IT ETHIC

By Juan Miguel D. Francia

Dedication

I dedicate this book to my friends and families whom I love so much. To my dear professor sir Pajo, thank you for teaching us and introducing us to the world of ethics. I will cherish your teachings until the end of time. To my dog twinkle who passed away last dec 2, I will never forget you doge this is for you.

Preface

This book is for those who want’s to learn more and be introduced to the world of ethics. This book contains review and mind twisting questions that will surely make you ask yourself what is life? The first part of this book is contemporary Moral Ethics by James E. It is composed of works by other famous people who contributed in the world of Ethics. The second part of this book is Computer and Information Ethics, It is about ethics when it comes to the information world that we live right now.

Contemporary Moral Ethics

Chapter: 1- James Rachels: Egoism and Moral Skepticism

Review Questions

1.) Explain the legend of Gyges. What questions about morality are raised by the story?

-Gyges is a simple shepherd living a simple life. He found a magical ring that can turn anyone invisible and can can enable the wearer to travel anywhere. Gyges used this new found ring to travel to the palace to kill the King and then seize his throne.

Ethical Egoism can be found in Gyges because he did what he wants. He want’s to kill the king so that he can seize his throne because of his personal interest to have power and wealth.

2.) Distinguish between Psychological and Ethical Egoism

-Psychological Egoism is the view that human are always motivated by self interest. It is also a view that all men are selfish and they just act on their own.

Ethical Egoism is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest.

3.) Rachels discusses two arguments for psychological egoism. What are the arguments and how does he reply to them?

-The two arguments that James Rachels wants to discuss is if we describe a human action selfish or if a human actions are selfish. James Rachels reaction to the first argument is that selfishness if often confused with self interest. We can act on our own with-out being selfish, selfish behaviour is that which ignores the interest of others. Rachels also finds it worth considering why some intelligent people have accepted it as a true view.

The 2nd argument is if human actions are unselfish. James Rachels stated that Since so-called unselfish actions always produce a sense of self-satisfaction in the agent, and since that sense of satisfaction is a pleasant state of consciousness, it follows that the point of the action is really to achieve a pleasant state of consciousness, rather than to bring about any good for others.

4.) What three commonplace confusions does Rachels detects in the thesis of psychological egoism?

-The three common place confusion that James Rachels detects in the thesis of psychological egoism are : selfishness is often confused with self-interest, to believe that all actions are either selfish or altruistic, which is clearly a false dichotomy, Finally, there is the false assumption that a concern for oneself is incompatible with a concern for others.

5.) State the arguments for saying that ethical egoism is inconsistent. Why doesn’t Rachels accept the argument?

-If we understand ethical egoism properly, it is clear that one need not behave benevolently, but merely encourage others to do so. This has led many to try to refute the position on the grounds that it leads to a contradiction. To say that an action is right is to say that it is right for anyone in the same circumstances. But the ethical egoist cannot advocate that egoism be universally adopted.

Rachels doesn’t accept the argument for the reason that he thinks that would be unwarranted; for he thinks that we can show, contrary to this argument, how ethical egoism can be maintained consistently.

6.) According to Rachels, why shouldn’t we hurt others, and why should we help others?

-According to James Rachels we shouldn’t hurt others for the reason that other

people would be hurt and that we should help others because it is the right thing to do.

7.) How can the egoist reply?

-I’m gonna do this because I want to and this is my interest.

Discussion Questions

1.) Has Rachels answered the question raised by Glaucon, namely, “Why be moral?”If so, what exactly is his answer?

-Yes because he stated and explained to us that we should help others instead of hurting them.

2.) Are genuine egoists rare, as Rachels claims? Is it a fact that most people care about others, even people they don’t know?

-According to Rachel’s claim genuine egoists are not rare because there are still many people who would rather help others than hurt them and it is in their interest that helping others is in their priority.

3.) Suppose we define ethical altruism as the view the one should always act for the benefit of others and never in one’s own self-interest. Is such a view immoral or not?

-It is not immoral because a person should think first before doing an action. A person should do a certain action that will not hurt others even though it neglects his own interests.

Chapter: 2- John Arthur: Religion, Morality and Conscience

Review Questions

1.) According to Arthur, how are morality and religion different?

-According to John Arthur morality is our approach to certain kinds of behaviors using the notions of rules rights and obligations while Religion involves prayer, worship and belief of a higher being.

2.) Why isn’t religion necessary for moral motivation?

-Religion is just about faith in a certain higher being. We still do what interests us but also we think about how it will affect other people. If in our religion it is said that “Thou shall not kill” We would not kill a person because we know it is bad.

3.) Why isn’t religion necessary as a source of moral knowledge?

-Because we still know what is right or wrong even though religion does not come to picture. We group up and our parents teaches us what to do and what not do just like what their parents taught them.

4.) What is the divine command theory? Why does Arthur reject this theory?

-The divine command theory is a meta-ethical theory which proposes that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God. The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by what God commands, and that to be moral is to follow his commands. So what then is common good?

Common good refers to any idea, plan or actual deed that will benefit a community as a whole and not just help a select few. It also refers to specific good that is shared and beneficial for all (or most) members of a given community, such as the basic requirements for staying alive, food, water, and shelter, that are always good for all.

However, there is no strict definition of the common good for each situation. The good that is common between Person A and Person B may not be the same as between Person A and Person C. Thus the common good can often change.

A common good is one that benefits the community as a whole. Some examples of common good are the police department, public roads and street lights. Common goods are important because they improve the life for the whole community.

One question that answers the meaning of common good is “Is the good life social?” In other words, is human well-being found in the good of the whole society?

The common good has sometimes been seen as the utilitarian ideals, as espoused by the British Philisopher Jeremy Bentham representing “the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number of individuals.”

Common good shall mean “sa ikabubuti ng lahat.”

Everyone can promote common good by putting away self interests or few group interest and putting common good before them.

John Arthur rejects this theory because in the divine theory it is said that if God commanded it the action is right but if God does not command it the action is wrong.

5.) According to Arthur, how are morality and religion connected?

-Morality and religion is connected because if in our religion it is not stated that the action is wrong. We wouldn’t know that the said action is wrong. Morality serves as an guidance for us people to know what our actions means to also know if we are doing the right thing or not.

6.) Dewey says that morality is social. What does this mean, according to Arthur?

-This means that our certain actions depends on who we are with at that certain time.

Morality can also be taught so that we will know and do what is right. According to John Arthur Morality is inherently social, in a variety of ways. It depends on socially learned language, is learned from interactions with others, and governs our interactions with others in society.

Discussion Questions

1.) Has Arthur refuted the divine command theory? If not, how can it be defended?

-Arthur refuted the divine command theory because He doesn’t approve that only God can tell which is right or wrong.

2.) If morality is social, as Dewy says, then how can we have any obligations to non human animals?

-Because we are taught that hurting others is wrong thus creating an obligations to take care for other creations.

3.) What does Dewey mean by moral education? Does a college ethics class count as moral education?

-Yes, because in an ethics class we are taught about different type of morals. Our professor is not teaching us what should we do but just giving us an idea on what are actions really means or what it is called thus we gain information about it. So I can say that an ethics class counts as an moral education.

Chapter: 3- Friedrich Nietzsche: Master- and Slave-Morality

Review Questions

1.) How does Nietzsche characterize a good and healthy society?

-According to Neitzsche a good and healthy society should exercise their “Will of Power”. A good and healthy society should also have two kinds of people, the superior and the inferior.

2.) What is Nietzsche’s view of injury, violence, and exploitation?

-Nietzsche view on this occasions is that this happens because individuals have actual similarity of the amount of force and degree worth in co-relation to other people.

3.) Distinguish between master-morality and slave-morality

-Master morality values pride, strength, and nobility. Master morality weighs actions on a scale of good or bad while Slave morality values things like kindness, humility and sympathy and slave morality also weighs actions on a scale of good or evil intentions.

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4.) Explain the Will to Power.

