European retirees on the Costa del Sol: a cross-national comparison

European Retirees on the Costa del Sol:A Cross-National ComparisonVicente RodrõÂguez,* Gloria FernaÂndez-Mayoralas and Fermina Rojo1Departamento de GeografõÂa, Instituto de EconomõÂa y GeografõÂa, Consejo Superior de InvestigacionesCientõÂ®cas, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT

The Costa del Sol is one of the largest andmost important regions in Europe receivingretirement migrants from other countries.This paper studies northern European retiredimmigrants, using data generated by aquestionnaire survey of 300 respondents andin-depth interviews with 20 people in 13municipalities. Reasons for moving to Spain,the advantages and disadvantages reportedof living there, and the perceived impacts onthe local region were analysed, payingparticular attention to cross-nationaldifferences between British, German,Benelux and Nordic retirees. The resultsshow that sociodemographic and economicfeatures of the settlers tend to be quitesimilar, whilst reasons for moving, statedadvantages and disadvantages, andconsequences and impacts exhibit somecross-national differentiation.# 1998 JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd.

Accepted 11 November 1997Int. J. Popul. Geogr. 4, 183±200 (1998)

Keywords: migration; European retirees;Costa del Sol (Spain); decision-makingprocesses; lifestyles; social and economicimpacts

INTRODUCTION

Increases in life expectancy in recentdecades have come about through de-clines in later life mortality, so extending

the length and healthiness of retirement. Giventhat in recent years in developed countries,retired people have had increased purchasingpower and rising housing assets, giving them agreater capacity for residential mobility andthe choice to live in areas with good environ-mental conditions, one readily understandsthe growing importance of international retire-ment migration (IRM). This is one of severalresidential strategies available to a householdwhen its members leave the labour market orwhen individual, social or family circum-stances change (Meyer and Speare, 1985;Northcott, 1988; AbellaÂn, 1993).The reasons for the growth of retirement

migration and the motivations of those whomove have attracted considerable interest,especially concerning the migrants' attributesand the characteristics of the destination areas(Walters, 1994). These factors condition whomoves and where to, and they can be sepa-rated from the events that `trigger' the move-ments, which are often linked to individual lifecourses. However, the conditioning factorsand the trigger or precipitating events are notalways well conceptualised or differentiated ±they are connected in complex and variableways. It is useful, therefore, to review thecontextual and environmental conditions thathave in¯uenced the development of interna-tional retirement migration, before examiningthe antecedent events of individual movesrelated to the family, social or geographicalenvironment in which the retired person lived(Cribier, 1982; Cuba and Longino, 1991). Many

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF POPULATION GEOGRAPHYInt. J. Popul. Geogr. 4, 183±200 (1998)

CCC 1077±3495/98/020183±18 $17.50 # 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

* Correspondence to: V. RodrõÂguez, Departmento deGeografõÂa (CSIC), Instituto de EconomõÂa y GeografõÂa,Pinar 25, 28006 Madrid, Spain.E-mail: [email protected]/grant sponsor: CICYT, Spain; contract/grant num-ber: SEC 95-0120.

of the studies cited in this introduction derivefrom North American work on internationalretirement migration. The relevance of thisresearch for the case of southern Spain willemerge during the course of the presentanalysis.The climate of the receiving region has been

considered in many studies to be the mostimportant pull factor (Svart, 1976; Pampel etal., 1984; Kallan, 1993; Krout, 1993). It issometimes related to other environmentalfeatures (Cuba and Longino, 1991), and some-times to previous migratory experiences orholidays in the destination area (Law andWarnes, 1980; Hogan, 1987; Longino, 1992).The link between climate and health problemsis also noteworthy (Fournier et al., 1988; Daciukand Marshall, 1990). The other main set ofreasons refers to the standard of living andeconomic features, including income levelsand house ownership rates (Pampel et al.,1984; Northcott, 1988; Kallan, 1993). There arealso frequent references to social factors,family relationships and distance (McHugh,1990; Ford, 1993).A further aspect of this discourse is the

evaluation of the migrants' in¯uence on thedestination region, which the retired personperceives and measures in several ways.Rowles and Watkins (1993) have rightlypointed out that èssentially, the problem foreach (receiving) community is one of reconcil-ing positive aspects of elderly migration-basedeconomic development with possible negativeconsequences of such development'. There islittle doubt that the essential impact is eco-nomic, covering issues such as the housingmarket, spending on consumption, taxes, andthe use of services ± especially elderly-orientedhealth services (Hogan, 1987; Rose andKingma, 1989; Daciuk and Marshall, 1990;Serow, 1992; Rowles and Watkins, 1993).The objective of the research reported in this

paper is to study the processes that lead retiredEuropeans to live on the Costa del Sol; theirreasons at the time when they took thedecision; the stability of these initial reasonswhich, as they stay longer and grow older,may be in¯uenced by the advantages ordisadvantages of living in Spain; and theretiree population's in¯uence on the localeconomy and society. This study, unlike the

British study of four Mediterranean locationsreported in other papers in this theme issue,investigates the differential motivations ofretirees from several northern European coun-tries, and reports differences in the advantagesand disadvantages that each national groupperceives in their residence on the Costa delSol.

THE COSTA DEL SOL: AN AMENITY AREA

The migration of retired Europeans to Spainhas shared characteristics with other large`sunbelt' migration ¯ows, notably those inNorth America. The speci®c con®guration ofsouthern Spain's economic, social and envir-onmental conditions, and its accessibility tothe northern European countries of origin,have made the region one of the most populardestinations for this type of migration. Theimage of the Costa del Sol has been based onthree features of its pleasant climate: the highmean winter temperature, the long hours ofsunshine per year, and the number of rain-freedays. Other factors (culture, folklore, resortfacilities) are less important in popular percep-tions of the region (Marchena, 1987), althoughinterest in these elements is increasing becauseof greater institutional support. The attractionsof the Costa, as demonstrated by varioustourist surveys, con®rm the considerable im-portance attached to such basic features as theclimate, the beach, and peacefulness (Torresand Granados, 1996). Also valued are thearea's cleanliness, low prices, standard ofliving and quality of the landscape. Commer-cial tourism increasingly stresses products thatlink the environment to `quality lifestyle'activities, the notable examples being golfcourses and access to a romanticised, exoticlandscape as with the pueblos blancos (whitevillages) of the interior of Andalusia. The Costadel Sol's successful combination of environ-mental attractions and a well-developed urbanand tourist infrastructure attracts large num-bers of retired Europeans alongside òrdinary'tourists. Similar conditions are found on otherMediterranean coasts of Spain, such as theCosta Brava, Alicante, Murcia, the Balearics,and the Canary Islands (Paunero, 1988;Myklebost, 1989; Montiel, 1990; DõÂaz, 1991;Serrano, 1991).

