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Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
Vol. 11(1), January 2012, pp. 123-133
Evaluation of indigenous technology of preparation of papad with
special reference to cereals and millets
Shwetha Kamat & Nirmala Yenagi*
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Rural Home Science
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580005, Karnataka
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 22.02.10; revised 15.06.10
The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the indigenous method of papad preparation Nere happala with
special reference to cereals and millets. Nere happala refers to rice papad. Fermented batter of soaked rice is used for
preparation of Nere happala by spreading the batter into thin circular disc shape in an oil smeared plate. Nere happala
prepared from different cereals and millets soaked for different durations were evaluated for total yield, number, unit weight,
diameter of raw and fried Nere happala and sensory evaluation. Indigenous cereal papad, viz, Nere happala was prepared
from the gelatinized mass of fermented batter without addition of food additives. Long duration of soaking of cereal and
millet grains improved the physical characteristics and sensory attributes of Nere happala. Nere happala prepared from
soaked grains of three days were highly acceptable for all the sensory attributes. Seven days of soaking affected the aroma
and taste of bajra, maize and jowar nere happala. Ragi, rice and wheat nere happala were highly accepted by the
consumers.
Keywords: Indigenous, Papad, Nere happala, Millets
IPC Int. Cl.8: A23L, A23L 1/00
Papads are consumed as countrywide food. The type
of papads varies from one culture to another. The
largest number of papads is made from different
pulses and also made from certain cereals. Some are
even made from jackfruit and raw banana. Black gram
dhal is the largest selling papad in the local and
national market. The demand for papad is rising
rapidly both in country and abroad. So, there is a
greater scope for introduction of varieties of papads
prepared from cost effective raw ingredients. Since,
production of cereals is abundant, there is a need to
find diversified uses in order to maximize their
utilization and to cater the fast changing taste of new
generation. Hence, it was proposed to evaluate the
quality characteristics and sensory attributes of
indigenous Nere happala prepared from different
cereals and millets.
Methodology Nere happala, a traditional type of steamed papad
prepared from the batter of soaked rice. Duration of
soaking varies among the households. This method is
rarely applied to other cereals and millets such as
jowar, wheat, and ragi1. In this study soaking of grains
for different duration, viz. one, three and seven days
were taken as a treatment effect on the quality of
papad prepared from different types of cereals and
millets.
The most common cereals and millets of North
Karnataka such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), jowar
(Sorghum vulgare), ragi (Elusine corcana), bajra
(Pennisetum typhoideum), maize (Zea mays), rice
(Oryza sativa), little millet (Panicum sumatrense) and
foxtail millets (Setaria italica) were selected for the
study (Fig. 1). All the selected eight cereals and
millets and other essential ingredients like common
salt, happala khara were procured from the local
market at one lot. The detailed procedure used for
preparation of Nere happala is presented in the flow
diagram (Fig. 2).
Physical characteristics of soaked grain Hundred gm of each selected cereal and millet was
soaked in tap water for different durations with
frequent change of water (twice a day). Soaked grains
were transferred to colander and allowed to rest till _____________
*Corresponding author
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
124
the complete water was drained off. Weight of soaked
grains was recorded on an electronic balance. Color of
soaked grains of different durations was visually
observed and recorded. Soaked grains were ground
into fine paste of idli batter consistency in an
electrical grinder with addition of required amount of
tap water. The amount of water added was recorded.
Physical quality attributes of raw and fried Nere
happala The total number of Nere happala obtained from
100 gm of different cereals and millets soaked for
different durations were weighed and the total yield
and number of Nere happala were recorded. The raw
Nere happala prepared from different types of cereals
and millets soaked for different durations were fried
in refined sunflower oil at 180°C ±5°C were
investigated to different quality attributes. The unit
weight of raw and fried Nere happala of different
cereals and millets soaked for different durations were
recorded by taking the weight of 10 Nere happala.
The diameter of raw and fried Nere happala of
different cereals and millets soaked for different
durations were measured on opposite ends with the
help of thread and recorded. The colour of raw and
fried Nere happala prepared from different cereals
and millets soaked for different durations were
recorded by visual observation. The expansion
percentage of fried Nere happala was calculated
according to the procedure given below:
DF DRExpansion (%)= 100
DR
−×
Where,
DF = diameter of fried papad
DR = diameter of raw papad
Quality characters of texture were recorded and
expressed descriptively as very light and easy to
break, heavy and hard to break, very crispy and
dissolving, very hard to break and chewy.
