EVALUATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN NEW COMMUNITIES SOUTH ... · EVALUATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN NEW COMMUNITIES SOUTH EAST THE NILE DELTA, EGYPT A.A. Taha1, A.S. El Mahmoudi,2

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, 8 (2), 51-67 (2003) (Regular Paper)

51

EVALUATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN NEW COMMUNITIES SOUTH EAST THE NILE DELTA, EGYPT

A.A. Taha1, A.S. El Mahmoudi,2 and I.M. El-Haddad1 �Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt.

2Geology Department, Faculty of Science, UAE, University, Al Ain, P.O. Box 17551, UAE

(Received July 2003 and accepted December 2003)

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The water resources in the new communities located at the South Eastern part of the Nile Delta, Egypt include groundwater, surface water and drainage water in canals and oxidation ponds. Chemical analyses of 190 samples from various sources have been performed. Based on the results, the available water resources were classified into different categories. The evaluation of the water quality was based on the content of major cations, anions and total dissolved salts. The Quaternary aquifer in the western part contains water of drinking quality. In the northern and eastern parts of the same aquifer, the groundwater is unsuitable for drinking or domestic uses. The water quality in the Oligocene and Miocene aquifers is poor. The quality of the surface water in canals is suitable for all peruses including drinking. Drainage water in drains and oxidation ponds is of very low quality and should not be reused. This is essentially true for water in the oxidation ponds.

1. INTRODUCTION The area in the East of the Nile Delta is one of the most suitable sites for land reclamation projects and industrial centers in Egypt. Accordingly, the need for water to meet the domestic, irrigation and industrial demands has increased. More attention and great efforts have been invested to evaluate the water resources in this area. The quality of water should be re-evaluated from time to time to detect any changes in salinity and water chemistry which may affect the present and future uses of water. The primary purpose of water analysis is to determine the suitability of water for drinking, domestic, livestock, poultry, irrigation, industrial, and construction purposes. 2. EVALUATION OF WATER FOR

DRINKING AND DOMESTIC USES Drinking water standards are based on the presence of objectionable taste, odour or colour and the presence of

substances with adverse physiological effects. Generally, water for drinking and domestic purposes should be colourless, odourless, free from turbidity, clear and free from excessive dissolved solids, and free from pathogenic organisms.

The acceptable and permissible content of various ions in drinking and domestic water as given by the World Health Organization (1993 & 1998) and by the Ministry of Health, Egypt are shown in Table 1.

Applying the standards provided in Table 1, the following remarks can be made on the analyzed water samples:

Based on the content of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), it can be concluded that the groundwater quality of the Quaternary aquifer (samples from 1 to 117, Figure 1) ranges from suitable to unsuitable for human use and laundry purpose. The collected groundwater samples can be classified into:

A. A. Taha et al.

52 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 8, No.2, 2003

Table 1. Limits of international standards for drinking water (WHO, 1993 & 1998).

Name WHO, 1993

WHO, 1998 Egypt

Bicarbonate Boron Carbonate Chloride Sulphate Calcium Iron Magnesium Manganese Potassium Sodium Total solids Cadmium Copper Lead Zinc

(HCO-3 )

(B) (CO--

3) (Cl-) (SO—

4) (Ca++) (Fe++) (Mg++) (Mn++) (K+) (Na+) (T.D.S) (Cd++) (Cu++) (Pb++) (Zn++)

- 0.500

- - - - - -

0.500 - - -

0.003 2.00

0.010 -

- - -

250.000 250.000

- 0.300

- 0.100

- 200.000

1000.000 -

1.000 -

3.000

- - -

500.000 400.000 200.000

0.300 150.000

0.100 -

200.000 1200.000

0.005 1.000 0.050 5.000

1. Excellent to good water without undesirable properties (T.D.S < 500 ppm). Water samples No. 3-8, 11, 13-15, 17-18, 21, 25, 100 and 117 lie in this class. Most of these water samples were collected from areas along Ismailia Canal and at the Western part of the study area (near to Damietta branch).

2. Permissible water (T.D.S ranging 500 to 1500 ppm). This water class contains the samples No. 1, 2, 9, 10, 12, 16, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 33, 34, 49, 50, 63, 72, 73, 81, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 115 and 116.

3. Unsuitable water (T.D.S more than 1500 ppm). This class includes samples No. 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 91, 99, 101, 103.

All groundwater samples of the Miocene aquifer (118-169) reflect very high values of salinity well above the recommended (World Health Organization, 1993 & 1998) limits for drinking and domestic uses. Sample No. 170 of Oligocene aquifer also falls in the unsuitable class.

The water of surface irrigation canals (samples No. 171-178) falls in the excellent class, while the sample No. 179 (Suez Canal) is not suitable. The water of drainage channels (samples No. 180-186) is unsuitable for drinking and domestic uses. due to the colour, odour, taste and some chemical constituents. The water in the oxidation ponds (samples No. 187-190) is unsuitable for drinking and domestic uses. The effect of the increase of chemical constituents on groundwater usability is summarized in Table 2.

Generally, water for domestic purposes including washing of cloths, dishes and others should have low salinity and low Ca2+ and Mg2+ (soft). Hardness of water is primarily caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium salts. Hardness causes soap to react and form insoluble precipitation. Thus, hard water causes soap to lose its detergent property. In addition, hard water would cause high soap consumption. This would have serious economic implications both in the private household and in industrial activities, including cleaning and laundering. If the hardness is above 60-80 mg/L, the water used for boiler feed will cause excessive scale formation (Carbonate mineral precipitation). Total hardness (TH) is normally expressed as the total concentration of calcium and magnesium in milligrams per liter equivalent CaCO3. It can be determined by substituting the concentrations of Ca++ and Mg++ ions expressed as mg/L, in the following expression:

T.H = 2.5 (Ca++) + 4.1 (Mg++).

Because of the different hardness characteristics of most natural water and the possible wide range of water hardness encountered, the range of total hardness values used to classify water is variable. Generally, water with total hardness of 120 mg/L or less is considered satisfactory for most domestic uses. Water with hardness in excess of 500 mg/L, may be unsuitable for such utilization and may require to be soften before use.

The total hardness of the water in the Quaternary aquifer ranges from 33.1 to 2978 ppm with an average 469.5 ppm. In the Miocene aquifer, it ranges from 402 to 3894.3 ppm with an average 2433.2 ppm. The sample from the Oligocene aquifer has a total hardness of 124.2 ppm (Table 3).

In irrigation canals, the total hardness ranges from 112.8 to 255.7 ppm with an average 162.8 ppm. The total hardness of drainage channels varies between 201 and 566.5 ppm with an average 355.4 ppm. For oxidation ponds in the new cities the total hardness ranges from 212.6 to 393.3 ppm with an average 298.2 ppm, (Table 3).

