Eyetracking correlates of preferential looking at faces showing emotion in autistic and avoidant adults

8/6/2019 Eyetracking correlates of preferential looking at faces showing emotion in autistic and avoidant adults

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Preferential looking in autistic and avoidant adults 1

Eyetracking correlates of preferential looking at faces showing

emotion in autistic and avoidant adults.

07219123

Roehampton University

Standard Research Project

Module Code: PSY020X351Y

2010-2011

Supervised by: Dr. Lance Slade

Word Count: 3545


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Abstract

It is known that autism and avoidant attachment result in a poorer performance in tasks

which require a theory of mind. Clear distinctions have not been made about the

differences between autistic and avoidant approaches to emotional stimuli. The present

research examined how autistic and avoidant adults receive and make use of emotional

stimuli. A mixed measures, correlational eyetracking study was conducted using 111 adult

participants to record where participants looked when presented with a still image of a face.

Participants were also asked to complete questionnaires which produced results which

indicated their levels of avoidance and autism. These were then correlated. It was found

that whilst both avoidant and autistic individual s yielded poorer scores than typical adults,

autistic individuals showed a reduction in preferential looking to the eyes whereas avoidant

individuals did not. This showed that avoidant individuals instinctively take in emotional

stimuli but avoid making use of it whilst autistic individuals do not absorb the information

initially and are therefore unable to make use of it.


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It has been found in previous research that attachment orientation and autism

impact on the ability of individuals to experienc e and utilize emotional stimuli; but it has not

been determined yet whether it is an autistic abundance of theory of mind which prevents

emotional cues from being adhered to or whether it is an avoidance of emotional stimuli

which results in emotionally ignorant responses to this stimuli. Without making this

distinction between autism and avoidance, there is a possibility of misdiagnosing avoidant

individuals with autism or vice versa. From this distinction, it may also be possible to

develop new techniques and methods of treatment for avoidant or autistic individual s to aid

in emotional cognition and possibly enhance our understanding of both disorders.

Adult interactions are determined by attachments formed in early childhood

between children and their caregivers. The implications of these attachment styles are

identifiable in close relationships between adults (Hazan and Shaver 1987). These

implications are visible from the quality of attachment or attachment orientation (Rholes,

Simpson and Stevens 1998) and are related to the ways in which individuals control and

manage their own emotions as well as how they interact with the emotions of others. The

way in which these emotional situations are handled and interpreted by the individual

determines which of the two main categories of attachment they fall within; anxious or

avoidant (Bartholomew and Shaver 1998). Anxious attachment is linked to abandonment in

childhood whilst avoidant attachment is linked with issues arising from intimacy during

childhood as a result of which, avoidant individuals tend to withdraw or dismiss information

of emotional significance (Corden, Chilvers and Skuse 2008, Edelstein and Gillath 2008);

indicating that an avoidant attachment style is the result of a social deficit rather than a

cognitive deficit. Being avoidant or anxious has been found to have a significant effect on


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social functioning (Bowlby 1980 ) and to have a strong correlation with poorer performance

in tasks that measure theory of mind. This is the ability to associate oneself with the mental

states of others and understand that others have mental states and representations that are

different to one s own; an understanding that others possess a mind which functions

independently from one s own. Studies have found evidence of this in pre-school children

(Repacholi and Trapolini 2004) but there has been little research conducted using adults.

Slade, Levy, Holmes & Bowles (To be submitted) found that high levels of avoidance

(assessed by Experience of Close Relationships (ECR) questionnaire, Brennan, Clark and

Shaver 1988) resulted in a poorer performance in tasks in which they were required to

identify people s mental s tates from images of their facial expressions ( Reading the Mind in

the Eyes task, Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, Plumb 2001).

