2013.12 Racism and Media.Final Paper.docx

8/10/2019 2013.12 Racism and Media.Final Paper.docx

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Running Head: RACISM AND TELEVISED MEDIA 1

Racism and Media: Televised News Influence on the Development of Racial Perceptions and

Fear of Expressing Those Opinions as Identified by the Spiral of Silence Theory

Ashley Horton, Lori Avery and Caitlin Crawford

Queens University of Charlotte


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RACISM AND TELEVISED NEWS 2

Abstract

The present study examines the role that televised news has on developing perceptions

about racism and has merged important aspects of the Spiral of Silence Theory into the research.

The study included surveying students at a small, private college in Charlotte, North Carolina

about their consumption of televised news delivering content related to racism, be it images,

video or discussions about racism. The goal of the study was to determine what effect the

televised news had on the students in developing perceptions about racism or affirming pre-

developed notions about racism, good or bad. This information allowed the study to uncover

what the overall public opinion is in regards to racism in the local community as well as

determine what views about racism were deemed acceptable to discuss in public and what views

were seen as unacceptable and rejected. During the research process, it was determined that

public opinion had been defined over a broad range of research articles, but lacked defining

what behaviors, symbols or cues an individual could detect that allowed them to determine what

the majority and minority public opinion was. Discovering the cues that provide the notion

about public opinion could better allow researchers to predict public opinion more accurately

and have a more definitive concept of public opinion. The Spiral of Silence can lend itself more

effectively to the study when testing the hypotheses and research questions.

Keywords: Racism, Televised News, Public Opinion, Spiral of Silence, Majority Opinion,

Minority Opinion


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Introduction

The Spiral of Silence Theory

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the creator of the Spiral of Silence theory, studied the effects

of popular, public opinion and what type of influence this had on an individuals opinion and

willingness to express that opinion in public. It was important to identify what the theory seeks

to explain as well as the definition of public opinion to create an understanding of this concept.

The Spiral of Silence theory implied that the public opinion applies pressure on an

individual to conform to whatever the rest of the public is doing or thinking (Noelle-Neumann,

1977). This argument was supported by a few arguments that Noelle-Neumann (1977) uncovered

in her research: the first would argue thatas social beings, most people are afraid of becoming

isolated from their environment. They would like to be popular and respected (p. 144).

Most research about the Spiral of Silence theory or research related to the study of public

opinion doesnt contend the first argument about fearing isolation. The second argument isin

order to avoid becoming isolatedor not to lose popularitypeople constantly observe their

environment very closely. People try to find out what behaviors and modes are prevalentand

becoming more popular (Noelle-Neumann, 1977, p. 144).

Noelle-Neumann (1977) discussed the climate of public opinion and individual

assumptions about how their personal opinions rank against other opinions, but only suggests

that individuals could observe behaviors to indicate what a popular opinion is, or what the belief

is, without further supporting the observations with what specific behaviors gave clue to the

observer about the popular or unpopular status of an opinion. The last argument in Noelle-

Neumanns study (1977) suggested that when an individual who observes their environment


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notices that their own personal opinion is spreading and being taken over by others, they will

voice this opinion self-confidently in public. Those who feel their opinion is losing groundwill

be more inclined to adopt a more reserved attitude when expressing opinions in public (p. 144).

The Spiral of Silence as a Theory for Media Influence

Although the theory Noelle-Neumann (1977) developed was not specifically about media

influence on public opinion, the Spiral of Silence theory has been used to study this very thing as

media has developed rapidly over the years and has a much greater impact on society than ever

before. The theory had been tested against what kind of affects the media has on an individual or

a group, their development of opinions, and what kind of impact the media influence had on an

individuals willingness to express their opinions publicly (Dalisay, 2012). Studies have shown

that media today is typically partisan, with different outletsi.e. different TV news and radio

stationspursuing partisan objectives that cater to and seek to mobilize party supporters

(Loffredo et. al., 2013). When it becomes standard for media outlets to portray what different

political parties want them to portray, the political party out of favor with the publicand its

supportersare more likely to decline to share their opinion, according to the Spiral of Silence

theory.

For the sake of explaining the Spiral of Silence in terms of media and public opinion;

media could be defined as newspapers, televised news, radio news, and over the last few years,

internet news, email, social media and any type of medium that provides any kind of news to an

individual as the receiver of the message. Also to aide in defining the theory, news could be

defined as information intended to be informative on a particular and specific matter and does

not include advertisement, commercials or off topic material. The producers of any form of news


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would send out a message, be it text, radio wave or television for example, pertaining to a topic

and the receiver would then consume, process, and develop a thought or opinion based on the

message that was received. In this case, the news is specifically related to racism.

When developing the theory, Noelle-Neumann (1977) was most interested in the

willingness of an individual to share their opinion publicly whether it was for or against the

popular public opinion. It was concluded that the opinion of an individual and their observations

of their environment would determine if that opinion was in line with the majority opinion (the

most popular or favored opinion in that environment) or if it fell to minority (less favorable, or

less popular, to be discussed in the individuals environment). The overall public opinion would

then determine whether or not that individual opinion was shared publicly or not.

Public Opinion in Relation to the Spiral of Silence

Noelle-Neumann (1977) acknowledged the definition of public opinion, prior to her

study, was defined as the judgment produced by individuals or a group that is found on

rational discussion, of informed and responsible citizens, seeking to place praise or blame [on a

topic or subject of interest] (p. 143).To make public opinion more specific to the theory,

Noelle-Neumann (1977) defines public opinionas controversial opinions that one is ableto

express in public without becoming isolated (p. 145).

