturalResources(SecretaríadeMedioAmbienteyRecursosNaturales–SEMARNAT)

MinistryoFinanceandPublicCredit(SecretariadeHaciendayCréditoPúblico-SHCP)

MinistryoSocialDevelopment(SecretariadeDesarrolloSocial-SEDESOL)

MinistryoEnergy(SecretaríadeEnergía-SENER)

MinistryoEconomy(SecretariadeEconomía-SE)

MinistryoHealth(SecretariadeSalud-SALUD)

MinistryoAgricultureLivestockRuralDevelopmentFisheriesandFood(SecretariadeAgriculturaGanaderíaDesarrolloRuralPescayAlimentación-SAGARPA)

TechnicalGroundwaterCommittee(ComitéTécnicodeAguasSubterrneas–COTAS)

Lerma-ChapalaRiverBasinCouncilComposition

BasinCommitteesWatershed

CommitteesandCOTAS*

Operationmanagement

BasinCouncilOperationand

MonitoringCommittee

GeneralWaterUsersandCivilSociety

Assembly

Specializedgroups

FunctionalBody

FunctionalBodies

Steeringcomittee•President

•TechnicalSecretary

Subsidiaryworkbodies

Subregionalandstateusers'committeesperwateruse

WaterUsersandCivilSocietyRepresentatives

AtleastAgricultureotherAgriculturalFarmingactivi-

tiesPowerGenerationIndustryLivestockUrbanPublicServices

RepresentativesoStateandMunicipalGovernments

NotmorethanGuanajuatoJaliscoMexicoMichoacanandQueretaro

FederalGovernment

Representatives*SEMARNATSHCPSEDESOLSENERSESALUDSAGARPA



865WWDR LERMA–CHAPALABASINMEXICO

InCONAGUAbecameapartotheEnvironment

NaturalResourcesandFishingSecretariatwhich

hadtheaimointensiyingnationaleortstowards

sustainabledevelopmentInthisbecame

theMinistryoEnvironmentandNaturalResources

(Tortajada)IntheNationalWaterLaw

wasrevisedsothatwaterrightsandtheirtransmissionromoneusertoanothercouldbeidentiedand

trackedmoreeasilyThesamerevisionintroduced

integratedwaterresourcesmanagement(IWRM)

withaconictresolutiondimensionThereormalso

allowedorthecreationoriverbasinorganizations

(whichareregionaladministrativebrancheso

CONAGUA)andbolsteredtheroleoriverbasin

councilsasautonomousconsultativebodiesHowever

inspiteocontinuingeortsacentralized(top-down)

managementapproachstillprevailsThiscallsor

urtheremphasisonthepromotionoIWRM

ConclusionsTheLerma–Chapalabasinhasexperiencedstrong

demographicandeconomicgrowthwithahigh

increaseinwaterdemandUnortunatelythat

demandhasnowreachedthepointatwhichithas

surpassedthecurrentlimitorenewablewater

resourcesavailabilityWhileincreasingwatereciency

inallsectorsisdesirablereducingagricultural

waterconsumptionromitscurrentleveloo

allwaterabstractedisanecessityorsustainable

developmentinthebasinWorseningpollutionload

hasledtodegradationotheenvironmentando

waterresourcesEortstoaugmentthecapacity

owastewatertreatmentplantshavehelpedto

improvewaterqualityandenvironmentalconditions

HowevertheRegionalWaterTreatmentPlanwhich

wasinitiallyintroducedintheearlyshasyet

tobeimplementedullyPoorenorcementolaws

mainlystemmingromlackopoliticalsupportand

inadequatenancingisanimportantdimensionocontinuingpollutionTherevisedNationalWaterLaw

isanimportantmilestonebecauseitclearlyintroduces

theintegratedwaterresourcesmanagement(IWRM)

approachOntheotherhandcentralmanagemento

waterresourcescontinuestooperateinparallelFor

thatreasontheongoingprocessostrengthening

therolesoriverbasinorganizationsandriver

basincouncilsconstitutesastrategicpriorityboth

nationallyandlocallyAtthebasinlevelsuccessul

implementationoIWRMiscrucialbecauseitisthe

rststeptominimizingthenegativeeectsoclimaticvariabilityandstoppingunsustainablelevelsowater

use–allowingholisticandeectivemanagemento

thebasin’slimitedresourcesConsequentlytough

measuresthatregulatewaterresourcesdemandand

improvetheeciencyowateruseandreuseare

essentialandaregraduallyandsuccessullybeing

implemented


Reerences


concisesummaryisadaptedromthe Lerma–

Chapala Basin Case Study: A Fruitul Sustainable Water

Management ExperienceMexicoCityCONAGUA

(NationalWaterCommissionMexico)(orthcoming)