The distribution of the total hardness as calculated from the expression T.H = 2.5 (Ca++) + 4.1 (Mg++), is shown in Figure 2. The total hardness in the western part ranges from zero to 250 ppm. Such water is called soft water. In the northern and eastern parts of the study area; the total hardness ranges from 250 to 1000 ppm (moderate water). In the southern part of the study area, the groundwater is characterized by its high content of Ca++ and Mg++ (TH> 1000 ppm) and the water is classified as hard water.

Evaluation of the Water Quality in New Communities South East the Nile Delta, Egypt

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 8, No.2, 2003 53

Fig. (1): Location map of different water samples in the study area.

Fig. (2): Distribution of the total hardness for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers.

N

31o 00` 31o 30` 32o 00` 32o 30`

30o

30`

30o

00`

20 km

Dam

ietta

bran

ch

1

2

3 4

5

67

8

910

1112

13

14

15

1617

18

19

20

21

22

23 24 25

26

27

2829

30

31

32

33

34

35

36 3738

3940

4243

44 45

46 47

48

49

50

515253

5455 56

5758

5960

6162

6364

656667

6869 70

71

72

73

74

7576

77

78

79

8081

82

83

848586

87

8889

90

9192

93

94

959697

9899

100 101102

103

104 105106107

108

109110 111

112113

114115

116

117

170

118119

120

121122123

124125

126127

128129

130131

132133

134135

136

137138

139140

141142

143

144

145146

147

148149150151

152153154155

156157

158

159

160161162

163

164

165

166

167

168169

171

172

173

174

175176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

Gulf of

Suez

Cairo

GreatBitterLake

Suez

Cana

l

Cairo-Suez Road

SuezQuaternary aquiferMiocene aquiferOligocene aquiferSurface water

(1-117)

(170)(171-190)

(118-169)

Miocene aquifer

Quaternary aquifer 0

250

1000

4000

Cairo

Dam

ietta

bran

ch

Suez

Can

al

GreatBitter

Lake

Suez

Gulf of

Suez

Cairo-Suez Road

20 km

31o 00` 32o 00`31o 30` 32o 30`

30o

30`

30o

00`

N

Figure 1. Location map of different water samples in the study area.

Figure 2. Distribution of the total hardness for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers

A. A. Taha et al.


Table 2. Principal chemical constituents in groundwater and their effect on usability (modified from Durfor and Becker, 1964).

Constituents Effect on Usability of water

Calcium (Ca++) and Magnesium (Mg++)

Calcium and magnesium combine with bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate and silica to form heat-retarding, pipe-clogging scale in boilers and in other heat-exchange equipment. Calcium and magnesium combines with ions of fatty acid in soaps to form soap-suds; the more calcium and magnesium, the more soap required to form suds. A high concentration of magnesium has a laxative effect, especially on new users of the supply.

Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+)

More than 50 mg/l sodium and potassium in the presence of suspended matter causes foaming, which accelerates scale formation and corrosion in boilers. Sodium and potassium carbonate in recirculating cooling water can cause deterioration of wood in cooling towers. More than 65 mg/l of sodium can cause problems in ice manufacture.

Carbonate (CO3-) and

bicarbonate (HCO3-)

Upon heating, bicarbonate is changed into stream, carbon dioxide, and bicarbonate. The carbonate combines with alkaline earth’s-principally calcium and magnesium, to form a crustlike scale of calcium carbonate that retards flow of heat through pipe walls and restricts flow of fluids in pipes. Water containing large amounts of bicarbonate and alkalinity is undesirable in many industries.

Sulfate (SO4-) Sulfate combines with calcium to form an adherent, heat-retarding scale. More than 250 mg/l is objectionable in

water in some industries. Water containing about 500 mg/l of sulfate tastes bitter; water containing about 1000 mg/l may be cathartic.

Chloride (Cl-) Chloride in excess of 100 mg/l imparts a salty taste. Concentrations greatly in excess of 100 mg/l may cause physiological damage. Food processing industries usually require less 250 mg/l. Some industries-textile processing, paper manufacturing, and synthetic rubber manufacturing-desire less than 100 mg/l.

Fluoride (F-) Fluoride concentration between 0.6 and 1.7 mg/l in draining water has a beneficial effect on the structure and resistance to decay of children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 1.5 mg/l in some areas causes “mottled enamel” in children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 6.0 mg/l causes pronounced mottling and disfiguration of teeth.

Nitrate (NO3-) Water containing large amounts of nitrate (more than 100 mg/l) is better tasting and may cause physiological

distress. Water from shallow wells containing more than 45 mg/l has been reported to cause methemoglobinemia in infants. Small amounts of nitrate help reduce cracking of high-pressure boiler steel.

Dissolved solids More than 500mg/l is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses. Less than 300 mg/l is desirable for dyeing of textiles and the manufacture of plastics, pulp paper, rayon. Dissolved solids cause foaming in steam boilers; the maximum permissible content decreases with increases in operating pressure.

Silica (SiO2) In the presence of calcium and magnesium, silica forms a scale in boilers and on steam turbines that retards heat; the scale is difficult to remove. Silica may be added to soft water to inhibit corrosion of iron pipes.

Iron(Fe++) More than 0.1 mg/l precipitates after exposure to air; causes turbidity, stains plumbing fixtures, laundry, and cooking utensils, and imparts objectionable tastes and colours to foods and drinks. More than 0.2 mg/l is objectionable for most industrial uses.

Manganese (Mn++) More than 0.2 mg/l precipitates upon oxidation; causes undesirable tastes, deposits, on foods during cooking, stains plumbing fixtures and laundry and fosters growths in reservoirs, filters and distribution systems. Most industrial users object to water containing more than 0.2 mg/l.

Table 3. Calculated values of some hydrochemical parameters of the collected water samples

Total

hardness (T.H)

Parameters Values

Type of water

2978 Maximum

33.1 Minimum

469.5 Average

Quaternary

117 samples

3894.3 Maximum

402.0 Minimum

2433.2 Average

Miocene

52 samples

124.2 -One Sample (No. 170)

Oligocene

1 sample

Ground water

255.7 Maximum

112.8 Minimum

162.8 Average

Canals

20 samples

Surface water

566.5 Maximum

201 Minimum

355.4 Average

Channels

393.3 Maximum

212.6 Minimum

298.2 Average

Oxidation ponds

Drainage water

In the Quaternary aquifer, 57 of the collected water samples fall in soft water class. Whereas, 45 samples fall in moderate water class and 15 samples fall in hard water class (Table 4a). In the Miocene aquifer, 47 samples fall in hard water and 2 samples fall in moderate water class (Table 4b). The sample from the Oligocene aquifer falls in soft water class.

Samples of irrigation canals fall in the soft water class, while samples No. 179 (Suez Canal) falls in hard water class (Table 4c). Samples No. 183, and 190 fall in soft water while, samples No. 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 and 189 fall in moderate water class.

