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Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata Braum)

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BRASSICA CARINATA CROP Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata Braum) originated in Ethiopia where it is used both as a leaf vegetable and as an oilseed. It is known to be highly heat and drought tolerant, performs better under saline conditions and could therefore be a potential oilseed crop. Brassica carinata, has recently become object of increasing interest due to its better agronomic performances in areas such as Spain, California and Italy that are characterised by unfavourable environmental conditions for the cultivation of Brassica napus (by far, the most common rapeseed cultivated in continental Europe). It belongs to a plant family known as Cruciferae or Brassicaceae; as regards its origin is considered generally derived by hybridization and polyploidy from diploid mustard species Brassica nigra, the Black mustard, and Brassica oleracea, the Cole crops mustard species.

Ethiopian mustard is a annual crop with erected stem tall from 1.5 to 2.0 m and with a big taproot that permit to deepen into the soil; the taproot can reach 70-80 cm even if its big part is concentrated in the first 30-40 cm of the soil profile. The inflorescence is a raceme with scalar flowering; the flowers, cross-shaped, has 4 yellow petals while the fruit is a silique with two carpels separated by a septum. The number of seeds in one fruit is a cultivar characteristic and can vary from 15 to 40. The thousands seeds weight can vary from 3.5 to 5.0 g. USES B carinata is a promising oil crop that could offer the possibility of exploiting several Mediterranean areas for industrial uses; from its oil can be derived several oleochemicals for industrial application and after an industrial processing bio-diesel. The oil is used in the production of cosmetics, detergents, lubrificants and biodegradable materials substitutes of the plastics. This crop produce also a big quantity of biomass that can be useful as burning materials for energy production. As regards the oil content can be highlighted that, assuming a yield of 2,5 t/ha, from one hectare can be extracted approximately 1 ton of oil. The Brassica oil content is variable from 36 to 44 % and it differs from other vegetable oils in containing a significant proportion of the long-chain monoenoic fatty acids and eicosenoic and erucic acids infact the major fatty acids are oleic with percentage between 11 and 20%, linoleic from 12 to 16%, linolenic and eicosenoic (gadoleic) that can reach from 15 to 21% and erucic acid with values from 40 to 46 %. This high erucic acid content makes this oil not good for human consumption; recently cultivars with zero erucic acid has been developed by genetic

Seeds and siliques

bio-diesel factory

improvement programs. Concerning the oil extraction can be distinguished two method types; the first called “mechanical” which use pressure as extracting agents and the second known as “chemical” which adopt solvents (e.g. exane). Often this two methods are combined together; the mechanical extraction permit to recover oil until 10-15 %, the last one is useful to recover the residual oil. The product of this industrial process are the oil and the seed meal rich in protein. The oil can be transformed in bio-diesel with some techniques trough a process called “transesterification” in which oil react with methanol with alkaline catalysers to form fatty acids methyl esters. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

This crop is well adapted to a big range of soils; it can grows also in the clays soil and with high content of carbonates even if needs a good drainage. It also show a good tolerance against abnormal values of the pH and to high content of water salinity; the electrical conductivity of irrigation water can vary from 8 dS/m in sandy soils to 2,5 dS/m in clay soils. The average root zone salinity that can be tolerated can vary from 7 to 9 dS/m but should be stressed that salt tolerance vary with plant age and climatic conditions. Ethiopian mustard show a more salt tolerance particularly in climatic zones with long cool periods. As regards temperature Brassica appear to be cold tolerant growing well also at altitude of 1600 m; it is resistant to frosts especially in the early stages even if the growth will stop under 6 - 8 °C; during the flowering stage prefer low temperature but can overtakes also high temperatures only without water stress condition. Critical points can be identified in the germination and in the emergence phases when the temperature should not fall down 2°C otherwise germination percentage is usually reduced; in the phenological stage of rosette (no internodes detectable) cold tolerance is increased in fact it can reach also temperature of -3 °C without any problem. During reproductive period it may tolerate high temperature better than other brassica species due to its tropical origin.