The majority public opinion was one that can be deemed favorable, popular, or easy to

discuss in public without fear of rejection and/or isolation from the group. The minority public

opinion was one that is deemed as unfavorable, unpopular, or difficult to discuss in public

because it creates the possibility of an individual or members of the group to be rejected and/or

isolated.


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Meta-analysis, as provided throughout the review of the theory, supported the research

which identified the fear of isolation as a motive to keep opposing opinions and beliefs silent

(Moye, Domke, Stamm, 2001). However, other meta-analysis stated that the Spiral of Silence

had weak empirical standing as it does not operationalize the definition of its independent

variable well enough and the researchers did not pay attention to the timing in which the Spiral

of Silence effect was being observed (Bodor, 2012). Bodor (2012) stated that the research

conducted to test the Spiral of Silence theory is inconsistent with the framework of the theory.

Spiral of Silence and Recent News and Literature

A recent example of the Spiral of Silence effect was during the 2008 elections where

Senator Barack Obama was running for President and his final challenger for the position was

Senator John McCain. Senator McCain was Caucasian, whereas Barack Obama was African-

American. It was to be noted, the research did acknowledge the controversy over Obamas

ethnicity, but relates the example to the final conclusion that Obama was, in fact, African

American.

Spencer, Croucher, & Mckee (2011) conducted a study with 569 participating college

students to identify a correlation between media trust and the willingness of the students to voice

their opinion about Obamas ethnicity. The researchers tested the hypotheses that most

individuals are afraid of being isolated for their views; in particular, views as to whether or not

the elections favored Obama or McCain for their ethnicity, or racial heritage (Spencer, Croucher,

& McKee, 2011). The researchers did cite Glynn (1997) in their article and finding that there was

not enough evidence to support media influence on popular opinions or beliefs about racial

opinions in the 2008 elections.


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However, the conclusion of their study yielded an important outcome. Individuals who

had very little prior knowledge about the election and the politics involved with the 2008

elections did in fact rely heavily on media exposure for information and those individuals were

more susceptible to be influenced by the media. The findings in this article supported a portion

of the Spiral of Silence in regard to media influence, but it wasntsufficient enough to say that

the Spiral of Silence had truly occurred based on the individuals that had no prior knowledge and

relied on the media for facts.

As this study was intended to discuss and focus on the media influence of racism in

relation to the Spiral of Silence theory; it was important to uncover and discuss the history of

racism with a focus on the U.S to enhance the understanding of what is being studied and tested.

Racial perceptions vary across cultures and in particular in the U.S. Since the study is conducted

in Charlotte, NC; the emphasis on American racism has a greater need to be discussed and made

relevant.

Facts and History about Racism in the U.S.

Racism has been a part of American society for decades and has transitioned from a

period were acceptance of racist behaviors and mentality has transformed to an unacceptable

way of behaving and thinking in American society. While Americans are more ethnically diverse

now than ever before, and appear to be transforming into a racially heterogeneous society, the

topic of race remains uncomfortable for many (Owens, 2008). As the U.S. continues to grow in

diversity, with various minority groups combined making a majority of the U.S. population, the

media has a responsibility to present these various groups in a fair and equal manner. However,

this is not the case as of yet and because of the lack of fair and equal representation in the media;


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minority groups feel their differences in ethnicity and cultures have continued to present a divide

between the white American and the rest of the minority groups in America. Discussing this

divide, or difference, between the minority and majority populations is therefore a sensitive issue

to address (Owens, 2008).

As an example, in 2000 Owens (2008) noted that one out of four Americans identified

themselves as a member of a minority groupcompared with one in five in 1990 according to

census reports. The feeling of difference between ethnicities and racial tension has decreased, but

has not diminished entirely (Owens, 2008).

During the literature review, two types of racism were identified and defined. Lynn

Owens article (2008) referenced the work of Philomena Essed and utilized this researchers

definition of everyday racism for the purpose of understanding racism in the context of the

study. The definition of everyday racism was defined as racism that exists in daily social

interactions (Owen, 2008). When social interactions were observed, it was noticed that blacks

view whites as not only avoiding contact with ethnic groups and underestimating the abilities of

minorities, but also passively tolerating racist behavior by others as an example (Owens, 2008).

The second type of racism discussed in the literature was in Robert Entmans study

(1990) were he defined modern racism asan updated and somewhat veiled form of anti-black

sentiment (Entman, 1990, p. 333). Entman (1990) wrote that modern racism has transitioned in

to more of a frustration and aggravated feeling that racism has not disappeared among,

specifically, African-American communities. The frustration derives from a message that racism

no longer exists which has been delivered in various media outlets. African-Americans, being a

minority group in the U.S., feel that the racist sentiment has not deceased and that it has


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transitioned in to something more severe by denying the presence of this anti-black, or anti-

minority, sentiment (Entman, 1990).

The traditional, or old fashioned, sentiment of racism has declined; traditional meaning

that one feels the color of anothers skin makes them less intelligent, less capable and even less

human (Entman, 1990). Local TV news has rendered the expression of old fashioned racist

sentiments as unacceptable; hence actually reducing public adherence to the views. However,

Entman (1990) referenced Searsstudy on racism in his research and noted that racism has

developed in to the idea that the African-American communities do not deserve sympathies or

benefits because of their race and that the need for compensating these groups is no longer

necessary because the majority population has deemed racism as dead. The belief that the

individual blacks fate is not determined by treatment of blacks as a group, and that demands for

help and special favors should not be granted to blacks as a group (Entman, 1990, p. 334).

The media has further influenced perceptions of racism in the past and studies have

shown that television news depicts more positive and more frequent images of majority groups.

When news reports cover news with minorities as the central character of the report, they are

typically shown in a negative manner with crime and seedy behavior as the center of the story

(Entman, 1990).

