Examining Race from Within: Black Intraracial ... · Social Studies Research and Practice Volume 9 Number 2 120 Summer 2014 Examining Race from Within: Black Intraracial Discrimination

Social Studies Research and Practice

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Volume 9 Number 2 120 Summer 2014

Examining Race from Within: Black Intraracial Discrimination in Social

Studies Curriculum

Christopher L. Busey

Kent State University

Teaching about matters of ethnicity, race, and culture in the social studies is controversial in

nature, but necessary to ensuring students are leaving the classroom with some multicultural

competence. In social studies , discussion of race and racism is typically confined to the master

narrative, which is limited to content pertaining to slavery, the Civil War, and the Civil Rights

Movement. What is missed in the discussion about racism in the social studies is the

conversation about intraracial racism or discrimination, which may not be a mainstream topic,

but a persistent and ever-present issue within Black communities. The purpose of this article is to

provide teachers with activities that can elicit discussion about Black intraracial discrimination, a

harmful legacy of slavery and colonization. By using various pedagogical tools for discussion of

intraracial discrimination, teachers will be incorporating a controversial, but culturally relevant,

topic into the curriculum as well as ensuring that students become aware of matters of culture

and race that exist beyond the textbook.

Keywords: race, racism, discrimination, intraracial, social studies, history

Introduction

To understand this, you have to go back to what [the] young brother here referred to as the

house Negro and the field Negro — back during slavery. There was two kinds of slaves. There

was the house Negro and the field Negro.”- Malcolm X, 1963, Message to the Grassroots

In his speech at the 2004 National Democratic Convention, former senator and current

president, Mr. Barack Obama, spoke about the ridicule Black students receive from their peers

for educational attainment (Morin, 2005). First Lady Michelle Obama also addressed the

derogatory nature of relating Black academic achievement to acting White in her 2013

commencement address at Boise State University, referring to the act as slander (Haven, 2013).

Noted author and scholar Michael Eric Dyson is a popular figure notorious for his

negative referral to levels of Blackness, albeit in an academic manner, in his public feuds with

Bill Cosby (Dyson, 2005), and Cornel West. In 2011, comedian Steve Harvey agreeing with

Dyson, referred to Cornel West and television anchor Tavis Smiley as Uncle Toms for their

criticism of President Obama (Vassar, 2011). Championship boxer Bernard Hopkins famously

referred to Black National Football League (NFL) quarterback Donovan McNabb as a “guy in

the house, while others are in the field” because McNabb comes from a two-parent home and has

never been arrested (ESPN, 2011, para. 2).

There have been many other public occurrences in which derogatory racial terms and

phrases such as House Negro, Uncle Tom, and acting White have been used by African

Americans, in reference to others within the subgroup, to questioning levels of “Blackness”. The

interrogation of one’s Blackness, alluded to in contemporary mainstream politics, sports, and

entertainment, is a form of intraracial discrimination, or discrimination occurring within a

particular race. Intraracial discrimination is one of many ugly legacies of slavery and plantation

politics in which intentional intraracial division was established on plantations by slave owners

in the form of color codes (Fredrickson, 2008). These color codes then served as the basis for a

hierarchy within the Black race in which mulattos and lighter-skinned Blacks found themselves


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in more “favorable” and privileged positions on plantations. Unfortunately, the effects of

plantation politics with regards to intraracial division persist today.

Intraracial discrimination among Blacks exists in two forms: colorism and borderism (Jenkins,

2006; Smith & Jones, 2011; Turner, 2013). Colorism or skin color prejudice is a prominent form

of intraracial discrimination among Blacks that largely influences Black identity (Turner, 2013).

Colorism is associated with notions of skin tone. The concept of borderism is associated with

those who “cross the color line” by choosing not to align themselves with perceived Black

behaviors or racial identity (Smith & Jones, 2011, p. 1568). Borderism is closely connected with

the idea of the Uncle Tom, the sellout, or acting White.

