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8/6/2019 Establishing Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks Making It Happen
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Establishing ResilientMarine Protected AreaNetworks Making ItHappen
Full Technical Version, including Ecological,Social and Governance Considerations, as wellas Case Studies
2008
EstablishingResilientMarineProtectedAre
aNetworksMakingItHappen
2008
U.S
.DEPARTMENTOFCOM
MERCE
NAT
IO NA
LOCEANIC
ANDATMOSPHER
ICADM
I NIS
TRATI ON
Local stakeholders can be strong proponents of marine conservati on when they receive tangible
benefits such as these fishermen at Tayrona National Park, Caribbean.
BRIdGETBESAw
This guide provides essential information to better understand
the role of marine protected area networks to achieve marine
conservation. It utilizes current scientific knowledge, institutional
experience and global case studies to present the most relevant
lessons in building resilient and functional networks. An
important feature is the balance among social, economic, legal
and ecological considerations, which collectively contribute to
management decisions. The tested techniques will be extremely
useful for practitioners, managers and field staff in designing and
implementing effective marine protected area networks that are
resilient to human and environmental threats.
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i
Establishing ResilientMarine Protected AreaNetworks Making ItHappen
Full Technical Version, including Ecological,Social and Governance Considerations, as well
as Case Studies
2008
U. S
. DEPARTMENTOFCOM
MER
CE
NAT
I
ONAL
OCEAN
ICANDATMOSPHER
ICA
DM
INIS
TRATION
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ii
Authors:
Dan Laole, Vice Chair, World Commission on Protected Areas/International Union
or Conservation o Nature, Marine, and Natural England
Alan T. White, Senior Scientist, Global Marine Initiative, The Nature Conservancy
Stace Kilarski, Marine Technician, Global Marine Initiative, The Nature Conservancy
Mar Gleason, Senior Scientist, Caliornia State Program, The Nature Conservancy
Scott Smith, Senior Marine Policy Advisor, The Nature Conservancy
Ghislaine Llewelln, World Wildlie Fund, Australia Program Manager Oceans
Jon Da, Director, Conservation, Heritage & Indigenous Partnerships, Great Barrier
Ree Marine Park Authority
Annie Hillar, International Aairs Specialist, National Ocean Service, International
Program Oce, NOAAVictoria Wedell, Program Analyst, Oce o National Marine Sanctuary, NOAA
Daphine Pee, Regional Liaison, University o Maryland, Environmental Science &
Technology
2008 The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
Printed in Washington, D.C.
Citation: IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA) (2008). Establishing
Marine Protected Area NetworksMaking It Happen. Washington, D.C.: IUCN-WCPA,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and The Nature Conservancy. 118 p.
This publication was made possible through the support provided by the United States NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Global Marine Initiative o The NatureConservancy (TNC). The designation o geographical entities in this book, and the presentation othe material, do not imply the expression o any opinion whatsoever on the part o IUCN, WCPA,NOAA, TNC, World Wildlie Fund (WWF), the Great Barrier Ree Marine Park Authority, NaturalEngland, or the authors parent organization concerning the legal status o any country, territory,or area, or o its authorities, or concerning the delimitation o its rontiers or boundaries. All viewsand opinions expressed are those o the authors and do not necessarily refect those o theseorganizations. This publication may be reproduced or quoted in other publications as long asproper reerence is made to the source.
Copy editing: Susan Yim, Honolulu, Hawaii
Layout and graphics: Michael Tamaru, Honolulu, Hawaii
Cover photos: Marci Eggers/TNC (Paracas National Reserve, Peru), William Perrin (dolphin),Mark Godrey (Ecuador sherman and son), Kim Maison (turtle) and Bridget Besaw (annualsurvey o groundsh status)
ISBN: 978-2-8317-1090-7
Contacts: [email protected] or www.iucn.org\bookstore or email to authors
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iii
Acknowledgements
This document represents a synthesis o the expertise, knowledge and views o
leading experts in marine protected area (MPA) network design and implementation.
The development began in 2003 at the World Parks Congress ollowed by a planningmeeting in Paris in November 2003. An authors meeting in April 2005 was ollowed by
the International Workshop at Coastal Zone 05 in New Orleans in July 2005.
This publication represents a collaborative eort and the evolution in our learning
and experiences in developing and planning o MPA networks. Much o the original
credit to drive this publication orward is due to the participants o the Coastal Zone 05
International Workshop. Additionally, participants at the International Marine Protected
Area Congress (IMPAC 1) Satellite Event, in Geelong, Australia in October 2005, provided
insights that helped urther develop what is oered in this document. In mid 2008, the
MPA group o the Global Marine Initiative o The Nature Conservancy took responsibility
to merge all o various contributions to this document.
Additional material was provided by collaborators, including: 1) A Literature Review o
Current Knowledge on the Biophysical Aspects o Marine Protected Area Network Design
and Implementation(Skilbred et al. 2006), 2) Establishing networks o marine protected
areas: A guide or developing national and regional capacity or building MPA networks
(WCPA/IUCN 2007) and 3) Establishing national and regional networks o MPAsA review
o progress with lessons learned(UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2008). The
rst document was developed to support collaboration between The Nature Conservancy,
World Wildlie Fund, Conservation International and the Wildlie Conservation Society.
The second was prepared to help guide implementation o the World Parks Congressrecommendations regarding MPA networks. The third was compiled by Sue Wells with
input rom most countries with MPAs and rom numerous experts.
Funders or this eort include: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
National Ocean Service, International Program Oce, National Marine Sanctuary
Program and the Marine Protected Areas Center; the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission; The Nature Conservancy; Environmental Deense; World Wildlie Fund;
Natural England; the Great Barrier Ree Marine Park Authority; National Estuarine
Research Reserve Foundation; Parks Canada; and the United States Agency or
International Development, through the MPA Networks Learning Partnership.
Finally, many thanks are due to numerous contributors and reviewers o the various
iterations o this document over the past several years:
Eileen Alicea, Billy Causey, Gonzalo Cid, Sean Hastings, John Parks and Anne Walton
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
Vera Agostini, Jeanine Almany, Alison Green, Nina Hadley, Lynne Hale, Trina Leberer,
Stephanie Wear, Caitlyn Toropova, and Jay Udelhoven (The Nature Conservancy)
Leah Bunce Karrer (Conservation International)
Nick Drayton (Ocean Conservancy)
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iv
Emily Goodwin (Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation)
Andrew Gude (U.S Fish and Wildlie Service, Department o the Interior)
Sean Hastings (Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary)
Monika Thiele (The Ocean Foundation)John Ugoretz (Caliornia Department o Fish)
Sue Wells (Marine conservation consultant)
This work has been accomplished in the spirit o collaboration and sharing o experience
and knowledge. Certainly not all contributors are recognized since there are undoubtedly
many more persons who were associated with the various workshops and discussions
that culminated with this book.