Entman (1990) reported in his study that 76% of all local TV stories in Chicago about

blacks fell into categories of crime or politics. The individuals featured in these local news

stories were not portrayed in a positive light. This showed a tendency for viewers to develop

negative portrayals of minorities and increased the likelihood that one would have a conscious or

unconscious notion about minority groups that would be deemed as racist in a modern sense. If


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people relate criminal activities to race, their views of crime are likely to be based on their

judgment of blackscrimes committed by blacks comprise a substantial portion of news stories

featuring blacks [versus stories of blacks doing good things] (Hurwitz & Peffley, 1997, p. 376).

It was to be noted that for the sake of this study, racism was not limited to white

resentment or discontent towards blacks. Racism in this study included all races and ethnicities

and can be considered a minimum of two different ethnicities that find differences amongst each

other and therefore cause conflicts or opposing opinions. To further define racism for this study,

racism will no longer be defined just by the color of ones skin. This was noted in the definition

of modern racism and will be considered throughout this study.

Racism in the Media

The suppression of traditional racism, as defined previously, would imply that Noelle-

Neumanns Spiral of Silence theory couldyield positive effects on issues like racism. Due to the

media acknowledging the negativity carried with traditional racism; more frequent campaigns

and movements have been aired in the media to end racism. Thoughts or actions deemed as racist

behavior of any kind is unacceptable and unpopular opinion therefore further reducing the

amount of individuals that speak up publicly in favor of racist acts or discussions (Entman,

1990, p 334). When such messages are delivered in the media; those who hold the minority

opinions fear disapproval and become reluctant to voice their minority sentiment (Entman, 1990,

p 334).

According to Smidt (2012), an important factor to remember in the how the media

framed public opinion was not only the content itself but the amount of coverage that content

was receiving, and coverage of citizen demonstrations consistently outperforms presidential


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news in its association with the mass public agenda (p. 72). Therefore, when the media was

consistently reporting on one or two main events or topics, public opinion was bound to be

effected by that pattern of reporting. An example of this was how studies have shown that

African Americans are most often portrayed as criminals, which affects how they are perceived

by the public (Dixon, 2008).

The controversy over racism in the media has been exemplified by the recent George

Zimmerman trial. For the duration of the trial, the tensions and conflicts over racial

discrimination being involved in the murder of Trayvon Martin and the trial and verdict of

George Zimmerman had arguments that were vocalized and criticized by rallies of minorities. In

this case, Smidts theory about theamount of coverage having an impact on public opinion was

correct. The amount of media coverage and public opinion were cyclical and the media was

fueling tensions which caused public outcry and displays of outcry which the resulted in

attracting media attention. The sensitivity of the issue provoked peaceful displays of protest and

even violent displays of aggression towards white people throughout the US and possibly other

unreported groups as the media may have failed to report all incidents.

George Zimmerman was charged with and tried for the murder of Trayvon Martin, a

young African-American teenager, in early 2013. Originally, Zimmerman was not to be charged

in the case. It was at the prosecutors discretion whether or not to bring charges against a suspect,

and in this case, the prosecutor decided that the murder charges were unnecessary because of

Floridas stand your ground law. To give a brief summary, the law states residents of Florida

are privileged to use deadly force in self-defense (Holliday, 2012, p. 407).


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Public opinion in the African-American community across the nation- fueled by media

attention to the case- overwhelmingly called for the case to be reopened upon suspicion of racial

bias. Zimmerman wasnt identified as Hispanic until later in the case, but the assumption was it

was not seen as an unacceptable white on black crime and racist by definition. A new prosecutor

was assigned to the case and Zimmerman was brought to trial (Lawson, 2012).

Long-term public opinion was the African-American community was continuing to suffer

racial inequalities in the justice system. Lawson (2012) describes racial inequality as disparities

and injustices Blacks experience in the criminal justice system: racial profiling, wrongful

convictions, incarceration, and police brutality (p. 278).Lawson (2012) also notes that the

stereotypical black-as-criminal persona did not factually fit in this case (279). Public officials

began to fear riots in the streets if legal actions were not taken against Zimmerman, thus the case

was reopened (Lawson, 2012). The initial lack of action from law enforcement in this case was

proof that the issue of racial inequality remains to be a sensitive issue today.

During the case, the jurors were granted anonymity in order for them to provide a

reasonable verdict based upon the evidence provided and to do so without fearing physical,

psychological or social harm as a result of expressing the verdict publicly. The jurors only spoke,

in particular when interviewed on televised new segments, when their identities were concealed

from the public.

The Spiral of Silence reflects that the jurors feared rejection and isolation from society, as

well as potential physical harm that was occurring in riots and protests across the U.S. before,

during and after the trial. Only under the circumstance of anonymity would they speak about

their own opinions as well as the verdict they had agreed upon. Its a safe bet to consider if the


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jurors had to speak openly and unconcealed to the public; they would be less likely to have made

public, and personal, statements openly after the trial was concluded.

The majority opinion at the time of the trial favored the idea that the crime Zimmerman

had committed was under the pretense that he was racially motivated to attack an African-

American male. The verdict of not guilty for Zimmerman did not reflect the majority public

opinion about the crime, making the jurors decision the minority opinion as perceived by the

news, and had it not been for the allowance of anonymity the jurors would have faced likely

isolation and rejection, and possibly physical harm, in their environment.

Hypotheses

Based on the literature reviewed above, the following hypotheses are tested:

H1: Viewers that have specific beliefs about racism are more likely to watch

televised news programs that reinforce their beliefs.

I ndependent Vari ablethe existing belief about racism.

o Conceptual: What the respondents thought about racism in the

media prior to the study.

o Operational: Determining how the respondents felt about racism

(i.e. racial slurs towards a person does not bother me, racial slurs

towards a person does bother me, etc.)