-Will to Power is the main driving force of a certain individual. It is our drive to live, Will to Power is never defined it depends to a certain what he want’s and that want is his/her drive. For example an individual want’s to become a professional NBA player he/she will train everyday to reach his goal and that keeps him going everyday, that is his Will of Power.

Discussed Questions

1.) Some people view Nietzsche’s writings as harmful and even dangerous. For example, some have charged Nietzsche with inspiring Nazism. Are these charges justified or not? Why or why not?

-Every person has the right to express or say what he wants. It’s just that Nietzsche’s way of thinking does not appeal to everyone. Nietzsche does not want equality, he believes in Master-Slave morality and in our way of thinking and in what school taught us, Nietzsche is wrong. I guess that is why some people charged him of Nazism.

2.) What does it mean to be “a creator of value”?

-To possess “a creator of value” one should not gain approval to do what he/she wants. Someone who is determined to do what he really wants.

Chapter: 4- Mary Midgley: Trying Out One’s New Sword

Review Questions

1.) What is “moral isolationism”?

- Moral Isolationism is the view that we ought not to be morally concerned with, or involved with, people outside of our own immediate group. Moral isolationism is often a consequences of some versions of moral relativism.

2.) Explain the Japanese customer of tsujigiri. What questions does Midgley ask about this custom?

- is a Japanese term for a practice when a samurai, after receiving a new katana or developing a new fighting style or weapon, tests its effectiveness by attacking a human opponent, usually a random defenseless passer-by, in many cases during nighttime.[1] The practitioners themselves are also referred to as tsujigiri.

3.) What is wrong with moral isolationism, according to Midgley?

-According to Midgley, moral isolationism would lay down a general ban on moral reasoning. Essentially, this is the programme of immoralism and it carries a distressing logical difficulty.

4.) What does Midgley think is the basis for criticizing other cultures?

-According to Midgley we criticize other culture because the culture of our own is the basis of criticizing. We just can’t criticize our own culture so we just use that power to criticize others.

Discussion Questions

1.) Midgley says that Nietzsche is an immoralist. Is that an accurate and fair assessment of Nietzsche? Why or why not?

-Yes because Nietzsche does not believe in Equality. He want’s to have a master-slave morality which is in my point of view , Wrong.

2.) Do you agree with Midgley’s claim that the idea of separate and un mixed cultures is unreal? Explain your answer.

-Yes because in our culture today it is so common to see a mixed or someone who is not really from there. For example in the Philippines we can see a Chinito/Chinita or a Mestiso/Mestisa and it is very common here.

Chapter: 5- John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism

Review Questions

1.) State and explain the Principle of Utility. Show how it could be used to Justification that are conventionally viewed as wrong, such as lying and stealing.

-The principle of utility states that actions or behaviors are right in so far as they promote happiness or pleasure, wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness or pain.

In the Principe utility it states that wrong behaviors tend to produce unhappiness or pain and stealing and lying produces disappointment.

2.) How does Mill reply to the objection that Epicureanism is a doctrine worthy only of swine?

-Mill said that the objection that Epicureanism is a doctrine worthy only of swine is disregarding precisely because the beast’s pleasure does not satisfy human beings conceptions of happiness.

3.) How does Mill distinguish between higher and lower pleasures?

-Higher pleasures are generally more intellectual pleasures and lower pleasures are more sensual pleasures.

4.) According to Mill, whose happiness must be considered?

-For me based on my research Mill considered High pleasures because it’s just intellectual and in the Philippines which is 3rd world country the percentage of poor people is high but according to surveys Filipinos are happy people thus we can say that we prefer High pleasures that that’s what Mill wants.

5.) Carefully reconstruct Mill’s proof of the Principle of Utility.

-Utilitarianism is defined as pleasure itself, and the absence of pain. Utility can be also called the Greatest Happiness Principle. It’s solely about how can we define the happiness of a certain person by which he/she prefer in his life. It can be intellectual or about pleasure. It’s just how an individual approach certain kind of happiness that he/she prefer.

Discussion Questions

1.) Is happiness nothing more than pleasure, and the absence of pain? What do you think?

-No because pain demands to be felt so that we can say we’re alive. For me Happiness is about being content.

2.) Does Mill convince you that the so-called higher pleasures are better than the lower ones?

-Yes because higher pleasure is all about being intellectual but for me I prefer lower pleasures because it demands sensuality.

3.) Mill says, “In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility.” Is this true or not?

-This is true because a person should always think of others people. Before doing a certain action an individual should also recognize the happiness of other people.

4.) Many commentators have thought that Mill’s proof of the Principle of Utility is defective. Do you agree? If so, then what mistake or mistakes does he make? Is there any way to reformulate the proof so that it is not defective?

-I do not agree because in his Principle of Utility he clearly stated that

Chapter:6 - James Rachels: The Debate over Utilitarianism

Review Questions

1.) Rachels says that classical utilitarianism can be summed up in three propositions. What are they?Classical Utilitarianism is classified as:

-a.) Actions are judged right or wrong solely in virtue of their consequences. Nothing else matters. Right actions are, simply, those that have best consequences.

b.) In assessing consequences, the only thing that matters is the amount of happiness or unhappiness that caused. Everything else is irrelevant.

c.) In calculating happiness or unhappiness that will be caused, no one’s happiness is to be counted as more important than anyone else.”

Classical Utilitarianism is classified as , the sole moral obligation is to

Maximize utility (= happiness = pleasure).

2.) Explain the problem with hedonism. How do defenders of utilitarianism respond to this problem?

-Hedonism is the belief of a something that if it is good then it will be called, happiness but it misunderstands the meaning of happiness because happiness is not something that is recognized as good and sought for its means of bringing it about. Thus resulting to hedonism contradicts with Utilitarianism.

Defenders of utilitarianism suggest that in order to over ride Hedonism, we must utilize our resources and other good things in order for us to be happy.

3.) What are the objections about justice, rights, and promises?

-a.) Objection about justice is that problem of the violation of rights, since, in a utilitarian principle rights are only justified if they are essential to the maximisation of happiness.

b.) Objection about right is what about the morality of the one who is upholding the law

c.) Objection about promises is Why is Utilitarianism vulnerable to what promises stated that if Utilitarianism says that consequences are the only things that matters, seems mistaken.

4.) Distinguish between rule- and act- utilitarianism. How does rule-utilitarianism reply to the objections?

-Rule Utilitarianism is actions conform in to the rules that will lead to greater good while an Act Utilitarianism states that the right action is one that will give happiness to a person. Rule Utilitarianism maximizes the happiness of a certain individual thus making out all about happiness.

5.) What is the third line of defense?

- The third line of defense is a small group of contemporary utilitarian’s that has a very different response to the utilitarian arguments. That argument points out that the classical theory is at odds with ordinary notions of justice, individual rights, and so on; to this there response is essentially, “So what?

Discussion Questions

1.) Smart’s defense of utilitarianism is to reject common moral beliefs when they conflict with utilitarianism. Is this acceptable to you or not? Explain your answer.

-No because I will not abandon my morality just to achieve a certain kind of Happiness that I don’t want and I am not a Utilitarian , I live by the morals I learned when I was growing up and I am happy about it.

2.) A utilitarian is supposed to give moral consideration to all concerned. Who must be considered? What about nonhuman animals? How about lakes and streams?

-Utilitarian focuses on human beings but it doesn’t mean that they neglect non human beings because it can also cause happiness or unhappiness to a certain individual.

3.) Rachels claims that merit should be given moral consideration independent of utility. Do you agree?

-Yes because merit should be given to a certain person in an individual manner because of utility. These days, things are definitely changing and the idea of adoration and all the things that encompasses it is no exemption. Notwithstanding of this, I am still the sort of individual who would need to be included seeing someone that would do everything to make the said relationship keep going for a lifetime. For me, connections include diligent work.

Chapter: 7- Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperative

Review Questions

1.) Explain Kant’s account of the good will.