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v
Table o Contents
Tables and Figures
List o Tables vii
List o Figures vii
Acronms and Abbreviations
Foreword i
PreacePurpose and Use o This Guide
Chapter 1: IntroductionWh Marine Protected Areas? 1
The problem
Purpose an benets o MPAs 3
Chapter 2: Scaling Up to a Network Approach 9
Why scale up to networks? 10What constitutes an MPA network? 12
MPA networks in a broaer management context 13
MPAs an the ecosystem approach 15
Resilient MPA networks 15
Chapter 3: Broad-scale Considerations or Resilient MPA Networks 17
Institutional an governance consierations 18
Economic an social consierations 20
Spatial an temporal consierations 23
Scientic an inormation management consierations 24
Chapter 4: Best Practices or Planning MPA networks 29
Clearly ene goals an objectives 30
Legal authority an long-term political commitment 31
Incorporate stakeholers 33
Use o best available science & a precautionary approach 35
Integrate management rameworks 36
Aaptive management measures
Chapter 5: Five Ecological Guidelines or Designing
Resilient MPA Networks 39
Guieline 1: Inclue the ull range o bioiversity present in thebiogeographic region 40
Rprsntatin 40
Rplicatin 42
Rprsntatin rsilint and rsistant caractristics 43
Guieline 2: Ensure ecologically signicant areas are incorporate 45
Prtctin uniqu r ulnrabl abitats 46
Prtctin raging r brding grunds 46
Prtctin surc ppulatins 47
Guieline 3: Maintain long-term protection 48
Spillr lara, junils and adults rm lng-trm prtctin 49 Adapti stratgis t lng-trm prtctin 51
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vi
Guieline 4: Ensure ecological linkages 52
Cnnctiit 52
Adult mmnt pattrns 53
Laral disprsal 54
Guieline 5: Ensure maximum contribution o iniviual MPAs to the network 58 Si 58
Spacing 59
Sap 59
Chapter 6: Case Studies o MPA Networks 63
Cas Stud 1: Scintic dsign Kimb Ba MPA ntwrk, Wst Nw Britain,
Papua Nw Guina 64
Lcatin and backgrund 64
Cnsratin basis 64
Ntwrk dsign and apprac 64 Implmntatin 66
Cas Stud 2: Palau, Micrnsia MPA Ntwrk 67
Lcatin and backgrund 67
Cnsratin basis 67
Ntwrk dsign and apprac 68
Implmntatin 70
Cas Stud 3: Cbu Island, Pilippins MPA Ntwrk 71
Lcatin and backgrund 71
Cnsratin basis 72
Ntwrk dsign and apprac 72
Implmntatin 73
Cas Stud 4: Cannl Islands, Calirnia MPA Ntwrk 77
Lcatin and backgrund 77
Cnsratin basis 77
Ntwrk dsign and apprac 78
Implmntatin 81
Chapter 7: Implementation Strategies 83
Political will an leaership 84
Public ducatin, cmmunicatin and awarnss 86
Sustainable nancing 88 Cmpnnts nancial sustainabilit 88
Stps r building sustainabl nancing stratgis 91
Monitoring an assessment 97
Enorcement an compliance 100
Chapter 8: Conclusion and Net Steps 105
Sel-assessment checklist 107
Ke Denitions 111
Reerences 113
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vii
List o Tables
Table 1 Regional types and orms o MPAs 5Table 2 IUCN protected area management categories 7
Table 3 International commitments and current global status o MPAs 11Table 4 Important categories o spatial data or MPA planning 25Table 5 A database o the worlds MPAs 27Table 6 A national MPA database in the Philippines 28Table 7 Resistance actors o coral rees 45Table 8 Approximate adult and larval neighborhood sizes 53Table 9 Summary o ecological guiding principles to help build resilient
MPA networks 62Table 10 Application o design criteria, Kimbe Bay 65Table 11 Application o biophysical criteria, Palau MPA network 69Table 12 Application o design criteria, Cebu Island 73
Table 13 Capacity building training, Cebu Island 75Table 14 Application o design criteria, Channel Islands 79Table 15 Components o MPA network nancing strategies 93Table 16 Publications on MPA monitoring and evaluation 99Table 17 Sel-assessment checklist 108
List o Figures
Figure 1 Relative contribution to poverty reduction rom the three elementso poverty 4
Figure 2 Marine management zones and categories within ICM ramework 13Figure 3 ICM area in Philippines with various spatial management tools,including MPAs 14
Figure 4 Resilience system responses 16Figure 5 Adaptive management cycle 37Figure 6 Biomass enhancement at Apo and Sumilon islands MPAs 48Figure 7 Average changes in biomass and density in temperate and tropical
region MPAs 49Figure 8 Average numbers o young produced by mature sh 50Figure 9 Number o MPAs builds connectivity 54Figure 10 Estimated dispersal distance by organism group 56
Figure 11 Kimbe Bay location 64Figure 12 Reserve placement based on optimization analysis, Kimbe Bay 66Figure 13 Map o Palaus main island cluster 67Figure 14 MARXAN scenario, Palau Network 68Figure 15 Location o Southern Cebu 71Figure 16 Cebu Island MPA management rating 74Figure 17 Live hard coral cover, Cebu Island 76Figure 18 Channel Islands location 77Figure 19 MARXAN analysis, Channel Islands 80Figure 20 Priority conservation areas or Channel Island National Marine
Sanctuary 80
Figure 21 Channel Islands MPA network 81Figure 22 Important ingredients or MPA network success 107
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viii
Acronms and Abbreviations
AOI areas o interest
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCIF Conservation and Community Investment Forum
CDFG Caliornia Department o Fish and Game
CINMS Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
CONAMA Chiles National Environmental Commission
CRM coastal resource management
FANP Natural Protected Areas Fund
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations
FMCN Mexican Nature Conservation Fund
GBRMP Great Barrier Ree Marine Park
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS geographical inormation system
ICM integrated coastal management
IUCN The World Conservation Union (ormally The International Union or
Conservation o Nature )
LGU local government unit
LMMA Local Marine Management Area
MAR Mesoamerican Ree
MCA marine conservation areaMLPA Marine Lie Protection Act
MPA marine protected area
MRWG Marine Reserves Working Group
NGO non-governmental organization
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRC National Research Council
PAN protected areas network
PISCO Partnership or Interdisciplinary Studies o Coastal Oceans
PLD pelagic larval durationSST sea-surace temperature
TNC The Nature Conservancy
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre
WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
WWF World Wildlie Fund
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ix
Foreword: Protecting Ocean EcosstemsThe Challenge Ahead
Regardless o where we live, all o us depend upon healthy ocean ecosystems: either as
a source o ood or revenue, or as a key shaper and regulator o climate and weather.