3. EVALUATION OF WATER FOR LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY

Water for livestock and poultry is also subject to quality standards and limitations. The principle criteria for evaluating the water quality for livestock and poultry purposes are shown in Table 5 as determined by the National Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineering (1972). This classification depends mainly on the total salinity value. The effect of salinity is usually related to water balance rather than any specific ion. Excessive salinity in water can cause physiological changes (diseases) or even death of livestock.



Table 4a. Suitability of water according to total hardness for the Quaternary aquifer.

Class

No. Total

Hardness Water type

Samples No.

1 < 250 ppm

Soft water

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 34, 38, 39, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116 and 117

2 250-1000 ppm

Moderate

water

2, 9, 10, 12, 20, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 52, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 82, 86, 88, 97, 98, 104, 109 and 111

3 >1000 Hard water

39, 48, 51, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 79, 83, 84, 85, 93, 99 and 110

Table 4b. Suitability of water according to total

hardness for the Miocene aquifer.

Class No.

Total Hardness

Water type Samples No.

1 < 250 ppm

Soft water

-

2 250-1000 ppm

Moderate water

119 and 131

3 >1000 Hard water

118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 15, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169

Table 4c: Suitability of water according to total

hardness for the Damietta branch and irrigation canals.

Class No.

Water type

Total Hardness Samples No.

1 Soft water

< 250 ppm

171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183 and 190.

2 moderate water

250-1000 ppm

180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 and 189.

3 Hard water

>1000 179.

According to the standard limits established by the National Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineering (1972) for livestock and poultry, the groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer can be classified as: 1- Excellent water for all classes of livestock and

poultry: 41 samples fall in this class. 2- Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and

poultry: 54 samples fall in this class. 3- Satisfactory for all classes of livestock but, poor

for poultry: 13 samples fall in this class.

Table 5. Guide to the use of saline water for livestock and poultry (National Academy of Science and

National Academy of Engineering, 1972).

T.D.S. (mg/l) Characters

<1000 Relatively low level of salinity. Excellent for all classes of livestock and poultry.

1000-3000

Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery dropping in poultry.

3000-5000

Satisfactory for livestock but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to them. Poor water for poultry. Often causing water faces, increased mortality and decreased growth, especially in Turkeys.

5000-7000

It can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, for sheep swine and horses. Avoid the use for pregnant or lactating animals. Not acceptable for poultry.

7000-10000

Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lactating cows, horses or sheep, or for the young of these species. In general, use should be avoided although older ruminants, horses poultry and swine may subsist on them under certain conditions.

>10000 Risks are great. Not recommended for use under any condition.

4- Reasonable safety class: 5 samples fall in this

class. 5- Unfit class: 3 samples fall in this class. 6- Unsuitable class: 1 sample (No. 71) falls in this

class.

The groundwater samples of Miocene aquifer can be classified as follows: 1- Very satisfactory class: 3 samples. 2- Satisfactory class: 10 samples. 3- Reasonable safety: 38 samples. 4- Unfit class: 1sample (No. 156).

The sample (No. 170) from the Oligocene aquifer falls in the very satisfactory class. The 8 samples (No. 171-178) from irrigation canals fall in the excellent class while sample No. 179 of Suez Canal falls in the unsuitable class. The 7 water samples (No. 180-186) from the drainage channels fall in the excellent class. The 4 samples (No. 187-190) from oxidation ponds fall in the excellent class but are not suitable for this purpose because of the content of heavy metals.

4- EVALUATION OF WATER FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSE

There are some water properties that should be considered when water is used in both the surface and subsurface constructions. These include pH, CO2, NH4

+, Mg++ and SO4--. The effect of sulphate on

concrete is very harmful. If the concentration of sulphate is more than 0.3 g/L, it will react with cement and form gypsum, which is very soft and can not resist

A. A. Taha et al.


the internal forces in structures. If the water is of high sulphate content, then dense concrete and non-cemented material should be used. The unsuitable water for construction is that which includes evaporite deposits. The groundwater levels with respect to the foundations of buildings should also be considered.

According to the standards of water for construction purposes, the groundwater samples of Quaternary aquifer can be classified as follows:

1. Good class: It includes 51 samples No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 37, 53, 54, 62, 64, 72, 73, 90, 94, 95, 96, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 112, 113, 115, 116, and 117.

2. Slightly aggressive class: Samples No. 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 97, 98, 99, 104, 105, 108, 109, 111 and 114 lie in this class.

3. Strongly aggressive: This class comprises samples No. 32, 38, 39, 43, 48, 51, 52, 58, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 79, 84, 85, 93, 101, and 110.

In the Miocene aquifer all samples from No. 118 to 169 fall in the strongly aggressive class except samples No. 119, 139, 157, 163, and 164 which lie in the slightly aggressive class. Sample No. 170 of Oligocene aquifer falls in the slightly aggressive class.

Samples No. 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 and 178, which were collected from irrigation canals lie in the good class, while sample No. 179 (Suez Canal) falls in the very strongly aggressive class.

The drainage water samples (channels drainage and oxidation ponds) can be classified into two classes. 1. Good class: Samples No. 182, 183, 184, and

190. 2. Slightly aggressive class: Samples No. 180,

181, 185, 186, 187, and 188.

5. EVALUATION OF WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The area under investigation comprises the Tenth of Ramadan, El-Obour, Badr and El-Salhiya industrial cities. The water demands for industries depend upon the specific of each particular industry. Some industries require pure water, whereas others may require some specific minerals to be absent. The National Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineering (1972) and Hem (1989) provided international standards for some industrial projects (Table 6).

Table 6. Water quality requirements for some industries as proposed by National Academy of Science and

National Academy of Engineering (1972) and Hem (1989).

Subs

tanc

e

Tex

tiles

Che

mic

al p

ulp

and

pape

r

Woo

d ch

emic

als

Synt

hetic

ru

bber

Soft

dri

nks

bott

ling

Petr

oleu

m

prod

ucts

Hyd

raul

ic

cem

ent

man

ufac

ture

Can

ned

and

drie

d fr

uits

an

d ve

geta

bles

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According to the above standards the groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer is can be used for some industries but not all. On the other hand, groundwater may need primary treatment before use in some other industries.

Industrial water is quite diverse and the water quality requirements vary greatly not only for the quality of different industries but also for different plants within the same industry. In general, water must be free from the constituents which cause precipitation of scales on the equipment.

The presence of excess silica in water is troublesome, especially in industrial applications where it causes severe scaling problems in boilers, heat exchangers as well as formation of deposits on turbine blades. Silica content should be low in water to prevent such problems in industries. Cooling water should be noncorrosive and should have sufficiently low concentrations of CaCO3, SO4

2- and PO43- to be nonscaling. Textile industries

require water that is low in iron, manganese, total hardness, and turbidity. Water used for food and medicinal drug industries must have, at least, the quality of potable water. Water used in the food processing industry, must have lower concentrations of bicarbonates, calcium, and magnesium as compared to the potable water. Many types of vegetables can become hardened when cooked in water with high calcium and magnesium contents.