Subjective evaluation of Nere happala
The changes in sensory quality characters of fried
Nere happala prepared from different grains soaked
for different durations with (1 gm / 100 gm grains)
and without papad khara were evaluated subjectively
by recording the changes descriptively and were rated
by giving scores based on 5 point scale and was
compared with commercially available Lijjat papad.
Fried Nere happala prepared from different cereals
and millets soaked for different durations were
evaluated for organoleptic characteristics like colour,
appearance, texture (hand feel and mouth feel),
flavour, taste and overall acceptability by scoring
method using 5 point scale for specific quality
characteristics. The evaluation was done by 10 semi-
trained judges from College of Rural Home Science,
University of Agricultural Sciences, and Dharwad.
The judges were given with a score card and
instructed individually to evaluate the coded samples.
Fig. 1—Cereals and millets used for preparation of Nere happala
KAMAT & YENAGI: INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR PAPAD PREPARATION
125
Fig. 2—Steps involved in preparation of indigenous Nere happala
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
126
The most accepted Nere happala of different cereals
and millets soaked for different durations was further
selected and evaluated for sensory attributes of raw
and fried Nere happala. The raw and fried Nere
happala of different cereals and millets were
evaluated for organoleptic characteristics by scoring
method using 9 point Hedonic scale for consumer
acceptability. The evaluation was done by 30 selected
consumers (under graduate students of College of
Rural Home Science, Dharwad).
Statistical analysis
The data collected in triplicates for physical
properties of soaked cereals and millets for different
durations, quality parameters of raw and fried Nere
happala and sensory attributes were tabulated and
analyzed using One-way Analysis of Variance or
Factorial Completely Randomized Design. Wherever
the significant result was obtained the critical
difference test was used2.
Results and discussion
Physical characteristics of raw and fried Nere
happala of different cereals and millets
The total yield, number of Nere happala obtained
from 100gm grains, unit weight and diameter of raw
and fried Nere happala and expansion percentage of
Nere happala prepared from different cereals and
millets soaked for different durations differed
significantly (p<0.05) among the cereals and millets
irrespective of duration of soaking (Fig. 3). The mean
yield of Nere happala was 75.50 gm/100gm grains.
Among the grains, the yield of Nere happala was
higher in decorticated grains like little millet, foxtail
millet and rice. The lowest was in wheat and maize
Nere happala. This is mainly due to the separation of
bran along with the adhered residual starch during
preparation of batter from soaked whole cereal and
millets grains3. The highest number of Nere happala
was obtained in jowar (19.89). It was on par with rice
(17.00) and foxtail millet Nere happala (16.67) and
the lowest was in wheat Nere happala (11.89). The
unit weight of different cereals and millets nere
happla ranged from 3.79 - 5.53 gm. The highest was
in little millet (5.53 gm) and on par with foxtail millet
(5.25 gm) and wheat Nere happala (5.26 gm). The
lowest was in maize Nere happala (3.79 gm). The
diameter of little millet raw Nere happala was the
highest (8.65 cm) and the lowest was in maize
(7.98 cm). The mean weight of fried Nere happala of
cereals was 5.93 gm. The highest weight was
observed in wheat (7.05 gm) and on par with rice
Nere happala. The lowest was in maize Nere happala
(4.73 gm). The mean expansion per cent of fried Nere
happala of different cereals and millets ranged from
15.17-36.70 with an average mean of 26.24%. Among
the cereals and millets, ragi Nere happala had the
highest expansion percentage (36.71%), followed by
wheat (34.14%) and rice Nere happala (31.53%). The
lowest expansion per cent was in maize Nere happala
(15.17%). The wide variation in the total yield,
number of papads, unit weight and diameter of raw
and fried Nere happala among the cereals and millets
may be attributed to the variation in chemical
composition, nature of starch, their characteristic
shape, size and cooking behavior of the starch present
in them depending upon the plant from which they are
derived 4,5
. A definite pattern of total amylose and hot
water insoluble amylose contents may be related to
better expansion of rice and ragi Nere happala 6,7
. The
gluten content in wheat Nere happala could be the
reason for better expansion after frying 8,9
.