Aside from attachment orientation, another prevalent explanation for an inability to

infer and comprehend emotion is autism. Much like the implications of avoidance, autism

can have a profound impact on social interactions and communication but is believed to

have a genetic basis of causation rather than environmental. Individuals with autism are not

believed to possess a theory of mind (Tager-Flusberg, and Sullivan 2000) therefore autistic

individuals also have difficulty in understanding the emotions of others (Hobson, Ouston

and Lee 1988). Emotions are most prolifically displayed and interpreted in the eyes and this

is the area of the face that cognitively typical adults use to make emotional inferences

(Keltner and Busswell 1996). It has been found in previous clinical research that autistic

individuals do not have a preference for looking at the eyes of others to infer emotion al

stimuli (Hobson, Ouston and Lee 1988, Klin, Jones, Schultz, Volkmar and Cohen 2002 ). In

contrast to avoidance, it is believed that these impairments in emotional processing are the


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result of a cognitive deficit which manifests early during childhood but is not believed to be

the result of negative social interactions.

In previous research into emotional recognition in adults, clear distinctions were not

drawn as to whether these deficits were a result of an inability to detect emotional cues

(autism) or a reluctance to make use of them (avoidance). To address this benightedness, a

correlational study should be conducted to investigate whether impairments in emotional

recognition in adults are a result of an inability to detect emotional cues or an avoidance of

them. In order to test this accurately, a sample of 111 participants will be collected and an

eyetracker will be used to identify differences in visual scanning patterns of adults viewing

social stimuli and focus on preferential looking to the eyes as the predominant measure of

looking. In addition to eyetracking data, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task (Baron-

Cohen et al, 2001) and self-report questionnaires will be used to determine the attachment

orientation (ECR, Brennan, Clark & Shaver, 1988 ), Empathy Quotient (EQ) (Baron-Cohen and

Wheelwright, 2004) and Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright,

Skinner, Martin and Clubley, 2001) of each participant. The aim of this study will be to

compare preferential looking in autistic and avoidant adults to ascertain whether reduced

preferential looking to the eyes is the result of avoidance or autism. Based on findings from

previous research, it is predicted that individuals which produce high scores on the AQ will

show reduced preferential looking to the eyes and will yield lower scores on the Reading

the Mind in the Eyes task (Baron-Cohen et al, 2001) indicating a lack of emotional

detection. Those that produce low scores on the ECR will not show reduced preferential

looking to the eyes but will also yield lower scores on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes

task (Baron-Cohen et al, 2001) indicating an avoidance of emotional stimuli or a reluctance


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to make use of it despite instinctively showing preferential looking to the eyes. Therefore

reduced preferential looking to the eyes should be found to be the result of autism rather

than avoidance.

Me thod

Participants

111 adult participants were collected from Roehampton University via SONA (university-

based online participant recruitment tool) and the surrounding area using an opportunity

sample. The mean age of the participants was 22.33, the standard deviation was 4.42 and

range was 25. There were 41 males and 70 females. Of these participants, 94 were

undergraduates. All participants participated in each part of the study. Participants received

a course credit to fulfil their first year research participation requirements. The responses of

6 participants were removed because either the eyetracker collected 40% of their data or

less or they had produced too many outliers in the ECR, EQ or AQ ques tionnaires.

Mat erials

An eyetracker (Tobii T-120) and the Tobi desktop software was used to map eye

movements of participants whilst viewing still images of social scenes and facial expressions.

A webcam and microphone were used to record visual and auditory responses of all

participants to ensure the correct responses were recorded. The responses of each

participant to the SRP faces images were recorded by the experimenter in a notepad to

ensure the integrity of the recorded data.


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Five questionnaires were presented to each participant: Experiences in Close

Relationships (Brennan, Clark and Shaver 1998) (see Appendix 1), Empathy Quotient (Baron-

Cohen and Wheelwright 2004) (see Appendix 2), Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-

Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin and Clubley, 2001) (see Appendix 3) , R eading th e mind

in th e eye s t est r ev ised ve rsion (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste and Plumb, 2001)

(see Appendix 4) and a demographic questionnaire (see Appendix 5).