This dependency and the need to embrace sustainable development led nations o the
world to agree to a series o high-level political commitments or marine conservation
and marine protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development, the 5th
World Parks Congress, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the G8 Group o
Nations have all called or the establishment o a global system o marine protected area
(MPA) networks by the year 2012. In line with this commitment are strategies o marine
conservation organizations and some governments to increase the development, use and
eective management o MPAs as a tool or marine conservation across the oceans.The challenge, however, is to turn such commitments into practical and eective
realitypart o a broader management approach to our oceans and seas to benet the
environment and people. It is particularly important at a time when the impacts rom
climate change and rom ocean acidication are major issues that will shape our uture.
The Second Millennium Assessment also tells us that wildlie and habitat losses continue.
Clearly, the need or action to conserve and restore marine ecosystems, and thereby help
sustain livelihoods, has never been greater.
We all have a common responsibility to ensure that uture generations enjoy such benets
o healthy marine ecosystems and abundant marine lie; this is, ater all, the cornerstoneo what sustainable development means. This publication, which has pooled global
experience on MPAs, is intended to be useul to countries and their various organizations
in helping them build eective networks o MPAs. Not only does it provide a wealth o
real-lie examples rom around the globe, it outlines the steps necessary to turn political
ambitions into reality.
This guide represents a global rst in capturing the emerging experience on building
MPA networks. We are grateul to all those who have worked so hard to bring it to ruition
over the last 5 years. We hope you will nd the advice it contains will support improved
protection and management o our marine areas, and ensure that uture generations
benet as we have done rom the oceans diversity o species, the opportunities itprovides, and its splendor and natural wonders.
Proessor Dan Laole Dr. Clement Lewse
Vice Chair Director
IUCNs World Commission on National Ocean Service,
Protected Areas International Program Oce
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x
Preace: Purpose and Use o This Guide
This guide helps us to better understand the role o MPAs and MPA networks at local and
regional scales to achieve marine conservation. It utilizes current scientic knowledge,
institutional experience and global case studies to outline the latest inormation pertainingto building resilient and unctional MPA networks. It also highlights global commitments
or marine conservation and shows how to move rom individual MPA sites to an eective
system o national and regional MPA networks.
The design o an MPA network encompasses many considerations, including social,
economic, legal and ecological, which collectively contribute to management decisions
and implementation. Guidance contained in this document provides MPA practitioners,
managers and eld sta with techniques or designing eective MPA networks that are
resilient to human and environmental threats.
Five main elements compose this guide or management application:
1. Essential inormation on the role o MPAs and the value o scaling up to networks.
2. The importance o understanding the social, economic and political context and the
need or broader marine and coastal management rameworks.
3. Emerging best practices or planning and implementing MPA networks.
4. A comprehensive summary o the best available scientic inormation on 5
ecological guiding principles in relation to MPA network design.
5. Case studies rom the eld that demonstrate methods used to design and implement
both scientically rigorous and unctional MPA networks.
The core o this guide is 5 biophysical and ecological principles most relevant or decision-
making by marine managers and practitioners in designing and implementing MPA
networks. These are: (1) include the ull range o biodiversity present in the biogeographic
region, (2) ensure that ecologically signicant areas are incorporated, (3) maintain long-
term protection, (4) ensure ecological linkages, and (5) ensure maximum contributions o
individual MPAs to the network.
While using this guide, it is important to remember that the sub-divisions o the overall
MPA process are articial. While many issues have been separated out within this
guide, all elements are to be considered parallel actions. Processes such as education,
communication, leadership and political will operate throughout the process o MPAdesign, implementation and management. This guide recognizes that MPA networks are
only one aspect o achieving sustainable development. Eectively managed networks
are intertwined with improvements in wider oceans and seas governance, especially or
sheries, climate change and water quality.
This inormation is intended or MPA planners, managers and other practitioners. We
also hope it will interest a wider audience, including those concerned with sustainable
development and the uture o our coasts, seas and oceans.
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Chapter 1
IntroductionWhy Marine
Protected Areas?
sh densities were 6 to 10 times greater
than in areas outside the reserve
(RobeRts and Hawkins 1997).
T Clmbian cast t Caribban Sa at Tarna Natinal Park. T park iswitin t Sirra Nada d Santa Marta rgin, lcatd in nrtrn Clmbia.
BRIdGET BESAW
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2
ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
The Problem
Coastal and marine ecosystems are in decline worldwide. Overshing, runo o nutrients
and other land-based pollutants, habitat degradation and the increasing impacts o
climate change are leading to ecosystem collapses in all the major coastal and oceanregions o the world (Wilkinson 2004; Hughes et al. 2005)
Globally, over hal o the stocks (52%) o sheries are ully exploited and producing
catches that are at or close to their maximum sustainable limits, while more than 25%
are either overexploited, depleted or recovering rom depletion. Furthermore, most o the
stocks o the top 10 species (e.g. anchoveta, Alaska Pollock, herring, yellown tuna, etc.)
are ully exploited or overexploited and cannot be expected to produce major increases
in catches (FAO 2006). Large predatory shes are largely absent in many parts o the
ocean due to technological advances that enable shing and other extractive activities in
once remote ocean areas (Roberts 2007). Yet, despite these ominous signs, the annual
world total demand or sh and shery products is projected to increase to 183 million
tons by 2015, implying an 18% increase rom 2000 to 2015 (FAO 2004).
