MAHABALIPURAMLocation: 51 km south of Chennai

Ruling Dynasty: Pallava

Periods: Man-made caves - Mahendra Varman c.580-630 A.DMonolithic temples – Narasimha Varman I Mamalla c.630-690 A.DMasonry construction – Narasimha Varman II Rajasimha c.690-728

Open air bas relief

Monolithic temples

Man made caves

Structural temples

The rock-cut architecture of Mahabalipuram shows 4 broad categories:

OPEN AIR BAS RELIEF

ARJUNA’S PENANCE

The section demonstrates that arjuna’s penance could be the initial stage of the exploration of the rock cut architecture.

About 20 feet high and 80 feet long, it contains over 100 figures of gods, men and beasts. A cistern was provided at the top which released water on special occasions to add a touch of reality to the tableau.

With Arjuna’s penance as the central theme the sculpturers have attempted to explore the malleability of a rock surface to various degrees. The final touch of life is the deep fissure abstraction of flowing GANGA which thus transforms the pristine rock to a dynamic .

The gently swaying almost real elephants though planar extrapolates ones imagination to another world. The meditating cat, the sculpted saint preaching the disciplines ,the hermit carved to its last rib, the laughing monkeys-everything has been interwoven into one coherent moment that even after 10 centuries stands robust to bring to us the vibrant spirit of life existent then.

SECTION

MAN MADE CAVESThe next stage in evolution of rock cut architecture is the man made cave. Cave temples are carved in accordance with age old timber structural tradition whose forms are reproduced in increasing detail. The rock is scooped out and carved within creating, over time, caves of increasing complexity.

Sixteen man made caves are seen , in different levels of completion and different stages of evolution, scattered through the area. The caves are cut into the back or sides according to the configuration of the rock on the site. With pillars of square and octagonal blocks and elementary bracket capitals . These are plain and unadomed , except where the shrine chambers have simple architectonic base, mouldings , pilasters and dwara palas.

ADI VARAHA MANDAPAM

VARAHA MANDAPAM MAHISAMARDHINI CAVE

TIRUMURTI CAVE TEMPLEKONERI MANDAPAM

DRAWING INDEX

From Indian Architecture, Christopher Tadgell

ADI VARAHA MANDAPAMMAHISAMARDHINI CAVE

DRAWING INDEX

From Indian Architecture, Christopher Tadgell

TIRUMURTI CAVE TEMPLEProbably the first attempt at giving depth to the surface, the Tirumurthi cave temple has only the façade of the vimana. Each of its three shrines dedicated to Siva, Visnu and Brahma-sasta, is a finished unit, consisting of the adisthana with a flight of steps in front, an excavated shrine, and a prastara (architrave) on top.

The carved niche enclosing the deity and the ascending ground plane that transforms from the plinth to the descending steps establish a very basic hierarchy of spaces.

PLAN

SECTION

ELEVATION

The kapota is decorated with kudu arch motifs ,with a row of haras over it. dvarapalas flank each of the shrine entrances.

dwarapala

kapotaharaKudu arch

ELEVATION

The Varaha Mandapa sees greater depth in the cave, giving rise to a pillared mandapa before reaching the shrine. A small ablution tank is also carved into the ground just before stepping into the mandapa.

Niches created on the walls of the mandapa serve as surfaces for relief carving-telling the story of the Varaha avatar

The shrine rests on a well moulded adisthana, with a flight of steps cut into the middle whose curved parapets seem to emerge from the mouth of vyalas.

The Varaha mandapam hasSix kudu arches with human heads adorning the kapota above the shrine, while below these the geese turn their heads in various directions. The façade has two padma kumbha type pillars.The potikas have taranga ornamentations.

VARAHA MANDAPAM

ELEVATION

PLAN SECTION

The Adivaraha cave temple, or the Paramesvara-maha-varaha-vishnugriha, the plan consists of an oblong mandapa and shrine facing west. Two rows of pillars demarcate the mandapa in front and Artha mandapa before the shrine. The oblong projecting shrines stands on a well moulded adisthana.

The pillars of the vyalas look straight a head, Pilasters facing the north-south. the capital consists of a kalasa (vase), tadi (saucer shaped member), kandha (necking), kumbha (bulbous member). the potika decorated with ten kudu arch motifs, upholds five salas connected by harantara (length of the cloister)

ADIVARAHA CAVE TEMPLE

PLANSECTION

ELEVATION

RAMANUJA MANDAPAM

The Ramanuja mandapa plan adds to the carved out pillared mandapa of the cave a new dimension. The addition of a built up unfinished mandapa in front of the cave sees the combination of rock cut and structural construction.