Ethical Consid erations

Participants gave their informed consent to participate in the study and were

informed of their right to withdraw their data vi a the contact details provided in the debrief.

Participants were not harmed at any point during the study either physically or

psychologically and were provided with contact details for a welfare officer in the debrief.

Participants were allocated identification numbers and their questionnaires were kept in a

secure laboratory to ensure all collected data was kept anonymous.

Proc edur e

Between 1 and 3 participants arrived at the social and developmental laboratory at

Roehampton University at a time. They were told the experiment was interested in how

individuals identify social stimuli and signed consent forms. The experimenter accompanied

participants into the social and developmental laboratory before familiarising them with

seat adjustment measures, the eyetracker, the webcam and microphone. They were also

informed that the webcam and microphone would be recording auditory and visual

information throughout the experiment. The experimenter was unaware of the outcomes of

any of the questionnaires before commencement of the eyetracking study. Participants


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were informed that the eyetracking task was comprised of two parts; a social scenes task

and a faces task. In the social scenes task, participants were told they would be presented

with a series of still images of social scenes and they were required to verbally communicate

what they could see in the image as if describing it to someone that could not see it. After

the social scenes task, participants were told they would be presented with a series of faces

with 5 words beneath it and they were required to verbally identify the w ord that they felt

best described the face. The experimenter recorded the participant s responses by hand.

The experimenter was positioned out of the participant s field of vision and that of the

webcam. Upon completion of the eyetracking tasks, participants were asked to complete

the 5 questionnaires (Experiences in Close Relationships (Brennan, Clark and Shaver 1998),

Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright 2004), Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient

(Baron-Cohen et al 2001), Reading the Mind in the Eyes task (Baron-Cohen, et al 2001)

and a demographic questionnaire). After completing the questionnaires, participants were

debriefed and thanked for their participation in the study.

D esign

The study used a correlational, mixed measures design. The dependant variable was

dwell time. Two mixed anovas were carried out, one comparing avoidance, gender and

region of face, the other compared autism, gender and region of face. The Experiences in

close relationships questionnaire was administered to measure levels of avoidance, the

empathy quotient questionnaire was administered to measure levels of empathy and

generate an EQ figure for each participant, the adult autism spectrum quotient was

administered to measure levels of autism and generate an AQ figure for each participant


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and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task was conducted to measure each participant s

competency at reading emotion in social situations.

R esults

Descriptive statistics for study variables are presented in table 1.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables

Minimum Maximum Mean SD

Age 18 43 22.33 4.43

Face Dwell Time 0.26 7.86 2.66 1.05

Eye Dwell Time 0.08 2.26 0.73 0.42

Mouth Dwell Time 0.00 1.75 0.53 0.41

AQ 76 136 15.48 4.87

EQ 23 70 44.78 10.62

Avoidant

Attachment

1.17 5.22 3.17 0.94

Anxious

Attachment

1.33 6.94 3.44 1.02


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Correlations between AQ, Avoidance, EQ and results from the Reading the Mind in the

Eyes task are shown in table 2.

Table 2 Correlation of Study Variables

AQ EQ Eyes

Task

Avoidant

AQ Correlation 1 -0.470 -0.214 0.305

Significance 0.000 0.026 0.001

EQ Correlation 1 0.171 -0.281

Significance 0.073 0.003

Eyes

Task

Correlation 1 -0.173

Significance 0.070

Avoidant Correlation 1

Significance

In order to ensure the maximum possible validity from the analysis, any erroneous data had

to be removed. The data collected from the eyetracker contained a report of the amount of

data collected for each participant as a percentage. Any participants that scored 40% or less

were excluded from the main analysis. This was achieved by means of a median split.

Two repeated measures mixed Anovas were carried out. The first had Avoidance

(high/low) and gender as the between subjects variables and Region of face

(mouthmean/eyemean) as the within subjects variable. The second had AQ (high/low) and


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gender as the between subjects variables and Region of face (mouthmean/eyemean) as the

within subjects variable. The tables of means for these tests can be seen in tables 3 and 4

below (see Appendix 6 for anova outputs) .

