Experiments on Measurement of Temperature and Emissivity

Experiments on Measurement of Temperature and Emissivity ofMunicipal Solid Waste (MSW) Combustion by Spectral Analysis andImage Processing in Visible SpectrumWeijie Yan,† Huaichun Zhou,*,‡ Zhiwei Jiang,† Chun Lou,*,† Xiaoke Zhang,§ and Donglin Chen††

†State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China‡Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Thermal Engineering,Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China§Shanghai Environment Protection Group, Shanghai 200123, China††Key Laboratory for Power Technology of Renewable Energy Sources of Hunan Province, Changsha University of Science andTechnology, Changsha, 410015, China

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental investigation on the measurement of temperature and emissivity in a 46 ton/h Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) incinerator using a spectrometer system and a flame image detection system. The spectroscopyanalysis shows that strong Na (590 nm) and K (767 nm) emission occurs in the visible spectrum of the flame in the MSWincinerator, which demonstrates a typical nongray property of radiation. The two-color method is used to calculate thetemperature and emissivity of the flame from the continuous spectrum and the visible flame image, and the results indicate thatexcept for the Na (590 nm) and K (767 nm) emission lines, the continuous spectrum from the particulate medium in the flamemeets the gray property. Since the strong but narrow Na and K emission lines deviate away from the central wavelengths of red(R) and green (G) in the spectral response curves of the CCD camera, the two-color method can be used to calculate thetemperature and emissivity images by the flame image detection system. The preliminary experimental results show that thesetwo techniques will be helpful for combustion research and monitoring in MSW incinerators.

1. INTRODUCTION

More and more municipal solid waste is being generated withthe development of the economy and urbanization in China; soreducing the amount of MSW, making it innocuous, and/orconverting it into fuel has become an important issue for thegovernment. Incineration technology is considered as one ofthe best practical choices at present, through generating heatand then transforming the heat to electricity by urban energysystem with fast treatment speed, high efficiency in wastereduction, energy reutilization, and so on. Combustion in anMSW incinerator is a complex phenomenon involving massand heat transfer, and chemical reactions. Powerful and reliablecombustion measuring and monitoring technologies arerequired for the development and optimization of MSWincineration equipment. Many methods for measuring temper-atures in furnaces have been developed in the past. In practice,the most widely applied methods are thermocouples andpyrometers, which can only provide single-point measurementand suffer from degradation in harsh environments. Opticalmethods based on laser diagnostic techniques can measureflame temperatures distributions.1−4 However, due to the largedimensions of a furnace whose size may be more than 10 m andthe limited power of a laser that will be almost absorbed by theparticle medium and is hard to transmit from one side toanother one, these methods are difficult for applications inflame measurements for large-scale, industrial furnaces. Thereare also reports in the literature on the application ofspectroscopic measurements5−9 for furnace combustion con-trol, burner balancing, and pollutant emission monitoring. The

basic idea is to process spectral signals using complexalgorithms to provide radiative intensity of flame that can beused for feedback combustion control. The multiwavelengthmethod10,11 has been developed by many researchers with theassumption that the change of emissivity with wavelengthsatisfies certain regularity. Flame image processing techniquesin the visible spectrum have been used as effective tools formeasurements of flame temperature and radiative proper-ties12−26 during the recent years. In this technology, the two-color method is usually utilized based on the assumption thatthe emissivity at the two wavelengths is the same. A method forjudging the gray property of flames based on spectral analysisand the two-color method for determining the temperature andemissivity of a flame has been reported.8 The results showedthat the gasoline flame can be assumed to be a gray body in therange between 550 and 900 nm; for the coal-fired flame, therange is between 500 and 1000 nm, while the red phosphorusflame cannot be assumed to be a gray body within themeasurement wavelength range.This paper aims to investigate the applicability of the

measurement method of temperature and emissivity by spectralanalysis and image processing in the visible spectrum for thecombustion in a MSW incinerator. First, the spectrometersystem and the flame image detection system are introduced.Then, based on the continuous spectrum in the visible

Received: July 18, 2013Revised: September 14, 2013Published: October 15, 2013

Article

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© 2013 American Chemical Society 6754 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef401374y | Energy Fuels 2013, 27, 6754−6762

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spectrum, the method is described to select the properwavelength regime where the assumption of gray radiation offlames is satisfied and the measurement method for thetemperature and emissivity of the flames using the two-colormethod is applicable. Experiments are conducted on a 46 ton/hMSW incinerator to analyze the flame spectrum, and toexamine the applicability of utilization of R and G color datafrom the two-dimensional flame images obtained by the flameimage detection system with a color digital camera. Finally,some concluding remarks are given.