# 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Popul. Geogr. 4, 183±200 (1998)

184 V. RodrõÂguez et al.

Despite a growing awareness of the impor-tance of international retirement residents,their poor enumeration remains a fundamentalimpediment to understanding, policy andplanning. Neither of®cial sources nor indivi-dual inquiries have produced convincingestimates of the size of the retirement popula-tion. According to the 1991 Census of Spain,there were more than 44,000 people aged 55years and over (40% of all ages) from northEuropean countries living in Spain. FernaÂndezet al. (1993) estimated 50,000 aged at least 65years, of whom 15,000 lived on the Costa delSol. Other estimates indicate that there aremore than 100,000 Britons aged over 60 yearsin Spain (Paniagua, 1991), whilst Galacho(1991) and OcanÄa and GonzaÂlez (1991) haveused indirect methods to con®rm that thenumber of north European immigrants ishigher than the totals given by the census.There continues to be heated debate about thenumber of retired foreigners in Spain. Theuncertainties are related to the enumerationpractices of the Spanish census and the manydif®culties in de®ning the types of residents,their varied and complex movements, andtheir compliance with registration (Warnes,1991).Even though retirement movement is a

minor form of international migration, its im-pact is locally substantial. For example, retired

Europeans living in the municipality of Mijas(MaÂlaga) in 1991 accounted for more than 11%of the town's population and almost 33% ofthose aged 55 years or more. Some feel thatMijas has been `bought up' by foreign resi-dents (Jurdao, 1988). Similar and even highervalues are to be found in the municipalities ofAlfaÂs del PõÂ (Alicante), and Lloret de Mar andRoses, in Gerona (Ronquillo andMunÄoz, 1988).The qualitative signi®cance of these retirementpopulations is far more important, fromseveral points of view, as will be seen later.

SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

The complexity of retirement migration andsettlement in Spain recommends the use ofmultiple data-sets and both quantitative andqualitative research. Migration studies havegenerated a debate about the roles of differentresearch methods and designs, and recentlythere have been advocates of more use ofhumanistic methodologies (Findlay andGraham, 1991). In this research, both a ques-tionnaire-based survey (Inmigrantes EuropeosJubilados en AndalucõÂa, IEJA) and in-depthinterviews have been employed.Among the problems faced in the survey

design was the lack of information on thenumber, characteristics and locations of retiredEuropeans on the Costa del Sol. Despite their

Figure 1. Costa del Sol: location of municipalities where survey was carried out.


European Retirees on the Costa del Sol 185

limitations, the 1991 Population Census ®gureswere used to extract the following quotatargets for the European retired population.

. age and sex structure: males 55±64, 18%;males 65 years and over, 33%; females 50±64,24%; females 65 and over, 25%;

. type of dwelling: ¯ats and apartments, 43%;houses, 57%;

. months per year in Spain: 2±6 months, 30%;more than 6 months, 70%;

. nationality: British, 63%; German, 15%;Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway,Denmark, Finland), 13%; Benelux (Belgium,the Netherlands), 9%.

These initial quotas were changed slightly as®eldwork continued; thus the populationliving in ¯ats or apartments and the non-British immigrants were oversampled withrespect to the target proportions.Three hundred questionnaires were distrib-

uted proportionately among various munici-palities in the provinces of MaÂlaga andGranada (Table 1, Fig. 1). The ®eldwork wasconducted during April and May 1996. Inter-

viewees had to comply with several conditionsas ®lters (to spend more than two months ayear in Spain, to have come to Spain afterretirement, to be of the above-mentionednationalities and to be over 50 years old forfemales and 55 years old for males) beforecompleting every self-completion question-naire, always in the presence of the inter-viewer. In this way, the response rate was100%.Themany novel features of the survey raised

several logistical problems in reaching thetarget populations. The questionnaire coveredthe decision to live in Spain after retirement,opinions on different aspects of post-retirement life (advantages, disadvantages,in¯uences, opinions), and the personal char-acteristics of the interviewees. Several ques-tions were multiple-response, allowing threeanswers, ranked in order of importance. Thesurvey does not claim to be strictly represen-tative because we do not know the actualnumber and distribution of the resident retiredforeign population.A semi-structured interview schedule was

developed from the self-completion question-

Table 1. Respondents by municipality and country of origin.

Country of origin

MunicipalitiesUnited Kingdom Germany Nordic1 Benelux2 Total

n % n % n % n % n %

Mijas 51 27.1 3 6.7 7 18.4 3 10.7 64 21.2Marbella 19 10.1 24 53.3 3 7.9 8 28.6 54 18.0BenalmaÂdena 28 14.8 1 2.2 1 2.6 1 3.6 31 10.3Fuengirola 11 5.8 3 6.7 6 15.8 5 17.9 25 8.3Torremolinos 12 6.3 1 2.2 4 10.5 3 10.7 20 6.7Estepona 13 6.9 3 6.7 2 5.3 2 7.1 20 6.7Torrox 11 5.8 9 20.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 20 6.7Nerja 18 9.5 0 0.0 2 5.3 0 0.0 20 6.7Manilva 8 4.2 0 0.0 7 18.4 0 0.0 15 5.0BenahavõÂs, Casares 9 4.8 1 2.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 3.4MaÂlaga Province 180 95.3 45 100.0 32 84.2 22 78.6 279 93.0

AlmunÄeÂcar 5 2.6 0 0.0 3 7.9 3 10.7 11 3.7SalobrenÄa 4 2.1 0 0.0 3 7.9 3 10.7 10 3.3Granada Province 9 4.7 0 0.0 6 15.8 6 21.4 21 7.0

Total sample sizes 189 100.0 45 100.0 38 100.0 28 100.0 300 100.0

Source: Instituto de EconomõÂa y GeografõÂa (CSIC); author's survey: Inmigrantes Europeos Jubilados en AndalucõÂa, 1996.Notes: 1 Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark.2 Holland, Belgium.



naire as the basis for 20 in-depth interviewsamong retired European immigrants andseveral key informants with special knowledgeof the population. The latter included of®cialsof the `Departments for Foreigners' in theTown Halls of Mijas, Fuengirola andBenalmaÂdena, and editors of local English-language newspapers and magazines. Thedepth interviews with retirees were plannedto re¯ect the quotas on age and sex structure,nationalities and place of residence. Thisqualitative information was used to elaboratethe ®ndings of the questionnaire survey and toenrich the analysis of the behavioural andcultural aspects of the migration process.

SURVEY FINDINGS

General Features

The retired immigrant Europeans in the Costadel Sol are a relatively youthful older popula-tion (Table 2), with an average age of just over66 years and only 17% being over 75 years old.