While the interior three celled shrine and columns are much decorated, the outer stone pillars remain unadorned.

The plinth platform of the mandapa is extended beyond the cave and outwards on either side providing a platform for two carved decorated niches in the wall.The pillars at the edges rest on a flight of steps carved into the rock on either side, which lead to the kapota and hara carvings. SECTION PLAN

ELEVATION

NICHE

COLUMNS OF UNFINISHED MANDAPA LION BASE COLUMNS

ELEVATION

KONERI MANDAPAMThe exploration in carving out the cave temple was pushed further with the Koneri mandapam.

The temple houses five shrines corresponding with the number of bays of the mandapa, and the mandapa increases in depth with two rows of columns in front of the shrines. The outer square pillars are simple while the inner circular pillars are carved intricately.

SECTIONPLAN

TWO ROWS OF COLUMNS

ELEVATION

OUTER COLUMNS

FAÇADE SHOWING TWO ROWS OF COLUMNS AND SHRINES

INTERIOR SHRINES

The Mahisamardhini cave goes a step further in the exploration of rock cut architecture. The shrine, dedicated to the mother goddess for killing Mahishasura, brings a new element into the cave temple.

In addition to the colonnaded mandapa, the next layer introduces a seemingly freestanding pavilion before the garba griha.

The façade has been left unadorned with only the basic forms of the kapota and haras chiseled out. It is the inner pavilion that sees heavy ornamentation establishing it as the most important part of the structure.

MAHISAMARDHINI CAVE

SECTION

ELEVATION

NORTH WEST :Valayankuttai ratha Northern pidari ratha Southern pidari ratha

NORTH : Ganesha ratha

SOUTH :Draupadi ratha Arjuna ratha Bheema ratha Dharmaraja ratha Nakul- sahadev ratha

THE RATHAS

After having experimented in carving caves out of rock, the Pallavan sculptor architect, under King Mahendra Varman in 7th C A.D , proceeded to chisel down the granite outcrop into free-standing monolithic buildings - resulting in the creation of the “rathas” or chariots in Mamallapuram. There are nine such rathas in Mamallapuram.

The eight structures that were carved out were named after the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic the Mahabharatha-Draupadi ratha, Arjuna ratha, Bhima ratha, Dharmaraja ratha and Nakul-Sahadev ratha. Animal figures were also carved out of the rock in accordance with the deity enshrined-a lion, a bull and an elephant.

The first four, in axial alignment, have been carved out of a section of a single whale-back rock facing south west, while the Nakula Sahadeva was formed out of a smaller rock near the Bhima ratha. The Draupadi and Arjuna rathas stand on a common platform.

At the southern end of Mamallapuram, the Pallavas created, in a single spot, a multitude of shapes and forms that the ideal Hindu temple could take. This experiment, on a small outcrop of granite about 75mx9m, resulted in a form of architecture that flourished into a mature consummate art in India.

PANCHA PANDAVA RATHAS

The small Draupadi ratha facing west and dedicated to Durga is the simplest and most elegant of the group. Shape like a kutaghara(hut), it is a very much a stone model of the wooden original. In its elevation it shows only four of its six angas (parts) namely the adisthana , the pada and bhitti, the sikhara and the stupi. It lacks an ardha mandapa in front.

On its four lower corners the domical sikhara has carved scroll ornamentations very similar to embossed metal designs.

Dvarapalikas (female counter parts of dvarapalas) stand in niches on either side of the entrance which is surmounted by a makara torana.

While having it own adhisthana, the draupadi ratha stands on the same uapapitha(platform) as the arjuna ratha.

DRAUPADI RATHA

SIDE VIEW

PLAN

FRONT VIEW

dwarapalika

stupi

common plinth

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

WITH ARJUN RATHA

The Arjuna ratha dedicated to Siva, stands next to Draupadi ratha. It also faces west. It has Dvitala (two storeyed) Vimana of Dravida order. The two pillars of ardha mandapa in front are modern additions replacing the lost originals. Cushion shaped capitals surmounted the two Octoganal Pilasters at the corners. Ganas (goblings) adorned the underside of the kapota.

While its curved outer surface as three pairs of kudu arches with human heads. Over the Prastara (entablature) is the Hara of small shrines, namely Karna kutas at the corner and Salas inbetween connected by Harantara( lengths of cloister). The sikhara crown the upper storey is octagonal, and its wooden origin is very clear. The cross beams supporting the base of sikhara resemble the spokes of a wheel.

Front view

ARJUNA RATHA

ELEVATIONPLAN

FRONT ELEVATION WITH BULL

BULL

BACK ELEVATION

The Nakul-sahadeva ratha carved out an independent boulder, stands near the Arjuna ratha and faces south. It has the Dvitala (two storeyed) Vimana with an apsidal end in both its storeys, crowned by an wagon – vaulted roof also with an apsidal end. The base remains incomplete.