Table 3 Table of Means for Avoidance

Gender Avoidance Region Mean

Male Low Eye 0.884

Mouth 0.612

High Eye 0.818

mouth 0.587

Female Low Eye 0.567

Mouth 0.404

High Eye 0.716

Mouth 0.543

There was a significant main effect of region: F(1, 105)=19.088, P0.05, Region x Avoidance: F(1,105)=0.026, P>0.05, Gender x

Avoidance: F(1,105)=2.013, P>0.05, Region x Gender x Avoidance: F(1,105)=0.070, P>0.05.


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Table 4 Table of Means for Autism

Gender Autism Region Mean

Male Low Eye 0.924

Mouth 0.534

High Eye 0.773

Mouth 0.668

Female Low Eye 0.528

Mouth 0.384

High Eye 0.749

Mouth 0.554

There was a significant main effect of region: F(1, 104)=19.095, P0.05, Region x Autism: F(1,104)=1.494, P>0.05, Gender x Autism:

F(1,104)=2.380, P>0.05, Region x Gender x Autism: F(1,104)=3.102, P>0.05.

Below are graphs showing the preferential looking patterns between the mouth and eyes of

high and low autistic and high and low avoidant males and female s from the Reading the

Mind in the Eyes task.


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Gr aph 3 Preferential looking patterns of low and high avoidant males

Gr aph 4 Preferential looking patterns of low and high avoidant females


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As it has now been established that avoidant individuals do not show reduced

preferential looking to the eyes, the way in which this emotional s timuli is used needs to be

examined. As can be seen in table 2, there was a stronger negative correlation between

autism and EQ (-0.470) and the Eyes task (-0.214) than there was between avoidance and

EQ (-0.281) and the Eyes task (-0.173). This illustrates that autistic individuals produced a

poorer performance on tasks involving empathy and reading emotional stimuli from others

than avoidant individuals. The findings for autistic individuals compliment previous research

by Repacholi and Trapolini (2004) in that a reduction in preferential looking to the eyes will

result in a reduced comprehension of the emotions present in the situation which in turn

results in a reduced performance on tasks which require the interpretation of said stimuli.

The preferential looking of avoidant individuals and the negative correlations between

avoidance and EQ and avoidance and performance on the Eyes task is very significant. It

illustrates that whilst avoidant individuals do not show a reduced preferential looking to the

eyes to absorb emotional stimuli, they yield a poorer performance on tasks which require

the use of this stimuli. Preferential looking to the eyes would typically incur a stronger

performance on the Eyes task because more emotional information has been absorbed.

However, the poorer scores on the EQ and Eyes task suggest that whilst absorbing relevant

emotional stimuli, avoidant individuals do not make use of it; they avoid using emotional

stimuli as was found by Cordon et al (2008) . The findings of this study conclude that reduced

preferential looking to the eyes is the result of increased levels of autism rather than high

levels of avoidance. Thus these findings support the hypotheses presented.

The findings of this study can be used to introduce a new method of clearly

distinguishing avoidant individuals from autistic. The scores on tasks which test for theory of


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mind such as the EQ and Eyes task, are comparable between autistic and avoidant

individuals so it would be very easy to misdiagnose an avoidant individual with autism and

vice versa. This method of testing i.e. using an eyetracker to monitor preferential looking,

would ensure that an appropriate and accurate diagnosis can be made about the levels of

avoidance or autism present in that individual.