-For Kant good will is unique in that it is always good and maintains its moral value even when it fails to achieve its moral intentions. Kant regarded the good will as a single moral principle which freely chooses to use the other virtues for moral ends.

2.) Distinguish between hypothetical and categorical imperatives.

-Hypothetical imperatives is a commandment of reason that applies only conditionally.While categorical imperatives is defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action.

3.) State the first formulation of the categorical imperative (using the notion of a universe law), and explain how Kant uses this rule to derive some specific duties toward self and others.

- Kant concludes that a moral proposition that is true must be one that is not tied to any particular conditions, including the identity of the person making the moral deliberation. A moral maxim must imply absolute necessity, which is to say that it must be disconnected from the particular physical details surrounding the proposition, and could be applied to any rational being. This leads to the first formulation of the categorical imperative.

4.) State the second version of the categorical imperative (using the language of means and ends). And explain it.

-Every rational action must set before itself not only a principle, but also an end. Most ends are of a subjective kind, because they need only be pursued if they are in line with some particular hypothetical imperative that a person may choose to adopt. For an end to be objective, it would be necessary that we categorically pursue it. The free will is the source of all rational action..

Discussion Questions

1.) Are the two versions of the categorical imperative just different expressions of one basic rule, or are they two different rules? Defend your view.

-The two versions of categorical imperative differ from each other but it is just one basic rule. They basically teach us the negative side of self love.

2.) Kant claims that an action that is not done from the motive of duty has no moral worth. Do you agree or not? If not, give some counterexamples.

-No because undone motives can result to the happiness of other people.

3.) Some commentators think that the categorical imperative (particularly the first formulation) can be used to justify immoral actions. Is this a good criticism?

-Yes because for example committing suicide. You have the power to take your own life and if you do it it’s immoral.

Chapter: 8- Aristotle: Happiness And Virtue

Review Questions

1.) What is happiness, according to Aristotle? How is it related to virtue? How is it related pleasure?

-For Aristotle happiness depends on ourselves more than anybody else. Aristotle enshrines happiness as a central purpose of human life and a goal in itself. Virtue is something we want to do that gives us happiness and pleasure results to happiness.

Numerous thought processes, as how John Arthur clarified, for making the best choice have nothing to do with religion. He calls attention to that "the vast majority of, truth be told do stress over getting discovered being faulted, and being looked down on by others. We additionally may do what needs to be done simply on the grounds that its correct, or on the grounds that we would prefer not to damage others or humiliate family and companions."

Reviewing what I've said prior, that Religion is established on how God needs us to act and Morality is focused around human encounters, consequently hence our demonstrations its okay to hear your voice, say my name, it sounds so sweet, may not be in accordance with profound quality to religion or religion to profound quality. Originating from the lips of a heavenly attendant We normally build our activities depending in light of the circumstances, weighing the profits and misfortune,

2.) How does Aristotle explain moral virtue? Give some examples.

-Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices. For example we tend not to hurt others but still other people do it.

3.) Is it possible for everyone in our society to be happy, as Aristotle explains it? If not,who cannot be happy?

-Yes because that is a sole goal of a certain individual and that is so become happy and content.

Discussion Questions

1.) Aristotle characterizes a life of pleasure a suitable for beasts. But what, if anything, is wrong with a life of pleasure?

-Because an individual should not live only because of pleasure. Other source of happiness should also takes place. We are not animals to just enjoy life because of pleasure only.

2.) Aristotle claims that the philosopher will be happier than anyone else. Why is this? Do you agree or not?

-Yes because a philosopher has a different point of view when it comes to enjoying life. A philosopher lives in his own principle or rule thus resulting to a different perception about what can make him happy.

Chapter: 9- Joel Feinberg: The Nature and Value of Rights

Review Questions

1.) Describe Nowheresville. How is this world different from our world?

-Nowhereville is a world where citizens have no right therefore they cannot claim moral rights when they are being offended or hurt. In our world we have rights to follow thus other people just can’t hurt or offend us without being punished.

From the perspective of a sociologists, the general public is a framework made out of individuals who are bound together consistently by some regular purposes or intentions. It is viewed as a framework in light of the fact that its parts are deliberate and efficient, with regulations to guide their activities.

Independently, these individuals may have distinctive ways of life, callings, or capacities, yet on the whole they impart regular hobbies, connections, or thought processes, which serve as the binding together elements of the general public. These elements regularly characterize that society, for example, in a religious society whose binding together component is confidence or religion. Others can have matters of trade and profit, topography, or even workmanship as their bringing together elements.

Besides, the general public can be contrasted with a human body that is made out of numerous frameworks, which thus are made out of organs performing distinctive capacities. Yet while their capacities are different, their motivation is the same, which is the prosperity of the human body.societies additionally contrast in sizes. Social orders can be extremely perplexing in light of the fact that they are made out of a few sub-social orders. On account of the human body, it is an extremely perplexing society in light of the fact that it is made out of diverse body frameworks, for example, the digestive and the circulatory frameworks, which are considered as the body's "sub-social orders". The body frameworks are then made out of littler "sub-social orders" called the organs, for example, the liver and the heart. Eventually, the most essential "sub-

social orders" are the cells on the grounds that they are the building pieces of the human body. On account of the human culture, a nation can be considered as the most perplexing. A nation is made out of littler sub-social orders that can be characterized by geographic area or by the method for work of the individuals. Eventually, the most fundamental type of human culture is the family.the Philippines, our nation, is a case of an exceptionally mind boggling human culture. To endeavor to portray the Philippine society would be extremely aggressive in light of the fact that it would be difficult to envelop all its attributes. On the other hand, attempting to recognize a portion of the positive and the negative qualities of our nation is a begin. At last, we will take pride in our positive qualities and location the negative ones. The Philippine society is particularly described by close family ties. The parts of the

family are hard sew together that it is extremely normal to see parts of more distant families living

inside one compound or under one top. Others keep on liing with their prompt families significantly in the wake of moving on from school. This trademark is unique of the Philippines in light of the fact that relatively few nations have the same respect for family relations. It is this trademark that is the center of this article. Despite the fact that this trademark may appear to be plain and essentially positive, we will see later that beside positive, it can prompt some negative results.as the family is viewed as the most essential unit of the general public, having close family ties fortify the establishment of the estimations of the people. The qualities are taught to the kids at such an early age. These qualities will help the single person in his managing other peopleand in doing his capacities. Eventually, the qualities will bring about a significant improvement people, who have an aggregate constructive impact to the entire society. For example, people that take in the estimation of truthfulness at such an early age will most likely live by it for the duration of his life. He will be a resource for the organization of work due to his compliance is a vital esteem in the working environment. It is a trademark that is likewise interesting of the Philippine society. It implies the feeling of being paying off debtors to somebody on the grounds that he has helped you out. Therefore, when the ball is in his court to request some help, you ought to respond. In the family, for instance, the folks have buckled down all their lives in place

to send the kids to class. At the point when the youngsters move on from school and begin acquiring cash

from work, they ought to watch utang na loob by giving back some of their salary to the folks. While this sounds more like being appreciation and valuation for what the activities of others, it can be unconstructive or obstructive to development when misjudged. Consider the political scene where an information transfers organization helped patron a political hopeful amid his decision fight. At the point when the political competitor won in the race, he would watch utang na loob to the information transfers organization by giving the broadband arrangements to that organization that helped him in the

race, some of the time regardless of the possibility that different organizations give a superior offer. Along these lines, this estimation of utang na loobcan lead to misapply and corruption.in different words, the family ties can have both great and awful impacts. It is great as in consolidates in the personalities of the individuals the values that are paramount in doing their parts in the general public and in managing others. Taken altogether, the individual qualities serve for the advancement of the entire society. On the other hand, that is only one side of the coin for it is additionally the underlying driver of the feeling of utang na loob. This quality is regularly confounded and misused. In this way, it turns into an impediment as opposed to support to development of the economy.