Most of the groundwater samples contain CaCO3 salt, which may be precipitated on the surface of heat exchangers (boilers and condensers) and consequently reduce the efficiency of such equipment. Scale has low heat conductivity and accordingly, an increase in fuel



consumption will result. The most common precipitat-ion treatment is carbonate removal by lime or by soda. The reactions are as follows:

Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

Since MgCO3 is relatively soluble, an excess of lime will lead to the reaction:

Ca(OH)2 + MgCO3 → CaCO3 ↓ + Mg(OH)2.

All the collected samples of Quaternary aquifer are unsuitable for textile industry. Samples No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 21, 25, 100, 116 and 117 are suitable for the afro mentioned industries. The remaining samples of the Quaternary aquifer are unsuitable for paper and fruits and vegetables industries. All groundwater samples of Quaternary aquifer are suitable for petroleum industries except samples No. 32, 39, 43, 48, 51, 52, 58, 68, 69, 70, 75, 79, 83, 84, 85, 93, 99, 101and 110. Samples No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 100, 116, and 117 are suitable for hydraulic cement manufacture while, the remaining samples are not.

For the same aquifer, Samples No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 50, 53, 56, 61, 64, 65, 72, 73, 74, 80, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 115, 116 and 117 are suitable for soft drinks bottling. Samples No. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 49, 50, 72, 73, 89, 90, 94, 95, 96, 100, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 115, 116 and 117 are suitable for wood chemicals. Groundwater Samples No. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 27, 33, 34, 37, 38, 46, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64, 72, 74, 76, 77, 81, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 112, 113, 115, 116 and 117 are suitable for synthetic rubber.

All samples of Miocene aquifer are unsuitable for, textile, wood chemicals paper, fruit, and vegetable. Samples No. 119, 131, 139, and 144 are suitable for petroleum industries. All samples of Miocene aquifer are unsuitable for hydraulic cement manufacture and soft drinks bottling.

The Oligocene aquifer (sample No.170) is unsuitable for textiles chemical pulp, petroleum products, soft drinks bottling hydraulic cement manufacture and canned and dried fruits and vegetables. This type of water is suitable for synthetic rubber.

The samples of irrigation canals (171-178) are suitable for wood chemicals, soft drinks bottling petroleum products, hydraulic cement manufacture and canned and dried fruits and vegetables after primary treatment and not suitable for textiles and chemical pulp and paper. Samples No. 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178 are suitable for synthetic rubber. Sample No. 179 is unsuitable for industrial use.

All samples of drainage channels and oxidation ponds are unsuitable for different industries. This is attributed to the high concentration of some trace elements.

6. EVALUATION OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES

Irrigation water criteria depend on both the chemical composition and the nature of plants to be irrigated, soil type, climate, amount and method of irrigation and drainage. Drainage is an important factor affecting the growth of crops. Poor drainage would result in salt concentration in the root zones and would decrease the plant growth. A clayey soil will cause water quality problems, because of poor drainage capacity and low opportunity for leaching of excess salt.

Generally, the water used in irrigation should be free from boron. The most important factors of the suitability of the water quality for irrigation purposes are the total concentration of soluble salts and the sodium adsorption ratio. The two principle effects of sodium are the reduction in soil permeability and the hardening of the soil. Both effects are caused by the replacement of calcium and magnesium ions by sodium ions on the soil clay and colloids. The suitability of water for irrigation can be determined by the amount and kinds of present salts as well as the soil texture and the salt tolerance of crops.

The quality requirements of irrigation water vary among different crops, types, and drainability of soils and climate (Bouwer, 1978). Thus, irrigation water standards and classification for various crops and soils have limited significance and must be considered in the light of the entire situation. The different water resources in the study area were classified according to their chemical properties hereafter.

6.1. Evaluation of Irrigation Water using Salinity Content

The increase of salinity in irrigation water leads to the soil sodicity. This would damage the growth and reduce the yield of plants. Generally, the total dissolved solids should not exceed 2000 ppm, but this limit is flexible if the soil has a good drainage system. According to Ayers (1975), the irrigation water can be used without any problems when T.D.S. < 480 ppm. The problems increase when T.D.S. ranges from 480 to 1920 ppm. If the T.D.S. is greater than 1920 ppm the problems become severe. According to Singh and Chawla (1946), the total dissolved salts should not generally exceed 1000 ppm. This limit does not hold true when the salts are present in the form of carbonates and bicarbonates.

The increase of total salinity in the irrigation water causes an excessive increase of its content in the soil. Consequently, an accumulation of salts in plant cells will cause damage the growth of such plants. The quality of the

A. A. Taha et al.


Table 7. The probable salinity ratio for different crops at 25°C (Wadleigh et al. 1946).

Crop Salinity value which does not affect the

productivity

Salinity ratio under which the

productivity is reduced by 10%

m.Siemens/cm

ppm m.Siemens /cm

ppm

Cotton 10 6000 17 10000 Wheat 7 4500 15 9000 Rice 5 3000 9 5500 Hours beans 4 3000 7 4500 Soya beans 5 3000 10 6000 Green beans 2 1000 4 2000 Spinach 5 3000 9 5500 Tomato 4 2000 9 5500 Cabbage 3 1900 8 5000 Potato 3 1900 8 5000 Sweat potato 3 1900 8 5000 Green pepper 3 1900 7 4500 Onion 2 1300 5 3000 Carrot 1 650 5 3000 Berseam 3 1900 10 6000 Sugar beat 10 6000 18 11000

salts, which can be withdrawn by plants, the type of soil and the poor drainage permits salt concentration in the root zone to build up the toxic proportions. Water quality depends on the total concentration of salts. The irrigation water is considered satisfactory when it contains less than 1000 ppm and is considered unsuitable if it contains more than 2000 ppm salts.

Some crops are sensitive to the salinity level in irrigation water. Other crops can survive certain salinity ratio. Generally the increase in the salinity of irrigation water is associated with a decrease in the crop productivity. The probable salinity ratio for different crops at 25°C is shown in Table 7.

Based on the chemical analysis of the collected water samples from the different aquifers in the study area, the groundwater is suitable for irrigation of many crops and according to the local environmental conditions.

The specific cations concentration of the Na+ and K+ may cause the deflation of the clay minerals of the soil, leading to the damage of the soil, therefore the rate of infiltration is reduced. Where the specific cations concentration of Na+ is very important because Na+ has high tendency to be adsorbed on the soil colloids due to the base exchange between Na+ + K+ with Ca++ and Mg++:

2 Na+ + Ca(clay) → Na(clay) Na + Ca++

2 Na+ + Mg(clay) → Na(clay) Na + Mg++

This base exchange converts the permeable soil into sticky soil of low permeability. When the total dissolved solids of irrigation water is high and the drainage of the soil is limited, salt may accumulate on the soil surface due to the evaporation leading to the

Table 8. Suitability of groundwater samples of Quaternary aquifer according to chloride content

(Ayers, 1975). Class No.