Increasing human population and demand or resources and development are causing
a rise in the distribution and size o harmul algal blooms and dead zones(marine areas
where oxygen levels are so low that naturally occurring organisms cannot survive)
(Anderson 1997; Verheij and Aitaro 2006; Golbuu et al. 2007; Hinchley et al. 2007). These
demands also contribute to the destruction o coral rees, with 70% o the worlds coral
rees threatened or destroyed, 20% o those damaged beyond repair, and within the
Caribbean alone, coral cover has declined by up to 80% on some rees (Wilkinson 2004).
Like harmul algal blooms and dead zones, coral bleaching events are also increasing inrequency and severity due to higher sea surace temperatures (SST) related to climate
change.
Mass coral bleaching events can cause whole
cral cln mrtalit.
In addition, rising levels o atmospheric
carbon dioxide are making surace waters
more acidic (Orr et al. 2005) . Such changes
diminish the amount o chemical ions
essential or the growth o organisms that
construct calcium carbonate shells or
skeleton (e.g. corals, mussels and calcareous
phytoplankton). Phytoplankton builds theoundation o marine ecosystem ood chains
and their productivity ultimately shapes the
ecosystem composition o the system.
A key management strategy to address
many issues aecting marine and
coastal ecosystems and resources is the
implementation o marine protected areas
(MPAs). A marine protected area is a coastal
or oshore marine area that is managed to
protect natural and/or cultural resources
RAyBeRKeLMANS(hTTP
://WWW.R
eefBASe.o
RG)
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3
INTRODUCTIONWHY MARINE PROTECTED AREAS?
Introductionwhymarine
protectedareas?
(Agardy and Staub 2006). An international denition o a protected area, including
MPAs, is provided by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) (WCPA 2008):
A clearly dened geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed,
through legal or other eective means, to achieve the long-term conservation onature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.
Purpose and benets o MPAs
Healthy marine resources require healthy, intact ecosystems. Marine and coastal
ecosystems are highly productive and deliver various goods and services that support
communities and economies, including ood security, clean water, recreational
opportunities and other benets. Eective area-based protection, through MPAs, helps
maintain ecosystem health and productivity, while saeguarding social and economic
development. They also help maintain the ull range o genetic variation, essential insecuring viable populations o key species, sustaining evolutionary processes and
ensuring resilience in the ace o natural disturbances and human use (Agardy and
Staub 2006).
In response to a growing recognition o the need or conservation eorts, as seen
through the degradation o ocean systems, MPAs are being established worldwide. I
designed correctly and managed well, MPAs have an important role to play in protection
o ecosystems and, in some cases, enhancing or restoring the productive potential o
coastal and marine sheries. However, it is recognized that MPAs are not the only solution
or coastal and marine problems. For example, when MPAs are used in conjunction
with other management tools, such as integrated coastal management (ICM), marinespatial planning and broad area sheries management, they oer the cornerstone o the
strategy or marine conservation. The benets that MPAs can deliver are also related to
the eectiveness o the management outside o the MPAs (Christie et al. 2002; Cicin-
Sain and Belore 2005).
When appropriately placed and well-managed, MPAs contribute to:
Conserving biological diversity and associated ecosystems.
Protecting critical spawning and nursery habitats.
Protecting sites with minimal direct human impact to help them recover rom
stresses.
Protecting settlement and growth areas or marine species and spillover benetsto adjacent areas.
Focal points or educating the public about marine ecosystems and human
impacts upon them.
Nature-based recreation and tourism.
Providing undisturbed control or reerence sites that serve as baselines orscientic research and or designing and evaluating other areas.
Sharing costs and benets among local communities, the private sector, regional
and national governments, and other stakeholders.Reducing poverty and increasing the quality o lie o surrounding communities(Figure 1).
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4
ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
Eample rom the eld MPAs and povert reduction. Across 4 MPA sites(Navakavu, Fiji; Bunaken, Indonesia; Arnavon Island, Solomon Islands; ApoIsland, Philippines), clear evidence indicates that poverty has been reduced by
several actors:Improved sh catches, spillover eects to adjacent areas.
New job opportunities, mostly in tourism and MPA management.
Empowerment through stronger local governance and community decision-making.
Benets to women, by helping to empower women economically and in some cases
socially.
Benets to health rom greater protein intake rom greater sh catches, particularly
in childrens health.
Strengthened social cohesion and cultural tradition.
Figure 1 Relative contribution to povert reduction rom the three elements o
povert (Adptd rm Lisr t al. 2007)
MPAs cover a diverse set o tools and spatial, temporal and resource management
rameworks. MPAs exist in multiple orms, with diverse denitions and objectives. The
diverse array o MPA goals (e.g. biodiversity, shery, social and cultural) and their relative
priority vary throughout the world (Table 1), ranging rom village-level community-
managed areas to multi-million hectare national parks. Additionally, various names
including marine reserve, shery reserve, closed area, no-take area or zone, sanctuary,
park, wilderness area and locally managed area, among others, are used to describean MPA (Lutchman 2005; Marine Protected Areas Center 2008). The denition o the
terms can vary drastically, depending on national, local or international contexts (Agardy
and Staub 2006; White et al. 2006; Christie and White 2007). For example, in Kenya and
Belize, marine reserves allow or non-destructive orms o shing; whereas in Tanzania,
marine reserves are no-take areas. For purposes o this document, MPA is used as the
single, generic term to encompass the range o dierent protection and conservation
strategies, rom areas that allow multiple-use activities to areas that restrict all access.
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5
INTRODUCTIONWHY MARINE PROTECTED AREAS?
Introductionwhymarine
protectedareas?