Fig. 3—Physical characteristics of raw Nere happala prepared
from different cereals and millets
KAMAT & YENAGI: INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR PAPAD PREPARATION
127
The duration of soaking of different grains
influenced the total yield, number of Nere happala
obtained from 100gm grains, unit weight and
diameter of raw and fried Nere happala and
expansion percentage of Nere happala. The total yield
and number of Nere happala obtained from one day
soaked grains were significantly higher than the seven
days soaked grains. The lowest yield of Nere happala
prepared from different cereals and millets soaked for
7 days as compared to the one day soaked grains is
due to the decrease in the weight of soaked grains as
observed in Table 1. The significant decrease in the
weight of the soaked grains as the duration of soaking
increased may be attributed to the leaching of excess
water-soluble nutrients during long duration of
soaking5. The decrease in protein content due to the
loss of water soluble fractions during steeping of
wheat grains3. The significant increase in unit weight
and diameter of raw Nere happala of seven days
soaked was observed as compared to one day soaked
grains. Increase water uptake by the severely
damaged starch granules of seven days soaked grains
may be the reason for increased unit weight and
diameter whereas soaked grains of one day were
slightly hard to grind so the internal damage was less3.
Similarly the increase in the diameter of Nere happala
prepared from cereals soaked for seven days may be
due to the increased water uptake by the ruptured
granules of starch during steaming5. Similar trend was
also observed in diameter of fried Nere happala
among the cereals and millets and between different
durations of soaking. Fried ragi (12.77 cm) and rice
(12.69 cm) Nere happala had the highest diameter
and the lowest was in maize Nere happala (9.54 cm).
Nere happala prepared from 7 days soaked grains
showed significant increase in diameter (12.43 cm)
after frying (Fig. 4). The highest expansion of 35.23%
was observed in cereals and millets soaked for 7 days,
which was 1.93 times higher than Nere happala
prepared from one day soaked grains. The expansion
per cent increase in Nere happala during frying may
be due to the replacement of moisture by oil 1 due to
the higher content of water insoluble amylase10.
The
change in sensory attributes was observed in soaked
grains for different durations, fermented batter, raw
and fried Nere happala (Tables 1 & 2). Natural
colours of cereals and millets (Fig. 1) changed
towards lighter shades as the duration of soaking
increased. This could be due to leaching of water
soluble pigments5. The change in colour of soaked
Table 1—Physical characteristics of soaked grains* of different cereals and millets
Weight of soaked grains (gm) Colour of soaked grain Amount of water added for batter preparation
(ml)
Duration of soaking (days) Cereals
1 3 7 Mean 1 3 7 1 3 7 Mean
Wheat 141.66 140.33 129.00 136.99 Reddish
brown
Reddish
brown
Creamish
brown
116.66 73.00 48.00 79.22
Jowar 128.00 125.66 120.00 124.55 Pale
yellow
Pale
yellow
Whitish
yellow
112.00 101.33 42.00 85.11
Ragi 124.00 121.66 119.33 121.66 Dark
brown
Dark
brown
Dark
brown
141.33 114.00 104.00 119.78
Bajra 131.00 128.00 120.66 126.55 Dark
green
Dark
green
Light
green
106.66 94.00 65.00 88.67
Maize 125.00 123.00 121.00 123.00 Orange Orange Yellow 148.00 113.00 94.33 118.44
Rice 108.00 104.66 100.00 104.22 White White White 84.00 74.33 68.00 75.44
Little millet 107.66 104.00 99.00 103.55 Creamish
white
White White 80.00 72.66 65.00 72.55
Foxtail millet 120.66 107.33 102.00 110.00 Yellow Yellow Creamish
white
78.33 69.67 58.00 68.67
Mean 123.24 119.33 113.87 118.81 108.37 89.04 68.04 88.49
S.Em± CD at 5% S.Em± CD at 5%
Cereals (A) 1.32 3.77 1.23 3.51
Duration of
soaked grain
(B)
0.82 2.31 0.75 2.14
AB 2.30 6.57 2.13 6.08
*100gm of raw grains
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
128
grains also influenced the color of raw and fried Nere
happala (Fig. 5). Wide variation in colour of fried
Nere happala of different cereals and millets was
observed. The change in colour of fried Nere happala
was towards whiteness. Fried Nere happala of
different cereals and millets were whiter than the raw
papads. This was observed among the cereals and
millets and also between the duration of soaking. This
is mainly due the increase in the surface area of Nere
happala during frying11.
Soaking of grains for
different durations not only changed the colour of the
papad, but there was a change in the taste and flavour
of papads towards sourness. Sour taste and flavour
was developed in papads prepared from three and
seven days soaked grains and intensity of sourness
was more during 7 days of soaking. Flavour was more
distinct in jowar, bajra and maize, where as, it was
mild in ragi and wheat and very mild in all the
decorticated rice and millets Nere happala. It was also
observed that there was unobjectionable strong mousy
acidic odour development in soaked grains and
continued in fermented batter, during steaming of
Nere happala of maize and bajra. The characteristic
aroma and sour taste in Nere happala might be due to
the activity of micro organisms12
. Development of
unobjectionable strong acidic mousy odour in maize
and bajra may be attributed to the activity of water
soluble phenolics and peroxidase concentrated mostly
in germ fraction of the grains during soaking 13
.