The apsidal base and barrel vaulted chaitya form at the apex is seen as an interpretation of the Buddhist chaitya hall.

An Artha mandapa projects in front. Its roof supported by a pair of lion based pillars. The shrine cut out behind remains incomplete. The pilasters flanking it have elephant bases . Nine pairs of square pilasters, with capitals corresponding in position to the kutas and salas of first storey, adorned the apsidal walls.

NAKULA SAHADEV RATHA

Side view

Side view

FRONT ELEVATION

PLAN

SIDE ELEVATION

FRONT ELEVATION WITH ELEPHANT

SIDE ELEVATIONBACK ELEVATION SHOWING APSE

The central section of the original whale-back rock formed an ideal situation for the rectangular Bhima ratha. An ekatala(one storeyed). Vimana with a sala type wagon roof . A row of stupis (finials) crowned its ridge.

The Ratha remains unfinished and its basal part uncarved, still attached to the parent rock on north and south.

Though incomplete the Aditala(ground floor) indicates that the original design included a rectangular mandapa going all around it. It has four Vyala- based pillars and two pilasters on each of the four cardinal faces.

The solid walls appears only at the corners , while pillars and pilasters stands on the middle of each side. Kapota over the potika, seven pairs of the kudu arches, or Alpa Nasikas with human heads. The Hara consist of Salas between the karna kutas.

BHIMA RATHA

PLAN

FRONT ELEVATION

PLAN

The Griva sikhara are five well projected nasikas in three sizes. The one in the center is the biggest is the Maha nasika, those on the either side of it is the smallest is the ksudra nasikas and the ones at the extreme ends of the middling size is Alpa nasika.The sikhara is a two storied Vimana.

SIDE VIEW OF RATHA

VIEW OF CHAITYA VIMANA

COLUMNS

FRONT ELEVATION

The Dharmaraja ratha, atritala (three storied) Vimana square in its talas (storeys) but octagonal in the griva sikhara region, faces west. In style it resembles Arjuna ratha,its ground storeyed like those of the other rathas, remains incomplete. An Artha mandapa stand in front

The solid walls of its peripheral mandapa appear only at the corners. Rectangular niches cut into the walls. Sanskrit titles of the king are inscribed on the top of each niches. Kapota has kudu arches.Human and animal head between arches serve as gargoyles, but these have not finished on all sides.

SIDE ELEVATION

SECTION

PLAN

DHARMARAJA RATHA

VIEWSIDE ELEVATION

ANIMALS OF THE FIVE RATHASThe animals carved out at the site of the five rathas are the lion, elephant and bull.

The lion and the bull appear as the animal consorts of Durga and Shiva, who are the deities of the Draupadi and Arjuna rathas respectively. The lion is in front of Durga while the Nandi(bull) is placed behind the Shiva temple, which is unusual. This may be due to absence of suitable rock in the front axis of the shrine.

The elephant, while not an animal consort, may signify the God Indra.

LION ELEPHANT

PLAN OF FIVE RATHAS

NANDI (BULL)

GANESHA RATHA

The monolithic Ganesha ratha is the most finished and ornate of all the rathas. This Dvitala( two storeyed) Vimana was hewn from a free standing boulder near the northern end of the main hill at Mamallapuram.

It resembles the Bhima ratha with its wagon-vaulted chaitya roof, and three nasikas. Vyala based pillars define the entrance of the mandapa and pilasters adorn the façade.

VIEW SIDE ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION

VALAYANKUTTAI RATHA

SOUTHERN PIDARI RATHA NORTHERN PIDARI RATHA

The valaiyankuttai ratha situated further south and carved out of another free standing boulder, it’s a dvitala Vimana facing east. A pair of bay niches, projecting from each exterior wall of shrine, gives its distinction. Infront stands an Ardha mandapa.

The two Northern and southern Pidari rathas, both Dvitala ( two storey) are carved from free standing boulders. The northern Pidari ratha which faces north belongs to the nagara order. It remains incomplete. It serves as a good example of a bhitti torana. Ratha has a Ardha mandapa in front . A well finished kapota with Hara of kutas and salas interconnected by harantaras. The smaller Southern Pidari ratha also incomplete, faces east. It too has an Ardha mandapa in front but

hara element appears on its second tala as well.

RATHAS OF THE NORTH WEST

MASONRY TEMPLES

The triumph of the Pallava sculptors with the rathas led successor Rajasimha in the 8th century to begin the next phase in rock architecture-structural masonry temples. Rajasimha thus proceeded to dot the eastern coastline with these “structive” temples, all variations of the Dharmaraja ratha theme.