INCREASING ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROTECTION INCREASING MANAGED LAND USE AND SOCIAL PROTECTION
COUNTRy BIODIVE RSITy CONSERVATION BALANCE OF CONSERVATION SUSTAINABILITy OF TRADITIONAL AND INDIGENOUS& HABITAT PROTECTION AND MULTIPLE USES ExTRACTIVE USES COMMU NITy PROTECTION
Philippines Community-basedMPA IntegratedCoastal FisheryManagement No-takeMPA Management Reserve MPANetwork Multi-useMPA Ecosystem-based NationalMarinePark FisheryReserve WorldHeritageSite LocallyManaged Ramsarsite MarineArea
Papua MarineProtectedArea IntegratedCoastal WildlifeManagement CustomaryMarineTenure-New Management Area based MPAGuinea Treaty-basedMPA FisheryManagement MarineSacredSites
Reserve Reserve
Solomon WorldHeritageSite IntegratedCoastal WildlifeManagement CustomaryMarineIslands MarineProtectedArea Management Area Tenure-basedMPA Treaty-basedMPA FisheryManagement MarineSacredSites
LargeMarineEcosystem Reserve
Brazil NationalMarinePark IntegratedCoastal CustomaryMarine MarineSacredSites RamsarSite Management Tenure-based Culture-ecological Multi-useMPA MPA IndigenousPeoples
Territory
Australia MPANetwork IntegratedCoastal FisheryManagement C ulture-ecologicalReserve Ecosystem-based Management Reserve Traditional(non-indigenous) Reserve Treaty-basedMPA communities WorldHeritageSite CustomaryMarineTenure- BiosphereReserve basedMPA IndigenousMPA IndigenousLandscape
Management MPA MarineSacredSites
(Adptd rm Wrld Bank 2006)
Table 1 Regional tpes and orms o MPAs
Ke Concept
MPAs can oer a spectrum o management strategies ranging rom ull protection, orno-entry areas, to multiple-use areas which prohibit limited activities. No-take MPAs arespatial closures that prohibit all orms o resource extraction, especially shing. Limited-take MPAs include those MPAs with mixed harvest or restricted harvest prohibitionareas.
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6
ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
The broad applicability o MPAs as a tool or protection and management o marine
resources covers a wide spectrum. MPAs range rom no-entry areas, where access is
restricted and designed to protect all marine resources, to extensive, multi-use protected
areas that integrate multi-species and sheries management, incorporating regulatory
mechanisms enabling limited take or certain species. MPA protection levels include no-take areas, designated to protect a single species or habitat type. No-take areas prohibit
all orms o extraction, particularly shing (Dayton et al. 2000; Roberts et al. 2001; Russ
and Alcala 2004). As such, no-take areas are one o the most restrictive types o MPA,
and act as benchmarks or assessing the state o the environment and the success o
management regimes. They also contribute signicantly towards recovery and protection
o marine ecosystems (NRC 2000). Multiple-use, or limited take, areas include those
MPAs with mixed harvest, restricted harvest and/or complete harvest prohibition areas,
as well as other zones (e.g. recreation, research, etc).
MPAs involve a series o trade-os that must be balanced to meet ecosystem protectiongoals. For instance, a large MPA may be ecologically optimal but economically or
institutionally impractical. Multiple-use MPA zoning, to include no-take areas, provides
a way to accommodate multiple users, balancing the trade-os between sustainable use
and conservation objectives or eective management.
The World Conservation Union classies MPAs into 6 categories, ranging rom highly
protected reserves, intended only or scientic research or wilderness conservation,
to multiple-use areas, created to oster the sustainable use o natural ecosystems and
resources (Table 2).
Big- snappr aggrgat in t n-tak n an MPA in t Pilippins.
CASTILLo
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7
INTRODUCTIONWHY MARINE PROTECTED AREAS?
Introductionwhymarine
protectedareas?
Table 2 IUCN protected area management categories 1
IUCN CATEGORy MAIN OBJECTIVE OR PURPOSE
IA Strict Natur Rsr Strictly protecte areas to protect bioiversity an possiblyglgical / gmrplgical aturs. human isitatin,
use an impacts are strictly controlle an limite to ensure
prsratin t cnsratin alus. Ts aras can sr
as inispensable reerence areas or scientic research an
mnitring.
IB Wilerness Area Larg r sligtl mdid aras, rtaining tir natural caractr
and inunc, witut prmannt r signicant uman
abitatin, wic ar prtctd and managd s as t prsr
tir natural cnditin.
II Natinal Park Large natural or near natural areas set asie to protect large-
scal clgical prcsss, alng wit t cmplmnt spcis and csstms caractristic t ara, t prid
a ounation or environmentally an culturally compatible
spiritual, scintic, ducatinal, rcratinal and isitr
pprtunitis.
II I Natural Mnumnt St asid t prtct a spcic natural mnumnt, wic can b
a landrm, sa munt, submarin carns, glgical atur
suc as cas r n a liing atur suc as an ancint gr.
T ar gnrall quit small prtctd aras and tn a
ig isitr alu.
IV habitat/SpcisManagement Area
Protect particular species or habitats an management refectstis pririt. Rgular, acti intrntins tn ndd t
addrss t rquirmnts particular spcis r t maintain
abitats.
V Prtctd Landscap/
Seascape
Where the interaction o people an nature over time has
prouce an area o istinct character with signicant
clgical, bilgical, cultural and scnic alu; and wr
saeguaring the integrity o this interaction is vital to protecting
an sustaining the area an its associate nature conservation
and tr alus.
VI Manage Resource
Protecte Area
Larg, wit muc t ara in a natural cnditin and wr a
prprtin is undr sustainabl natural rsurc managmnt.
explitatin is a main aim t ara.(IUCN 1994; Wlls and Da 2004; WCPA 2008)
1 fr an in-dpt riw t applicatin IUCN prtctd ara managmnt catgris in t marin
nirnmnt, s Wlls and Da (2004).
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Chapter 2
Scaling Up to a
Network Approach
The power of synergy is great, lets makeit work for MPAs!
NANCy SefToN
enrcd n-tak aras accumulat s tat bcm tam quick l in tcrals t Caribban.
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
Wh scale up to networks?
When used in isolation, small MPAs may not support sh and invertebrate populations
that are large enough to sustain themselves. To ensure that young marine organisms are
available to replenish and sustain populations within MPAs, the area o protection mustbe airly large. However, in many regions, economic, social and political constraints make
it impractical to create one single large MPA o sucient size to support viable, sel-
sustaining populations o all species. Establishing networks o several to many small to
moderately sized MPAs may help to reduce socioeconomic impacts without compromising
conservation and sheries benets (PISCO 2007). Furthermore, well-planned networks
provide important spatial links needed to maintain ecosystem processes and connectivity,
as well as improve resilience by spreading risk in the case o localized disasters, climate
change, ailures in management or other hazards, and thus help to ensure the long-term
sustainability o populations better than single sites (NRC 2000).
As science and experience continue to provide more evidence o the importance o
biological connectivity and resilience in the ace o climate change, natural disasters
and economic, political and social fuxes, networks o MPAs are increasingly valuable
management tools. MPA networks can contribute to sustainable development goals by
ostering integrated ocean and coastal management through 3 inter-related unctions
and benets:
Ecological A network can help maintain unctional marine ecosystems by
encompassing the temporal and spatial scales o ecological systems.
Social A network can help resolve and manage conficts in the use o natural
resources. Economical A network can acilitate the ecient use o resources.