Chloride content Quality Samples No.

1 <142 ppm No. problem

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 49, 50, 72, 73, 81, 90, 95, 96, 100, 112, 113, 115, 116 and 117.

2 142-355 ppm

Increase of

problems

2, 10, 20, 22, 23, 31, 33, 34, 38, 87, 89, 92, 94, 102, 106, 107 and 108

3 >355 Severe problems

19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 111and 114.

increase of the osmotic pressure, therefore decrease the water absorption by the plant roots where the soil osmotic pressure is proportional to the epm of the solution which in turn depends on the specific conductance.

6.2. Evaluation of Irrigation Water using Chloride Content

The chloride content is very important for suitability of water for irrigation purposes. Most plants are very sensitive to chloride ions and certain plants have the ability to accumulate chlorides with no harmful effect.

According to Ayers (1975) chloride ion in irrigation water causes specific ion toxicity for plants. In the Quaternary aquifer, samples No. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 49, 50, 72, 73, 81, 90, 95, 96, 100, 112, 113, 115, 116 and 117, fall under the class which has less than 142 ppm of chloride content and show no problem. Samples No. 2, 10, 20, 22, 23, 31, 33, 34, 38, 87, 89, 92, 94, 102, 106, 107 and 108 are in the class which has 142-355 ppm of chloride content. This water has some problems, Table 8.

Samples No. 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 111 and 114, fall in class which has more than 355 ppm (severe problems).

In the Miocene aquifers, all water samples (118-169) are in the severe problems class. Sample No. 170 (Oligocene aquifer) falls in the same category. Samples No. 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178 (irrigation canals) and samples No. 183, 184, 189 and 190 (drainage water) fall in no problem class (Table 9). For drainage water, samples No. 180, 181, 182, 185, 186, 187 and 188 are in the second class. Sample No. 179 (Suez Canal) is in the third class (Table 9).



Table 9. Suitability of surface water (irrigation and drainage water) according to chloride content (Ayers, 1975).

Class No.

Chloride content Quality Samples No.

1 <142 ppm No problem

171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 189 and 190.

2 142-355 ppm

Increasing problem

180, 181, 182, 185, 186, 187 and 188

3 >355 ppm Severe problem

179

Table 10a. The different formula for calculation the Staybler’s factor (a).

Factor

No. Formula (epm) Ionic aspect

1 2 3

a = 288/5Cl-

a = 288/Na+ + 4Cl- a = 288/10 Na+ - 5Cl- - 9SO4

--

Cl- > Na+ Cl- + SO4

-- > Na+ > Cl- Na+ > Cl- > SO4

--

Table 10b. Results of calculated values of some hydrochemical parameters for studied water samples

Res

idua

l sod

ium

ca

rbon

ate

(R.S

.C)

Sodi

um a

dsor

ptio

n

ratio

(S.A

.R)

Stay

bler

’s

fact

or (a

)

Para

met

ers

Val

ues

Type of water

8.2 48.1 53.6 Maximum -56.9 0.9 0.4 Minimum -4.4 11.4 9.2 Average

Quaternary

-5.3 19.2 2.5 Maximum -75.1 2.4 0.6 Minimum -46.1 9.2 1 Average

Miocene

1.13 23.5 3.8 - Oligocene

Ground water

0.4 1.6 67.4 Maximum -1.99 0.3 29.2 Minimum -0.6 1.1 50.3 Average

Canals Surface water

-2.3 4.9 18.3 Maximum -8.7 2 6.8 Minimum -5.1 3.2 11.2 Average

Channels

0.6 5.20.32 20.3 Maximum -5.5 2 8.4 Minimum -2.4 3.6 13.6 Average

Oxidation ponds

Drainage water

6.3. Evaluation of Irrigation Water using

Staybler’s Factor The Staybler’s factor was proposed by Kamenesky (1947). It is based on the relation between the sodium cation and chloride and sulphate anions as given in (Table 10a).

In the present study, the water samples are of Cl- > Na+ followed by Cl- + SO4

-- > Na+ > Cl- and the minority of the water samples are of Na+ > Cl- + SO4

--. The Stayblers factor of the Quaternary aquifer ranges from 0.4 to 53.6 with an average of 9.2, Table 10b.

Table 11. Quality and condition of irrigation water according to the Staybler’s factor “a” (Kamenesky, 1947).

“a”

Factor Quality Condition of irrigation water Samples No.

>18

Goo

d

Water can be successfully used for irrigation many time, no special arrangement should be taken against accumulation of harmful alkali in soils

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 50, 100, 116, and 117

18-6

Satis

fact

ory Special arrangements

to be taken against accumulation of alkali except for shallow soils having free drainage.

2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 33, 44, 72, 73, 81, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, 115

6-1.2

Uns

uita

ble

It requires artificial drainage almost all the time

19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 86, 88, 91, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111

<1.2 Bad

Should be not utilized for irrigation

39, 48, 51, 68, 70, 71, 75, 79, 83, 84, 85, 93, 99, 110

In the Miocene aquifer, the Stayblers factor ranges between 0.6 and 2.5 with an average of 1. The Oligocene aquifer has Staybler’s factor of about 3.75.

The samples of irrigation water have a Staybler’s factor ranging from 29.2 to 67.4 with an average value of 50.3. The water of drainage channels have Staybler’s factor varying between 6.8 and 18.3 with an average of 11.2. The water in the oxidation ponds (drainage water) have Staybler’s factor ranging from 8.4 to 20.3 with an average value of 13.6 Table 10b.

The distribution of Staybler’s factor in the study area is shown in Figure 3. The western part of study area has Staybler’s factor more than 25 and it is gradually decreased from west to east. Whereas, the southern part (Miocene aquifer) has Staybler’s factor of less than 1.2. The Staybler’s factor is used to evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation purposes. Water with a Staybler’s factor more than 18 is of good quality. If the Staybler’s factor is between 18-6 the water quality is satisfactory. The water quality is unsuitable if this factor is between 6 and 1.2 and bad if it is less than 1.2, Table 11.

According to the limits in Table 11, the Quaternary water samples No. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 50, 100, 116 and 117 are of good quality. This water can be used for irrigation many times and no special arrangements should be taken against accumulation of harmful alkali in soils.

A. A. Taha et al.


Table 12. Quality condition of irrigation water for Miocene and Oligocene aquifers according to

Staybler’s factor (Kamensky, 1947).

“a” Factor Quality

Condition of irrigation

water Samples No.

6-1.2 Unsuitable Requires artificial drainage all the time

119, 130, 131, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 142, 144, 152 and 159.

<1.2 Bad Should be not utilized for irrigation

118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 135, 140, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 and 170.