Fig. 4—Physical characteristics and expansion per cent of fried
Nere happala prepared from different cereals and millets
Table 2—Sensory attributes of raw Nere happala
Colour and appearance
Duration of soaking (days) Cereals
One Three Seven
Wheat Light brown with glossy appearance Light brown with more glossy
appearance
Light brown and more translucent
Jowar Yellowish cream with glossy
appearance
Yellowish cream and slightly
translucent
Yellowish cream and translucent
Ragi Dark brown with glossy appearance Dark brown slightly glossy and
translucent
Dark brown and more translucent
Bajra Greenish brown (resembles dried
leaf) with glossy appearance
Sandy colour with glossy appearance Sandy colour and translucent
Maize Dark yellowish orange with glossy
appearance
Yellowish orange with glossy
appearance
Yellowish orange with more
translucent
Rice White and opaque White with glossy appearance White and more translucent
Little millet White and opaque White with glossy appearance White and more translucent
Foxtail millet Straw yellow and opaque Straw yellow with mild glossy
appearance
Straw yellow with mild glossy
appearance
KAMAT & YENAGI: INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR PAPAD PREPARATION
129
Black gram dhal papad is generally prepared with
papad khara to improve the rolling and textural
quality of fried papad14
. In the present study also
papad khara was added to Nere happala prepared
from soaked grains of 7 days and evaluated for
descriptive sensory changes in comparison with the
commercially available Lijjat papad. Addition of
happala khara improved the sensory quality of fried
Nere happala. Sensory scores of different quality
parameters increased to the maximum score of 5 in all
cereal and millets Nere happala and they were on par
with the black gram dhal papad (Fig. 6). The off
flavour developed during soaking of grains in the
cereals like bajra and maize completely disappeared
with addition of happala khara. The improvement in
the quality of papad may be due to the addition of
papad khara, a mixture of sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate, which improves the brightness, and
uniformity of colour and carbonate removes
undesirable pulse flavour and imparts crisp and brittle
texture to the fried papad14
. The textural changes in
Nere happala were attributed to the increased surface
area by carbon dioxide liberated from happala khara
during frying 15
.
Sensory evaluvation of Nere happala prepared
from different cereals and millets
The mean sensory scores of fried Nere happala
prepared from different cereals and millets soaked for
different durations differed significantly (Table 3).
Sensory scores were highest for texture followed by
colour and appearance and lowest was for flavour.
The scores obtained from different sensory attributes
were above 3.0 and indicated that the all cereal
and millets Nere happala were acceptable by the
consumers. Among the Nere happala of different
cereals and millets, rice Nere happala scored
significantly higher for all the sensory attributes than
Fig. 6—Subjective evaluation scores of fried Nere Happala of
different cereals and millets prepared with addition of happala
khara
Fig. 5—Raw and fried Nere happala of different
cereals and millets: 1. Raw, 2. Fried
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
130
KAMAT & YENAGI: INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR PAPAD PREPARATION
131
Table 4—Changes in sensory attributes of fried Nere happala
Duration of soaking (days) Cereals
One Three Seven
Wheat Whitish brown, hard to break and
bland taste
Yellowish brown, slightly hard to
break and bland taste
Creamish white, light and crispy and
dissolving and light sour flavour
Jowar Yellowish white, heavy and hard to
break
Yellowish white, light and crunchy
and very light off flavour
Creamish white, light, crispy and
dissolving and very mild off flavour
Ragi Dark brown, light and crispy Light brown, very light and crispy Whitish brown, very light, crispy and
very high sour flavour
Bajra Greenish brown, fairly light and hard
to break
Brownish yellow, moderately light
and crispy with off flavour
Yellow brown, moderately crispy
Maize Dark yellow, fairly light and hard to
break
Bright yellow, moderately light and
crispy with very mild off flavour
Light yellow, moderately crispy,
sour taste with off flavour
Rice White, moderately crispy White, moderately crispy and bland
taste
Bright white, light and crispy
Little millet Creamish white, moderately crispy Creamish white, moderately crispy Creamish white, light, crispy and
dissolving
Foxtail millet Yellowish white, heavy, hard and
chewy
Yellowish white, heavy and crunchy Creamish white, light and crunchy
other cereal and millets Nere happala. Very low
scores were obtained for different sensory attributes
among cereals and millets such as bajra, foxtail
millet, maize and jowar. This is mainly because of the
development of objectionable strong mousy odour
and taste during soaking of grains13
. The grain colour
and nature of starch granules and their changes during
soaking and grinding may be related to the changes
observed in fried Nere happala. Rice, ragi and wheat
were the most acceptable Nere happala. All cereal
and millets Nere happala can be prepared from
soaked grains of three days as the duration of soaking
more than three days influences the flavour due to the
development of sour taste and off flavour as observed
in bajra and maize.