The implementation o MPA networks that cover all major marine habitats and
ecosystems will be a major step in restoring and sustaining the health o the oceans. I
widely adopted, MPA networks can help stem the losses o marine resources and recover
not only marine lie, but entire ecosystems. When eective, MPA networks can magniy
benets o individual sites, protect large-scale processes, slow the loss o endangered
marine species and restore depleted sheries.
Setting aside marine areas to help replenish resources has been part o traditional
management in many societies. But conservation o biodiversity through managementtools, including MPAs, is a relatively new concept. It has its roots in the 1982 World Parks
Congress in Bali, where participants recognized that conserving biodiversity through the
use o protected areas should be applied to the oceans, as well as the land (McNeely and
Miller 1982). Since 1982, many international gatherings have endorsed the need or MPAs
and MPA networks. Recently, the 5th World Parks Congress called on the international
community to create a global system o MPA networks that greatly increases the coastal
and marine area covered, and that MPA networks should seek to include strictly protected
areas that amount to at least 20 to 30% o each habitat. Currently, only a small portion o
this area is being protected. Since 1984, the global marine area protected has grown at
an annual rate o 4.6%. This rate o increase will require more than 50 years to achieve
the current goal o 30% habitat protection. Thus, much work remains to reach sucient
area covered within networks and achieve international commitments (Table 3).
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SCALING UP TO A NETWORK APPROACH
Scalinguptoa
networkapproac
h
Table 3 International commitments and current global status o MPAs
n World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002, called or
establishing a global system o MPA networks by 2012, as part o a strategy toprotect and restore marine biodiversity and to maintain the natural resource base or
economic and social development.
n Evian agreement signed b the G8 group o nations, 2003 , called or the
establishment o ecosystem networks o marine protected areas, consistent with
international law and based on scientic inormation by 2012.
n Convention on Biological Diversit (CBD), 2004, agreed to the establishment and
maintenance o MPAs to contribute to a global network. Various regional agreements
complement these global undertakings.
nThe 5th World Parks Congress, 2003, calls on the international community to
create a global system o MPA networks that greatly increases the marine and
coastal area covered. MPA networks should be extensive and seek to include
strictly protected areas that amount to at least 20 to 30% o each habitat (IUCN
2005).
Current global marine protection targets aim to protect 10 to 30% o marine habitats
within the next 2 to 4 years. Based upon the MPA Global database, current estimates o
MPA coverage include (Wood 2007):
u Approximately 5,000 MPAs have been designated worldwide.
u Approximately 2.58 million km2, 0.65% o the worlds oceans and 1.6% o the total
marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones, are currently protected.
u Only 0.08% o the worlds oceans, and 0.2% o the total marine area under national
jurisdiction is no-take, where extractive uses are prohibited.
u Currently, the three largest MPAs include: the Phoenix Islands Protected Area
(410,500 km2), The Great Barrier Ree Marine Park (344,400 km2) and the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (341,400 km2).
u An immediate global concern is the need or a rapid increase in MPA coverage in
conjunction with scaling up o ocean management. The increase required to meet
the targets is equivalent to another 35 countries creating an MPA the size o the
Phoenix Islands Protected Area (410,500 km2
) beore 2012.u The global distribution o protected areas is both uneven and unrepresentative at
multiple scales, and only hal o the worlds marine protected areas are part o a
coherent network.
u A global review o MPA network programs underway documents the
experiences generated and variety o approaches taken to develop MPA
networks (UNEP-WCMC 2008).
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What constitutes an MPA network?
An MPA network can be defned as a collection o individual MPAs or reserves operating
cooperatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales, and with a range o protection
levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve.
Not just any collection o MPAs constitutes an MPA network2. A network can include
several MPAs o dierent sizes, located in critical habitats, containing components
o a particular habitat type or portions o dierent kinds o important habitats, and
interconnected by the movement o animals and plant propagules (PISCO 2007). They
must be appropriately placed, sized and spaced to unction collectively as an ecological
network and successully achieve biodiversity goals. Protection o the ecological
interconnectedness between and within ecosystems through strategically placed MPAs
can strengthen the resilience o the systems to maintain the key unctions and processes
in the ace o stresses (Holling 1973). Additionally, a network implies a coordinated systemo MPAs, linked through biological levels, as well as administrative levels, refecting a
consistent approach to design, nance, management and monitoring.
Incorporating no-take areas is considered a oundation in most networks. The proportion
o no-take areas contained in the network system depends on the degree o protection,
recovery being sought and the level o decline in an area. For some areas, preservation and
conservation may be the motivating orce or a no-take MPA. And or these areas, no-take
areas can be an eective tool or maintaining or enhancing sheries, especially those that
target long-lived demersal species with planktonic larval dispersal and sedentary adults.
Social, economic and environmental benets are generally greater where the no-take area is
suciently large and well-integrated into broad ecosystem-based management regimes.
An MPA network is also a network o people managing the components o individual MPAs
and promoting the networks viability and longevity. In addition to MPA networks based on
ecological considerations, social MPA networks can be ormed to acilitate learning and
coordination o administration and planning by linking people and institutions involved in
MPAs into a coordinate and holistic initiative (White et al. 2006). In the social MPA network,
all agencies, management authorities or communities share the same overall goal and
they can mature, just as ecosystems mature (Agardy and Wole 2002). The social network
provides a rationale or individual MPA stakeholders or communities to coordinate with
each other to share experiences and to enhance each others eorts in managing their
respective MPAs (White et al. 2006).
In association with the ormation o a network , an inormation base or the MPAs in an area
should be created. Having an inormation base or the MPAs helps to develop logical choices
in how to expand MPAs eectively and how to eciently manage them through strategic
eorts based on the network design. This inormation base stimulates the development or
eective expansion and management o MPAs within the network design by providing a
rationale or individual MPA stakeholders or communities to coordinate with one another
to share experiences, enhancing the eorts to manage their respective MPAs (White et al.
2006).
2 For a complete iscussion o what constitutes a network or system o MPAs in various countries aroun the
wrld, s UNeP-WCMC (2008).
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SCALING UP TO A NETWORK APPROACH
Scalinguptoa
networkapproac
h
MPA networks in a broader management contet
MPA networks can only be eective at curbing the decline o ocean health andreducing threats i they are implemented within larger rameworks o ecosystem basedmanagement, integrated ocean governance and coastal management. Without eectivepolicy and management on a broad scale, MPAs can only serve as isolated aquaria oprotection in a larger sea o degradation.