CROP CYCLE

Under Syrian climatic conditions Ethiopian mustard must be sown in late autumn (mid November - beginning December) preferentially after the first rain. The sowing sometimes can be delayed to the last part of the cool season but the reduction of vegetative stage has as consequence a yield reduction. The entire crop cycle can vary from 120 to 180 days. The emergence requires from 10 to 20 days and the vegetative stage has a duration of 40-50 days in the short cycle and 100-120 days in the normal vegetative cycle. The scalar flowering starting from the bottom to the upper part of the flower takes from 20 to 30 days and from the grain filling to the harvest takes more than 4 weeks. As regards the phenological growth stages, the crop cycle can be divided in the following phases:

• Germination • Leaf development (rosette) • Formation of side shoots • Stem elongation • Inflorescence emergence • Flowering • Development of fruit • Ripening • Senescence

Phenological stages of Ethiopian mustard

cotyledons unfolded first leaf unfolded

two leaf unfolded

three leaf unfolded eight leaf unfolded (rosette)

two visibly extended internodes

green bud

green bud (in detail)

Flower buds raised above the youngest leaves

detail

main inflorescence visible secondary inflorescences visible 10 % of flowers opened

end of flowering flowering declining development of fruits

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul.

Vegetative stage Flowering

Filling

Autumnal sowing

CROP ROTATION Several advantages follow from including Ethiopian mustard in the rotation: yields of the first wheat following Ethiopian mustard are invariably improved, grass weeds are controlled and the level of cereal pathogen is reduced. The importance of crop rotations should not be underestimated; including this crop in rotations can have a improving effects on soil structure and in the diseases control. For the same reasons it is advisable to avoid cultivation of this crop in the same field for more than one year or following some crops such as sunflower and soybean because the increase of some diseases (e.g. Slerotinia sclerotiorum) can be dangerous for yield.

Year Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct.

I year Ethiopian mustard

II year wheat

III year wheat

IV year Cotton SOIL MANAGEMENT

The objective of seedbed preparation is to encourage strong seedling establishment and good root development with plants spaced uniformly.

Timing will be influenced by soil moisture level and sometime, especially in the semi arid environments, it is difficult to prepare soil adequately for the small seeds and it is tempting, but not necessarily rewarding, to compensate for poor preparation by raising the seed rate.

A ploughing and an harrowing before drilling Ethiopian mustard aim to prepare a well-structured seed bed, controls weeds, and turns under crop residues. Sometimes before or after the ploughing can be useful the adoption of ripper to break the compacted soil which is created under the zone worked by plough. During the land preparing should be distributed the necessary amount of N-P-K fertilizer and then used the cultivator and harrowing machine to bury nutrient and to complete the seed bed.

Tillage Period

ploughing (20-25 cm)

summer

harrowing(10-12 cm)

few days Before sowing

Seed drill for cereals with furrow maker

SOWING PRACTICES

Timing of sowing is influenced by soil temperature and moisture level. Especially in the semi-arid areas very early sowing is not always favourable for winter Ethiopian mustard: seedbed are often comparatively dry so that the emergence may be delayed and irregular.

Weed control is also more difficult as herbicide, particularly trifluralin, incorporated in the soil before sowing are sensitive to high soil temperature and radiation. Moreover, early-sown crop are more vulnerable to insect attack.

The best results can be obtained with pneumatic seeder machine but cereal drills are often used to avoid purchasing or renting this specialised machinery. Sometimes without a good calibration of the seeder machine if the plant density is too high, after the emergence, a thinning should be realized; the use of 8-10 kg of seeds are enough for one hectare if they have high germination rate. A low sowing density can have effects also in the harvesting, because the low number of plants for square meter is strictly correlated to the increase of shoot diameters and so can create problems for the harvester machine. Important for the good establishment of the crop is the adoption of seed treatment; contact fungicides offer protection against seedling ‘damping off’ diseases (Pythium and Fusarium) and ‘wirestem’ (Rhizoctonia solani). Some seed-company offer seed mixed with different agrochemicals to guarantee a good protection against these diseases.

Seed drill for Cereals

Seeds (kg ha-1)

8 – 10

Density (plants m-2)

60 – 80

Distance between rows(cm)

14 – 20

Distance within rows (cm)

continuous rows

Depth (cm)

2 – 3

With regard to the depth of the sowing under dry condition it may be necessary to drill a little deeper until maximum 3 cm to ensure the contact with moisture.

A more recent adoption of mechanical seeding machine combined with furrow opening is useful for surface irrigation using gated pipes instead of field canal.