Dependent Vari abletypes of shows individuals watch that supports their

belief.

o Conceptual: News programs containing information that the

respondent chooses to watch.


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o Operational: Determining if the respondent chooses to watch

programs that reinforce their existing knowledge on a subject or

watch programs that challenge/go against what they already know

about a subject (racism).

H2: When viewers feel their opinions on racism are a minority opinion in public;

they are more reluctant to voice their opinions about racism publicly.

I ndependent Vari ablepublic opinion

o Conceptual: the dominant opinion about racism (good or

bad).

o Operational: The opinion that either allows or rejects a

conversation or viewing of news programs in public.

Dependent Vari ablethe willingness of the respondent to openly express

their opinion if they feel it is the minority to the public opinion.

o

Conceptual: The respondentswillingness to openly talk about

their opinion whether it is popular or unpopular.

o Operational: Determining if the respondent would openly discuss

their opinion in public or remain mute based on context of the

situation.

H1 examined the beliefs and opinions of students about racism and the likelihood for

them to watch TV news programs, or news segments, that reinforce their current beliefs about

racism; good or bad. The hypotheses was built upon the examples about racism in the media

provided above and the likelihood someone who believes racism exists, or does not, to watch


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programs that air similar sentiments. The independent variable would be the already existing

belief about racism and the dependent variable would be the types of shows the individuals

watch that supports their belief. This can be measured by determining the respondents belief

about racism existing or not existing and analyzing the type of TV News shows, or segments, the

respondents chooses to watch (pertaining to racism via talk, video, image or reference).

H2 examined what influence the majority public opinion has on the students willingness

to express their opinions about racism openly. This hypothesis was built upon the Spiral of

Silence theory and the conclusions Noelle-Neumann (1977) made about public opinion and

willingness to express opinions. The independent variable would be public opinion and the

dependent variable would be the willingness of the respondent to openly express their opinion if

they feel it is the minority to the public opinion. This can be measured by asking the respondent

what their opinion is, what they feel the majority public opinion is, asking if they would openly

discuss their opinion and determining what would deter them from expressing their opinion.

Based on the literature reviewed above, the following research questions are tested:

RQ1: When local viewers (Queens Univ. students) watch televised news programs

pertaining to racism, do the viewers develop more negative opinions and

perceptions about racism as a result?

I ndependent Var iable- Type of TV news programs

o

Conceptual: CNN, MSNBC, NBC, ABC, FOX, CBS, PBS, and

other.

o Operational: what shows were watched, hours spent watching per

week, etc.


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Dependent Vari ableForming of positive or negative opinion as a result

of the TV news program or segment.

o Conceptual: When pre-conceived views on racism aligned with

what news programs were watched OR when news programs were

influenced differently (positively or negatively).

o Operational: Watching news programs containing racial

acts/slurs and determining if their opinions about racism were

more negative after viewing the content.

RQ2: What factors or clues do local TV News viewers (Queens Univ. students)

find or detect that enables them to judge whether an opinion is popular or

unpopular in public?

I ndependent Var iablethe cue observed by the respondent about public

opinion.

o

Conceptual: Is a verbal or non-verbal cue that can be consciously

detected by an individual observing their environment; therefore

enabling them to discern what is or is not the public opinion.

o Operational: Determining what specific cues gave the respondent

a positive or negative interpretation about their opinion in public

(which helps them determine the status of opinion).

Dependent Vari ableInterpretation by the cue as to whether their

opinion is popular or unpopular in public.

o Conceptual: How the respondent interprets their opinion after

their verbal or non-verbal cue.


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o Operational: Determining how strongly the respondent feels the

verbal or non-verbal cues indicate the status of their opinion, be it

popular or unpopular.

RQ1 examined the medias influence on students when the media news program, or news

segment, contains positive and/or negative content pertaining to racism. The goal was to uncover

if the media actually influences the creation of positive or negative perceptions about racism or if

it bears little to no impact on the students. The independent variable would be the type of TV

News program, or segment, a respondent watches. The dependent variable would be the forming

of a positive or negative opinion about racism as a result of the TV News show or segment. This

can be measured by using the Likert scale and asking questions about how one feels when

watching programs containing racist words, videos, images or references to racism that agree or

disagree with their current beliefs and how it makes them feel.

RQ2 examined the specific behaviors or clues the students are able to detect in order to

identify if their opinion is in the majority or minority of public opinion. This question was built

from the Spiral of Silence theory and supporting research which explains that public opinion is

observed to uncover the majority opinion; but the research fails to explain what the observer

specifically detects to make this assumption about their opinions. The independent variable

would be the clue provided about what the public opinion is and the dependent variable would be

the interpretation of the clue by the respondent as to whether their opinion is popular or

unpopular in public. This can be measured by asking respondents to identify what cues they pick

up on that make them think they are in the minority. This can be compared to other respondents

responses to determine if there is a pattern of cues; be it verbal, non-verbal or something else.


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Method

Sample and Procedure

A representative sample of 100 students at Queens University of Charlotte, NC

comprised the final sample. A total of 76 percent of the respondents were female (n=76) and a

total of 24 percent of the respondents were male (n=24) with 1 respondent that did not want to

share their gender (n=1). Of the 100 students, 73 percent were traditional students (n=73) which

is defined as undergraduate students that are the age of 23 or younger at Queens University of

Charlotte. The remainders were non-traditional, also referred to as Hayworth (adults over 23)

students. The non-traditional students represented 13 percent of the sample. Seniors comprised

50 percent of the sample total (n=50) followed by Juniors at 26 percent (n=26), Freshmen at 13

percent (n=13), and Sophomores at 9 percent (n=9).