Marine spatial planning is gaining momentum as a planning tool to align ocean resourcesuses with the most appropriate use and protection areas over the wide expanse o ocean.This tool can be linked with the many developed planning approaches that involve MPAsand integrated coastal management (ICM) . ICM is an intersectoral, spatial managementapproach that aims to align policies and incentives across sectors to minimize
environmental impacts rom coastal resource use while maximizing benets to society(World Bank 2006). Depending on community needs and management concerns withinthe context o a larger ICM plan, MPAs can be designed and managed to accommodatevarious objectives and activities. ICM governance can create an enabling environmentor MPAs and an ideal platorm or elevating the scale o marine biodiversity conservationand sustainable sheries management (Figure 2) (World Bank 2006). (For detailed
inormation on ICM, reer to Chapter 4.)
Example rom the eld social network o MPA networks . The PAMANA KA(Philippines) is a nationwide alliance o community-based MPA managers representedby sher-leaders. The network ocuses on capacity-building, alliance-building policy
advocacy and r esearch. The Local Marine Management Area (LMMA) network is a groupo conservation practitioners working in Asia and the Pacic with hundreds o members,including landowners, traditional leaders, government representatives, elected decisionmakers, scientists and donors. The network provides solidarity and learning opportunitiesor participants, with national policies in multiple coastal areas. Within this network o MPAmanagers, community members and scientists, cross-project knowledge and trainingsare shared and inormation is transerred (More inormation is available at http://www.lmmanetwork.org/) (White et al. 2006; Govan et al. 2008).
Figure 2 Marine management zones and categories within ICM ramework(Adopted rom World Bank 2006)
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
Figure 3 ICM area in Philippines with various spatial management tools, including
MPAs(White et al. 2006)
Ke Concept
The process o ICM is aimed at guiding coastal area development in an ecologically,socially and ecomically sustainable manner, in context with the ollowing priorities(White et al. 2006):
n Protect physical habitat.
n Recover and protect species and populations.
n Rebuild ecosystem resilience.
n Saeguard against management uncertainty.
n Reduce conficts over the use o ocean space.
n Provide economic and cultural benets.
n Promote public education and enjoyment.
In places where integrated coastal management is insucient or lacking, the development
o an MPA can encourage a more integrated approach to coastal zone legislation andmore eective management o coastal areas in general (Agardy and Staub 2006; The
World Bank 2006). MPAs that meet their stated objectives can serve as a positive
reinorcement, or serve as a building block or the creation o additional MPAs and
scaling up to MPA networks, as well as other coastal management initiatives (Agardy
and Staub 2006). Currently implemented in about 100 countries, usually at the sub-
national level, ICM provides the potential to scale up marine management. This process
has occurred in the Philippines, where MPAs o the 1980s are presently managed within
an ICM ramework (White et al. 2005; UNEP-WCMC 2008) (Figure 3).
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SCALING UP TO A NETWORK APPROACH
Scalinguptoa
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MPAs and the ecosstem approach
An ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach takes into consideration the
cumulative impacts o dierent sectors aecting the structure, unctionality and key
processes o the ecosystem. EBM is generally dened as being all inclusive to the totalecosystem, including the human community. Thus, human use patterns, culture and
social norms are within the EBM planning ramework. EBM, while being sensitive to
the true marine ecological parameters, does not exclude the human elements o the
system.
MPAs networks, ormed through the scaling up o single MPAs to zoned networks with
multiple-use MPAs, can provide an ecosystem-based management approach (Christie
et al. 2007). Large-scale, multiple-use protected areas demonstrate the concept o
ecosystem management, where the geographical extent o protection is based on the
movements o organisms and physically linked processes. In recognition o these linkages,
MPA managers and planners should consider protection o ecosystem unction, structure
and integrity, in addition to individual resources (such as specic species or habitats)
and physical characteristics (Agardy and Staub 2006). Tools or regional planning to
advance marine and coastal ecosystem-based management can be accessed at www.
marineebm.org/index.htm.
Resilient MPA networks
The term resilience incorporates the capacity o socio-ecological systems to cope with,
adapt to, shape change and learn to live with uncertainty and surprise (Brand and Jax
2007).
Resilient systems are adaptable, fexible and prepared or change and uncertainty
(Hughes et al. 2005). Non-resilient systems, in contrast, are prone to irreversible change
and are at risk o shiting into another, oten undesirable, state (Marshall and Marshall
2007). Resilience is a critical aspect o MPA network design, particularly in the ace o
global climate change. I an MPA, or network, is resilient it can rebound rom or withstand
environmental fuctuations or unexpected catastrophes and support populations which
can potentially replenish other damaged populations (Figure 4) (West and Salm 2003).
Strong resilience can include both intrinsic actors, such as biological or ecological
characteristics o a community (i.e. potential or recruitment success), and extrinsicactors, such as physical eatures (i.e. current patterns that may avor larval dispersal
or an eective management regime) (West and Salm 2003). For example, certain
environmental actors, such as those that cause cooling o heated surace waters, can
ameliorate stress associated with thermal bleaching o corals in tropical systems. Sites
displaying these traits could be given higher priority in the selection process, as a means
o mitigating biodiversity loss rom climate change. Similarly, in temperate environments,
oceanographic regimes are expected to change due to climate change and some species
may move pole-ward as waters warm. Planning a connected network o MPAs across
latitudinal gradients can help to protect species as their ranges change. MPAs can ensure
healthier ecosystems that may also withstand climate changes and other stresses longerthan highly disturbed or degraded ecosystems.
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
MPA networks, assuming all the ecological and biological actors are considered andmaximized, will only be resilient through time i the management regime is capable,
eective and sustainable. Thus, resilient MPA networks have social, economic and
governance aspects, related to the coastal communities that must be anticipated and
addressed to ensure development and maintenance (US-IOTWSP 2007) .
Threat orcatastrophic
event
System
Shock:resistance orresilience ofthe communityor speciesdecreases theseverity of the impact
HIGH RESILIENCE
Adaptivemanagementstrategies
afterlessonslearnedfrom
experience
Recovery Time: Enhanced resilience accelerates recovery time
Disaster threshold
ConditionoftheC
ommunity
LOW RESILIENCE
Eample rom the eld appling resilience principles in coral ree management.