CULTIVARS Choice is usually determined by the length of the growing season. In regions characterized by short growing season the most suitable Ethiopian mustard cultivars must combine favourable earliness and yield. The cultivars are self-pollinated but a good percentage of pollination (25-30%) can be guaranteed by bees or other pollinating insects. Varieties could be divided in two group, one type for biomass and one for oil production even if the most diffused group is the last one. The production is represented by small grains included in siliques and sometimes can reach from 2.5 - 3.0 t/ha but with late sowing (end of the winter - beginning of spring) and in dry conditions it reduces to 1.2 and 1.5 t/ha. Concerning biomass production, dry matter yields ranged from 3-4 t/ha for the grain varieties to 6-8 t/ha for biomass varieties as shown in experiments conducted in several locations. The cultivars choice should be done taking into account the morphological characteristics of the plants (e.g. shoot diameters, harvest index, etc. ) according to the type of production to obtain. Recently only few commercial varieties are available on the market

WEEDS CONTROL Most weeds are managed by the use of integrated weed management, combining cultural practices with the judicious use of herbicides. Also some agronomic weed control techniques can be used; the adoption of “false sowing1” can be useful.

Sowing techniques

Seed drill for cereals (distance between row 15-30 cm)

pre-sowing

pre-emergence

post-emergence

Time Active compound

pre-sowing trifluralin (1- 2 l ha -1)

pre-emergence metazachlor (1- 2 l ha -1)

Post-emergence grasses : fluazifop-p-butil (1- 2 l ha -1) broadleaf weeds: clopyralid (0.8-1.5 l ha -1)

1 “False sowing” consists in all the actions that normally should be done for sowing but without the sowing; after the emergence of weeds, they can be destroyed by plowing and so their potential effects on the next crop are reduced.

Pre-sowing herbicides, such as trifluralin, are commonly used where cheap and early weed control is required. They are volatile and subject to degradation in bright sunlight and hence are incorporated into the soil surface, usually during seedbed preparation, to maximise activity. Pre-emergence herbicides are best applied when the soil is moist ; there may be recommendations for incorporation to enhance activity in drier climates. Post-emergence selective herbicides are commonly used for the control of annual grass weed, while clopyralid is used on a world scale for the control of Compositae weeds. The post emergence treatments should be evaluated in relation to the real density of weeds and taking into account that the after the stage of 4 - 6 leaves the crop development is too high and so the crop can cover all the weeds.

FERTILIZATION Before deciding fertilizer requirement it will be necessary to consider the amount of major nutrients to be provided by mineralization of soil and crop residues and so physical and chemical soil analysis are advisable. In the absence of available informations a fertilization plan can be realized taking into account the removal of nutrient.

The Ethiopian mustard is a oleaginous crop and its removals of nutrients are quite poor.

Nutrients Removal of nutrients (per each ton of grain)

N 31

P2O5 13

K2O 10

On this basis and, is possible to suggest the following fertilization plan:

Nutrients Pre-sowing (Kg ha -1)

Side dressing (Kg ha -1)

N 40 80

P2O5 50 0

K2O 0* 0

* to apply only in soil with < 100 ppm of K changeable

Splitting spring nitrogen application may have positive effect considering the highest rain frequencies during the autumn-winter season and especially when condition are favourable to leaching (light soil).

WATER MANAGEMENT Ethiopian mustard is known to be drought tolerant. However drought at germination inhibits seeds imbibition, which delays emergence with consequences for subsequent growth and harvest. Supplemental irrigation could be scheduled at the time of germination if autumnal rain trend is not enough to guarantee an optimal crop establishment; other supplemental irrigations are necessary during the most sensitive stages such as flowering, pod elongation and pod filling. Full irrigation water requirements can fluctuate from 1800 m3/ha until reach a value of 2100 m3/ha according to the water quality and to the irrigation method efficiency.

As regards irrigation method can be used sprinkler irrigation or double-ridged furrow irrigation supplying water through gated pipes instead of field canal.

Data collected in the Project area permitted to define the scheduling irrigation in the brassica fields to determine when to irrigate and how much water to apply.