The second category includes water samples No. 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 33, 49, 72, 73, 81, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, and 115, where special arrangement need to be taken against accumulation of alkali except for shallow soils having free drainage.

The third unsuitable category includes samples No. 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 86, 88, 91, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 109 and 111. This category requires artificial drainage all the time.

The fourth category encompasses water samples No. 39, 48, 51, 68, 70, 71, 75, 79, 83, 84, 85, 93, 99 and 110. This water should be not utilized for irrigation. The groundwater samples of Miocene and Oligocene aquifers range from unsuitable to bad quality for irrigation purposes Table 12.

The water in irrigation canals (samples No. 171-178) is of good quality for irrigation purposes. Sample No. 179 (Suze Canal) is of bad water quality. The drainage water of channels and oxidation ponds is satisfactory for irrigation purposes according to Staybler’s factor. Only sample No. 190 is of good quality.

6.4. Evaluation of Water using Residual Sodium Carbonate, (R.S.C.)

The residual sodium carbonate represents the excess of carbonate (CO3

-- + HCO3-) over the lime elements

(Ca++ + Mg++). It gives an indication of the water alkalinity and is used to estimate the suitability of the water for agricultural purposes. The quality of water samples has been determined according to the scale after Eaton (1950). The residual sodium carbonate is given as:

R.S.C. = (CO3-- + HCO3

-) - (Ca++ + Mg++)

Values of cations and anions are expressed in equivalent per million.

The residual sodium carbonate is used to distinguish between the different water classes for irrigation purposes. The high concentration of HCO3

- leads to an increase in pH values which cause the dissolution of organic matter. Moreover, the high concentration of HCO3

- in irrigation water leads to the increase of its toxicity and affects the mineral nutrition of plants.

The residual sodium carbonate of Quaternary aquifer varies from -56.9 to 8.2 epm with an average -4.4 epm whereas, it ranges between -75.1 and -5.3 epm with an average -46.1 epm in Miocene aquifer. The Oligocene aquifer has residual sodium carbonate of about 1.13 epm, Table 10b.

In the case of surface water (irrigation canals) it ranges from –1.99 to 0.4 epm with an average of 0.6 epm while, the drainage water (channels) has R.S.C. ranging between –8.7 and –2.3 epm with an average of –5.1 epm. Finally, the drainage water of oxidation ponds has a R.S.C. ranging from-5.5 to 0.6 epm with an average value of –2.4 epm.

The distribution of residual sodium carbonate in the Quaternary aquifer ranges from good to unsuitable quality, Figure 4. The western part of the study area has R.S.C. between -2 and 3 epm while the eastern part of the Quaternary aquifer has R.S.C. of less than -2 epm. Some small spots have R.S.C. of more than 3 epm and are located in El-Salhiya plain and south of Ismailia Canal (El-Shabab Project). The southern part of the area under investigation (Miocene aquifer) has R.S.C. less than -2 epm.

According to Eaton classification (1950), the water samples are classified according to this factor into three classes. The first class has R.S.C less than 1.25 epm (good quality). The second class has R.S.C. betweem 1.25 and 2.5 epm (medium quality). The third class has R.S.C. of more than 2.5 epm (unsuitable quality).

According to Eaton classification water with R.S.C. less than 1.25 epm is of good quality, Table 13. This class includes samples No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111 and 117.

The second class has water samples with R.S.C between 1.25 and 2.5. This class includes samples No. 2, 8, 11, 17, 38, 72, 77, 90, 95, 96, 101, 109, 112, 113, 114 and 116. The third class has R.S.C values of more than 2.5 epm and it is considered unsuitable class. This class includes samples No. 1, 16, 24, 27, 33, 34, 37, 53, 54, 56, 61, 62, 64, 74, 76, 81, 87, 103, 107 and 115, Table 13.



1

6

18

25

55

Miocene aquifer

Quaternary aquifer

Suez

Can

al

GreatBitterLake

Gulf of

Suez

Suez

Cairo-Suez RoadCairo

Dam

ietta

bran

ch

20 km

31o 00` 31o 30` 32o 00` 32o 30`

30o

30`

30o

00`

N

Fig. (3): Distribution of the Staybler’s factor for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers.

Fig. (4): Distribution map of R.S.C. for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers.

20 km

31o 00` 31o 30` 32o 00` 32o 30`

30o

30`

30o

00`

N

Miocene aquifer

Quaternary aquifer

-2

1

3

9epm

Sue z

Can

al

GreatBitterLake

Suez

Gulf of

Suez

Cairo-Suez RoadCairo

Dam

ietta

bran

ch

Figure 3. Distribution of the Staybler's factor for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers

Figure 4. Distribution of R.S.C. for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers

A. A. Taha et al.


Table 13. Suitability of water according to R.S.C. for Quaternary aquifer (Eaton, 1950).

Residual Na2CO3

Quality Samples No.

< 1.25 epm Water of good quality, used for the irrigation of all soils

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111 and 117

1.25-2.5 epm

Water of medium quality used in case of good drainage especially rich with calcium

2, 8, 11, 17, 38, 72, 77, 90, 95, 96, 101, 109, 112, 113, 114 and 116

> 2.5 epm Unsuitable water, especially in poor drainage or when soluble calcium

1, 16, 24, 27, 33, 34, 37, 53, 54, 56, 61, 62, 64, 74, 76, 81, 87, 103, 107 and 115

All the groundwater samples of Miocene aquifer are located in the unsuitable class with R.S.C values less than 1.25 epm. Sample No. 170 of Oligocene aquifer is located in medium quality, Table 10b.

The collected samples from irrigation canals, drainage channels and oxidation ponds (samples No. 171-190) are within the good quality class.

6.5. Evaluation of Water for Irrigation Based on the Relation between SAR and EC

The sodium adsorption ratio which has been proposed for the assessment of drinking water, by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) is given by the following equation:

S A RN a

C a M g. . . =

+

+

+ + + +

2

All concentrations are expressed in epm.

This ratio and the specific conductance are used for irrigation water classification. This equation shows that the ratio between Na+ and Ca++ + Mg++ contents greatly affects the physical properties and use of soil. The distribution of sodium adsorption ratio (S.A.R) is as indicative of the probable extent to which the soil adsorbs sodium ions from water. Sodium toxicity is modified and reduced if calcium is also present. Moderate amount of calcium may reduce sodium damage and higher amounts may even prevent it.

Since the effect of sodium is dependent on both the sodium and calcium, a reasonable evaluation of the potential toxicity is possible using sodium adsorption ratio.

The sodium adsorption ratio of Quaternary aquifer ranges between 0.9 and 48.1 with an average 11.4. For the Miocene aquifer, it ranges from 2.4 to 19.2 with an average 9.2. The sample representing the Oligocene aquifer has S.A.R of about 23.5, Table 10b.