The German and Nordic groups had the oldestage structure, with more than 25% being atleast 75 years of age. The sex balance was fairlyeven, although with females predominating inthe Nordic and Benelux groups. On average,seven out of ten respondents weremarried andthey tended to live in two-person households,while widows and widowers formed thesecond-largest group. The British marriedcouples were most likely to live withoutothers, and the non-British widowed menand women were most likely to live alone.Most of the respondents had received

secondary school education. Higher educationwas a more effective discriminator, for onlyfour out of every ten had attended university,the highest proportion being among theNordic and Benelux respondents (Table 3).Among former occupations, there was amarked preponderance of jobs requiringhigh-level skills, such as executives, entrepre-neurs and professionals (52%). These occupa-tions had been most common among theNordics (78%) and the Dutch and Belgians

Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of northern European retirees on the Costa del Sol.

Country of origin

Characteristic United Kingdom (%) Germany (%) Nordic (%) Benelux (%) Total (%)

Age groups (years)50±54 4.2 6.7 2.6 3.6 4.355±59 19.0 4.4 5.3 21.3 15.360±64 23.3 24.5 23.7 17.9 23.065±69 26.0 22.2 21.0 21.4 24.470±74 15.3 13.3 21.1 17.9 16.075� 12.2 28.9 26.3 17.9 17.0

Average age (years) 65.4 68.5 68.7 66.5 66.4SexMale 54.0 51.1 42.1 39.3 50.7Female 46.0 48.9 57.9 60.7 49.3

Marital statusSingle 2.6 4.4 0.0 10.7 3.3Married/with partner 75.7 66.8 62.2 67.8 72.0Widow(er) 13.8 24.4 21.6 17.9 16.7Divorced or separated 7.9 4.4 16.2 3.6 8.0

Household size1 19.3 35.6 34.2 35.7 25.22 73.7 60.0 65.8 57.2 69.13� 7.0 4.4 0.0 7.1 5.7

Sample size 189.0 45.0 38.0 28.0 300.0

Source and notes: as Table 1.



(67%). More than half hadworked in the publicand ®nancial services and in commerce (56%),but there were also those who had worked inmanufacturing, especially in the cases ofBelgium, the Netherlands and the Nordiccountries. Occupations in construction, tradeor transport had been most common amongthe British.The respondents had arrived in Spain soon

after retiring and they had lived on the Costadel Sol for an average of nine years (Table 4).Although the mean ages of arrival differedlittle among the various national groups, theage on arrival was most concentrated amongthe Germans, with 42%moving when aged 60±64 years. On the other hand, those fromHolland, Belgium and the United Kingdomhad the most dispersed ages of arrival, withthe share moving in their 50s being the highestamong the British, and the share moving at 65

years or older highest among those from theBenelux countries. Twelve per cent had beenresident for more than 16 years: this percen-tage was higher among the non-British andabove all among the Scandinavians (almost29%). There has been relatively little localresidential mobility in Spain; three out of everyfour respondents were still living in the ®rstdwelling they had occupied.

Reasons for Moving to Spain

The interviewees' reasons for migrating toSpain are considered in terms of both theattraction factors and their previous knowl-edge of Spain (Table 5). The ®rst set ofresponses refers to the pull factors of the Costadel Sol. More than 90% of the intervieweesstated that climate was an important factor intheir move to Spain. There were no substantial

Table 3. Socio-economic characteristics of northern European retirees on the Costa del Sol.

Country of origin


Highest educational levelPrimary 4.8 20.9 10.8 0.0 7.4Secondary 56.9 48.9 29.7 42.9 51.0University or higher 37.8 27.9 59.5 57.1 40.9Other 0.5 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.7

Occupation before migration to Costa del SolEntrepreneur, employer 27.0 15.6 21.1 17.9 23.7Professional 16.5 19.9 31.6 28.5 20.1Self-employed 8.0 6.7 0.0 7.1 6.7Senior manager or executive 18.6 8.9 26.3 21.4 18.4Middle management 14.9 17.8 7.9 17.9 14.7Non-manual employee 5.3 11.1 10.5 0.0 6.4Manual worker 6.9 17.8 2.6 3.6 7.7Not applicable 2.7 2.2 0.0 3.6 2.3

Industry sector of former occupationAgriculture 2.6 0.0 5.3 0.0 2.3Manufacturing and mining 15.9 20.5 31.5 24.9 19.4Construction and building 15.3 4.5 5.3 10.7 12.0Trade and transport 24.3 13.6 13.2 17.9 20.7Financial services 13.2 25.0 5.3 10.7 13.7Public services 18.0 27.4 31.5 17.9 21.2Other 6.9 4.5 7.9 14.3 7.4Not applicable 3.7 4.5 0.0 3.6 3.3

Sample size 189.0 45.0 38.0 28.0 300.0




Table 4. Migration and residence characteristics of northern European retirees.

Country of origin


Age when migrated to Spain (years)Less than 45 2.6 8.9 7.9 7.2 4.745±49 7.9 8.9 7.9 7.2 8.050±54 19.6 11.1 13.2 21.4 17.755±59 27.1 15.6 21.1 21.4 24.060±64 25.9 42.2 31.5 21.4 28.665 or more 16.9 13.3 18.4 21.4 17.0Mean age (years) 57.5 57.1 57.4 56.9 57.4

Years of residence in Spain5 or fewer 39.6 22.2 26.4 25.0 34.06±10 28.6 26.7 26.3 35.7 28.711±15 24.9 35.5 18.4 21.4 25.316 or more 6.9 15.6 28.9 17.9 12.0Mean years 7.9 11.4 11.3 9.6 9.0

Percentage who have livedat only one address in Spain

77.8 73.3 63.2 78.6 75.3

Sample size 189.0 45.0 38.0 28.0 300.0


Table 5. Reasons for moving to the Costa del Sol.

Country of origin

Factor of attractionUnited Kingdom

(%)Germany

(%)Nordic(%)

Benelux(%)

Total(%)

Attraction factorsMediterranean climate 90.4 86.7 97.4 100.0 91.6Lifestyle of the Spanish people 52.7 37.8 50.0 39.3 48.8Spain's lower cost of living 28.7 24.4 31.6 39.3 29.4Better health conditions 17.0 33.3 34.2 17.9 21.7Accessibility to home country 14.4 15.6 2.6 17.9 13.4Interest in Latin and Mediterranean cultures 9.0 20.0 15.8 17.9 12.4Community of foreign residents 11.2 17.8 10.5 3.6 11.4Availability of leisure and recreational facilities 8.5 22.2 5.3 7.1 10.0Spanish landscape 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

Prior knowledge of SpainHad enjoyed holidays 29.8 22.2 31.6 14.3 27.4Already owned a house 19.1 4.4 7.9 14.3 15.1Had received information 8.5 4.4 2.6 10.7 7.4Other 3.7 0.0 10.5 0.0 3.7Had worked in Spain 1.6 4.4 0.0 7.1 2.3Had relatives living in Spain 1.6 2.2 0.0 3.6 1.7