The three most represented schools of study for students were the Blair College of Health

(n=39, 39.4%), the Knight School of Communication (n=23, 23.2%), and the McColl School of

Business (n=16, 16.2%). The three ethnicities most represented in this sample were

White/Caucasian (n=66, 66%), African American (n=16, 16.2%), and Hispanic/Latino (n=8,

8.1%). Students between the age of 18 and 21 comprised 75 percent (n=75) of the total sample, 2

respondents declined to provide their age, and a maximum respondent age of 50 with a mean age

of 22 years (SD=5.6). All demographics can be viewed in detail in the Appendix.

A pilot study was conducted before any official data for the research was collected. A

total of 15 paper surveys were printed on green paper to indicate the difference of the pilot study

surveys. Three researchers administered these surveys across the campus at Queens University

of Charlotte and a total of 7 surveys were completed. The surveys originally consisted of 40


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questions that were developed using the Likert Scale to test the answers and all of the questions

were created by the researchers.

After concluding the pilot study, 3 researchers distributed a total of 120 surveys across

the Queens University of Charlotte campus with a total of 44 questions based on the Likert scale.

Each question on this survey was created by the researcher instead of basing the questions off of

another study to test the hypotheses and research questions stated above. The researchers

distributed all of the surveys while face to face with the respondent and remained on site until the

survey was finished. Once the respondent returned the survey the researchers then checked each

of the surveys for completeness. An informed consent form was included to ensure each of the

respondents were properly informed- and debriefed- for each of the surveys. A non-probability

convenience sample was used due to time constraints and lack of funding. A total of 100 surveys

were completed for analysis with 2,400 total students for the 2013 fall semester student body to

sample from 20 of the surveys were left blank or incomplete. SPSS technology was used to

analyze the data and produce results of the surveys for the findings.

Findings

Measures

Pre-existing beliefs and Choice of TV News

To measure if the respondents chose programs based on shows that showed content

similar to their own values or beliefs; the respondents were asked to agree or disagree on a Likert

scale with how strongly they felt about a particular question: a) I watch TV news programs that

share in the same values I have and b)I enjoy watching TV news programs that teach me

something I don't already know. (1=strongly agree, 5- strongly disagree)


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The results found through SPSS testing H1 and its variables indicated that the Pearsons r

for H1 was .013, and that the correlation was significant at the .05 level. It could be concluded

with 95% certainty that the first hypothesis was supported, and that there was less than 1.3%

chance that the results were from chance. These results show that a persons preexisting beliefs

influence the types of shows that they watch.

Public Opinion and Willingness to Opinions Publicly

In order to measure personal willingness to express a minority opinion openly in public,

questions were asked like a) In a group setting, if someone doesn't agree with my opinion about

the topic being covered on the TV news; I will talk to them about why I have my opinion on the

topic and b) If my friends tell me they do not like the TV channel I like; I stop watching that

channel as an example of the type of questions asked. Respondents were asked to rate how

strongly they agree or disagree with the questions on a Likert scale of 1 through 5 (1=strongly

agree, 5=strongly disagree).

The results found through SPSS testing H2 and its variables showed a weak, insignificant

relationship, with Pearsons r being .081. This means that there was more than 8% chance of the

results being found by chance. H2 was measuring the Spiral of Silence effect on Queens

University of Charlotte campus. It could be concluded that the population of students at Queens

University of Charlotte are not hesitant to discuss their opinions openly, regardless of how others

around them may feel.

Racist News Content and Formation of Opinions

To measure the development of opinions and perceptions after watching news programs

containing racist content, the researchers asked the respondents questions like a) When I watch


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TV news shows that show violent crimes committed by different races; I feel more negatively

about the race committing the crime and b) When I watch TV news shows that show violent

crimes committed by different races; I feel that the person's race has nothing to do with the actual

crime. The respondents were asked to reflect how strongly they agree or disagreed with the

questions on Likert Scale of 1 through 5 (1=strongly agree, 5= strongly disagree).

After deciding to test the effects of news pertaining to racism and violence on a persons

formation of opinions on racism, the results from SPSS show that there was a strong, statistically

significant correlation between those two variables. The correlation was significant at the .05

level, meaning that the researchers could draw their conclusions with 95% certainty. Pearsons r

was .043, showing that the results were gained with only 4.3% possibility of the results occurring

by chance. It could be concluded that the respondents do feel more negatively about racism after

watching news programs containing racist content.

Observable Cues and Interpretation

To measure what cues the respondents were able to observe in order to decipher if their

opinion is in favor of public opinion or not, the respondents were asked about a variety of

possible verbal and non-verbal cues that may or may not trigger the respondent to decide what

the public opinion is. The respondent was asked to answer on a Liker scale of 1 through 5

(1=strongly agree, 5=strongly disagree) how strongly they feel the listed cues made them feel

about their opinion in contrast with the public opinion. The questions asked were:

I can tell when someone doesn't like my opinion because they do not look at me.

I can tellwhen someone doesn't like my opinion because they do not face me when I am

speaking.


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I can tell when someone likes my opinion because they smile at me.

I can tell when someone doesn't like my opinion because they shift in their seats.

I can tell when someone is uncomfortable with a topic because their tone of voice

changes.

The findings through SPSS showed that the correlation between the independent and

dependent variables were significant at the .01 level, and that Pearsons r was .000, meaning that

there was little to no possibility that the results occurred by chance and the variables correlated

together.

Summary of Findings

H1 predicted that viewers who have specific beliefs about racism were more likely to

watch televised news programs that reinforce their beliefs. This hypothesis was supported. As

shown in Table 1, pre-existing beliefs about racism was positively associated with the type of TV

news programs the respondents chose to watch. Questions that measured the independent and

dependent variables for H1 were entered in to SPSS to produce the Pearson Correlation in order

to identify if the variables correlated together.