2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

The spectrometer system consists of a spectrometer, a probe,and a portable computer. The measuring probe consists of aspecial collimating lens and a fiber-optic cable. The Me-Chrome plated brass casing was constructed to allow theinsertion of the fiber-optic cable into the high-temperatureenvironment inside a MSW incinerator. The COL-UV/vis,collimating lens, screws onto the end of the fiber optic entranceconnector and converts the divergent beam of radiation into aparallel beam. An AvaSpec-2048 Fiber-Optic Spectrometer isused to process the incoming light data. The AvaSpec-2048Fiber Optic Spectrometer is based on the AvaBench-75symmetrical Czerny-Turner design with 2048 pixel CCDDetector Array, and advantages for the CCD detector aremany pixels, high sensitivity, and high speed. A choice of 16different gratings with different dispersion and blaze anglesenable applications in the 200−1100 nm range. The spectralresolution of this spectrometer is 0.4−0.6 nm. Thespectrometer connected to a portable computer through aUSB cable via an AvaSoft−7.4 USB2 interface. For thespectrometer, its sampling period is 1.1 ms, and the datatransferring speed is 1.8 ms per time of sampling. According tothe magnitude of the intensity of radiation of the object, itallows integration time from 1.1 ms to 600 s to ensure adequateS/N ratio. In the experiments reported in this paper, theexposure (integration) time of the spectroscopy is about severalhundred milliseconds, that means the measurement of radiativeintensities at different wavelengths by the spectrometer isperformed almost simultaneously. Figure 1a shows the entirespectrometer system in a nonintrusive environment.The constituent elements and structure of the flame image

detection system is shown in Figure 1b. The system consists ofa notebook PC with a frame-grabber and an optical detector.The optical detector consists of an image guide, a SamsungSCC-2313P color CCD camera and a lithium battery. Theimage guide is constructed from a stainless steel pipe and agroup of optical lenses. An objective lens is fixed at the frontend of the optical detector with a viewing angle of 90°. Thelight conveyed by the optical detector enters the color camera.The shutter speed of the color camera is adjustable from 1/120to 1/10 000 s. The lithium battery is used to supply the powerfor the camera. The video signals from the color camera aretransferred into the portable computer through a video cable. AMVT-610 PCMCIA frame grabber transfers the color camera’ssignal into a 2D digital color image with 8-bit digitization.Notably, the material of the optical detector is austeniticstainless steel which can resist a high temperature of 1675 K,and the material of the objective lens is a single crystal of Al2O3,which is resistant to high temperature of 2100 K. So, there is nocooling air for the optical detector, this makes the flame imagedetection system more flexible.

3. THEORETICAL BASISThe intensity of radiation emitted by an object at wavelength λ,is dependent on the object’s emissivity ε(λ) and thetemperature T according to Planck’s Law:

λ ε λ πλ

=−λI T

hc( , ) ( )

2(e 1)hc kT

2

5 / (1)

where h is Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light, and k is theBoltzmann constant. For wavelength range from 300 to 1000nm and a temperature range from 800 to 2000 K, since hc/λkT≫ 1, Planck’s law can be replaced by Wien’s radiation law:

λ ε λ πλ

ε λ λ= =λI Thc

I T( , ) ( )2(e )

( ) ( , )hc kT

2

5 / b(2)

where Ib(λ,T) is the monochromatic blackbody radiationintensity.The spectrometer system can get the monochromatic

radiation intensity within a certain wavelength range, and theflame image detection system could get approximatelymonochromatic radiation images of red (R), green (G), andblue (B).19,24−26 However, the output of two systems is just avoltage value converted from the radiation signal throughphotoelectric conversion. So, it is necessary to calibrate theoutput value to get the monochromatic radiation intensity. AMikron Model M330 blackbody furnace with temperaturerange from 500 to 2000 K (with temperature errors within ±1K) was used to calibrate the two systems. The characteristiccalibration profiles of the spectrometer system at the differenttemperatures are shown in Figure 2, and Figure 3 shows thevariations of Ir and Ig with the R and G data, when the shutterspeed of the color camera is 1/250 s.The principle of judging the gray property of flames based on

spectral analysis and the two-color method for determining the

Figure 1. (a) Schematic of the spectrometer system; (b) schematic ofthe flame image detection system.