Borderism and colorism are not mutually exclusive, but together form the basis for

matters of intraracial class discrimination (Gullickson, 2005; Hochschild & Weaver, 2007). A

study by Derek Hyra (2006) noted the impact of intraracial discrimination on matters of class, as

middle-class Black families have moved into historically lower socioeconomic status Black

communities such as Harlem (New York) and Bronzeville (Chicago) with the intentions of

community improvement. This community uplift was met by opposition from lower-income

Black residents causing intraracial and class conflict. Various other studies (Goldsmith,

Hamilton & Darity Jr., 2007; Gullickson, 2005; LaFree & Drass, 1996; Mason, 2010) attribute

notions of colorism and borderism such as skin tone stratification and educational attainment to

income disparity, thus making the issue of intraracial racism complex and multifaceted.

Intraracial Discrimination in Social Studies

As intraracial racism and discrimination is an issue within the community, it cannot be

ignored in the classroom. Black students hold less favorable opinions towards their Black peers

and adults who speak using Standard English as opposed to Black English (Gross & Kroch,

1997) which can pose a problem in school settings. Intraracial bullying among school-aged and

adolescent children is a common problem (Merrell-James, 2006) caused by issues of colorism

and borderism such as skin tone, hair type, physical features, economic background, and school

achievement. In addition, forms of intraracial bullying and peer pressure affect identity and

relationship development for Black students (Yip, Sellers & Seaton, 2010).

Black students are negotiating meaning and assigning “personal significance to a

particular racial group” (Tatum, 2003, p. 16) as a part of their racial identity development. As a

result, consideration of race and racism deserves a place in school curriculum. The purpose here

is to provide social studies educators with ways to incorporate the controversial topic of Black-

on-Black discrimination. Due to the socio-cultural nature of this topic, the social studies

classroom provides a platform for discussion of intraracial discrimination among Blacks.

Although students generally dislike the social studies, they enjoy the topics that can be explored

within the curriculum (Thornton, 2005). Students may perceive intraracial discrimination as an

interesting and salient issue to explore as it is a common yet unexplored construct of race evident

through scholarly literature as well as public occurrences. Blacks, as well as other students of

color, express more disinterest and dislike for the social studies because of its irrelevance to their

lives (Gay, 2005), therefore, discussion about intraracial discrimination may help to engage a

group of students who are otherwise discontent with the curriculum.

Social studies teachers have long been hesitant to explore matters of race, and whenever

they do, it is typically confined to the discussions set forth by the textbook regarding either

slavery or the Civil Rights Movement (Bolgatz, 2005). Very rarely are students provided the

opportunity in social studies to explore various constructs of race. Intraracial discrimination

provides students with the opportunity to explore constructs of race beyond the Black-White


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binary, as well as engage in discussion about one of the many harmful legacies of slavery and

colonization. In addressing the direction that social studies educators should take regarding race,

Tyrone Howard (2004) posited the importance of incorporating the legacy of race and racism:

“It is essential for students to develop an awareness of how racism has shaped the

landscape of U.S. society, and how its ramifications are still felt today. A refusal to

acknowledge the legacy of racism gives students an incomplete account of the country’s

history, and also invalidates the painful experiences of millions of U.S. citizens who have

endured—and continue to endure—the harsh effects of racism” (p. 94).

The topic of intraracial discrimination amongst Blacks can be intimidating or outright

controversial, but discussions about controversial issues are important in fostering democratic

classrooms (Hess, 2009). To treat intraracial racism and other matters of race as if they do not

exist is a socially unjust practice as race makes up an integral part of society and, consequently,

of school culture (Ladson-Billings, 1998). More race-centered dialogue is needed in the social

studies (Howard, 2003). The social studies curriculum is naturally positioned to address issues of

race and diversity (Sanchez, 1997). While intraracial racism is not included within mainstream

social studies curriculum, it is part of the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum includes

issues that do not necessarily appear in social studies textbooks or curriculum, yet emerge in the

classroom through the students’ lived experiences (Massialas, 1992). Teachers can either

perpetuate racial tensions (in this case intraracial) or help students to deconstruct these tensions

and reconstruct more positive intraracial relations (Price, Hyle & Jordan, 2009).