Since the family is the most basic unit of human culture, arrangement ought to begin

at home. Direction is required by the Filipino homes on the grounds that it is at home that creates the estimations of the single person. All things considered, even in the time of computerization and profoundly created period of engineering, the person is still the preeminent and most profitable of all assets. In any case, the nearby family ties is likewise the foundation of the Filipinos' feeling of utang na loob.

2.) Explain the doctrine of the logical correlativity of right and duties. What is Feinberg’s position on this doctrine?

-The doctrine of logical correlativity is about the duties entail other people’s rights, and all rights entail other people’s duties.

3.) How does Feinberg explain the concept of personal desert? How would personal desert work in Nowheresville?

-For Feinberg a personal desert is where moral rights are not present. Just like Nowheresville, Individuals doesn’t have rights thus resulting to other people hurting each other people because they don’t possess rights that they can claim if they are offended.

4.) Explain the notion of a sovereign right-monopoly. How would this work in Nowheresville according to Feinberg?

-The notion of a sovereign right monopoly is that there is a re right to treat others well,but this duty is not according to subject but according to God.

If the citizens of Nowheresville have a higher being that they can believe in, Rights will be present and that rights will be justified by how their higher being wants it to be.

5.) What are claim-rights? Why does Feinberg think they are morally important?

-Claim rights is the connections of our personal rights and our rights to claim it.

Discussion Questions

1.) Does Feinberg make a convincing case for the importance of rights? Why or why not?

-Yes because he explained why having rights is important by showing us what will happen by depicting a world where moral rights are not present and that is in Nowheresville.

2.) Can you give a non circular definition of claiming-right?

-Claiming right is the connection of having rights and claim.

Chapter: 10- Ronald Dworkin: Taking Rights Seriously

Review Questions

1.) What does Dworkin mean by right in the strong sense? What rights in this sense are protected by the U.S. Constitution?

-According to Dworkin Rights are entitlements to perform certain actions, or (not) to be in certain states; or entitlements that others perform certain actions or (not) be in certain states. For example if a citizen has the right to vote and the government hinders then the government neglects the right of that person to vote.

2.) Distinguish between legal and moral right. Give some example of legal rights that are not moral right, and moral right that are not legal rights.

-Moral rights are rights of creators of copyrighted works generally recognized in civil law jurisdictions and, to a lesser extent, in some common law jurisdictions. While Legal rights are those bestowed onto a person by a given legal system.

3.) What are the two models of how a government might define the rights of its citizens? Which does Dworkin find more attractive?

· The first model recommends striking a balance between rights of the individual and the demands of society

· The second one is that the government inflates a right

· For dworkin the 2nd right of the citizen is more attractive because the government can stop a person if he/she is exercising his/her right but violates the right of other people.

4.) According to Dworkin, what two important ideas are behind the institution or rights?

· For Dworkin the two important ideas for institutional rights is Act of faith by the Majorities and Minorities

Discussion Questions

1.) Does a person have a right to break the law? Why or why not?

-Yes because every individual has the right to do what best his interest but if it violates the right of other people then it is time for him/her to stop.

2.) Are rights in the strong sense compatible with Mill’s utilitarianism?

-Yes because Utilitarianism is about Happiness of a certain individual and if he/she has rights that person can be happy.

3.) Do you think that Kant would accept right in the strong sense or not?

-Yes because having rights determines the good will of a certain person.

Chapter: 11- John Rawls: A Theory of Justice

Review Questions

1.) Carefully explain Rawls’s conception of the original position.

- No one knows his position in the society. The principles of justice are chosen behind a curtain of ignorance. This ensures that no one is advantage or disadvantage in the choice of principles by the outcome of natural chance of social circumstances.

2.) State and explain Rawls’s first principle of justice.

-Each person should have have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others.”

3.) State and explain the second principle. Which principle has priority such that it cannot be sacrificed?

-Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:

· ·Reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage

· ·Attached to positions and offices open to all.

The first and second should be arranged in order because for example a person leaves from a position where in he/she experiences equal liberty required by the 1st principle can not be justified by greater and economic advantage.

Discussion Questions

1.) On the first principle, each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty as long as this does not interfere with a similar liberty for others.What does this allow people to do? Does it mean, for example, that people have right to engage in homosexual activities as long as they don’t interfere with others? Can people produce and view pornography if it does not restrict anyone’s freedom? Are people allowed to take drugs in the privacy of their homes?

-For me every person has the right to do something that can give him/her happiness it’s just that if he/she violates someone’s right then it is wrong and not acceptable anymore.

2.) Is it possible for free and rational persons in the original position to agree upon different principles than give by Rawls? For example, why wouldn’t they agree to an equal distribution of wealth and income rather than an unequal distribution?That is, why wouldn’t they adopt socialism rather than capitalism? Isn’t socialism just as rational as capitalism?

-Yes

Chapter: 12- Annette C. Baier: The Need for More Than Justice

Review Questions

1.) Distinguish between the justice and care perspectives. According to Gilligan,how do these perspectives develop?

-In the book, Gilligan ensures that woman are most unlikely to take simply value perspective, since the thought perspective is a women's normal part as the vital managers of energetic adolescents.

2.) Explain Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. What criticisms do Gilligan and Baier make of this theory?

· Pre-conventional level - Where what is seen to matter is satisfying or not

· Conventional - A student for example do anything just so that he/she can fit in a group

· Post-conventional -

3.) Baier says there are three important differences between Kantian liberals and their critics. What are these differences?

· The relative weight put on relationships between equal

· · The relative weight put on freedom of choice

· · The authority of intellect over emotions

4.) Why does Baier attack the Kantian view that the reason should control unruly passions?

-Because she said that one person should never ever forget history. History is part of one’s life and we should remember it.

Discussion Questions

1.) What does Baier mean when she speaks of the need “to transvalue the values of our patriarchal past”? Do new values replace the old ones? If so, then do we abandon the old values of justice, freedom, and right?

-To transvalue means enhancing our qualities. I think new values does not supplant the old ones, the new values are simply the enhanced forms.

2.) What is wrong with the Kantian view that extends equal rights to all rational beings, including women and minorities? What would Baier say? What do you think?

-Based on my readings. There is nothing wrong with the Kantian View

3.) Baier seems to reject the Kantian emphasis on freedom of choice. Granted, we do not choose our parent, but still don’t we have freedom of choice about many things, and isn’t this very important?

-For me freedom of choice is important. That’s what differ us from other creations of God, We humans have our freedom of choice and our conscience.

The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics

Part 1 : Foundational Issues and Methodological Frameworks

Chapter 1 : Foundation of Information Ethics

by Luciano Floridi

Quote : In one of Einstein’s letters there is a passage that well summarizes the perspective advocated by IE understood as a macro ethics: “A human being is part of the whole, called by us ‘universe,’ a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings, as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons close to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from our prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all humanity and the whole of nature in its beauty. Nobody is capable of achieving this completely, but the striving for such achievement is in itself a part of the liberation and a foundation for inner security” (Einstein, 1954). Does looking at reality through the highly philosophical lens of an informational analysis improve our ethical understanding, or is it an ethically pointless (when not misleading) exercise? IE argues that the agent-related behavior and the patient-related status of informational objects qua informational objects can be morally significant, over and above the instrumental function that may be attributed to them by other ethical approaches, and hence that they can contribute to determining, normatively, ethical duties and legally enforceable rights. IE’s position, like that of any other macro ethics, is not devoid of problems. But it can interact with other macro ethical theories and contribute an important new perspective: a process or action may be morally good or bad irrespective of its consequences, motives, universality, or virtuous nature, but depending on how it affects the info sphere. An ontrocentric ethics provides an insightful perspective. Without IE’s contribution, our understanding of moral facts in general, not just of ICT-related problems in particular, would be less complete and our struggle to escape from our anthropocentric condition, being this Plato’s cave or Einstein’s cage, less successful.