Energy & Fuels Article

dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef401374y | Energy Fuels 2013, 27, 6754−67626755

temperature and emissivity of a flame has been described.8

Based on the assumption of a constant emissivity atwavelengths λ and λ + Δλ, the temperature T is given by

λ λ λλ

λ λλ

λ λ= − −

+ Δ + Δ + Δ⎜ ⎟⎛⎝

⎞⎠

⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥T C

I TI T

1 1/ln

( , )( , ) ( )2

5

5

(3)

After the temperature T is obtained, the emissivity ε(λ) can befound from the following simple equation, it equals the ratio ofthe radiation intensity of an object to the blackbody intensity atthe same temperature:

ε λ λ λ= I T I T( ) ( , )/ ( , )b (4)

The wavelength range meeting the gray property is determinedas where the emissivity does not change obviously with thewavelength. Once it is determined, the nearly constanttemperature calculated by the two-color method within thiswavelength range can be taken as the temperature to bemeasured, as well as the averaged emissivity calculated fromthose obtained from eq 4. It is a process that an assumption isvalidated. One can always select a small enough wavelengthinternal Δλ to make the variation of emissivity over this smallspectral interval “negligible”. But the judgment used to confirmif the property is gray is done over a large range of wavelength,not over a small spectral interval.According to the spectroscopic responses of the CCD

camera of the color flame image detector, the centralwavelengths of red and green are λr = 625 nm and λr = 520nm, respectively. For the flame image detection system, T canbe calculated from the ratio of two monochromatic intensityimages Ir and Ig by the two-color method,

λ λλλ

λλ

εε

= − −⎛⎝⎜⎜

⎞⎠⎟⎟

⎡⎣⎢⎢

⎤⎦⎥⎥T C

I TI T

1 1/ln

( , )( , )2

r g

r

g

r5

g5

r

g (5)

If the central wavelengths λr and λg are within the wavelengthrange meeting the gray property deduced from the spectralanalysis method using the spectrometer mentioned above, it isreasonable to set εr/εg ≈ 1, and the flame temperature imagecan be got from the above equation. At the same time, theflame emissivity image ε can also be calculated from onemonochromatic intensity image as follows:

ε πλ= λ−I C/( e )C Tr r

51

/2 r (6)

Before being used in experiments, the flame image detectionsystem was calibrated using the blackbody furnace. Tables 1

and 2 give a comparison of the measured values of temperatureand emissivity by the flame image detection system and thesetting values of the blackbody furnace. The maximum errorsfor the temperature and the emissivity are within 2% and 6%,respectively.It is noted that both the spectrometer system and the flame

image detection system detect line-of-sight radiation intensity.Actually, since combustion in a MSW incinerator is turbulentand nonuniform in temperature and species concentrations, it isbest to reconstruct the 2D and/or 3D distribution of localquantities inside the isothermal and homogeneous combustion

Figure 2. Characteristic calibration curves for the spectrometer atthree temperatures.

Figure 3. Variations of (a) Ir and (b) Ig with the R, and G data.