The sodium adsorption ratio of irrigation canals ranges from 0.3 to 1.6 with an average value of 1.1. The drainage water in channels has S.A.R. between 2 and 4.9 with an average of 3.2. The S.A.R. of the water in oxidation ponds ranges from 2 to 5.2 with an average value of 3.6, Table 10b.

The distribution of sodium adsorption in the study area is shown in Fig. 5. The western part of the study area is characterized by S.A.R less than 10 with a gradual increase from west to east with small spots of high S.A.R. The S.A.R increases toward south direction in the Miocene aquifer. The sodium adsorption ratio and specific conductance are used to evaluate the water resources for irrigation purposes.

On the basis of total dissolved salts (TDS), the collected water samples are divided into four classes C1, C2, C3 and C4. On the basis of sodium adsorption ratio (S.A.R) the water are divided into four classes S1, S2, S3 and S4. A total of sixteen possible quality classes are obtained. The above description and interpretation of different categories can be summarized in the Table 14.

Based on the classification established by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory Classification (1954) for irrigation purposes, the groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer can be classified as (Fig. 6 and Table 14):

1- Water of medium salinity and low S.A.R. (C2-S1). This category includes samples No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 100 and 116, Fig. 6a. This type of water can be used for irrigation of most plants and suits all types of soil texture.

2- Water of high salinity and low S.A.R. (C3-S1). This class includes samples No. 9, 10, 12, 16, 22, 23, 25, 29, 49, 72, 73, 90, 94 and 101. This water class is satisfactory only if used for plants having moderate salt tolerance and soil of moderate permeability. Irrigation by such water requires regular leaching and special management.

3- Water of high salinity and medium S.A.R. (C3-S2). This category includes samples No. 1, 2, 19, 20, 24, 28, 33, 50, 89, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114 and 115, Fig. 6a. Certain precautions must be taken to prevent the harmful effects of salinity of this type water. This water should be used in good permeable soils and for salt tolerant plants with high leaching to prevent accumulation and development of alkalinity.



4- Water of high salinity and high S.A.R. (C3-S3). Samples No. 63 and 92 represent this class. This water can be used for permeable soils and high tolerant plants with leaching and good drainage to prevent serious salinity and alkalinity.

5- Water of high salinity and very high S.A.R. (C3-S4). Samples No. 34, 81 and 87 fall in this class. This water can be used on permeable soils and high tolerant plants with leaching and good drainage to prevent serious salinity.

6- Water of very high salinity and medium S.A.R. (C4-S2). This class includes samples No. 26, 30, 31, 35 and 36. This water may be used on coarse textured and organic soils with good permeability. Irrigation water must be applied in excess to provide considerable leaching and salt tolerant crops should be selected.

7- Water of very high salinity and high S.A.R. (C4-S3). This category includes samples No. 64, 65, 88, 105 and 111. This water is satisfactory for salt tolerance crops on soils of good permeability with special leaching, good drainage, and organic matter addition. Some chemicals additives (gypsum) in water may be used if the epm is low.

8- Water of very high salinity and very high S.A.R. (C4-S4). This class includes samples No. 32, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 67, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 86, 91, 103, 104

and 109. This water is generally unsuitable for irrigation except for high permeable soils with frequent leaching and high salt tolerant plants. Chemical amendments must be used for exchanging sodium ions from this highly sodium effect soils.

The groundwater of Miocene and Oligocene aquifers can be classified as (Fig. 6b and Table 14: 1- Water of high salinity and medium sodium (C4-

S2). This category includes sample No. 144 only. 2- Water of very high salinity and high S.A.R. (C4-

S3). Samples No. 119 and 139 fall under this class.

3- Water of very high salinity and very high S.A.R. (C4-S4). Samples No. 131 and 170 (Oligocene aquifer) lie in this class.

The surface water (irrigation canals) and drainage water (in channels and oxidation ponds) can be classified as (Fig. 6c and Table 14): 1- Water of medium salinity and low S.A.R. (C2-

S1). This group includes water samples No. 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, and 183.

2- Water of high salinity and low S.A.R. (C3-S1). This class includes samples No. 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189 and 190.

3- Water of high salinity and medium S.A.R. (C3-S2). This category includes one sample only (No. 188).

20 km

31o 00` 31o 30` 32o 00` 32o 30`

30o

30`

30o

00`

N

Miocene aquifer

Quaternary aquifer

0

10

18

26

50

Cairo

Dam

ietta

bran

ch

Suez

Can

al

GreatBitterLake

Suez

Gulf of

Suez

Cairo-Suez Road

epm

Fig. (5): Distribution map of S.A.R. for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers.Figure 5. Distribution of SAR for the Quaternary and Miocene aquifers

A. A. Taha et al.


T

.D.S

(m

g/l) E.C. 106

( µ S/cm

at 25°°°°C) Cla

ss

Remarks

Cla

ss

S.A

.R

Remarks

<200 < 250 C1 Low salinity water- can be used for irrigation with most crops on most soils with little likelihood that a salinity problem will develop. Some leaching is required, but this occurs under normal irrigation practices except in soils of extremely high permeability.

S1 <10 Low sodium water- can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of the development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. However, sodium sensitive crops may accumulate injurious concentrations of sodium

200-500

250-750 C2 Medium salinity water- can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs, Plants with moderate salt tolerance can be grown in most instances without special practices for salinity control.

S2 10-18

Medium sodium water- will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine textured soils having cation exchange capacity under low leaching conditions, unless gypsum is present in the soil. This water may be used on coarse textured or organic soils with good permeability.

500-1500

750-2250 C3 High salinity water- can't be used on soils with restricted drainage, special management for salinity control may be required and plants with good salts tolerance should be selected.

S3 18-26

High sodium water- may produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and will require special soil management, good drainage, high leaching and organic matter additions. Gypsiferous soils may not develop harmful levels of exchangeable sodium from such water. Chemical amendment may be required for replacement of exchangeable sodium, except that amendment may not be feasible with water of very high salinity.

1500-

3000

2250-5000

C4 Very high salinity- is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions but may be used occasionally under very special circumstances. The soil must be permeable, drainage must be adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess to provide considerable leaching and very salt crops should be selected.

S4 > 26 Very high sodium water - is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except at low and perhaps medium salinity, where the dissolving of calcium from the soil, or the use of gypsum of other additives may make the use of these water feasible.

6.6. Evaluation of Water for Irrigation using Sodium Content (Wilcox, classification)

The soluble sodium content of water is an important indicator of its quality and suitability for irrigation. The increase of sodium ion content in groundwater leads to a high content of these ions in the soil, which in turn has a great effect on its physical properties. Wilcox (1955) defined sodium percentage in terms of common cations (epm) as follows:

NaNa K x

Na K Mg Ca+

+ +

+ + ++ ++= ++ + +

%100

He designated a graph with the total cations or anions (epm) against the sodium percentage. This graph is subdivided into five zones (excellent, good to permissible, permissible to doubtful, doubtful to unsuitable and unsuitable) to delineate water concerning its suitability for irrigation.