What I expect to learn

· Ethics of Informational Resources

· Ethics of Informational Products

· Ethics of Informational Environment

· The importance of Information combined with Computer Ethics

· Information Ethics as Macro Ethics

Review: We call our overall population "the data society" because of the pivotal imagined by savvy, unimportant assets, information genuine organizations, furthermore open zones. As an issue affiliation and way of life, the information society has been made possible by a group of information and correspondence developments a full explanation of techne, the information society has authoritatively posed real good issues, whose unpredictability and overall estimations are rapidly creating and creating. Nowadays, a pressing errand is to figure a data morals that can treat the universe of data, information, and learning, with their noteworthy life cycles, as an issue environment, the insight circle, in which humanity is and will be flourishing. A data morals should have the ability to address additionally handle the ethical troubles rising in the information circle.

The procedure determined above is best introduced schematically and by fixating our thought on an ethical specialists A. Icts impact an operators' ethical life from different viewpoints.

Data Ethics may contrast in regards to its definition, the book saw it as if it was continually progressing into various requests of ethics, for instance, machine morals, business ethics, helpful ethics, programming building, and the sanity of information, social epistemology ICT studies, and library and information science. Those are the requests said inside the book. As I defined that it was constantly propelling, the target of Information Ethics hasn't for the most part been clear or straight to the point. Data Ethics point, in my viewpoint, is to make windows all through of its appendages to further organize and gather information that is taken from the overall population itself.

On the world that we live in, Information Ethics is an essential in light of the ethical issues that rises up out of the speedy paced range of information advancement, which gigantically impacts how we live, and in addition how we interface with others. It has been noted that the data morals was gotten from the examinations of great issues which rises up out of treating information as an issue, thing or even as an issue. Right when treated as an issue, information must be acquired with a particular finished objective to settle on fitting great decisions. By settling on the right decisions, the benefit can be used for more significant exercises and not for wrongdoings that may harm different people in the Infosphere. There are great issues that may rise up out of the availability, precision, and accessibility of informative resources, among others. Right when treating information as an issue, it will fundamentally offer move to great and contemporary issues in the association of commitment, obligation, criticism institution, affirmation, publicizing, predictability, lie, the pragmatic rules of correspondence and social deliberate exposure. In case and when a moral movement impacts the instructive environment, information is then said to be considered as an issue. A better than average and specific representation of this is when there is a crack of security of a singular's private information in his, we should say's, email. This can be said that the individual was hacked. Diverse morals issues to consider beginning here of point of view may join security, robbery, vandalism, open source, authorized development, adaptability of representation, filtering, limitation or more all, the substance control.

In the section, Microethics is introduced and portrayed as information as one of its edges without admiration to its alternate points of view that has been at one time depict. Approaching data morals in the microethics perspective, it regularly causes an issue when moral circumstances call for spreads between the various parts of information, which is the more and normal occasion. There are three sections of information displayed that when interpreting data morals in the macroethics perspective, it can be handled using the three sections of information and their association with each other while exploring every substance included in the circumstances as a real part of the infosphere. Data Ethics as an issue can be portrayed as patient-arranged and ecological. Data Ethics in this sense intimates that any being, any component, anything that has an instructive state, whether living or non-living, honest to goodness or sensible, has an honor in balance to diverse sorts of ethics that is put something aside for genuine living things, regardless of the way that it may be unimportant. It furthermore inspected about the moral masters concerning Information Ethics. The moral masters that is joined with data morals is any move system that is somehow canny, choice toward oneself criticalness free from others, flexible, and can perform morally qualifying exercises. This definition then joins the implied fake pros (the people who are not human or possibly a get-together of people taken together, or a social occasion of individuals and machines, et cetera.) in light of the way that it separates the moral commitment and great obligation of this thought. We, as individuals, are considered as an issue moral authorities in light of the way that we have the responsibilities to ourselves to the entire infosphere, not just to use the advantages open for us, moreover to make it too. Data Ethics have used four moral benchmarks to guide us individuals. These moral norms fuse the entropy ought not to be achieved in the infosphere, entropy ought to be balanced in the infosphere, entropy ought to be dislodged from the infosphere, and the flourishing of informational substances and of the whole infosphere which is ought to be progressed by ensuring, creating, and enhancing their properties. This basically simply suggests that a specific masters is abhorrent and wrong if they will bring about an addition in entropy, and that a moral movement is unequivocally model in case it create.

Integrative Questions :

· What is Ethics in Information?

· Why is Ethics in Information needed to be studied?

· What is the importance of Information Ethics in our lives?

· What are the different moral agents that are present in the Information Ethics

· Why is IE Inapplicable

Chapter 2: Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics

By Terrell Ward Bynum

Quote:

Wiener’s understanding of human nature presupposed ametaphysical account of

the universe that considered the world and all the entities within it, including

humans, as combinations of two fundamental things: matter-energy and information.

Everything is amixture of both; and thinking, according toWiener, is actually a

kind of information processing. Given Wiener’s metaphysical view, all things in the universe come into existence, persist, and then disappear by means of the continuous mixing and mingling of

information andmatter-energy. Living organisms, includinghuman beings, are actually

patterns of information that persist through an ongoing exchange of matter-energy.

according toWiener, human beings must be free to engage in creative and

flexible actions that maximize their full potential as intelligent, decision-making

beings in charge of their own lives. This is the purpose of a human life. Different

people, of course, have various levels of talent and possibility, so one person’s

achievements will differ from another’s. It is possible, though, to lead a good human

life—to flourish—in an indefinitely large number of ways; for example, as a teacher,

scientist, nurse, doctor, housewife, midwife, diplomat, soldier, musician, artist,

tradesman, artisan, and so on.

What I Expect To learn:

· Accounts of Good Life

· Information Ethics Methodology

· Computer Ethics

· Different Computer Ethics Theory

Review : The history and the foundation of data morals and machine morals could be followed back into the second world war and that the improvement of it was less a bit of their plan for they were making something to help them with the war yet oddly enough what they have comprehended unintentionally will inescapably give a tremendous impact in the information building industry. This disclosures cleared methodology to boundless open entryways wherein it was noted as it could have been a "second current bombshell". Clearly, given that there are new revelations and an extensive measure of chance present, troubles and issues are sure to rise up out of this sublime advancement. Norbert Wiener and his accomplices moreover envisioned that in case they've done it and that it was at first for the war, it would mean an unimaginable game plan and potential may it be for good and great exercises or for vindictive or harming purposes.

The war has as of late completed and when things became peaceful and when people are starting to get go down, it was when Wiener made his book in 1948 that contains information about the examination of "apply autonomy" which was trailed by an exchange book following 2 years and it was about the impacts of the new information propels that they had understood, socially and ethically. Exactly when Norbert Wiener's two books were dispersed, this is the thing that cleared methodology to data morals and machine morals. He had his mind wrapped around endless potential results for the future and really, they were without a doubt possible. Various investigated his reasonable soundness that he was thinking excessively far ahead and that some of his musings were a tad crazy or basically unadulterated dream. With the limited resources that they had in the midst of that time, they couldn't see the whole picture in an a great deal more broad scale for what it was worth.