Table 1. Comparison of the Calculated Temperature andEmissivity with Those of the Blackbody Furnace Using theSpectrometer System

temp. emissivity

blackbody temp.(K)

blackbodyemissivity

calc.(K)

errors(%) calc.

errors(%)

960 0.99 964 0.42 0.94 5.051160 0.99 1152 0.69 0.98 1.011221 0.99 1206 1.23 0.98 1.011285 0.99 1270 1.17 0.98 1.011344 0.99 1319 1.86 1.03 4.041399 0.99 1392 0.50 0.97 2.021499 0.99 1485 0.93 1.01 2.021566 0.99 1556 0.64 1.02 3.03



chamber, as done for a large-scale, coal-fired boiler furnacethrough a visible flame image processing system with 20 flameimage detectors.9 As a preliminary step reported in this paperwithout the installation of a system with multiple flame imagedetectors, we just try to obtain and analyze the line-of-sightinformation of flame temperature and emissivity by spectrom-eter system and the flame image detection system with a singleflame detector.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION4.1. Measurements by Spectral Analysis. Experiments

were conducted on a MSW incinerator with a steam capacity of46 ton/h in a 12.5 MW power generation unit. The MSWincinerator was manufactured by the German FBE Companywith reciprocating push machinery of moving grate, itsinclination angle is 78° and the area of the grate is 86 m2.The schematic of the incinerator is shown in Figure 4. Asshown in Figure 4, the measurements were carried out at threedifferent cross sections along the height of the furnace and eightmeasurement points are available in all.The calibrated spectral radiant intensity profiles between 500

and 900 nm at the eight measurement points of the MSWincinerator are shown in Figure 5. As seen in Figure 5, thespectral radiant intensity profiles of #5 are the most powerfulamong all the eight measurement points. It is obvious that twodifferent emission lines exist within the wavelength range of the500 and 900 nm, originating from the alkali metals Na (590nm) and K (767 nm) most likely found in the householdgarbage, which demonstrates a typical nongray property. Thealkali metal K combines with Cl to form KCl, which has a lowmelting point and can condense on particles in the flue gas andon the super heater tubes. This increases the deposit rate on thetubes. In a complicated series of reactions, the KCl destroys theprotective layer of chromium iron oxide on the tubes, therebyalso increasing corrosion.27 These corrosion problems increaseif the deposit is partly in the liquid phase.The spectral radiant intensity profiles at the 8 measurement

points are taken to calculate the temperature and emissivity,and the calculation results for the wavelength range 500 to 900nm are shown in Figure 6. In the calculation, the wavelength

interval Δλ in eq 3 is chosen to be 3 nm. In principle, thewavelength interval should be very small, in order to make thevariation of emissivity of the medium much smaller, which isthe condition for the application of the two-color method to getthe temperature and emissivity profiles reliably. The spectralresolution of the spectrometer used in this article is 0.4−0.6nm, which meets the requirement mentioned above. In thiscase, the existence and effects of the Na and K emissions linescan be distinguished and then extracted from the examinedrange of wavelength suitable for estimation of the temperaturewhich essentially does not change with the wavelength.However, this choice is limited by the increasing fluctuationin the calculated profiles of the temperature and emissivityprofiles as the wavelength interval decreases. So, 3 nm is thetrade-off for the wavelength interval to meet the requirementsof both the approximately constant emissivity for application ofthe two-color method and not large variation in the calculationresults for the temperature and emissivity profiles.Except for the two narrow wavelength bands in Figure 6,

centered at 590 nm for Na and 767 nm for K, the emissivity ofthe flame seems to be fluctuating significantly in thiswavelength range. From Figure 7, it can be seen that thefluctuation of the temperature with the wavelength clearlydecreases with respect to that of the emissivity in Figure 6, and

Table 2. Comparison of the Calculated Temperature andEmissivity with Those of the Blackbody Furnace by FlameImage Detection System

temp. emissivity

blackbody temp.(K)

blackbodyemissivity

calc.(K)

errors(%) calc.

errors(%)

1081 0.99 1080 0.12 0.97 1.661127 0.99 1125 0.20 0.96 3.211173 0.99 1171 0.20 0.96 3.061212 0.99 1208 0.33 0.94 5.241244 0.99 1240 0.32 0.94 4.921273 0.99 1270 0.26 0.95 3.711300 0.99 1298 0.15 0.97 1.731324 0.99 1320 0.32 0.94 4.681351 0.99 1348 0.21 0.96 2.691373 0.99 1371 0.14 0.98 1.401409 0.99 1404 0.38 0.94 5.171425 0.99 1420 0.35 0.94 4.701449 0.99 1446 0.22 0.96 2.551473 0.99 1469 0.25 0.96 2.951499 0.99 1495 0.23 0.96 2.66

Figure 4. Schematic of the MSW incinerator and the experimentalmeasurement ports.