Aside from the intended findings of the study, there were some other interesting

findings to arise from this research. There were some striking differences with regard to

gender. Males with a low AQ yielded a larger difference between p referential looking to the

eyes than the mouth whilst they showed a preference for the eyes. Males with a high AQ

spent less time looking to the eyes than low AQ males but longer looking to the mouth

which yielded similar overall dwell times for both high and low AQ males as can be seen in

Graph 1. However, high AQ females yielded a longer dwell time on the face overall and little

difference in the comparative levels of preferential looking to the eyes and mouth. In both

high and low AQ females, there was no reduction in preferential looking to the eyes, in fact

there was an increase in preferential looking to the eyes in high AQ females as can be seen

in Graph 2. So whilst males show a reduced preferential looking to the eyes and a relatively

comparable overall dwell time between high and low AQ, autistic females show an increase

in preferential looking to the eyes and a significantly longer dwell time over low AQ females.

This would indicate that autistic females are slower at processing emotional information

than autistic males (in comparison with non autistic males and females). These findings

support the theory that autism represents an extreme of the male pattern of emotional

cognitive function (impaired empathizing and enhanced systemising) suggesting t hat autism

is more prevalent in males than females (Baron-Cohen, Knickmeyer and Belmonte 2005). In


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theory then, as males inherently display some autistic cognition patterns without being

above the threshold of being diagnosed with autism, it can be hypothesised that females

would find it more difficult to function closer to social norms cognitively than autistic males

which would provide some explanation as to why autistic females appear to process

emotional information slower than autistic males. However, this research was conducted

using neuroimaging techniques within a clinical environment and whilst this research did

provide conclusive evidence of a sexual bias in autism from a neurological perspective, it

does not provide much insight of a continuum of these neuronal actions and how they

would manifest themselves in non-clinical situations in terms of behaviour and social

interaction. These results were very similar in avoidant males and females as well. Whilst

males with high and low avoidance showed preferential looking to the eyes and very similar

dwell times on the face overall, high and low avoidant females both showed a preference

for looking to the eyes but females with high avoidance spent longer looking at the face

overall indicating that avoidant females are slower at processing information than avoidant

males (see Graph 3 and Graph 4). This proposes an area for future research. A study could

be conducted to investigate this difference between similarly autistic and avoidant males

and females and attempt to explore the reasoning behind this disparity. Another area for

future research in continuum with this study could be to conduct a similar study but over a

longer period with participants being tested at regular intervals. A longitudinal study would

potentially yield results that could indicate whether factors such as prolonged social

interaction or cognitive development have an effect on the ways in which autistic and

avoidant individuals accommodate their autism or avoidance. This could be run in parallel

with the aforementioned study to examine longitudinal changes between males and


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females with autism and avoidant attachment. The findings of these studies could be used

to aid in the understanding, diagnosis and treatment of autism and avoidant attachment.


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R efe r enc es

Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C., & Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Sex Differences in the Brain:

Implications for Explaining Autism. Sci enc e, 310 , 819-823.

Bartholomew, K., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Methods of assessing adult attachment: Do they

converge? In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachm ent th eor y and clos e r e lationships

(pp. 46 76). New York: Guilford Press.

Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachm ent and loss: Vol. 3. Loss: Sadn ess and d e pr ession. New York: Basic

Books.

Corden, B., Chilvers, R., & Skuse, D. (2008). Avoidance of emotionally arousing stimuli predict s

social-perceptual impairment in Asperger s syndrome. Neurops y chologia , 46 , 137-147.

Edelstein, R. S., & Gillath, O. (2008). Avoiding interference: Adult attachment and emotion

processing biases. Personalit y and Social Ps y cholog y Bull e tin , 34 , 171-181.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal o f

Personalit y and Social Ps y cholog y, 52 , 511 524.

Hobson, R. P., Ouston, J., & Lee, A. (1988). Emotion recognition in autism: coordinating faces and

voices. Ps y chological Me dicin e, 18 , 911-923 .

Keltner, D., Buswell, B. N. (1996). Evidence for the Distinctness of Embarrassment, Shame, and

Guilt: A Study of Recalled Antecedents and Facial Expressions of Emotion. Cognition and

Emotion , 10 (2) , 155-171.