Sample size 188.0 45.0 38.0 28.0 299.0

Source and notes: As Table 1. The column percentages sum to more than 100% because this is a multiple-response variable.



differences amongst the nationalities in thisrespect. Moreover, climate was given as theprincipal reason by more than 70% of respon-dents. Particular reference to the healthiness ofthe climate (or of the lifestyle that the climateenables) was stated as a reason for the move byjust over a ®fth of the interviewees, with ahigher frequency among the Germans andNordics (more than a third cited this reason). Itwas also the second most important principalreason.The Spanish lifestyle, certain aspects of

which the migrants tend to adopt, was also afrequently stated attraction, being mentionedby almost half of the interviewees, and ahigher percentage of the British and Scandina-vians. The attractions of the Latin and Medi-terranean cultures were cited less frequently aspull factors, but were especially important toolder retirees from Germany and the Beneluxcountries.The third most important attraction factor is

the lower cost of living in Spain in comparisonto the country of origin: almost 30% ofrespondents mentioned this as being impor-tant (although only 5% gave it as theirprincipal reason). It was particularly markedamongst those from the Benelux countries and,to a lesser extent, the Nordics.The other factors of attraction were men-

tioned by far smaller percentages of intervie-wees. Approximately one in ten intervieweesconsidered each of the following to be im-portant: geographical proximity to the coun-tries of origin (barely mentioned at all by thosefrom the Nordic countries); the existence ofcommunities of foreigners ± which, at leastinitially, favours the forging of social ties; andleisure facilities such as golf courses or sailingclubs (the latter being highly valued by theGermans). Little value was attached to theSpanish landscape, which was cited by lessthan 1% of the total sample.Our second approach to understanding the

reasons for retiring to Spain was to examinethe migrants' prior experiences of Spain and theimages of Spain that they had acquiredthrough previous contact with the country. Inthe case of the Costa del Sol, just over a quarterof the interviewees mentioned that they hadenjoyed holidays in Spain before they hadretired. Frequently this was cited as their

second or third reason for the move, and theanswer wasmost common amongst those fromthe Nordic countries and the UK. A smallerpercentage said that their main reason formoving to Spain was that they had owned ahouse there; this was most important amongstthe British (19.1%). Other prior experiences orlinks (such as having received informationfrom others about the country, having workedin Spain, or having relatives or friends living inthe area) were mentioned by less than 10%.

The Advantages andDisadvantages of Livingin Spain

The previous section considered the initialreasons for moving to Spain. We now considerhow the advantages and disadvantages arecurrently assessed in the light of their sub-sequent experience of living on the Costa.Although not all the advantages and dis-advantages mentioned by the intervieweesreplicate the expressed reasons for the originalmove, considerable continuity was found(Table 6). As would be expected, the climateis still considered to be the main advantage byalmost nine out of every ten interviewees, andit is also given as the ®rst advantage by morethan 60%. Also important, and associated withthe climate, was enjoyment of the Mediterra-nean landscape, although this did not ®gurehighly amongst the initial reasons for retiringin Spain. Yet whereas climate was mentionedby almost all the interviewees irrespective ofnationality, there are sharp national differ-ences with respect to landscape. It was highlyvalued by those from Belgium and Hollandbut far less so by the British. A few saw theclimate and the landscape as disadvantages,with aridity and heat being cited by 15% andthe deteriorating environment by 28%. Theseevaluations are less prevalent than the positiveevaluation of the Costa del Sol's environmentalqualities by the majority of retired Europeanresidents.The relaxed and informal Spanish lifestyle is

valued positively by two of every threeinterviewees (although usually as the secondor third ranked answer), and especially by theBritish; this was assessed more highly as acurrent advantage than as an initial factor ofattraction. The cost of living in Spain was



stated as an advantage and a disadvantage bysimilar proportions of respondents (approxi-mately two out of ®ve). It was most frequentlyseen as an advantage by British respondents,and as a disadvantage by British and Germanrespondents. In contrast to the general attach-ment to the Spanish lifestyle, only a quarter ofthe respondents considered that getting to knowthe Spanish people was a positive aspect ofliving on the Costa del Sol, somewhat higherthan the number who mentioned the advan-tage of meeting people from their own or otherEuropean nations. Retired people from theNordic and Benelux countries were morelikely to value positively becoming acquaintedwith the Spanish, whereas the British andGermans were more likely to value the oppor-tunities for meeting their fellow nationals.Language was considered to be a key dis-

advantage of living on the Costa del Sol by71%, and 51% gave it as the prime disadvan-tage. This opinion was most widespreadamongst the British and least amongst theBelgian, Dutch and German respondents. Onefactor that may contribute to this assessment isa more general feeling of separation fromfamily. This was mentioned as a negativeaspect by two out of every ®ve intervieweesand by a higher percentage of the Nordics,complementing their low expression of theadvantages of geographical proximity. An-other frequently expressed disadvantage isthe opinion that in Spain there are fewerservices for older people than in their owncountry. This was particularly important to theGermans and Nordics. Finally, among theother disadvantages mentioned, albeit notvery frequently, was the poor quality of the

Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of living on the Costa del Sol.

Country of origin

Advantage or disadvantageUnited Kingdom

(%)Germany

(%)Nordic(%)

Benelux(%)

Total(%)

AdvantagesMediterranean climate 86.8 86.7 89.5 89.3 87.3Lifestyle of Spanish people 65.6 51.1 55.3 42.9 60.0To enjoy the landscape and nature 30.2 64.4 52.6 75.0 42.3To maintain their standard of living 42.3 37.8 23.7 32.1 38.3To know the Spanish way of life 25.9 22.2 39.5 28.6 27.3To know people of different nationalities 23.8 13.3 23.7 3.6 20.3People from their country of origin living in Spain 19.6 20.0 13.2 14.3 18.3Other 2.6 0.0 2.6 3.6 2.3

Sample size 189.0 45.0 38.0 28.0 300.0

DisadvantagesThe language 75.9 65.8 71.0 40.0 71.0Being separated from their families 46.5 23.7 61.3 30.0 43.6The increasing cost of living 42.4 44.7 6.5 35.0 37.8The deterioration of the area's environment 27.6 34.2 25.8 30.0 28.6Reduced range of goods and services available 20.0 31.6 25.8 15.0 22.0Cultural differences from Spanish people 17.1 15.8 12.9 30.0 17.4Dry and hot climate 10.6 21.1 25.8 25.0 15.1Poor services 1.8 2.6 6.5 0.0 2.3Ill-treatment of animals 0.6 5.3 3.2 0.0 1.5Excessively noisy 0.6 2.6 3.2 0.0 1.2Unsafe 0.0 0.0 3.2 5.0 0.8Dirtiness 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4Drought 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4Other 4.1 5.3 3.2 5.0 4.2