4540

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

mm

Irrigation Irrigation + Rain Rain ETc

irrigation season

An irrigation scheduling for the environment of the Northeast Syria is reported in the following prospect:

Irrigation scheduling

N. Time (phenological stage)

Amount (mm)

1 middle march (stem elongation - first buds) 35 - 40

2 middle april (first flowers) 45 - 50

3 first may (end flowering - pod development) 50 - 60

4 middle-end may (pod filling) 50 - 60

Seasonal volume (mm) 180 - 210

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT Insect pests and diseases associated with Ethiopian mustard are rarely economically important; however they occur in many areas and could potentially cause problems. Late season insect infestation can effect seed yield and both oil content and quality. Cabbage seed weevil (Ceutorrhynchus assimilis) and rape stem weevil (Ceutorrhynchus napi) appear of greatest importance in this area; C. assimilis with the beginning of the flowering move onto brassica, after emerging from their hibernation sites in the soil. cool and rainy weather do not favour the flight of beetles. Young pods are preferred for oviposition, and a single female can lay 25–240 eggs during a season; larvae damages several seeds per pod while adults have no influence on the number of seeds per pod. Yield losses were not significant when the attack level was lower than 25 % of pods attacked. The most abundant and hazardous pest species is the pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus); young beetles emerge from the soil after hibernation when temperature rise above 10°C. The adults may feed on pollen and nectar of plants and however when temperature rise above 15°C, beetles move to brassica field to lay eggs in buds. When flowers open, the larvae begin to feed on pollen, ovary and petals, and, as a result of heavier damage, flowers dry and fall, whereas slighter damage does not cause the falling of flowers but hinders the formation of pods. Larvae and adults move from older flowers to younger ones and flower buds. The pollen beetle begin to inhabit brassica field when buds are already big and the opening of the first inflorescences of the stem has started; this period is considered the most sensitive stage for beetles. As regards the threshold value for chemical treatment should be counted until maximum 3 adults on one plant.

Cabbage weevil (Ceuthorrhyncus napi)

Pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus)

From other pest groups, several species of aphids (Homoptera, Aphidae) are spread in brassica. If aphids start their damage at bud stage, it may bring about considerable yield loss, the falling of flowers and the deformation of pods, whereas if plants had already developed a great parts of pods, aphids can’t cause perceptible damage. Sometimes a good aphid control can be realized by some natural enemies like some coleoptera such as ladybeetle and so under the threshold of 2 aphid colonies per square meter, pest treatments should not be done . A good insect control can be realized recognising flight periods with yellow cromotropic traps and controlling infestations early by contact insecticide; a wide range of pyrethroids (alpha-cypermethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, tau-fluvalinate, zeta-cypermethrin) are currently used. Should be stressed that pesticides can have unwanted side-effects on beneficial insects, including parasitoids and predators, and their use can create some problems if these insect are active in a crop around the time of spraying; spray residues on crops can have also a repellent effects. Therefore only when the infestations are very heavy, chemical pest control is necessary. Fungal disease can be present particularly in areas where other oilseed crops as soybean and sunflower or peas are cultivated; the most diffused are Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Alternaria brassicae . Sclerotinia sclerotiorum can propagate between crop residuals with some organs called sclerotia. The best control can be obtained by crop rotations avoiding that same crop return for more years on the same field; a three year rotation can be enough to reduce the incidence of these disease.

Pest and disease Control

Cabbage weevil (Ceuthorrhyncus napi)

Pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus)

Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae)

cyflutrin (0.3 l ha-1); fluvalinate (0.5 l ha-1);

lambda-cyalothryna (0.25 l ha-1)

Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)

Alternaria leaf an pod spot (Alternaria brassicae)

use of resistant cultivars; crop rotation

Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)

Alternaria leaf and pod spot(Alternaria brassicae)

HARVEST From a practical point of view, direct combining is possible when the crop is mature: all the seeds are black and when the seed moisture content is less than 15%. Forward speed should be low (about two thirds of that for cereal) crops and the cutting height should be as high as possible to avoid an unduly high throughput of straw. A correct evaluation of time of harvesting is important because otherwise big losses of seeds can occur in the field. Moreover, if this happen it could represent a problem for the next crop because it become a weed; one solution to this problem could be represented by the use of false sowing or with chemical treatments.

Initial harvester settings

Reel speed medium

Spiral clearance high

Thresher speed 500 - 600 rpm

Concave clearance 13 - 3 mm

Fan speed minimum

Bottom sieve 4 - 5 mm

Rotor speed 600-700 rpm (rotary machines)

Wheat combine harvester

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