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App endix 1 Experiences in Close Relationships (Brennan, Clark and Shaver 1998)

Experience of Close Relationships ( ECR) ID No_____

Instructions:

The following statements concern how you feel in romantic relationships. We are interested in how yougenerally experience relationships, not just in what is happening in a current relationship. Respond to eachstatement by indicating how much you agree or disagree with it. Circle one of the numbers provided for eachitem, using the scale from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (agree strongly):

D isagree Neutral / Agree

Strongly Mixed Strongly

1. I prefer not to show a partner how I feel deep down. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. I worry about being abandoned. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. I am very comfortable being close to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. I worry a lot about my relationships. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. Just when my partner starts to get close to me I find myself pulling away. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I worry that romantic partners won t care about me as much as I care aboutthem.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. I get uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. I worry a fair amount about losing my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 79. I don t feel comfortable opening up to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10. I often wish that my partner s feelings for me were as strong as my feelings forhim/her.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. I want to get close to my partner, but I keep pulling back. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12. I often want to merge completely with romantic partners, and this sometimesscares them away.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13. I am nervous when partners get too close to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14. I worry about being alone. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15. I feel comfortable sharing my private thoughts and feelings with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16. My desire to be very close sometimes scares people away. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17. I try to avoid getting too close to my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18. I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved by my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19. I find it relatively easy to get close to my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20. Sometimes I feel that I force my partners to show more feeling, morecommitment.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21. I find it difficult to allow myself to depend on romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22. I do not often worry about being abandoned. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23. I prefer not to be too close to romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


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24. If I can t get my partner to show interest in me, I get upset or angry. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

25. I tell my partner just about anything. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

26. I find that my partner(s) don t want to get as close to me as I would like. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

27. I usually discuss my problems and concerns with my partner. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28. When I m not involved in a relationship, I feel somewhat anxious and insecure. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

29. I feel comfortable depending on romantic partners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

30. I get frustrated when my partner is not around as much as I would like. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

31. I don t mind asking romantic partners for comfort, advice, or help. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

32. I get frustrated if romantic partners are not available when I need them. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

33. It helps to turn to my romantic partners in times of need. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

34. When romantic partners disapprove of me, I feel really bad about myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

35. I turn to my partner for many things, including comfort and reassurance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

36. I resent it when my partner spends time away from me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

App endix 2 - Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright 2004)

THE CAMBRIDGE BEHAVIOUR SCALE

Pl eas e f ill in this in f ormation and th en r ead th e instructions b e low.

ALL INFORMATION REMAINS STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL

How to fill out the questionnai r e

Below ar e a list o f stat ements. Pl eas e r ead each stat e ment ver y car ef ull y and rat e how strongl y y ou

agr ee or disagr ee with it b y circling y our answ er. Th er e ar e no right or wrong answ ers , or trick

qu estions.

IN ORDER FOR THE SCALE TO BE VALID, YOU MUST ANSWER EVERY QUESTION.

Exampl es


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E1. I would be very upset if I couldn t listen to music everyday.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

E2. I prefer to speak to my friends on the phone ratherthan write letters to them.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

E3. I have no desire to travel to different parts of theworld.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

E4. I prefer to read than to dance. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

1. I can easily tell if someone else wants to enter a

conversation.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

2. I find it difficult to explain to others things that Iunderstand easily, when they don't understand it firsttime.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

3. I really enjoy caring for other people. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


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4. I find it hard to know what to do in a social situation. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

5. People often tell me that I went too far in driving mypoint home in a discussion.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

6. It doesn't bother me too much if I am late meeting afriend.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

7. Friendships and relationships are just too difficult, so Itend not to bother with them.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

8. I often find it difficult to judge if something is rude orpolite.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

9. In a conversation, I tend to focus on my own thoughtsrather than on what my listener might be thinking.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

10. When I was a child, I enjoyed cutting up worms to seewhat would happen.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


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11. I can pick up quickly if someone says one thing butmeans another.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