Sample size 170.0 38.0 31.0 20.0 259.0




environment, i.e. too much noise, insecurity,dirtiness and drought. These indicate a grow-ing preoccupation with the deterioration of theresidential environment, overcrowding andmass urbanisation.In what respects do the retired migrants

believe they have had impacts on the Costa delSol? Almost 80% of retired Europeans considerthat their presence has stimulated the Costa'seconomy, and half of the interviewees gavethis as their ®rst-ranked answer. The Scandi-navians and the British were the ®rmestsupporters of this opinion (Table 7). Therewas also mention of two connected impacts,namely the more dynamic housing marketthey had created (cited least by Germans) andthe development of residential areas (citedmost by Belgians, Dutch and Germans).Linked to the stimulation of the local economy,three out of every ®ve interviewees (and two-thirds of the British) maintain that theirpresence has had an effect on the provisionof services to retired foreigners. On the otherhand, less importance was attached to thedevelopment of cultural and other organisa-tions among their own communities; only athird of the respondents emphasised thisin¯uence, the Germans most of all.All the above information is important

because it conditions the mechanisms ofattraction and repulsion that come into playwhen immigrants are asked about their life inSpain by others from their country of origin.Only just over a third would tell fellow-countrymen to come to the Costa del Solwithout hesitating, whereas almost two-thirds

would recommend that they weigh up theadvantages and drawbacks of such a decision.On the other hand, and indicative of percep-tions of the overall balance of advantages anddisadvantages, less than 1% would advisethem not to come under any circumstances.

LIVING THE LIFE OF RETIREMENTONTHECOSTA DEL SOL

A Setting Under the Sun

The survey ®ndings indicate overall that theclimate and several associated advantages arethe main appeals of the Costa del Sol. Themove offers the promise of a healthy life bothto the majority who arrive in good health andto those with diagnosed chronic conditions. Asone respondent explained, `My husband'srheumatism has got much better since wecame here.' Similar experiences were commonand of considerable importance to manyrespondents. There is a widespread associa-tion in people's minds between climate andgood health. Such views were most commonamong the Nordics and Germans on the Costadel Sol, which may be a re¯ection of the verycold winters in their native countries (Cribier,1982; Northcott, 1988). The long hours of sun-shine encourage outdoor activities such asgardening, outings, swimming, golf and walk-ing. A third of the retirees play sport regularlyand almost half go on outings several times ayear. The more active leisure activities weremost valued by the Germans, while the othernon-British nationalities also thought that

Table 7. Perceived impacts of north European retiree residence on the Costa del Sol.

Country of origin

Impacts and in¯uencesUnited Kingdom

(%)Germany

(%)Nordic(%)

Benelux(%)

Total(%)

Economic activity generated 82.1 55.3 91.9 76.9 79.3Stimulation of services for retired people 66.3 47.4 45.9 50.0 59.6Housing market stimulation 47.8 28.9 54.1 50.5 46.3Formation of residential areas 40.8 52.6 37.8 61.5 43.9Development of own culture and organisations 34.8 38.5 32.4 26.9 34.4Mixture of cultures 2.2 10.5 0.0 0.0 2.8Other 0.5 0.0 0.0 3.8 0.7Sample size 184.0 38.0 37.0 26.0 285.0




being able to enjoy the landscape and theenvironment was an important advantage ofliving in southern Spain.A warmer and brighter environment than in

the country of origin helps to make life easierand pleasanter, and exerts a positive in¯uenceon people's state of mind, making it possible topursue outdoor activities (Mullan, 1993). Inthis way, a favourable setting for establishingand maintaining social contacts is shaped; notuntypical was the comment of one Britishrespondent that, `My social life is much moreintense here ¼ because when you wake up inEngland in November and it is raining, youdon't want to go out.' Outdoor lifestyles,regarded widely as a Mediterranean trait, areadopted and facilitate relations with the localpopulation, whether Spanish, fellow-nationalsor others. However, even though the opportu-nity to meet people was seen as an importantadvantage by respondents from all countries,socialising divides by nationality: the Britishand Germans prefer to meet people from theirown country, while those from the Nordic andBenelux countries are more interested ingetting to know the Spanish people. Thewinter warmth of the Costa del Sol also meansthat heating costs are much lower than innorthern Europe, an important considerationfor the many whose income is decreasing. Asone respondent stated, Ìf we had stayed inEngland we wouldn't living in the housewhere we lived, because it was too big fortwo people and very expensive to heat.'On the other hand, the almost omnipresent

sunshine and the very dry and hot summermonths are seen as drawbacks by some retiredEuropeans, mainly the non-British and inparticular the Scandinavians. The sunshineand the beaches are the major appeals ofAndalusia for summer tourism (Marchena,1994), but the in¯ux of holidaymakers, manyfrom their own countries, does change thedaily routines of Costa del Sol retirees. Theside-effects of mass tourism, especially theincreased noise, are widely disliked, especiallyby Nordics and Germans. It is as if elderlyforeigners ®nd it dif®cult to share the sameplaces with their own young people.Another consequence of the extreme heat

and aridity of recent years has been thatdrought and ®res have become widespread

and an issue of concern not only among localof®cials and the press but also among expatri-ate residents. The concerns are most evidentamong those from Germany and the Beneluxcountries. Nevertheless, these negative aspectsof climate only take second rank, because quiteoften they do not have a direct impact on therespondents' lives. As one interviewee com-mented, À drought is a drought, you can't domuch about it. Here we don't have a watershortage.'Faced with these drawbacks, some of those

interviewed exploit both climatic environ-ments and spend the winter in Spain and thesummer in their home country. They areseasonal residents. Nine out of ten respondentsvisit their country of origin every year, and halfdo so in the summer: Ìn a way we get the bestof both worlds, and it is easy to get home if youwant to,' commented one respondent.In short, retired immigrants have adapted to

the climatic conditions that make the Costa delSol a pleasant place to live, as may also be thecase with other Mediterranean countries, butwith added advantages. These were summedup by one key interviewee thus: `They don't goto Greece, it's too far; they don't go to Italy, it'stoo dangerous; they don't go to France, it's tooexpensive; ¼ the North African alternativesare impossible, the religious fanatics are killingeach other, there is no infrastructure, nothing.Spain is near, affordable, safe and well-known.'

Their Own or an Adopted Lifestyle?