The mean scores of different sensory attributes of
Nere happala of 7 days soaked grains of different
cereals and millets were significantly higher than
Nere happala of one day soaked grains. There was an
improvement in sensory attributes from acceptable
level to moderately acceptable of Nere happala as the
duration of soaking increased from 3 -7 days. The
taste scores increased from 3.20 - 3.71. The change in
flavour score was non significant. The improvements
in sensory attributes of Nere happala of different
cereals and millets soaked for 7 days are related to the
changes observed in the physical characteristics of
grains and raw Nere happala with respect to change
in colour towards lightness in raw and fried Nere
happala, expansion per cent increase in the diameter
of fried Nere happala (Tables 2 & 4, Fig. 5). The
increase in sensory scores of taste may be due to the
development of sourness during long period of
soaking because of natural fermentation12
. It was also
observed that flavour scores of few cereals and millets
like little millet, bajra and maize decreased as the
period of soaking increased, which is due to the
development of off flavour12
.
The sensory evaluation of Nere happala of
different cereals and millets prepared from different
soaking treatments by trained panelists at the
laboratory revealed that, there was an improvement in
the quality of Nere happala for different sensory
attributes as the duration of soaking increased for 7
days (Table 4). Based on these results, further Nere
happala prepared from soaked grains of 7 days were
evaluated for consumer acceptability by 9-point
hedonic scale. The sensory scores of colour, texture,
taste, flavour and overall acceptability of fried Nere
happala varied significantly among the cereals and
millets (Fig. 7). All cereals and millets Nere happala
were found to acceptable by the consumer and the
mean scores for different sensory attributes ranged
from 6.20 - 7.52. Among the cereals, ragi, wheat and
rice Nere happala scored high for the most of the
sensory attributes as compared to other cereals and
millets. Over all acceptability scores were
significantly lower for bajra Nere happala. Significant
variation in the sensory scores of fried Nere happala
of different cereals and millets may be due to the
nature of starch granules, structural and chemical
composition of individual cereals and millets.
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
132
Fig. 7—Sensory scores of fried Nere happala prepared from
seven days soaked grains of different cereals and millets
Fig. 8—Sensory scores of fried Nere happala prepared from
different cereals and millets soaked for seven days.
Colour and appearance of papads play an
important role in the market while selecting the
product by the consumers. Hence, in the present study
colour and appearance of raw Nere happala of
different cereals and millets were evaluated for
consumer acceptability in comparison with
commercially available black gram dhal papad
(Fig. 8). Colour and appearance scores ranged from
4.66 - 8.40 and 5.03 - 8.53, respectively. Colour and
appearance scores were above 6.5 in all most all
cereals and millets Nere happala except for bajra.
Significant differences existed between the Nere
happala of different cereals and millets. Rice Nere
happala scored highest for colour (8.40) and
appearance (8.53) followed by maize (7.83) and black
gram dhal papad (7.10) and the lowest was in bajra
(4.66). The green pigmentation may be the
contributing factor for affecting the acceptability of
bajra Nere happala by the consumers.
Conclusion
Soaking of grains for long duration improves the
physical characteristics and sensory attributes of
cereal Nere happla. Soaking of grains enhances the
characteristic aroma and sour taste to fried Nere
happala. Nere happala of different cereals and millets
prepared from three days soaked grains are found to
KAMAT & YENAGI: INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR PAPAD PREPARATION
133
be highly acceptable for all the sensory attributes.
Ragi, rice and wheat Nere happala are highly
acceptable.
Acknowledgement
Authors are very much thankful to International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome,
Italy for providing financial assistance to carry out the
research under the project “Empowering the rural
poor by strengthening their identity, income
opportunities and nutritional security”. Authors are
also indebted to Mahila mandal members of Dharwad
city for providing the information of indigenous
methods of papad preparation required for the study.
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