Based on the classification established by Wilcox (1955) for irrigation purposes, the groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer can be classified as, Fig. 7a:

1- Excellent to good water. This category includes samples No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 25, 100, 116 and 117.

2- Good to permissible water. Samples No. 9, 12, 16, 22, 23, 49, 73 and 90 are in this class.

3- Permissible to doubtful water. This class includes samples No. 1, 2, 10, 11, 19, 20, 24, 25, 28, 33, 50, 72, 89, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, and 115.

4- Doubtful to unsuitable water. This class includes samples No. 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 63, 64, 65, 74, 77, 80, 81, 87, 88, 91, 92 and 105.

5- Unsuitable class. Samples No. 26, 36, 57, 59, 76, 86 and 103 fall in this category. Some samples fall out of scale.

All samples of Miocene aquifer fall out of scale except sample No. 119 (doubtful to unsuitable class). The sample of Oligocene aquifer falls in doubtful to unsuitable class (Fig. 7b).

The irrigation water and drainage water can be classified as (Fig. 7c and Table 14): 1- Excellent to good class. it includes samples No.

171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, and 183. 2- Good to permissible class. Samples No. 180, 181,

182, 184, 185, 187, 189 and 190 are in this class. 3- Permissible to doubtful class. Samples No. 186

and 188 belong in this class. Sample No. 179 falls out of scale.

Table 14. Irrigation water classification based on the total dissolved solids and sodium adsorption ratio (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954).



Figure 6a: Diagram for classification for irrigation water (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff; 1954) for the

Quaternary aquifer.

Figure 6b. Diagram for classification for irrigation water (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff; 1954) for the

Miocene and Oligocene aquifers.

Figure 6c. Diagram for classification for irrigation water (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff; 1954) for the

surface water.

Figure 7a. Wilcox’s classification of Quaternary aquifer.

119

131

139

144

170

100 250 750 2250 5000

4VERY HIGH

C4-S1

C4-S4

C4-S3

C4-S4

C3-S4

C3-S3

C3-S2

C3-S1

C1-S1 C2-S1

C2-S2

C1-S2

C1-S4

C2-S4

C2-S3

C1-S3

LOW MEDIUM HIGH1 2 3

1

2

3

4

MED

IUM

LO

WH

IGH

SALINITY HAZARD

SOD

IUM

(AL

KA

LI)

HA

ZA

RD

V.H

CONDUCTIVITY -MICROMOHOS/CM(EC*10)AT25C

SOD

IUM

-AD

SOR

BT

ION

- R

ATI

O (S

AR

)

144

170

Oligocene aquifer Miocene aquifer

LEGEND

171 172

173 174

175

176

177

178

180181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 250 750 2250 5000

4VERY HIGH

C4-S1

C4-S4

C4-S3

C4-S4

C3-S4

C3-S3

C3-S2

C3-S1

C1-S1 C2-S1

C2-S2

C1-S2

C1-S4

C2-S4

C2-S3

C1-S3

LOW MEDIUM HIGH1 2 3

1

2

3

4

ME

DIU

ML

OW

HIG

H

SALINITY HAZARD

SOD

IUM

(AL

KA

LI)

HA

ZA

RD

V.H

CONDUCTIVITY -MICROMOHOS/CM(EC*10)AT25C

SOD

IUM

-AD

SOR

BT

ION

- R

ATI

O (S

AR

)

0 5 10 15 20 25 300

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

2526

27

28

29

30

31

33

34

35

36

37

49

50

53

54

5556

57

59

61

63

64

65

72

73

74

76

77

80

81

86

87

88

89

90

9192

94

95

96

97

98

100

102

103

105

106

107

108

112

113

114

115

116

117

EXCELLENT TO

PERMISSIBLE

DOUBTFULETO

UNSUITABLE

UNSUITABLE

DOUBTFULETO

PERMISSIBLE

TOGOOD

Total cocentration in epm

GOOD

A. A. Taha et al.


Figure 7b. Wilcox’s classification of Miocene and Oligocene aquifers.

Figure 7c. Wilcox’s classification of surface water.

Irrigation is the application of water to soil for the purpose of providing the necessary environment for plant growth. The soils in the study area have coarse texture and the water quality, especially in the southern part of the investigated area, is of bad quality. Modern irrigation techniques for saving excess water and avoiding of salt accumulation in the root zone of plants must be applied. Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are used in few land reclamation projects in the study area.

7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The water resources in new communities south east of the Nile Delta, Egypt comprise both ground and surface waters. The groundwater which belongs to the Quaternary aquifer is suitable for different purposes. However, groundwater samples which ere collected from the eastern and northern parts of study area are not suitable due to its high salinity.

The groundwater of the Miocene aquifer (Cairo – Suez district) is not suitable for different purposes. This is attributed to its very high salinity. The quality of surface water in irrigation canals, drains and oxidation ponds is ranging from suitable to unsuitable for the different purposes. The wastewater in oxidation ponds of new communities is not suitable because of its high concentration of some trace elements including Cd2+ and pb2+.

8. REFERENCES

1. Ayers, R. S. Quality of water for irrigation. Proc. Irrig. Drain Div., Specially Conf., Am. Sc. Civ. Eng., Logan, Utah, pp. 24-56, 1975.

2. Bouwer, H: Groundwater hydrology. 2nd and 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., U.S.A., pp. 339-368,. 1978.

3. Durfor, C. N. and Becker, E. Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962, U. S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1812, 364 p, 1964.

4. Eaton, F. M.. Significance of carbonates in irrigation water. Soil. Sci., Vol. 69, No. 2, pp. 123-133, 1950

5. Hem, J. D. Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply, Papers 1473 & 2254, 1989.

6. Kamensky, G. N. Search and exploration of groundwater Gosgeolistechizdat, Moscow, Leningrad (In Russian), 1947.

7. National Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineering. Water quality criteria protection Agency, Washington, D. C., pp. 1-594, 1972.

Fig. (7c): Wilcox’s classification of surface water.



8. U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils. U. S. Dept. Agri., Handbook No. 60, Washington, D. C., 60 p, 1954.

9. Wadleigh, C. H.; Gauch, H. G. and Magistad, O. C. U. S. Dept. Agri. Tech. Bull. 925, pp. 1-34, 1964.

10. Wilcox, L. V. Classification and use of irrigation water U. S. A., Salinity Lab., Circulation No. 969, 1955.

11. W. H. O (World health organization). Guidelines for drinking water quality 2nd edition, Vol. 1, Recommendations , 1993.

12. W. H. O. Guidelines for drinking water quality 2nd ed., Vol. 2, Health criteria and other supporting information , 1998.

Documents

EVALUATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN NEW COMMUNITIES SOUTH ... · EVALUATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN NEW COMMUNITIES SOUTH EAST THE NILE DELTA, EGYPT A.A. Taha1, A.S. El Mahmoudi,2