Table 1

Pre-existing Beliefs Program Type

Pre-existing Beliefs Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

100

.248*

.013

100


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Pre-existing Beliefs Program Type

Program Type Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.248*

.013

100

1

100

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

H2 predicted that when respondents feel their opinions on racism are a minority opinion

in public, they were more reluctant to voice their opinions about racism publicly. The hypothesis

was rejected. As shown in Table 2, there was a weak correlation between the respondents

perception of public opinion and their willingness to express their own opinions openly in public.

This rejects the testing on the Spiral of Silence phenomenon in this study. The questions to

measure the independent and dependent variables of H2 were entered in to SPSS to produce the

Pearson Correlation. The implications of these findings will be discussed further in the next

section.

Table 2

Public Opinion Willingness

Public Opinion Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

100

.175

.081

100

Willingness Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.175

.081

100

1

100


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RQ1 sought to ask if respondents that viewed televised news programs pertaining to

racism, do the viewers/respondents develop more negative opinions and perceptions about

racism as a result. RQ1 was answered with a statistically significant correlation between the two

variables (news containing racist content and the formation of opinions). The questions that

sought to measure the independent and dependent variables of RQ1 were entered in to SPSS to

produce the Pearson Correlation. The support can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3

Racist News Form Opinions

Racist News Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

98

.206*

.043

97

Form Opinion Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.206*

.043

97

1

98

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

RQ2 sought to ask what factors or clues do the local viewers/respondents detect that

enables them to judge whether an opinion is popular or unpopular in public. All of the variables

were entered in to SPSS and the findings showed support that the cues listed, verbal or non-

verbal, held strong significance when the respondents were using these cues to decipher the

value of an opinion against public opinion. The results can be seen in supporting Table 4.


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Table 4

Clues Provided Interpretation

Clues Provided Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1

100

1.000**

.000

100

Interpretation Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

1.000**

.000

100

1

100

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Discussion

The pilot study was conducted prior to the official study in order to ensure the surveys

would test what they were aimed to test. The feedback and results of these pilot study surveys

were monumental because a) the topic of racism still remains a sensitive and uncomfortable topic

for many and b) it was quickly discovered that the context of the questions mattered

tremendously. The original survey was 40 questions, but due to the need for clearer operational

and conceptual definitions, a few of the questions that were highlighted were split in two for the

sake of context and many were re-worded for clarity. There were duplicate questions listed on

the pilot study that were also removed.

The findings from H1 support the research in the literature review that individuals that

have pre-existing beliefs about racism or any topic are more likely to watch shows that support

their own beliefs. The study showed that there was a shift, however, that more of the students

that participated were more willing to watch televised news shows that dont always align with

their current beliefs out of a desire to learn more and expand their educational horizons. This


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suggests that modern college students are more accepting of new information and are receptive

to being open-minded when faced with difficult subjects.

The findings for H2 were initially a surprise as the Spiral of Silence theory was

anticipated to play a greater role with individuals talking about racism or when faced with racist

content in their environment. However, after concluding the study, the study yielded results

showing that the majority age groups (18-21) were more likely to express their own opinions

even if they knew those around them may not like their opinion or might even disagree with

them.

As history has shown, this would not be the typical outcome and in particular with

racism. However, the results seem to beg the question: Is the Spiral of Silence Theory becoming

irrelevant with the younger generations? Upon discussing the survey with some of the students

after completion, the students expressed that there was more important placed on individualism,

owning ones voice and even enjoyed opening up conversations with potential conflict or

sensitive issues. This may lend itself to a new trend of studies about willingness to openly

discuss personal opinion against the majority opinion.

The Spiral of Silence theory emphasized that gauging the public opinion or the majority

opinion is more likely to mute or silence someone with a minority opinion. However, a few of

the students voluntarily expressed that sometimes they could in fact gauge public opinion with

the cues listed in the survey (along with a few other cues which could be tested in future studies),

but they chose to ignore the notion that keeping silent for majority opinion was more important

than expressing ones own opinion instead. The implications for generational differences and the


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Spiral of Silence theory hold value for future researchers, but there was not enough done to

research and study this particular phenomenon during this study.

RQ1 supported the idea that viewers who watch news programs pertaining to racism do

in fact develop more negative opinions and perceptions about racism as a result. The study did

find some interesting results when analyzing the data. The respondents tended to strongly

disagree with racial slurs (derogatory words) when they were directed at someone and the

respondents agreed this type of racist behavior was bothersome. However, the respondents were

less offended by racist behaviors if they were indirectly referencing someone else or a group

versus the previous situation of a direct verbal offense. The relationship that distinguished this

difference and why it existed was not observed during this study, but is an area of interest for

future studies.

One other interesting result yielded by the study is that respondents. When the

respondents were asked how they felt about violent crimes committed by different races, a

majority said they did not feel more negatively about the race committing the crime. However,

when asked if the respondent felt that race of the person committing the crime had something to

do with the crime itself, a majority opted to answer neutrally or in agreement which suggests that

there is still racial bias being produced when minorities are being viewed in the news in relation

to crimes committed. This is also another area of interest, but was not able to be studied

specifically in this study.

Finally, RQ2 did show that there are verbal and non-verbal cues given in the respondents

environment that allow them to determine if their opinion is popular or unpopular in contrast

with public opinion. Facts that yield strong significance was a change in the tone of voice


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indicated someone disliked their opinion and smiling at the respondent strongly indicated to

them that their opinion was well received by others in their environment. The only cue that was

deemed irrelevant after the study was conducted was if someone shifting in their seat indicated

disfavor towards an opinion. The respondents gave feedback and said there would be more

uncertainty about whether the other individual was uncomfortable in their seat rather than

uncomfortable with an opinion. There are other cues that would be of interest to this study in

order to better gauge the strength of the cues given and determining the status of a personal

opinion.