The concept of race is complex and multi-faceted. Most people are under the

presumption that race is biological, but it is a socially constructed idea invented and constantly

molded by human beings (Chandler, 2010). Many, however, view race as a natural division,

leading to the view of race as meaningful and real (Khanna & Harris, 2009; Winant, 1994).

Teaching about matters of race and racism requires an understanding from teachers and students

that the concept of race is a social construction (Khanna & Harris, 2009).

Teaching Activities

The activities described below can be fully incorporated into an existing curriculum to

teach intraracial discrimination among Blacks as well as other ethnic groups. These activities

may also be used as icebreakers to initiate dialogue on the topic without going into much detail.

I previously used these activities to introduce a short unit on intraracial racism to 11th grade

history classes in an urban, low-income school.

During the school year in which I implemented the following activities, I taught both

advanced and general education students. My classes primarily consisted of Black students from

various ethnic backgrounds: African-American, Jamaican, Haitian, Dominican, and Puerto

Rican. The student body also consisted of students who were either Caucasian or Euro-Latinos

(mainly Cuban). No matter their ethnic background, students found the unit interesting,

engaging, and relevant. More importantly, students began to demonstrate some change in their

attitudes towards their peers as they had become more aware of the harmful effects of intraracial

discrimination. The negative commentary frequently heard among Black students concerning

one another influenced my curricular decision to include a small unit on intraracial

discrimination. The advanced Black students in the school consistently degraded other Black

students who did not achieve academically, and those students who did not achieve academically

referred to Blacks who performed well in school as acting White.

There were numerous instances in which colorism became a topic of concern,

manifesting itself in my classroom when having a Socratic philosophical chairs discussion on


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interracial marriage and the historic Loving v. Virginia, (1967) Supreme Court case. Before

viewing documents, students were given the opportunity to confirm their beliefs, This discussion

strategy can be used to solicit students’ ideas, beliefs, and prior knowledge about a particular

topic or issue (Kegan, 1982). During the discussion, numerous darker toned females accused

their Black male peers of having a preference towards lighter toned Black women, mixed race

women, Latinas, or even White women, thus causing darker hued Black women to feel inferior

due to their skin complexion.

Beyond classroom-based discussions, intraracial discrimination was inherent within the

school setting. There were instances in which Latinos would separate themselves based on

origin and skin color, with Afro-Latinos, mainly Dominicans, isolating themselves from their

Cuban, Puerto Rican, and Haitian peers. The color divisions permeated throughout the school

hallways so, it was necessary that the intraracial discrimination taking place be addressed in an

academic manner in the classroom, thus intellectualizing the conversation on race.

Surveys

To introduce the topic of intraracial discrimination, the Intra-racial Discrimination survey

could be given to the students (see Figure 1). Opening with the survey is beneficial in that it

gives students the opportunity to reflect on the topic, and to question their experiences, which

helps to create relevance and meaning for them. Asking students for their input involves them in

discussion on the topic early in the classroom implementation of the unit. Another benefit of the

survey is its ease of completion. The instrument allows the teacher to collect preliminary data to

ascertain student beliefs and to prepare relevant materials to engage students in inquiry based on

the data. After completing the survey, students can either discuss the questions in pairs, in small

groups, or in a whole-class discussion. Not all students are enthusiastic about discussion despite

how interesting or salient the topic may be (Wilen, 2004). As an option, the teacher can collect

the surveys, calculate the data, and report back to the students with the statistics in order to foster

a more anonymous discussion where students are not required to initially express their respective

viewpoints, but can simply respond to the data.

Intraracial Discrimination Survey

Directions: Read the list of statements. For each statement, circle either “yes” or “no” indicating

whether or not you have experienced what was stated. In the space below each statement, briefly

explain your response to each statement.

1. Yes or No: I have discriminated against or made fun of someone of my race because of

his or her academic achievement.

Explanation:

2. Yes or No: Another person of my race has discriminated against or made fun of me

because of my academic achievement.

Explanation:


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his or her skin tone/complexion.

Explanation:


because of my skin tone/complexion.

Explanation:


his or her hair type.

Explanation:


because of my hair type.

Explanation:


their physical features (nose, lips, eyes, etc.).

Explanation:


because of my physical features (nose, lips, eyes, etc.).