Figure 5. Measured emission spectrum of the flame at the eightmeasurement points.



except the two emission lines, the temperatures seem to keepnearly constant as the wavelength varies. The nature of thefluctuation in the temperature and emissivity profiles is causedby the measurement errors and fluctuation in the spectral

radiant intensity profiles and intensified by the division ofintensities at two wavelengths in eq 3.Actually, a temperature varying with wavelength does not

exist; only one temperature exists and needs to be measuredfrom one spectral radiant intensity profile, which can beobtained from the averaged temperature over the wavelengthrange from 500 to 900 nm, except the two emission lines. Thistemperature is then used to calculate again the emissivity of theflame varying with the wavelength from the spectral radiantintensity profiles, and the results are shown in Figure 8. The

fluctuation of the emissivity, except the two emission lines, isreduced tremendously compared to that in Figure 6, indicatingthat, except for the Na (590 nm) and K (767 nm) emissionslines, the continuous spectra from the particulate medium inthe flame meets the gray property, and the two-color methodcan be used to measure the temperature and emissivity of theparticulate medium in the MSW flame. The measuredemissivity for the flame can be found from the averaged onewithin the wavelength range, except near the two emissionslines. The relative mean square deviations (RMS) of thetemperature and emissivity between 500 and 900 nm, exceptthat near the two emissions lines are shown in Table 3, whichshows that all RMS are less than 5%.It should be noted that the emissivity across the Na (590

nm) and K (767 nm) emission lines is related to the averageconcentrations of the two elements along the line-of-sight ofmeasurements, which can be studied and analyzed in futurework.

4.2. Measurements by Image Processing. For the flameimage detection system, as shown in Figure 9, the Na (590 nm)and K (767 nm) emission lines deviate away from the centralwavelengths λr and λg, that is, 520 nm for red (R) and 625 nmfor green (G) in the spectral response curves of the CCDcamera. Since the emission lines are much narrower than theband widths of the red (R) and green (G) response curves ofthe CCD camera, it is guessed that the contribution of the Na(590 nm) and K (767 nm) emission lines to the red (R) andgreen (G) responses of the CCD camera would not be large. Asensitive analysis for the influence of Na and K emission lineson temperature measurement is made. In the analysis, thetemperature varies between 1000 and 2000 K and emissivity iskept constant (0.25). The relative error of temperature affectedby Na and K emission lines is shown in Figure 10. It is foundthat even though the intensity of single emission lines (Na or

Figure 6. Profiles of emissivity of the flame at the eight measurementpoints between 500 and 900 nm.

Figure 7. Profiles of temperature of the flame at the eightmeasurement points between 500 and 900 nm.

Figure 8. Emissivity profiles of the flame at the eight measurementpoints between 500 and 900 nm with a constant averaged temperaturefor each intensity profile.



K) varies simultaneously between zeros and 50 times, there haslittle influence on temperature measurement, since the spectralresponse curves of the R and G bands of the CCD camera ismuch broader than the bandwidth of the Na and K emissionlines. From Figure 10, we could also see that the intensity of Naand K emission lines mainly affect the low temperaturemeasurement. For the high temperature measurement, even ifthe intensity of Na and K emission lines vary 50 times, it onlyleads to a small relative error (no more than 2%). So, the two-color method can be used to deliver the temperature andemissivity images from the flame images.Using the flame image detection system, many flame images

were captured during the experiments. Figure 11 depicts the

typical images obtained from #1, #3, and #5 measurementpoints, and the corresponding temperature and emissivityimages obtained from the same measurement points are shownin Figures 12 and 13, respectively.An online continuous monitoring of the flame was conducted

over a period of 30 min by the two detection systems when theMSW incinerator was working steadily. Table 4 shows theoperating parameters of MSW incinerator throughout theexperiment period to relate the experiment results withcharacters of the MSW incinerator. The measurement resultsfrom the spectrometer system have been compared with thoseby the flame image detection system shown in Figure 14. Both

Table 3. Temperatures and Emissivity, and Their Relative Mean Square Deviations (RMS), between 500 and 900 nm Calculatedfor the 8 Measurement Points of the MSW Incinerator

measurement points

items #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8

Ta (K) 1392 1407 1370 1398 1448 1498 1189 1215σT (%) 3.87 3.97 3.98 3.84 4.08 3.90 3.90 4.05εa 0.33 0.48 0.45 0.29 0.51 0.30 0.21 0.22σε 4.42 4.69 4.38 4.35 4.30 4.54 4.84 4.72

Figure 9. Spectral response curves of the R and G bands of the colordigital camera and the measured emission spectrum of the flame.