It was said that our understanding and the thought of data morals was imagined unintentionally and practically incidentally in the time when the Second World War was going on. This was the time when the analyst, and likewise pragmatist Norbert Wiener, who is from the United Conditions of America, together with his partners of specialists and authorities who were incorporated in the development of the early praiseworthy machines and radar, besides a remarkable antiaircraft firearm that can see the region of a plane, collect essential and discriminating information as to the air transport's rate and trajectory, anticipate its future position after several seconds, pick where to point and what accurate moment to release the shell, moreover finish that decision. This is conceivable without really obliging the support of a human single person. Beyond any doubt it was an astonishing improvement around then. Regardless of the way that it was seen as an issue work, Norbert Wiener comprehended that his creation, in the field of science and building, together with his social event of specialists and originators, would have "huge potential for good and for detestation." He expected that their work, the origination of the new information development, would definitely change the world we live in, much the same as what the Modern Unrest in Europe did in securing a skeleton by the way we have done things in the nineteenth and twentieth several years. Norbert Wiener similarly expected that after the war, this "second current change", or what he calls the "modified age", would make such a mixed bag of good challenges and opportunities in our overall population. He made a book after the war which is about the conceivable social and good impacts of the new information advancements. With the book he made, he didn't comprehend that he secured the skeletons of in the field of data morals, and additionally in the field of machine morals moreover. Notwithstanding the way that his work was an amazing accomplishment in ethics, most scientists and analysts around then accepted that Wiener's thinking was so far before them, to the point that they considered his thinking to be eccentric who possessed with flights of creative energy about what's to come. In that time, not by any methods Weiner, nor the analysts and specialists, saw the huge basics of his ethical achievements. It took practically two former decades the social and good impacts of figuring which Wiener have foreseen, would transform into a standard thing in our world. It was then an exchange decade when Walter Maner, an instructor Bowling Green State College, organized the statement "machine morals." Computer morals, as showed by him, is a bit of a suitable rationale which handles with how transforming specialists (e.g. people who work in the field of programming designing and information development), should settle on decisions concerning master and social conduct. An instructor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University named Ms. Margaret Anne Puncture, has orchestrated the ethical decisions which are related to machine advancement and usage into three crucial viewpoints or effects: the individual's own specific individual code, any easy code of good administer that is thwarted or that exists in the work place, and any prologue to formal codes of ethics.

Walter Maner in like manner helped the foundation of handling the ethical issues familiar with us by the current machine, and yet again, sired the colloquialism "machine morals", which is the name for the new appendage of ethics that was obliged to deal with these issues. Walter Maner endeavored to spread his examines regarding machine morals in schools and universities, in which he gave talks and made the "Starter Unit on Showing Computer Ethics", which gives people access to information as to the presentation of the new field in ethics.

What I learned :

· I have found that in light of the advancement and openness of information, machine morals has been bound to address the issues defied by the overall population.

· I have found that it was not until the late 1990's that machine morals transformed into a honest to goodness study and was spread in light of its need in the overall population.

· I have found that among all the advances that has been envisioned or found on the planet, the machine designing faced more good issues among them.

· I have found that the improvement and consideration regarding the need to show machine morals was not by and large old in perspective of the curiosity of the openness of Pcs.

· I have found that those machines ethics fills the hole of issues that are raised by machine advancement are not controlled by any laws or measures as for ethics.

Integrative Questions

· What is computer ethics and how could it have been able to it impact individuals to stretch that field?

· How is computer ethics spread by Walter Maner? What part does he play in the extension of computer ethics?

· Where did Ms. Margaret Puncture taught?

· What are the four incredible standards expressed in this part?

· Who is Norbert Wiener? What huge commitment did he make in the field of morals?

Chapter 3: Moral Methodology and Information Technology

By Jeroen Van Den Hoven

Quote: Ethics has seen notable changes in the course of the past 100 years. Ethics was in the beginning of the twentieth century predominantly a metaethical enterprise. It focused

on questions concerning the meaning of ethical terms, such as “good” and “ought,” and

on the cognitive content and truth of moral propositions containing them. Later,

ordinary language philosophers continued the metaethical work with different means.

In the sixties, however, the philosophical climate changed. Ethics witnessed an

“Applied Turn.” Moral philosophers started to look at problems and practices in the

professions, in public policy issues, and public debate. Especially in the USA,

philosophers gradually started to realize that philosophy could contribute to social

and political debates about, for example, the Vietnam War, civil rights, abortion,

environmental issues, animal rights, and euthanasia, by clarifying terms and structuring

arguments. Ever since the sixties, applied ethics has been growing. Every

conceivable profession and cluster of issues has established in the meanwhile a

special or applied ethics named after itself—from “library ethics” to “sports ethics” to

“business ethics.”The format of the explicit methodological account provided inmany

applied and professional ethics textbooks usually refers to the application of normative

ethical theories, such as utilitarianism, Kantianism, or Rawlsian Justice as

Fairness, to particular cases. Textbooks often start with a chapter on deontological

theories and teleological theories, which are supposed to be applied to the problems in

the field. The application process itself, however, is often left un(der)specified.

There has been a longstanding and central debate in practical ethics about

methodology. The debate has been between those who think that general items, for

example, rules and principles or universal moral laws, play an important or even

central role in our moral thinking (this point of viewis often referred to as generalism)

and those who think that general items play no special or important role in our moral

thinking. The latter think that people typically discuss particular and individual cases,

articulate contextual considerations, the validity of which expires when they are

generalized or routinely applied to other cases. This view is often referred to as

particularism.

Every form of applied ethics, including computer ethics, needs to position itself in

this debate.

What I expect to learn:

· Different moral Methodology

· Different Information Technology

· How moral Methodology and Information Technology can change our perspective about life

· What are the different moral methodologies that are used.

Review: Machine morals, as an issue of associated or valuable ethics, is more inclined to request relating to development, for instance, change, application, and use of machines and programming building on the off chance that they are morally attractive or not. Numerous people has ended up enchanted with the prospect of machine morals as the topic and its expansions are entrancing and that people use it to relate to bona fide moral request. As what we have continually examined, having these new revelations gives enormous measure of potential to do uncommon, yet with that speaks to a huge amount of new troubles and issues. An unobtrusive pack of them would be about insurance, programming licenses, and commitment in regards to programming fiascos, and we are okay with that because the dangers are certified. Regardless, noting them may speak to an exchange an interchange. By what technique would it be a decent thought for us to positively approach these request? Jeroen Van Cave Hoven's musing was to approach ethics in information advancement the same as how we should approach diverse augmentations of ethics of building and building.

Hoven moreover pointed out that anyway we have to approach them the same way, there will even now be differences between great issues made by the assorted sorts of building with their specific determinations. Hoven furthermore communicated that Data Engineering, case in point is "pervasive" and "pervasive" in ways which automobiles are unquestionably not. Information designing similarly comes as the closest to being our "broad development" because it brings "genuine adaptability". There are so much that we can do with this weighty disclosure that it can be used as a piece of practically anything in our step by step lives. Hoven moreover said that information advancement is also a "meta engineering" which is a building that makes the imperative component for the change and use of diverse advances. "Constitutive development" may be an interchange term for information designing. It constitutes to things which they are joined with.

"In case IT is used, for example, in wellbeing mindfulness, social protection will change in basic courses as an issue of it; on the off chance that it is used as a piece of science and guideline, science and preparing will never be the same again; if the Web and the Internet are brought into the lives of children, their lives will be out and out unique in relation to the young of people who grew up without online machine redirections, MSN, visit rooms, Hyves, and Second Life." (Hoven 50) It goes without saying what IT can finish for us, it has cleared course for our change and for the headway of our time. It is a simple choice where it got us from where we were. IT is encompassing us. Hoven furthermore said that we make it an inclination to ignore that IT is about information and that it has phenomenal properties that makes it hard for us to suit it into figured structures concerned with unmistakable, material stock to their era, scattering, and use.

Expecting to "upgrade" the way we live, machines and diverse sorts of advancement are not for the most part gotten wholeheartedly by everyone. There are still the people who tends of requirements to live in the past times where everything was done by hand and such. Hovan said that we needed to find and give machines and programming a spot in our moral world. I no ifs ands or buts agree, and there could be troubles given this target. As I have determined former that there are still the people who tend to live in the times of yore where there weren't any machines. We have to mull over what sways this may have with people. Will they be keen on it? Will society recognize it? Will it open up new dangers? Also diverse request that may pop up. We need to research how it propels us and how and/or in case it enables us to do extraordinary or malignance. It furthermore impacts and changes our experiences and how it shapes and change the way we think. The properties of information designing may require of us to come back to the routine thoughts and beginnings about assurance, commitment, and property.