Arreguín-Cortés FandLópez-Pérez M. An Overview o Mexico’s Water Regime and the Role o Groundwater:Proceedings o a Workshop on Sustainable Management o Groundwater in MexicoScienceandTechnologyorSustainabilityProgramMexicoCityCONAGUA(NationalWaterCommissionMexico)

TortajadaCRiverbasinmanagementapproachesinMexicoVertigO - la revue électronique en sciencesde l’environnement specialissuehttpvertigorevuesorg(Accessed November)

http://vertigo.revues.org/1927












866

BOXES, TABLES, FIGURES AND MAPS

BOXES

Agricultureandoodsecurity

Paymentorecosystemservices

Anewerainconservationalthinking

Drought’sheavytollonAustralia

SedimentmanagementstrategiesintheYellowRiverbasin

Managementtoolsagainstextremeevents

TheFloodinPakistan

TheuseorenewableenergyintheMPM

DevelopingknowledgeandcapacityIrrinetandIrrinetplus

TheWaterLawandtheriverbasindistrictadministrations

Potentialimplicationsoclimatechangeonagriculture

TheLerma–ChapalaRiverBasinCouncil

TABLES WaterusebysectorintheMaraRiverbasin()

RateoaccesstowaterresourcesintheMaraRiverbasin

RateoaccesstosanitationacilitiesintheMaraRiverbasin

Averagesuracewateruse

GDPoprovincesintheYellowRiverbasin()

GroundwaterdevelopmentanduseinJejuIsland

AccesstoimprovedwatersupplyinJejuProvince

BasiccharacteristicsomajorriverbasinsintheCzechRepublic

ExtentoregionsanddistributionotheTiberRiverbasin

Basicregionalstatisticsaboutagriculturallanduse()

ContributionovarioussectorstoGDPatthenationalCentralApenninesDistrictandTiberRiverbasinlevels AnnualwaterusebycategoryintheStJohnsRiverbasin

FIGURES

Fluctuationinwaterresourcesavailabilitybetweenand

TotalsysteminowssuracewateruseanddamstoragecapacityintheMurray-Darlingbasin

Trendinannualdamageandcasualtiesbywater-relateddisasters

SuracewaterabstractionintheCzechRepublicbetweenand

EvolutionowaterconsumptionintheMPMromto

MAPS

Regionaldistributionothecasestudies iv

Ghana

MaraRiverbasin

JordanRiverbasin

Murray–Darlingbasin

YellowRiverbasin

JejuIsland

IndusRiverbasin

CzechRepublic

MarseilleProvenceMétropoleUrbanCommunity

TiberRiverbasinandCentralApenninesDistrict

TagusRiverbasin

StJohnsRiverbasin CostaRica

Lerma–Chapalabasin

FACINGTHECHALLENGES























































The United Nations World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) is hosted by UNESCO and brings together the

work of 28 UN-Water members and partners in the triennial World Water Development Report (WWDR).

This agship report is a comprehensive review that gives an overall picture of the world’s freshwater resources. It

analyses pressures from decisions that drive demand for water and aect its availability. It oers tools and response

options to help leaders in government, the private sector and civil society address current and future challenges. It

suggests ways in which institutions can be reformed and their behaviour modied, and explores possible sources of

nancing for the urgently needed investment in water.

The WWDR4 is a milestone within the WWDR series, reporting directly on regions and highlighting hotspots, and it

has been mainstreamed for gender equality. It introduces a thematic approach – ‘Managing Water under Uncertainty

and Risk’ – in the context of a world which is changing faster than ever in often unforeseeable ways, with increasing

uncertainties and risks. It highlights that historical experience will no longer be sucient to approximate the

relationship between the quantities of available water and shifting future demands. Like the earlier editions, the

WWDR4 also contains country-level case studies describing the progress made in meeting water-related objectives.

The WWDR4 also seeks to show that water has a central role in all aspects of economic development and social

welfare, and that concerted action via a collective approach of the water-using sectors is needed to ensure water’s

many benets are maximized and shared equitably and that water-related development goals are achieved.

—

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formally established in 2003 building on a long history of collaboration in the UN family. It currently counts 29 UN

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