We have already mentioned the importanceattached to `Spanish lifestyles', but it is notclear what retired European immigrants un-derstand by this. It is perhaps one of the mostdif®cult aspects to de®ne, yet it is the secondmost powerful reason for coming to live to theCosta del Sol. Lifestyle can be understood asthe behaviour of an individual or a group inseeking to ful®l a set of needs vis-aÁ-vis a givensocial and economic structure. Such personalneeds will have been shaped by social,cultural, economic and physical backgrounds.As one interviewee put it, the Spanish (orAndalusian or Mediterranean) lifestyle meansà relaxed, easy-going and open lifestyle.'Andalusians are considered as `nice people',



reputed to be hospitable, pleasant and gener-ous. Underlying this perspective are safetyconsiderations, recalled in the belief that if àGerman or a Dutchman¼ left his wallet on thecounter, the waiter would rush out after him togive it back to him.'The Spanish lifestyle is also referred to as

informal, and not governed by strict diurnalregimes. European retirees seem to consider itas less rigid; hence many respondents wouldtend to agree with the view expressed by oneinterviewee that, `whereas in Spain one lives,we exist'. Free time is an important facet oftheir life: walks in the countryside, outdoorparties, a wide range of sports and meetingfriends are some of the leisure activitiesassociated with and encouraged by the cli-mate. Other outstanding and highly valuedaspects of the Spanish lifestyle are the food andthe siesta. One phrase often heard is that, `justchange one letter and you have the two bestthings in the world: siesta and ®esta'.This relaxed and informal lifestyle some-

times becomes an obstacle for those who areless integrated into the Costa del Sol environ-ment and way of life. They expect others tomake the effort to adapt: `they should all driveon the left'; `the Spanish should learn English';`the relaxed lifestyle drives me mad becausethings get done faster in the UK.' These are justsome of the opinions expressed during theinterviews which indicate a desire to have thebest of both world ± of the home country andof Spain. Rather than being a strongly appeal-ing reason, the `relaxed and informal Spanishlifestyle' might actually be a selective strategyfor adapting the local habits that are foundmost attractive to their own activities as `guestsin a foreign country.'It would, however, be misleading to suggest

that retired foreigners do not take part in theSpanish way of life because they do not wantto. There are a number of factors that hindertheir fuller integration. The ®rst is the lan-guage, mentioned as the main disadvantage ofliving in Spain, especially by the British (Table6). Spanish is regarded as hard to learn, notonly because any language is dif®cult toacquire when one has little or no prior knowl-edge of foreign languages, but also becauseAndalusia has dialect differences to Castilian.`The Andalusian language is really very

dif®cult to learn; they do not pronounce everysyllable,' commented one interviewee. There isnot much interest in learning the language,most often because people do not need to do sofor most aspects of everyday life. Moreover,even if they have tried to learn it, they tend toforget the language through lack of use: `Myopportunities to speak Spanish are so rare Ihave abandoned the lessons,' was one com-ment on this situation.Alongside the linguistic challenges, al-

though not mentioned to any great extent asa drawback to life in Spain, cultural differencesalso hinder integration. If one analyses levelsof education as an objective feature of compari-son, there is a clear contrast between the nativeolder population and the immigrant Europeanelderly. These differences between relativelypoorly educated local elderly people and themore highly educated northern Europeans arecompounded by differences in occupationaland cultural background, resulting in fewcommon interests. As one interviewee put it,they have not got ànything to say to each other(or) anything to talk about'. The more edu-cated expatriate retirees might be expected tohave a greater inclination to participate in cul-tural and leisure activities. These have beenprovided by the international communityitself, which has set up many and diverseclubs and religious associations. This is espe-cially the case with the British, possibly as aconsequence of their numerical superiority.Most are multinational clubs and associations,but each nationality usually interacts mainlywith its own: Ènglish and Scandinavians haveclubs which do not admit people from othernationalities' was one comment that we re-ceived.The foreigners' associations offer music,

literature, ®ne arts, theatre, sports and tripsas well as denominational worship, and theycompensate for the lack of recreational activ-ities that many of the European retired notedwhen they ®rst arrived in the Costa. To acertain extent they also act as reception andmeeting points, making it easier to meetpeople from one's own or other countries. Thisis especially valued by the retired British, suchthat 40% belong to at least one club. More thana third of the retirees also said that theestablishment of the clubs shows the impact



that they have had on Spain: Ì think thatforeigners have helped with music ¼ a lot hasbeen started by foreigners, and the artsgenerally. There wasn't anything like it before,'was one such claim.Emphasis was placed on the fact that the

European retired populations tend to live inurbanizaciones (housing estates) where themajority of the residents are of the samenationality, with a clear predominance of theBritish: `There is one Spanish family, twoFrench, and the rest are English,' was thedescription offered of one such complex. TheCosta del Sol is very cosmopolitan and inmany places English is the second language,not least among the Spanish: Ì came to Spainand the ®rst thing I did was to speak English,because I was in an urbanisation where therewere just English people'. Moreover, it is rela-tively easy for the foreign residents to keep up-to-date with the news in their own languagethrough imported publications, satellite tele-vision, and the wide range of local English andGerman newspapers, magazines and radioand television stations established in the lastten years (Sur in English, The Reporter, The En-tertainer, Costa del Sol Magazine, and Look Out).Another visible sign of the presence of

foreigners, and especially of the British, is theplethora of foreign pubs, restaurants and,more recently, food shops, supermarkets andrepair shops. One interviewee explained thebene®ts: `Sometimes we go to Fuengirola; thereis a wonderful shop with English clothes; I amnot saying that Spanish clothes are not good,but you know the measurements'. An expatri-ate society has been created parallel to theSpanish society, in which most of the retirees'social relations are with people of their ownnationality, whereas their relations with thelocal population are very limited: `You meetthem, you see them in the street, they are verynice and kind, but you don't come into theirhouses'. If they ever mention a closer relation-ship with Spanish people, the latter tend to livesomewhere else in Spain and have a highercultural level, so they communicate in English:Ì have some Spanish friends but they all speaksuch good English'. Indeed, the mixture ofcultures is barely mentioned by the Europeanretired populations as an in¯uence on theirpresence on the Costa del Sol, and only just

over 50% consider that they are quite or veryintegrated into Spanish culture and lifestyle. Inthe words of one respondent. `There areresidents who consider this place only aholiday resort; I do not think of Spain as aholiday resort; I think of Spain as my newhome country'.