We can't envision that ethics will keep with it as the years advanced. There is nothing unfaltering in this world, everything is and will change. Ethics has been a subject to have grabbed changes through the past 100 years. It was around the start of the twentieth century and was a metaethical attempt. Ethics in those days was said to have focused on issues concerning the representations, "incredible" and "ought to", and the sharp regard and truth about great proposals that instill them. After eventually, a couple of scholars continued with their metaethical work with different mediums. In any case there was a change that happened around the sixties and was said to be that ethics has seen an "Associated Turn". Moral intellectuals began looking into issues and practices of masters and in individuals when all is said in done methodology issues and general society discusses.

Moreover in the midst of the sixties, there were some joined ethics that has been continually creating. A few calling and group of issues has made a name for themselves while an interesting or associated ethics names after itself, the change was from "library ethics" to "recreations ethics" to finally, "business ethics". There has similarly been a common contention that has been running and has continued for over a period of time. This was insinuating sensible ethics as for methodology. The chat about's standard subject is about the people who feel that general things, are rules of and gauges or complete great laws which expect a discriminating part in our moral instinct which was moreover implied as "generalism". The declaration "particularism" is routinely the term used to gathering a couple of cases which may have likene. The majority of us either does not comprehend what the genuine reason for our lives is or has a wrong thought of it. Particularly in this time of data and innovation when we do things at a quick pace in

request to stay aware of the quick headway in engineering, our perspective of what is truly critical is ignored and darkened. The things that we typically do might not be in amicability with our genuine reason. Along these lines, there is a need to ponder the motivation behind human presence on the grounds that it would make us take a gander at our day by day exists and adjust them towards this reason. With the goal us should understand the reason for human presence, it is important to recognize first the nature of individual. What are the qualities that make individuals human? What sets human creatures separated from different animals? One conspicuous point of interest of the person to different animals is his ownership of the biggest cerebrum. Notwithstanding, it is not a sufficient quality that makes a person human, which implies that it is likewise not sufficient to make the demonstration of speculation the way of the person. The mind and the ability to think are not special to the person. The canine, for instance, additionally has a cerebrum that permits it to think and learn, albeit in a much littler scale. Case in point, the pooch figures out how to discharge excrement in the patio when the pet manager gives suggestions that it is not permitted to do so inside the house. Despite the fact that it is of a lesser degree, it is of the same nature, which is deduction with the utilization of the mind. On an alternate note, it is said in the holy book that the individual has been given domain over all animals. Then again, it is insufficient to say that the motivation behind human life is to deal with all

alternate animals of God only on the grounds that it is what is expressed in the first book of the Bible. By doing in this way, we will simply be taking after without deduction what is managed by what numerous individuals think is just writing. It will even be less human on the grounds that it is not in any case making utilization of our huge mind, which is our one primary point of interest to different animals. What separates people from different animals is his capacity to know reality and to pick what is correct and great. By right and great, it is implied those that are bound by ethical quality. It is a quality exceptional to the human individual. It is not relevant to the puppy on the grounds that its thought of goodness is not focused around ethical quality, yet maybe on its tendency as a canine. It can be said that these involve the genuine nature of the person – to know reality and pick the great. It is by practicing this genuine nature that makes a person genuinely human. Thus, the individuals who neglect to work out this nature are viewed as barbaric. Such is the situation of a killer whose demonstration of murdering is disappointment to pick the demonstration that is ethically great. It is against the way of the person, and consequently, the killer is frequently viewed as barbaric. ID of this nature heads us to the motivation behind human presence. Notwithstanding, it is moreover important to consider the way that a person is a social animal. Nobody exists independent from anyone else and for himself alone. Accordingly, the way of man to comprehend what is correct and decide to do what is great stretches out to his surroundings. This application of his tendency to his general public is his motivation. It is the motivation behind human presence to greatly improve the situation for others by ceaselessly deciding to do what is ethically great and upright. At the outset, this motivation behind bringing about a noticeable improvement for others appears to be extremely honorable that it appears to be more appropriate for a couple of pioneers than for the lion's share of the general public. Yet this design is for all people paying little mind to race or class. The common individuals likewise have the same reason and can satisfy it by doing little demonstrations of goodness towards his neighbor. It is the aggregate advantage of these little demonstrations of goodness that will bring about a noticeable improvement for others. As such, more than simply evading what is ethically wrong, it is the reason for thehuman individual to do what is ethically right in light of the fact that it would influence my neighbor and environment in a positive way. In this period of innovation, we ought not dismiss our actual reason in life. More than ever, we have in our grasp the chance to do great things. We ought not just do things in a quick pace to stay aware of the fast headway in innovation, but instead, we ought to do great things in a quick pace in light of the fact that innovation has made for us more chance to do so.

What I learned:

· I have discovered that metatechnology is a sort of innovation that structures a crucial and imperative fixing towards the improvement and utilization of different advances.

· I have discovered that data has unique properties which make it hard to oblige it in applied systems which are concerned with the substantial, material products – their generation, circulation, and in addition their utilization.

· I have discovered that one can without much of a stretch attest that moral examination and its appearance, subsequently, can't be said that it is basically the same old thing. We have the need to give machines and programming their spot in our ethical world, as well. We have to explore on how their consequences for individuals wait to them.

· I have discovered that thinkers slowly began to understand that rationality could help social and political open deliberations about, for instance, the Vietnam War, social liberties, fetus removal, natural issues, every living creature's common sense entitlement, and killing, by clearing up terms and organizing contentions.

· I have discovered that Information Technology comes closest to being what is called, a "general innovation", as a result of its "intelligent flexibility." Logical pliability is a depiction with respect to IT, which implies that IT can be adaptable and can acclimate to its surroundings. Individuals can utilize it to mimic, convey, ascertain, reproduce, thus substantially more thing

Integrative Questions :

· What is metatechnology?

· How is metatechnology a subset of advancement?

· Where in this area would you have the capacity to find the centrality of metatechnology?

· What are the different variables which makes information development and ethics a troublesome subject to study?

· Who is Jeroen Van Sanctum Hoven and what are his responsibilities towards the multiplication of machine ethics?

Chapter 4: Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems

By BATYA FRIEDMAN, PETER H. KAHN JR., and ALAN BORNING

Quote: In a narrow sense, the word “value” refers simply to the economic worth of an object.

For example, the value of a computer could be said to be $2000. However, in the work

described here, we use a broader meaning of the term wherein a value refers to what a

person or group of people consider important in life.1 In this sense, people find many

things of value, both lofty and mundane: their children, friendship, morning tea,

education, art, a walk in thewoods, nicemanners, good science, awise leader, clean air.

This broader framing of values has a long history. Since the time of Plato, for

example, the content of value-oriented discourse has ranged widely, emphasizing

“the good, the end, the right, obligation, virtue,moral judgment, aesthetic judgment, the

beautiful, truth, and validity” (Frankena, 1972, p. 229). Sometimes ethics has been

subsumed within a theory of values, and other times, conversely, with ethical values

viewed as just one component of ethics more generally. Eitherway, it is usually agreed that values should not be conflated with facts (the “fact/value

distinction”), especially insofar as factsdonot logicallyentailvalue. In otherwords, “is” does notimply “ought” (the naturalistic fallacy). In thisway, values cannot bemotivated

only by an empirical account of the external world but depend substantively on the

interests and desires of human beings within a cultural milieu. In Table 4.1 in Section

4.6.4, we provide a list of human values with ethical import that are often implicated in

system design, along with working definitions and references to the literature.

What I expect to learn :

· Value sensitive Design

· Different Tripartite Methodology

· Conceptualizing Values

· Different Empirical Methods

Review : Instruments and advances are crucial to the human condition. Progressively, they constitute the framework through which individuals from differing groups and countries take part in dialog, instruct their kids, get access to assets and frameworks of equity, behavior business, partake in government, and any number of different exercises at the center of human culture. In question is no short of what individuals in their particular territories and social orders encounter as reasonable, as minding, as private or individual, as nobility, as property, as group, thus the rundown goes on. Such apparatuses and advances are likewise the aftereffect of human creative energy. Yet, with our restricted perspective, it is not under any condition evident how to outline devices and engineering so they are more inclined to help the activities, connections, organizations, and encounters that individuals think profoundly about.