Explanation:


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his or her social class background.

Explanation:


because of my social class background.

Explanation:

Figure 1:Intraracial discrimination survey

Attractiveness/Intelligence Survey

Directions: You will see 10 pictures. For each picture, first tell me what you see (briefly describe

the person). Then on a scale of 1-5, tell me how attractive you think the person is, and how

intelligent you think the person is. 5 is the highest level of attractiveness/intelligence a person

can have and 1 is the lowest.

Picture No. What do you see? (skin tone,

physical features, hairstyle,

hair type, etc.)

Attractiveness

Rating (1-5)

Intelligence Rating

(1-5)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.


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Figure 2: Attractiveness/Intelligence survey

Another form of surveying that can be used to foster discussion related to colorism is the

use of attractiveness and intelligence surveys. Show students about ten pictures, five female and

five male, of Blacks with various skin tones. Using the Attractiveness and Intelligence survey

(Figure 2), students will rate each photo using a scale of 1-5 with 5 being the most attractive or

intelligent and 1 being least attractive or intelligent. As with the intraracial discrimination

survey, students can share their responses immediately or the data can be anonymously

calculated and reported back to students by the teacher.

Film and Syndicated Programming

One of the most effective ways to teach about ethnicity, race, and race relations in the

social studies is to use film (Loewen, 1991). Using film also is helpful with subject matter that

can be too emotionally complex for a teacher to introduce, thus helping to reduce the role of the

teacher and letting the film introduce the topic. School Daze, Jumping the Broom, and Crash are

particularly suitable movies for introducing the topic of intraracial racism amongst Blacks as

they are based on notions of colorism and borderism. Although the Fresh Prince of Bel-Air is

not a movie, this television series provides numerous examples of intraracial discrimination. The

immensely popular syndicated television series is riddled with hints of intraracial racism based

on skin tone, social class, physical features, and use of vernacular. Carlton’s character in the

television program, for example, provides students with an example of borderism as he uses

Standard English, is academically inclined, and often is considered to be acting White by Will.

More specifically, one could show the episode where intraracial discrimination by Will against

Carlton briefly forced Carlton to adapt perceived notions of Blackness in which he used Black

English Vernacular, wore baggy clothes, and exhibited overly aggressive behaviors.

Choose one, or a few of the movies to show to students, but be sure to follow the school-

wide or district procedures for incorporating Hollywood films in your curriculum as most of the

movies pertaining to racial issues are rated R. Show students an episode or clips of the Fresh

Prince of Bel-Air and have them note instances where they perceive intraracial discrimination

taking place. After watching the films and the television shows, have students share notes from

the film or television show for discussion. To ensure that conflicting opinions are shared

respectfully, ensure there are procedures in place for discussion. Race can be controversial as

students may have negative dispositions about matters of race. It is important that teachers build

community as a preventative measure before engaging students in controversial discussion

7.

8.

9.

10.


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(Journell, 2011; Yeager Washington & Humphries, 2011). In addition to introducing fact-based

questions to guide discussions (Yeager Washington & Humphries, 2011), teachers should stress

that the goal is to engage in dialogue as opposed to debate.

Media Analysis

One activity students may enjoy is a media analysis. After watching a film or television

show, ask students to go home and watch television (be mindful of your students’ access to

television before implementing this assignment). Students will note five portrayals of Blacks or

other people of color in the media by analyzing commercials, music videos, reality shows, news

outlets, or other television varieties. Have students fill in the media analysis chart (Figure 3) and

bring their responses back to class. After analyzing and discussing their chart with a peer, ask

students to write a reflection paper about how Blacks may be portrayed as well as interact with

one another based on skin complexion, social class, academic achievement, or physical features.

In the media analysis reflection, have students include information about a peer’s analysis,

comparing and contrasting it with their own.

Media Analysis

Directions: While watching television, conduct a media analysis to look for ways in which intra-

racial discrimination takes place within the media. For example, we are light-skinned Blacks

more prevalent that dark skinned Blacks on a specific channel or within commercials for a

particular brand? This media analysis will help you answer these types of questions.