Outside of the hypotheses and research questions, the researchers very quickly uncovered

a large transition from respondents using televised news as their primary source of information to

more mobile applications for news or news on the internet. The amount of TV viewing actually

decreased, but for the sake of the study, it was important to include that the same networks of

news were viewed, but via a different media than the television. The study reflected that the non-

traditional students were more prone to watching traditional forms of media and news on the

television, where as those in their early 20s and younger were less likely to consume media the

same way. This difference in obtaining news and information was not discovered in the pilot

study which is why the type of medium for news consumption was not modified in the final

survey.

Recommendations for future researchers in this type of study with a similar demographic

sample base would be to determine what the most popular sources of news for the population

being studied. This would help reduce the amount of error when analyzing the data and it would

most likely create a clearer operational and conceptual definition for the respondents.


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Another recommendation would be to uncover what kind of sources the particular

population finds credible. During this study, various age groups referenced shows on comedy

central as credible versus others who referenced shows like Squawk Boxas more credible than

other news sources. This might help make the study and survey more specific when looking for

particular answer to hypotheses and research questions.

Lastly, it would be recommended to consider the age of the populations being studies as

this would dictate the type of news consumed as well as the news source/medium for the news.

Determining this would aide in continuing to better define definitions of media, news and other

aspects of any follow-up study and it would likely reduce the amount of error while increasing

specificity.


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References

Bodor, T. (2012). The Issue of Timing and Opinion Congruity in Spiral of Silence Research: Why

Does Research Suggest Limited Empirical Support for the Theory?.International

Journal of Public Opinion Research, 24(3). 269-286.

Dixon, T. L. (2008). Network news and racial beliefs: exploring the connection between national

television news exposure and stereotypical perceptions of African Americans.Journal of

Communication, 58 321-337.

Dalisay, F.S. (2012). The Spiral of Silence and Conflict Avoidance: Examining Antecedents of

Opinion Expression Concerning the U.S. Military Buildup in the Pacific Island of Guam.

Communication Quarterly. 60(40). 481-503.

Entman, R.M. (1990). Modern Racism and the Images of Blacks in Local Television News.

Critical Studies in Mass Communication. 7.332-345.

Hayes, A.F. (2007). Exploring the Forms of Self-Censorship: On the Spiral of Silence & the Use

of Opinion Expression Avoidance Strategies.Journal of Communication, 54(4), 785-802.

Holliday, W. (2012). The Answer to Criminal Aggression is Retaliation!: Stand-Your Ground

Laws and the Liberalization of Self-Defense. University of Toledo Law Review, 43(2),

407-436.

Hurwitz, J. & Peffley, M. (1997). Public perceptions of race and crime: the role of racial

stereotypes.American Journal of Political Science, 41(2), 375-401.

Lawson, T. (2012). A fresh cut in an old woundacritical analysis of the Trayvon Martin

killing: the public outcry, the prosecutors discretion, and the stand your ground law.

University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy, 23.271-310.


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Appendix

Document A

Consent Form

Queens University of Charlotte

Participant Name: _____________________ Date: ____________________

The purpose of this research is to explore media influence on the development of racial

perceptions and fear of expressing opinions.

You will be asked questions regarding your perception of racism along with a series of general

questions that will assist with the research project. This questionnaire should take approximately

15 minutes to complete. Please answer each question completely and accurately. Your

participation is voluntary and your grade will be not affected should you choose not toparticipate in the survey. Your participation will be confidential and no risks, stress or

discomfort are anticipated.

I agree to participate in research entitled, Racism and Media: Televised Media Influence on the

Development of Racial Perceptions and Fear of Expressing those Opinions as Identified by the

Spiral of Silence Theory. I understand this survey and research study is being conducted by

Queens University of Charlotte students Ashley Horton, Lori Avery and Caitlin Crawford. I

understand that my participation is voluntary and I may discontinue completing the survey at any

time, without penalty and have the results of this participation, to the extent that they can be

identified as mine, returned to me, removed from the research record or destroyed.

Signature of Researcher: ______________________ Date: __________________

Signature of Participant: ______________________ Date: __________________

Research at Queens University of Charlotte that involves human participants is overseen by the

Institutional Review Board. Questions or problems regarding your rights as a participant should

be addressed to Dr. Mohammad el-Nawawy via email [email protected] by phone at

(704) 688-2744.

Source: Wimmer, R.D. & Dominick J.R. (2014). Mass Media Research, An Introduction (10thedition). Boston:

Wadsorth Publishing. Typical Consent Form, P. 71
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Document B

Survey

Exploring Media Influence on the Development of Racial Perceptions and Fear of Expressing

Opinion

1. Do you watch TV News programs? (Daily, national, local, etc.)

___ Yes ___ No

(If No, please return the survey to the researcher. Thank you.)

2. How often do you watch TV news programs?

___ 1-2 hours per week ___ 3-4 hours per week ____ 5-6 hours per week

___ 7 or more hours per week ___Other; please explain_______________

3.What TV News Networks do you watch? (Check all that apply)

_____ FOX News

_____ CNN News

_____ ABC News

_____ MSNBC News

_____ NBC News

_____ CBS News

_____ PBS News

_____ Other (explain below)

Other:

4. Using the list above, place in order the shows you watch the most frequently from the top

(most watched TV networks) to bottom (least watched TV networks). You do not have to

fill in all the spaces if you do not watch all of the TV shows listed. Please write in your

answer if you selected other on the previous question.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


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34

Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability as it relates to you and

your TV news viewing habits, where 1 = Strongly Agree (SA), 2 = Somewhat Agree (SWA),

3 = Neutral (N), 4 = Somewhat Disagree (SWD), 5 = Strongly Disagree (SD).