Standards of Living

The low cost of living in Spain attracted manyretirees who regarded the enhanced realpurchasing power of their incomes as a meansnot only to raise their standard of living butalso to conserve their savings. When themovement of European retired to the Costadel Sol began a few decades ago, the standardof living in Spain was much lower than in theirown countries. As older people retire and stopworking, their income and purchasing powerdrops and they become progressively moredependent on retirement pensions.This is clearly re¯ected by the change over

20 years in the `rate of ®nal private consump-tion' measured by `purchasing power parities'of different currencies and calculated for 1973,1983 and 1993 by the OECD (1995: 145±51).These data show that it is still cheaper to live inSpain than in respondents' countries of origin.The Nordics, Dutch and Belgians most fre-quently said that the lower cost of living wasthe reason for coming to Spain. They are alsothe retired foreigners who have lived longeston the Costa del Sol. They came to Spain whenit was cheap for them to buy real estatebecause land costs were very low (Marchena,1987; Jurdao, 1988). They also made substantialsavings when paying for daily goods andservices, because the same basket of goods wasfar cheaper on the Costa del Sol than in theirown country.Although the economic development that

has taken place since the 1980s has brought theSpanish economy closer to European Commu-nity levels, mean purchasing power paritiesshow that the cost-of-living differentials be-tween the countries of origin and Spain haveonly reduced slightly. According to mostrespondents, being able to maintain theirstandard of living is one of the advantages ofliving on the Costa del Sol (it is morefrequently cited as an advantage than an



attraction factor). This was especially so forBritish older people, followed by the Germans.However, it is the British and Germans whomost often say that the higher cost of living is adisadvantage. Surprisingly, the Nordics con-sider the higher cost of living less of a draw-back than all others.The key question is whether the economic

factors are seen on balance as an advantage ora disadvantage of living in Spain. The respon-dents often said that `my pension and divi-dends are worth more in Spain than inGermany', or ìt's cheaper to live on the Costadel Sol'. Key informants con®rmed these ideas:`people from countries with strong currencies®nd it easy to come to Spain; they can buyproperty and enjoy a higher standard of livingat a lower cost'. There is also a clear linkbetween the lower cost of living and theseasonal forms of migration: ìnvesting moneyin renting a house on the Costa del Sol duringthe winter is even cheaper than ¼ (having) topay for heating in their own country'. All thesestatements highlight the ®nancial advantagesof living in Spain.During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the

revaluation of the peseta reduced the strengthof the immigrants' currencies and thereforemade life in Spain more expensive (Mullan,1993). None the less, both the German markand the British pound continue to be strongcurrencies and it is dif®cult to understand whymany retired Germans and British now saythat the higher cost of living is one of thedisadvantages of living on the Costa del Sol.One possible explanation is that the cost ofliving experienced by the expatriates is moreexpensive than that in Spain or the Costa delSol generally, because many of them use shopsrun by their compatriots and which sell theircountry's products. Not surprisingly, im-ported products are often more expensive thanthe Spanish equivalents and prices are gen-erally higher along the Costa del Sol than inrural areas.

Other Reasons for Living on the Costa del Sol

If the climate makes for a pleasant environ-ment, and prices are affordable, how are thesefavourable conditions communicated to poten-tial migrants or learnt about? Many of the

European retired people on the Costa del Solknew Spain from holidays, especially theNordics and British. Moreover, the latter, morethan any other nationality, had previouslyowned property in Spain. These connectionsestablish a `linked mobility' phenomenon:people come on holiday, they buy a secondhome and, when they retire, the dwellingbecomes their main home. Not untypical is thefollowing comment from one British retiree:

`We wanted to go on holiday, and wewanted to go to Cornwall, but it was tooexpensive¼ (Later, in 1977) we bought anapartment at La Pacheca, it was oursecond home. We came de®nitely to stayin 1984, but we have been connected withBenahavis since 1977.'

In other cases the information comes fromrelatives, friends or neighbours through afeedback process. Whenever they return totheir country of origin or they are visited inSpain, retired migrants themselves are sourcesof information for their relatives and friends.Typical of the advice offered to fellownationals is:

Ìf somebody asks me, I will say to them:have you got children? Can you liveduring July and August with 40°C, anddo you have the money to support thestandard of living that you want? But thenI will say, it is a peaceful life, a nice sociallife.'

The accessibility of the Costa del Sol pro-duced by frequent cheap ¯ights from MaÂlagaairport, especially to and from the UK, shouldmake keeping in touch with one's country oforigin relatively easy. However, accessibility isnot cited particularly frequently as a factor ofattraction by immigrant retired Europeans,especially the Nordics, and one of the disad-vantages most often mentioned was beingseparated from family. One respondent stated,Ì think I am enjoying life far better in Spainthan I would be in England. If my children andmy grandchildren were here it would beperfect.'More often than not, contact between this

group of retired residents and Spanish society



is the result of the need for local services(including the utilities, house maintenance andfamily health services). They consider that theincrease and improvement of such services isthe second most important effect of theirpresence on the Costa, but continuing defectsare still mentioned as drawbacks, particularlyby the Germans and Nordics. Over the last 20years, in Spain as a whole and the Costa del Solspeci®cally, local services have developedrapidly not only to keep abreast with stan-dards in other European countries, but also tomeet the individual demands of this older andhigher status foreign group. Yet language isstill the biggest dif®culty when they needinformation about rights and obligations inSpain or when they need to use a healthservice: `The main problem is language ¼ theGermans will ®nd German doctors, and theSwedish will ®nd Swedish doctors ¼ Isuppose the Spanish in England would try to®nd a Spanish doctor'.To solve this problem, the municipalities of

Mijas, BenalmaÂdena and Fuengirola haveestablished Foreigners' Departments whichrun information and advice bureaux in acces-sible locations. They employ staff who speakEnglish and other foreign languages. A similarfacility has been provided at the new Costa delSol Hospital on the outskirts of Marbella. Thehospital caters for the whole population,regardless of the type of coverage (public orprivate) and its staff speakmany languages. Asa result, the image of the Spanish NationalHealth Service has improved in the eyes of theCosta's international community, members ofwhom were previously more likely to consultprivate doctors. Ì think that the Spanish healthsystem is as good as the English is, and withthe new hospital it is even better. That's madeit a lot easier for us,' was the opinion of oneBritish interviewee. The interviewees alsoadmit that considerable progress has beenmade in recent years in the delivery of otherservices such as refuse collection and policing:`Marbella was in a very bad state and in threeyears has changed everything: cleanness,security, anything you want'.

Impact of Retirees

European retired perceive their economic

in¯uence on the Costa del Sol mainly throughthe housing and real estate markets. They arepermanent or semi-permanent residents whospend more than six months a year on theCosta, so their economic effects on the areacould be stronger than those generated bysummer-season tourism. Older people arepresent for most of the year and make ex-tended use of the general and tourist infra-structure. In comparison with holiday visitors,less of their spending goes to foreign-ownedhotels and tour-operators.At the start of the tourist boom on the Costa

del Sol, most older immigrants were attractedby the ùnspoilt' nature of the environs of thecoastal towns. The agricultural villages and®elds presented calm and peaceful imageswhich, in addition to the climatic and cost-of-living attractions, made for strong placeassociations. Yet the success of residentialtourism has prompted mass property devel-opment in the Costa del Sol shoreline townsand has caused the virtual destruction of theformer landscape (Marchena, 1987). Oppo-nents of unchecked urban growth predict anuncertain future. `No one knows what is goingto happen, all the land has been used up. Howmuch more can they stretch it?' commentedone key informant.The former rural towns and villages along