Esteem touchy configuration tries to give hypothesis and strategy to record for human values in a principled and deliberate way all through the outline process. Vital to a quality delicate configuration methodology are investigations of both immediate and roundabout stakeholders; qualifications among planner qualities, values expressly upheld by the engineering, and stakeholder values; individual, gathering, and societal levels of examination; the integrative and iterative reasonable, specialized, and exact examinations; and a promise to advancement (not flawlessness).

Observational exploration is a method for picking up learning by method for immediate and backhanded perception or experience can be broke down quantitatively or subjectively. Through evaluating the confirmation or comprehending it in subjective structure, a specialist can answer observational inquiries, which ought to be unmistakably characterized and responsible with the proof gathered . Exploration plan differs by field and by the inquiry being explored. Numerous analysts join subjective and quantitative manifestations of examination to better answer questions which can't be concentrated on in research center settings, especially in the social sciences and in instruction.

In a few fields, quantitative exploration may start with an examination question for example "Does listening to vocal music amid the learning of a saying rundown have an impact on later memory for these words?" which is tried through experimentation in a lab. More often than not, a scientist has a certain hypothesis in regards to the theme under scrutiny. In light of this hypothesis a few articulations, or theories, will be proposed for example “Listening to vocal music has a negative impact on taking in an expression list.". From these theories expectations about particular occasions are inferred for example Individuals who study an expression rundown while listening to vocal music will recall less words on a later memory test than individuals who study a saying rundown in silence. These expectations can then be tried with a suitable investigation. Contingent upon the conclusions of the examination, the hypothesis on which the speculations and forecasts were based will be upheld or not, or may need to be changed and after that subjected to further testing.

What have I learned :

· The defenition of Value entitive Design

· I have learned that Most of the technical choices in the design of the UrbanSim software are in response to the need to generate indicators and other evaluation measures that respond to different strongly held stakeholder values.

· I have learned that Esteem Delicate Outline is a thought wherein it iteratively, or in layman's terms, more than once, utilizes the hypothetical, correct, and particular examinations to the arrangement advancement with the backing of the human qualities and attributes, broadly drawing on appropriate theories, gauges, and maxims.

· I have discovered that Esteem Delicate Outline uses a by one methods or an alternate integrative and iterative, or repeating three segment technique, which embodies connected, observational, and specific examinations.

Integrative Questions

· What is Value Sensitive Design?

· How is Value Sensitive Design identified with the investigation of machine morals and data?

· Where is the last careful investigation handled in the address found?

· What are the eight special peculiarities of Value Sensitive Design?

· What are the three segment technique that can connect and observe the different embodies that are connected

PART 2

CHAPTER 5 Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property

By ADAM D. MOORE

Quote : Personality-based defenders maintain that intellectual property is an extension of

individual personality. For Hegel the external actualization of the human will requires

property.Hegel writes, “The person must give himself an external sphere of freedom in

order to have being as Idea.”14 Personality theorists, like Hegel, maintain that

individuals have moral claims over their own talents, feelings, character traits, and experiences. Control over physical and intellectual objects is essential for selfactualization— by expanding our self outward beyond our own minds and mixing

with tangible and intangible items—we both define ourselves and obtain control over

our goals and projects. Property rights are important in two ways according to this

view. First, by controlling and manipulating objects, both tangible and intangible, our

will takes form in the world and we obtain a measure of freedom. Second, in some

cases, our personality becomes infused with an object—moral claims to control

feelings, character traits, and experiences may be expanded to intangible works. Josef

Kohler echoes this view.

Premise 1. Society ought to adopt a system or institution if and only if it leads to or, given our best estimates, is expected to lead to the maximization of overall social utility.

Premise 2. A system or institution that confers limited rights to authors and inventors over what they produce is a necessary incentive for the production of intellectual works.

Premise 3. Promoting the creation and dissemination of intellectual works produces an optimal amount of social progress.

The first premise, or the theoretical premise, is supported by utilitarian arguments that link theories of the good and theories of the right in a particular way. The rule utilitarian determines a correct moral rule in reference to the consequences of everyone adopting it. By adhering to a rule-based component it is argued that the problems that face act utilitarianism, problems of justice, special obligations, integrity, and excessive demands, are circumvented. Moreover, by grounding the theory solely in a consequent component, unlike deontic theories, rule utilitarian argue that the theory is given firm footing. In combining the most promising aspect of act utilitarianism (consequences are all that matter) with the most promising aspect of deontology (its rule following component), rule utilitarians hope to arrive at a defensible moral theory.

The second premise is an empirical claim supported by the aforementioned considerations concerning incentives. The view is that it is empirical fact that authors and inventors will not engage in the appropriate activity unless certain guarantees are in place. What keeps authors and inventors burning the midnight oil, and thereby producing an optimal amount of intellectual works, is the promise of massive profits. The arguments supporting the third premise claim that cultural, technological, and industrial progress is necessary for an optimal amount of social utility. It follows that a system of intellectual property protection should be adopted.

What I expect to learn:

· What is Intellectual Property?

· What are the different kinds of Intellectual Property

· What are the different alternatives for patents and copyrights.

· What is the lockean Justification of Intellectual Property

· What is the The Personality Theorist’s Rejoinder?

Review: What is Intellectual Property? “Intellectual property is generally characterized as non-physical property that is the product of cognitive processes and whose value is based upon some idea or collection or ideas. Typically, rights do not surround the abstract non-physical entity, or res, of intellectual property, rather, intellectual property rights surround the control of physical manifestations or expressions. Systems of intellectual property protect rights to ideas by protecting rights to produce and control physical embodiments of those ideas.” (Moore 106).

There are actually three forms regarding the arguments or rebuttals for the intellectual property rights that have been generally taken. It is said that the personality theorists of our world have maintained that a certain intellectual property is said to be an extension of an individual personality. The believers of the Rule-utilitarianism grounds the intellectual property rights in the social progress and incentives to motivate them in doing what is the right thing to do. The Lockeans, on the other hand, argue that the rights of the people are justifiable in the relation to the labor and merit that they have rendered or given to their other fellow men. While each of these strands of justification has its own weaknesses, everything has their own strengths and advantages to one another.

Most of us either does not know what the true purpose of our lives is or has a wrong notion of it. Especially in this age of information and technology when we do things at a very fast pace in order to keep up with the rapid advancement in technology, our view of what is really important is neglected and obscured. The things that we usually do might not be in harmony with our real purpose. Thus, there is a need to reflect on the purpose of human existence because it would make us look at our daily lives and align them towards this purpose.

.Having a decent and clear understanding of what is security is an imperative. Field contended that security has an advancing idea and the "political and mechanical peculiarities of the general public's surroundings" regularly impact its "substance" We all realize that engineering is as the same way. Furthermore with the advances that keep on happenning in the field of engineering, it is unavoidable that security can turn into an issue. In the past section, a typical sample is the shared projects.

Having a conventional and clear understanding of what is security is a crucial. Field battled that insurance has a creating thought and the "political and creative quirks of the overall population's surroundings" frequently effect its "substance" We all understand that development is as the same way. Likewise with the advances that continue happening in the field of building, it is unavoidable that assurance can transform into an issue. In the past part, a commonplace case is the imparted undertakings.

In this segment, it is battled whether assurance is a right or an excitement for a single person. Security is of four sorts. In any case is the Physical security wherein it is about the damages that is conceivable in an individual physically when avoiding insurance. The Second outline is Decisional security which communicates that an individual has his adaptability to have his contemplations and that one must not affect the choices made by a substitute. The third kind is mental security, which is to a degree the same with the past kind of insurance, yet it is described in the book that an individual is kept into his thinking and that he can't affect the way others think. The fourth and last kind of security is instructive security fuses the impediment in realities where there are certain records or files that must be gotten to by limited or endorsed people.

Having an average and clear understanding of what is security is a basic. Field battled that security has a pr