12. It is hard for me to see why some things upset peopleso much.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

13. I find it easy to put myself in somebody else's shoes. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

14. I am good at predicting how someone will feel. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

15. I am quick to spot when someone in a group is feelingawkward or uncomfortable.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

16. If I say something that someone else is offended by, Ithink that that's their problem, not mine.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

17. If anyone asked me if I liked their haircut, I wouldreply truthfully, even if I didn't like it.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


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18. I can't always see why someone should have feltoffended by a remark.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

19. Seeing people cry doesn't really upset me. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

20. I am very blunt, which some people take to berudeness, even though this is unintentional.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

21. I don t tend to find social situations confusing. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

22. Other people tell me I am good at understanding howthey are feeling and what they are thinking.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

23. When I talk to people, I tend to talk about theirexperiences rather than my own.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

24. It upsets me to see an animal in pain. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


28/39


25. I am able to make decisions without being influencedby people's feelings.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

26. I can easily tell if someone else is interested or boredwith what I am saying.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

27. I get upset if I see people suffering on newsprogrammes.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

28. Friends usually talk to me about their problems asthey say that I am very understanding.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

29. I can sense if I am intruding, even if the other persondoesn't tell me.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

30. People sometimes tell me that I have gone too farwith teasing.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

31. Other people often say that I am insensitive, though Idon t always see why.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

32. If I see a stranger in a group, I think that it is up tothem to make an effort to join in.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


29/39


33. I usually stay emotionally detached when watching afilm.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

34. I can tune into how someone else feels rapidly andintuitively.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

35. I can easily work out what another person might wantto talk about.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

36. I can tell if someone is masking their true emotion. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

37. I don't consciously work out the rules of socialsituations.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

38. I am good at predicting what someone will do. strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

39. I tend to get emotionally involved with a friend'sproblems.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree


30/39


40. I can usually appreciate the other person's viewpoint,even if I don't agree with it.

strongly

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

strongly

disagree

Thank you for filling this questionnaire in.

SBC/SJW Feb 1998

App endix 3 - Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin and

Clubley, 2001)

Pl eas e f ill in this in f ormation and th en r ead th e instructions b elow.

ALL INFORMATION REMAINS STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL

How to fill out the questionnai r e

Below ar e a list o f stat ements. Pl eas e r ead each stat e ment ver y car ef ull y and rat e how strongl y y ou

agr ee or disagr ee with it b y circling y our answ er. Th er e ar e no right or wrong answ ers , or trick

qu estions.

IN ORDER FOR THE SCALE TO BE VALID, YOU MUST ANSWER EVERY QUESTION.

1. I prefer to do things with others rather than onmy own.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree


31/39


32/39


12. I tend to notice details that others do not. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

13. I would rather go to a library than a party. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

14. I find making up stories easy. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

15. I find myself drawn more strongly to peoplethan to things.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

16. I tend to have very strong interests which I getupset about if I can t pursue.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

17. I enjoy social chit-chat. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

18. When I talk, it isn t always easy for others to geta word in edgeways.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

19. I am fascinated by numbers. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

20. When I m reading a story, I find it difficult towork out the characters intentions.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

21. I don t particularly enjoy reading fiction. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree


33/39


22. I find it hard to make new friends. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

23. I notice patterns in things all the time. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

24. I would rather go to the theatre than a museum. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

25. It does not upset me if my daily routine isdisturbed.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

26. I frequently find that I don t know how to keepa conversation going.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

27. I find it easy to read between the lines whensomeone is talking to me.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

28. I usually concentrate more on the wholepicture, rather than the small details.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

29. I am not very good at remembering phonenumbers.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

30. I don t usually notice small changes in a

situation, or a person s appearance.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

31. I know how to tell if someone listening to me isgetting bored.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree


34/39


32. I find it easy to do more than one thing at once. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

33. When I talk on the phone, I m not sure when it smy turn to speak.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

34. I enjoy doing things spontaneously. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

35. I am often the last to understand the point of a joke.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

36. I find it easy to work out what someone isthinking or feeling just by looking at their face.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

37. If there is an interruption, I can switch back towhat I was doing very quickly.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

38. I am good at social chit-chat. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

39. People often tell me that I keep going on and onabout the same thing.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

40. When I was young, I used to enjoy playinggames involving pretending with other children.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

41. I like to collect information about categories of things (e.g. types of car, types of bird, types of train, types of plant, etc.).