Indicate the channel you are watching (ESPN, MTV, BET, A&E, History Channel, Food

Network, HGTV, etc.), the category of television (reality show, sitcom, sports, news, music

videos, entertainment, history, crime, or even commercials), the title of the show (brand if it’s a

commercial), characteristics of the Blacks portrayed (educational attainment, hair type, skin

complexion, physical features, social class, etc.), and how the Blacks interacted with other

Blacks on the show if they did at all.

Channel Category Title/Brand Characteristics Interactions (if

applicable)


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Figure 3: Media Analysis

Assessment

There are various ways through which you can assess students’ learning about intraracial

discrimination. Due to the nature of this topic, authentic assessments such as projects and open-

ended essay questions are most suitable (Ochoa-Becker, 2007). Students can write personal

reflection papers in which they reflect on what they have learned both academically and

personally regarding the topic. Students can complete research papers or discuss current events

in which they reflect on a particular instance in which intraracial discrimination took place, its

effects, and what could be done to prevent this action from happening in the future. Creating

advertising campaigns and billboards are also effective ways to authentically assess students’

learning as well as incorporate their creative abilities into the lesson.

Conclusion

Conversations regarding racism in the social studies primarily exist in within a Black-

White dichotomy, however, it is important to acknowledge racism as not just one group enacting

prejudice or using pejoratives upon another, but it occurs within intragroup contexts as well.

Critical race theory posits race is central to the everyday experience of Blacks and people of

color (Ladson-Billings, 1998), and I argue that intraracial discrimination can be an aspect of

racial experiences. Although it is not a typical topic found within social studies curriculum and

texts, Black intraracial discrimination is part of the hidden curriculum I chose to incorporate the

topic into my 11th grade American History curriculum because I heard the spiteful things

students said about one another within the school and classroom context in which I taught. As an

African-American male who has also experienced intraracial discrimination due to my skin tone

and educational attainment, I recognize the validity of my experiences and how they are not

unique, but rather a fabric interwoven within the Black society as a result of slavery.

This discussion about intraracial discrimination is not one to be limited just to urban

schools or to primarily Black student populations as all students need to learn about the harmful

legacies of slavery (Howard, 2004). Although intraracial discrimination among Blacks maybe

more pronounced (Jenkins, 2006), it is not a phenomenon limited to the Black race as various

other racial and ethnic groups grapple with this notion (Ford, 2012; Mendez, Bauman &

Guillory, 2012)

It is important for teachers to intellectualize the conversation on racial issues, beginning

with the meaning of race and how it is presented in various constructs. Race should be

presented in an educational manner encouraging students to think, reflect, and engage in

dialogue with one another concerning the matter. Intraracial discrimination deserves a place in

within the curriculum as students are grappling with aspects of race, racism, and racial identity

(Tatum, 2003). It is also important that common and harmful narratives are not perpetuated, but

students are provided with the opportunity to challenge stereotypes, oppressive behaviors, biases,


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and historical misinformation (Bigelow, 2007). The aforementioned teaching activities

encourage deep reflection and dialogue about a serious topic in an engaging way. By

incorporating intraracial discrimination into your classroom, hopefully, change will be enacted

and students will become more knowledgeable about the various ways in which racism still

permeates U.S. society today.

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ESPN. (2011, May 12). Bernard Hopkins rips Donovan McNabb. Retrieved June 2013 from

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White”. CBS News. Retrieved May 5, 2014 from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/first-

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Author’s Bio

Christopher Busey is an Assistant Professor of middle childhood and adolescent social studies

education at Kent State University. He was a Holmes Scholar and has taught social studies in

culturally diverse schools for six years. His research interests include diversity in social studies

education as well as global education. E-mail: [email protected]

http://www.essence.com/2011/08/13/tavis-smiley-and-cornel-west-criticize-president-obama-steve-harvey-responds/

http://www.essence.com/2011/08/13/tavis-smiley-and-cornel-west-criticize-president-obama-steve-harvey-responds/

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Examining Race from Within: Black Intraracial ... · Social Studies Research and Practice Volume 9 Number 2 120 Summer 2014 Examining Race from Within: Black Intraracial Discrimination