Figure 10. Relative error of temperature affected by the intensity of Naand K emission lines.

Figure 11. Typical flame images taken at three measurement points,(a) #1 measurement point, (b) #3 measurement point, and (c) #5measurement point.



the average temperatures and emissivity measured by the twosystems agree well with each other, and the maximum relativedifference of the average temperature and the emissivity arewithin 5% and 10%, respectively.

5. CONCLUSIONSThis paper reports the experimental investigations onsimultaneous measurement of temperature and emissivity in aMSW incinerator by spectral analysis and image processing inthe visible spectrum. The spectrometer and the flame imagedetection system used for the measurements have beencalibrated by using a blackbody furnace. Through thespectroscopic analysis, we know that the flame of the MSWincinerator has strong Na (590 nm) and K (767 nm) emissionslines in the visible spectrum. The two color method is used tocalculate the temperature and emissivity of the flame from thespectral radiant intensity profiles. The emissivity of the flame

seems to be fluctuating significantly in the visible spectrum,while, except for the two emission lines, the temperatures seemto keep nearly constant across the range of wavelength used. Anaveraged temperature is found across the wavelength rangefrom 500 to 900 nm, except for the two emission lines, and thistemperature is then used to calculate again the emissivity of theflame varying with the wavelength from the spectral radiantintensity profiles. The results indicated that, except the Na (590nm) and K (767 nm) emissions lines, the continuous spectra

Figure 12. 2-D temperature distributions at (a) #1, (b) #3, and (c) #5measurement points.

Figure 13. 2-D emissivity distributions at (a) #1, (b) #3, and (c) #5measurement points.

Table 4. Operating Parameters of MSW IncineratorThroughout the Experiment Period

operation param. values units

steam flow 30 ton/hprimary air flow 54 ton/hhot primary air temp. 226 °Cprimary air pressure 100 mmH2Oroof temp. 751 °CCO content 4 mg/m3

NOX content 299 mg/m3



from the particulate medium in the flame meets the grayproperty; and the two-color method can be used to measurethe temperature and emissivity of the particulate medium in theMSW flame.For the flame image detection system, since the Na (590 nm)

and K (767 nm) emission lines deviate from the centralwavelengths of red (R) and green (G) in the spectral responsecurves of the CCD camera, the two-color method can be usedto deliver the temperature and emissivity images from the flameimages. An online continuous monitoring of the flame wasconducted over a period of 30 min by the two detectionsystems while the MSW incinerator was working steadily. Boththe average temperatures and emissivity measured by the twosystems agree well with each other, and the maximum relativedifference of the average temperature and the emissivity iswithin 5% and 10%, respectively.

■ AUTHOR INFORMATIONCorresponding Authors*Phone: (+86) 010-62784538. E-mail: [email protected].*Phone: (+86) 027-87545526. E-mail: [email protected] ContributionsWeijie Yan: Experiments and data analysis. Huaichun Zhou:Analysis principle and explanation of results. Zhiwei Jiang:Experimental instrumentation and calibration. Chun Lou: Dataanalysis and explanation. Xiaoke Zhang: Organizing theexperiments in the incinerator. Donglin Chen: Proposed andsupported the research.NotesThe authors declare no competing financial interest.

■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe present study has been supported by the National NaturalScience Foundation of China (Nos. 51025622, 51176059, and51021065) and partially by Key Laboratory for PowerTechnology of Renewable Energy Sources, Hunan Province(No. 2010KFJJ002).

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Figure 14. Comparison between the temperature and emissivitymeasured by the spectrometer system and the flame image detectionsystem in the experiments.



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Experiments on Measurement of Temperature and Emissivity