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

42. I find it difficult to imagine what it would be like definitely slightly slightly definitely


35/39


to be someone else. agree agree disagree disagree

43. I like to plan any activities I participate incarefully.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

44. I enjoy social occasions. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

45. I find it difficult to work out people s intentions. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

46. New situations make me anxious. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

47. I enjoy meeting new people. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

48. I am a good diplomat. definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

49. I am not very good at remembering people sdate of birth.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

50. I find it very easy to play games with childrenthat involve pretending.

definitely

agree

slightly

agree

slightly

disagree

definitely

disagree

MRC-SBC/SJW Feb 1998


36/39


App endix 4 - R eading th e mind in th e eye s t est r ev ised ve rsion (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill,

Raste and Plumb, 2001)

ID______

The Eyes Test

Practice Item jealous panicked arrogant hateful

1. playful comforting irritated bored

2. terrified upset arrogant annoyed

3. joking flustered desire convinced

4. joking insisting amused relaxed

5. irritated sarcastic worried friendly

6. aghast fantasizing impatient alarmed

7. apologetic friendly uneasy dispirited

8. despondent relieved shy excited

9. annoyed hostile horrified preoccupied

10 cautious insisting bored aghast

11. terrified amused regretful flirtatious

12. indifferent embarrassed sceptical dispirited

13. decisive anticipating threatening shy

14. irritating disappointing depressed accusing

15. contemplative flustered encouraging amused

16. irritated thoughtful encouraging sympathetic

17. doubtful affectionate playful aghast


37/39


18. decisive amused aghast bored

19. arrogant grateful sarcastic tentative

20. dominant friendly guilty horrified

21. embarrassed fantasizing confused panicked

22. preoccupied grateful insisting imploring

23. contenting apologetic defiant curious

24. pensive irritated excited hostile

25. panicked incredulous despondent interested

26. alarmed shy hostile anxious

27. joking cautious arrogant reassuring

28. interested joking affectionate contented

29. impatient aghast irritated reflective

30. grateful flirtatious hostile disappointed

31. ashamed confident joking dispirited

32. serious ashamed bewildered alarmed

33. embarrassed guilty fantasizing concerned

34. aghast baffled distrustful terrified

35. puzzled nervous insisting contemplative

36. ashamed nervous suspicious indecisive


38/39


App endix 5 Demographic Questionnaire

F amily Backg r ound Questionnai r e

ID No_____

Y ourself:

Gender: M / F Age: _______ Is English your first language? Y / N

Ethnicity: ________________________________________________________________

Student: Yes/No Occupation: _________________________ Other: ___________

Degree Program: __________________________________________________________

Year: ____________________________________________________________________

F amily:

Age of mother when you were born: _________

Number of siblings (number of brothers and sisters that lived with you): _________

Date of Birth & Gender of Each: Sibling 1. Age: ___________ M / F Older/Younger

(Starting with the oldest) Sibling 2. Age: ___________ M / F Older/Younger Sibling

3. Age: ___________ M / F Older/Younger Sibling 4.

Age: ____________ M / F Older/Younger

Parental marital status: ______________________________________________________

Mother s occupation: _______________________________________________________

Mother s education (eg. Completed GCSE s, A Levels, College, University, Post-grad):


39/39


_________________________________________________________________________

Father s occupation: ___________________________________________________

Father s education: _________________________________________________________

Documents

Eyetracking correlates of preferential looking at faces showing emotion in autistic and avoidant adults