The most exquisite of these temples is the Shore temple at Mamallapuram, poised on the rocky shoreline, half in the sea and half on land.

The main sanctuary of the temple faces the sea while a subsidiary shrine faces the shore. This strange arrangement of the entrances was a result of the flooding of the main shrine at high tide making it unapproachable.

The quality of construction of the shore temple marks the success of the South Indian mason in the experiment that was Mamallapuram.

The shore temple at mamallapuram constructed out of the hard , blackish leptinite , comprises three shrines as well as the Prakara on the Gopuram. The ksatriyasimhesvara, the large vimana in front on the seawards side faces east while the smaller Rajasimhesvara at the rear faces westward . Both of these are dedicated to Siva. The Narapatisimhapallava Visnugraha, a mandapa shrine with the reclining Vishnu, stands between the two vimanas. It has no super structure. All the names of the shrines represent the Rajasimha’s various titles.

THE SHORE TEMPLE

VIEW OF TEMPLE COMPLEX

PLAN

SECTION

The larger ksatriyasimhesvara Vimana facing east, also square in plan with octagonal Griva and Sikhara, and crowned by a basalt finial, has four storeys. Both these shrines contain a relief panel of Somaskanda on the rear wall of sanctuary. The Kshatriyasimhesvra as a sixteen sided lingam of polished basalt, inserted directly on the floor without a pedestal. The exterior walls of the Garbha Griha have pilasters with rearing lions at the base. Likewise the pilasters on the inside of the closely built prakara. They have Naga, Ram and the other bases.

A figure of Durga riding a lion appears at the northern side of the temple facing west. The lion has little square niche cut in the middle of its chest, with a miniature Durga relief inside it.

The Pallavas, a sea-faring people, conducted rituals of water worship in the temple. The temple could therefore be partially flooded by a complex system of channels and sluices that could carry sea water into basins around the cult room.

To the Pallava mariner, the shore temple was a shrine by day and a beacon by night. A lamp lit in the courtyard of the temple could be seen through an aperture in the wall, transforming the temple into a virtual lighthouse.

APPROACH

CORRIDORMASSING TEMPLE ENCLOSURE

ENTRANCE TORANANANDIS ON ENCLOSURE

Having observed the various examples of Pallavan architecture in Mahabalipuram, we can trace the elements used in the Mamalla style of building.

The evolution of the cave temples displays many changes in design of the interior, such as the introduction of more profuse relief sculpture style and the development of the pillars, as well as the fuller representation of the facades. The entablature on the façade of the mandapa reached full developement in the Mamalla style.

FLOOR PLINTH LEVEL

RECESSED ZONESHRINE

Socles now generally consists of a plinth, a recessed zone with a semi octagonal kumuda and a projecting slab,representing the floor,rather than the eaves moulting (kapota) encountered in the north.

Kapota with kudu motifs (horse shoe) arches

THE ELEMENTS

Above the kapota it runs a line of salas (diminutive shrines),oblong in plan with a barrel vaulted roof), In later temples this row of salas terminates at either end wit kutas(miniature shrines),square in plan with a domical roof.The whole called hara,has harantaras (interconnecting cloisters).

kuta

harantara

sala

kapota

kudu

A permutation of the padma kumbha type of column derived from wooden prototypes incorporating a tapering polygonal shaft festooned and with faceted capital appears at first based on a square block,later on a seated lion (vyala)

Faceted capital

Shaft

Lion (vyala)

Square base

Padmabandha

THE ELEMENTS-COLUMN AND KAPOTA

The Vimanas are named according to the number of storeys of Hara:

DVITALA

TRITALAJATI

In the southern architectural canons, vimanas are classified according to their shapes from base to finial.

The Nagara order resembling the rudimentary hut, the Vesara order with the chaitya shape and apsidal base, and the Dravida order seen in the Dharmaraja ratha that was accepted as the perfect vimana for the South Indian Temple.

NAGARA ORDER DRAVIDA ORDER VESARA ORDER

EKTALA

The further step in rock cut architecture was the evolution of the ideal vimana to crown the South Indian temple. Free standing monolithic vimanas were chiselled out of the hard granite and gneiss boulders at mamallapuram.

The simplest form of monolithic vimana had six parts in its verticle direction from base to top namely the adisthana (basement), pada (pillar) and bhitti (wall) ,prastara (entablature), griva (clerestory), sikhara (ultimate roof covering over the griva) and the stupi (finial) crowning the top of sikhara. This simple shadanga (six sided) structure, known as the alpavimana, is ekatala (single storeyed)

THE ELEMENTS-VIMANA