5. I watch TV news programs that share the same values I have.

1-Strongly Agree 2- Agree 3-Neutral 4-Disagree 5-Strongly Disagree

6. I watch TV news programs that talk about or show topics I dont believe in.


7. I watch TV news programs that only talk about or show things I believe in.


8. I enjoy watching TV news programs that teach me something I dont already know.


9.I watch TV news programs that my friends and family do not like while they are present.


10. I watch TV news programs that my friends and family do not like by myself.


11. I do not watch TV news programs I do not like.


12. I choose to watch TV new programs based on what my friends like to watch.



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35

13.If something shown on the news isnt something Ibelieve; I keep watching to learn more

about the topic being discussed.


14.I watch TV news programs that enhance my knowledge on topics with which I am familiar.


15.In a group setting, if my friends tell me they do not like the TV news channel that we are

currently watching; I will change the channel.


16. If my friends tell me they do not like a TV News channel I like, I stop watching that channel.


17.I like to watch TV news programs that other people around me think are popular.


18.In a group setting, if someone doesnt agree with my opinion about the topic being covered

on TV news, I will talk to them about why I have my opinion on the topic.


19.In a group setting, I will ask to change the channel if I do not like the subject being shown on

a TV news program.


20.I feel comfortable talking about sensitive subjects when I know other people around me may

not like it.



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36

21.It does not matter to me if others in my group have the same opinion as me.


22. I want others to have the same opinion as me.


23.I am willing to voice my opinion even if I know someone may disagree with me.


24.I feel more comfortable with people who have the same opinions as me.1-Strongly Agree 2- Agree 3-Neutral 4-Disagree 5-Strongly Disagree

******************************************************************************

25.I can tell when someone doesnt likemy opinion because they do not look at me.


26.I can tell when someone doesnt likemy opinion because they do not face me when I am

speaking.


27.I can tell when someone likes my opinion because they smile at me.


28.I can tell when someone doesnt likemy opinion because they shift in their seat.


29.I can tell when someone is uncomfortable with a topic because their tone of voice changes.



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37

30. I wont talk about racism unless someone else talks about it first.


31.When I watch TV news programs that contain racial slurs (derogatory words) directed at a

person; it does not bother me.


32. When I watch TV news programs that contain racial slurs (derogatory words) directed at a

person; it does bother me.


33. When I watch TV news programs that contain racial slurs (derogatory words) in reference to

a person; it does not bother me.



a person; it does bother me.



a specific group; it does not bother me.



a specific group; it does bother me.


37.When I watch TV news shows that show violent crimes committed by different races; I feel

more negatively about the race committing the crime.


38.When I watch TV news shows that show violent crimes committed by different races; I feel

that the persons race has nothingto do with the actual crime committed.



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38

******************************************************************************

39.What type of student are you at Queens?

Traditional ___ Hayworth ___

40. What school of study do you belong to?

___ Knight School of Communication

___ McColl School of Business

___ Presbyterian School of Nursing

___ CATO School of Education

___ Blair College of Health

___ College of Arts & Sciences

___ Other Explain_____________

41. What year are you at Queens?

___ Freshmen

___ Sophomore

___ Junior

___ Senior

___ Other Explain______________

42.What is your age? ___

43.What is your ethnicity?

___ White/Caucasian

___ Native American

___ Hispanic/Latino

___ African American

___ Asian

___ Other What is your ethnicity?


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Running Head: RACISM AND TELEVISED NEWS 39

44.What is your gender?

___ Male ___ Female

Thank you for completing this survey!


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Table A


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Table B

Graph B

Graph C

Traditional87% Hayworth- 13%


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Table D

Table D1

When entering demographic information of the respondents into SPSS, the researchers coded student

type Traditional as 1 and Hayworth as 2. The mean was 1.121 with a standard deviation of .328. The

researchers coded Knight School of Communication as 1, McColl School of Business as 2, Presbyterian

School of Nursing as 3, CATO School of Education as 4, Blair College of Health as 5, College of Arts and

Sciences as 6, and Other as 7. The mean was 3.919 with a standard deviation of 2.279. Class information

was coded similarly where 1 = Freshman, 2 = Sophomore, 3 = Junior, 4 = Senior, and 5 = Other. The

mean was 3.171 with a standard deviation of 1.069. Ethnicity was coded where 1 = White/Caucasian, 2 =

Native American, 3 = Hispanic/Latino, 4 = African American, 5 = Asian, and 6 = Other. The mean was

2.152 with a standard deviation of 1.740. Gender was coded where 1 = Male and 2 = Female. The mean

was 1.578 with a standard deviation of .431.


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Graph D

Table E


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Graph E

Table F


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Graph F

Table G


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Graph G

Table H


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When putting the qualitative variables into SPSS, yes/no questions were entered as 1 and 2. Everyone

who completed the survey watched at least some news, meaning the standard deviation was 0. How

often the participants watch news was measured on a scale from 1-5, or Strongly Agree to Strongly

Disagree, with a mean of 2.07 and a standard deviation of 1.408.

When asked if they watch Fox News, the mean answer was 1.48 with a standard deviation of .502. Themean answer for CNN was 1.4 with a standard deviation of .492.The mean for ABC was 1.59 with a

standard deviation of .494. The mean for MSNBC was 1.81 with a standard deviation of .394. The mean

for NBC was 1.68 with a standard deviation of .469. The mean for CBS was 1.72 with a standard

deviation of .451. The mean for PBS was 1.87 with a standard deviation of .338. The mean for other

news to be written in was 1.68 with a standard deviation of .469.

Documents

2013.12 Racism and Media.Final Paper.docx