the Costa del Sol have been overrun by theboom in real estate and the development of 158urbanizaciones between the 1960s and the 1990s(Mellado, 1990). Apart from the innumerablejobs in their construction, these estates con-tinue to employ thousands of people in avariety of ®elds such as domestic service,estate and building maintenance, shops,supermarkets, restaurants, personal assistanceand other services. In 1985, 22% of net foreignproperty investment in Spain was in theprovince of MaÂlaga. The municipalities ofMarbella, Mijas and Estepona bene®ted themost, and the UK led in investment, followed along way behind by Germany. Most invest-ments were made by individuals, most ofwhom bought an apartment, plot of land orhouse (SubdireccioÂn General de Plani®cacioÂn yProspectiva TurõÂsticas, 1988). These invest-ments and the subsequent settlement havegenerated much additional spending by houseoccupiers on ®ttings, furnishings, services and



maintenance, and there have been substantialcontributions to local tax revenues. All this hashelped to increase `residential tourism' incomeand support the local and the Spanish econo-my. This is well appreciated in the host society;not untypical is the remark that `the foreigninvasion has brought lots of money and work'.European retirees do not, however, tend to

invest in Spanish securities or stocks. Oftenthey maintain their investments in their homecountry, Gibraltar or other countries andarrange monthly transfers to an account in alocal bank (often branches of foreign banks).One interviewee commented, Ì bank inGibraltar. I have a bank account here, but Ihave my investments there; there are taxadvantages in Gibraltar'. Other in-depth inter-views con®rmed the scale of banking, in-vestment and tax-advantage activities byEuropean retirees, especially the British, inGibraltar.A ®nal impact worthy of mention concerns

foreign retirees' potential political in¯uence,given their right to vote in local elections in1999. To date, they do not appear very keen toparticipate in local politics and elections.Nevertheless, some Spanish political partieshave approached retired immigrants, assum-ing them to belong to a generally conservativeideology. Social and cultural barriers probablyexplain the foreigners' reluctance to get in-volved politically, except over certain issuessuch as the maintenance of their own proper-ties and housing estates, which directly affecttheir lives.

CONCLUSIONS

Using both a questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews, this research has demon-strated that northern European retirees mi-grate to the Costa del Sol mainly to improvetheir quality of life and to enjoy their increasedleisure time. Many say they still feel young,and have few or no physical problems thatprevent them from leading an independentlife. One of the strongest reasons for living outtheir retirement in Spain is the climate, butother reasons are also important. The Spanishlifestyle is highly appealing and clearly propi-tiated by the climate, which makes it possibleto live outdoors virtually all year round,

instead of having to retreat indoors for muchof the year as in northern Europe. Thesefeatures are fairly common amongst all thenationalities surveyed by this research, andmoreover replicates much of the experience ofnorth-to-south migration of the elderly inNorth America which was reviewed in theintroduction to the paper. Other shared fea-tures linking the various north Europeangroups in the south of Spain include basicbiographical pro®le data: in general theyretired fairly young, went to Spain immedi-ately after retirement, have been living on theCosta del Sol for about a decade, are marriedwithout children in the household, and havesecondary education.A major objective of this article was to

compare and contrast the national groups.Although sample size is a limiting factor inforcing too many conclusions, there were anumber of differences noted. The British havetraditionally experienced Spain through theirholidays there and many had bought secondhomes on the Costa prior to retirement.Although this group had positive feelingsabout the Spanish lifestyle, their dif®culty withthe language and, to a lesser extent, theirseparation from their families were regardedas signi®cant drawbacks, leading them to formwell-de®ned social and territorial units, some-times mixed in with other foreign nationals.On the other hand, unlike some of the othergroups, the British were not greatly in¯uencedby cost-of-living arguments when they retiredto the Costa del Sol; now, opinions are dividedequally between those for whom increasingprices are a problem and those who considerSpain advantageous because they can main-tain a good standard of living at a relativelymodest cost.The declared reasons for moving were quite

different for the German retirees; improvedhealth problems when in Spain, their interestin Latin and Mediterranean cultures, theavailability of leisure facilities and the exis-tence of other foreign residents, especiallyfrom their own country, were stated as themajor pull factors. They also value the Medi-terranean landscape. Their concerns centre onenvironmental degradation and on the relativeunavailability of some of the goods andservices they were accustomed to enjoy in



their own country. But they are similar to someof the British in considering the increasing costof living as a signi®cant disadvantage ofstaying in Spain.Nordics also had a prior knowledge of Spain

by means of their holidays, so they valued thelifestyle of the Spanish people as an importantpull factor, as did the Britons. On the otherhand, like the Germans, they were drawn tothe Latin culture and by the healthy livingenvironment, and their preoccupations werealso similar to the concerns of the Germans.Compared with other groups of retirees, theNordics were most disadvantaged by distancefrom home and lack of accessibility to friendsand relatives (cf. Myklebost, 1989, for Norwe-gians).Elderly immigrants from the Benelux coun-

tries share some characteristics with theGerman and Nordic retirees, being drawn tothe Spanish landscape and cultural features.They were more concerned about the extremeclimatic conditions, and their most `different'reason for moving, compared with the othergroups, was the low cost of living in Spain.Cross-national differences can also be estab-

lished regarding the retirees' perceived im-pacts on the Costa del Sol. Whilst the British, asthe largest group, perceive most strongly theirbene®cial in¯uence on the increasing provi-sion of local services for elderly people, theother national groups mentioned the develop-ment of residential areas (Germans andBenelux) and the stimulation of the housingmarket (Nordics).Thinking towards the near future, climate

will maintain its position as the key factorattracting European retirees to the Costa delSol, irrespective of nationality. In the newEurope without borders, enhanced southward¯ows can be anticipated, especially of thosenationals who have become familiar withSpain during their working or business livesand through visits to the country. The expand-ing settlement of northern Europeans in south-ern Spain will generate new challenges andenlarge existing ones: the problem of livingwith other cultures, the various economicimpacts, the dif®cult situations which arisewhen foreign retirees become very old anddependent, and the strains on the health andwelfare services.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper draws partly on ®ndings of aresearch project Ìnmigrantes Europeos Jubila-dos en AndalucõÂa', funded by the ComisioÂnInterministerial de Ciencia y TecnologõÂa (CI-CYT, Grant reference SEC 95-0120). A briefversion was presented to the Symposium onthe Mediterranean Basin, 28th InternationalGeographical Congress, IGU, The Hague,August 1996. Thanks to Allan Williams,Russell King, Tony Warnes and Guy Pattersonfor their collaboration in the design of thequestionnaire, for subsequent discussion andfor comments on an early draft of the paper.Thanks also to the referees for their stimulatingcomments.

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Documents

European retirees on the Costa del Sol: a cross-national comparison