The Nature Conservancys Ree Resilience Toolkit, provides guidance to coral ree
managers on how to incorporate resilience into management strategies in the context
o global climate change. While the ocus o the toolkit is primarily on coral bleachingand ree sh spawning aggregation conservation, the recommendations and tools within
the toolkit can be applied to most threats acing coral rees today. Access the Ree
Resilience Toolkit at www.reeresilience.org or request a copy at [email protected].
Ke Concep t
Components o a resilient MPA network include:
Effectivemanagement.
Riskspreadingthroughinclusionofreplicatesofrepresentativehabitats. Full protection of critical areas that can serve as reliable sources of seed for
replenishment/preserve ecological unction.
Maintenanceofbiologicalandecologicalconnectivityamongandbetweenhabitats.
Figure 4 Resilience sstem responsesAdptd rm (US-IoTWSP 2007)
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Chapter 3
Broad-scale Considerations
or Resilient MPA Networks
We must think globally to be effective locally.
Fishing village on derawan Islan within a large marine conservation area o EastKalimantan, Indnsia.
MARK GoDfRey
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
MPA networks are set in a world context that varies by place and will aect their ultimate
success. Considering and adapting to the ollowing contextual variables is essential.
Institutionalandgovernanceconsiderations acknowledge institutional
structures and the importance o integrating actions within a broader managementcontext.
Economicandsocialconsiderations orm the 3 pillars o sustainable
development alongside ecological design criteria.
Spatialandtemporalconsiderations acknowledge that ecosystems unction at
dierent spatial scales and change over time due to actors such as human activities
and climate change.
Scienticandinformationmanagementconsiderations build upon the use o
the best available inormation or both planning and management purposes.
Institutional and governance considerations
Institutional and governance capacity can have a signicant eect and infuence on the
design, implementation and longevity o MPA networks. Governance relates to the power,
policies, structures and processes used or decision-making or an area o responsibility.
Emerging rom the interactions o many actors, including local communities, the private
sector and government, governance takes orm through laws, regulations, debates, and
negotiations, among other decision-making mechanisms (Lebel et al. 2006). In most
instances, institutional arrangements have developed over many years, oten devised to
meet the demands o the time. In general, there are 4 main protected area governance
types (Borrini-Feyerabend 2007)3:
Government-managed areas1.
Collaboratively managed areas2.
Private-protected areas3.
Community-based management areas4.
COORDINATION AND BUILDING LINKAGES
To work eectively within existing governance structures, network planners and
managers must coordinate and build linkages with all participatory stakeholders. This
includes engagement with applicable agencies, organizations and institutions, respecting
rights o indigenous and local communities and developing appropriate instruments3 fr mr inrmatin: IUCN prtctd ara matrix A tl twards cti prtctd ara sstms. ttp://
www.iucn.rg/tms/wcpa/tm/catgris/summit/paprs/paprs/Grnancpapr4.pd
Ke Concept: Governance vs. Management
Institutional capacity is the ability o government agencies to provide public goods andservices, ensuring that laws and regulations will be adequately enorced (Jameson et al.
2002). As the political dimension o human activity, governance acts to create a system oauthority and accountability, and management is the process leading to implementationwithin the institutional ramework.
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BROAD-SCALE CONSIDERATION FOR RESILIENT MPA NETWORKS
Broad-sc
aleconsideration
forresilie
ntMPAnetworks
(i.e. policies, regulations and standards) specic or the area. In the rst stages o the
planning process, network designers and managers need to identiy the ramework
and legal authorities and institutional responsibilities associated with the MPA network
(WCPA/IUCN 2007).
MPA management is oten part o an integrated coastal management (ICM) governance
ramework. In cases where no ICM institutions have been established, MPA management
should relate to the sectoral institutions concerned with watershed management, sheries,
tourism, maritime transportation or others (Cicin-Sain and Belore 2005). Supporting
such inter-departmental collaboration and coordination across all stakeholders requires
sustained leadership and recognition that diversity and capacity o the institutions and
groups involved will infuence the ecacy o the network (WCPA/ICUN 2007).
LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND AUTHORITy
Appropriate legislative and regulatory rameworks are undamental to achieving aneective MPA network. Many countries have special legislation enabling individual
MPAs, along with a variety o agencies with marine responsibilities, but ew have a
strategic legislative ramework or institutional arrangements or a representative MPA
network. Unless clarity is achieved, a poorly integrated array o legal and institutional
responsibilities can lead to problems such as competing mandates, overlaps, gaps and
ineciencies, all o which undermine an eective MPA network.
Special authorities are sometimes needed to coordinate overlapping and complex
jurisdictional arrangements. They can help establish coordination among coastal and
marine management regimes, and even establish mechanisms or public and stakeholder
involvement in developing an ecient, sustainable MPA network.
IMPROVING INSTITUTIONS TO SUPPORT MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
To be successul, responsible parties or the management o MPAs and networks,
institutions need to be ecient and eective in meeting goals and legitimate among
relevant stakeholders. Key institutional attributes include (Hughes et al. 2005; Brown
2006):
Embrace uncertainty, be adaptive and able to unction with dynamic and fuctuating
ecological resources and conditions.
Recognize and manage a range o users, uses and the trade-os between them.
Build knowledge and understanding o resource and ecosystem dynamics.
Develop management practices that measure, interpret and respond to ecological
eedback.
Enable the sharing o management power and responsibility through linkages
among communities, government agencies and non-governmental organizations.
It is rare or a single agency to have complete authority; instead, a diverse range o
institutions and agencies may be involved in managing a network. Because each region
is unique, no single approach to MPA governance or legislation can be universally
advocated or applied.
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Socioeconomic actors an community ynamics nee to be consiere in the MPA planning anmanagmnt. Cildrn in Papua Nw Guina.
While there is growing emphasis on the role o MPAs in biodiversity protection and
maintenance o ecosystems, MPA networks can play a major role in sheries management.
This role o MPAs and their socioeconomic impacts (positive and negative) will depend on
the sheries management context. In areas with ineective shery management or poor
enorcement o shery regulations, MPAs can serve as a primary shery managementtool at the local level to protect stocks o targeted species. In those cases, the benets
and costs o MPAs can be directly related to either the improvements in shery benets or
the spatial loss o shing opportunities at the local MPA scale. In areas with regionalized
industrial-scale shing and eective top-down shery management, MPAs are oten
layered on an existing system o shery regulations. Such areas may include other types
o shery closures, catch limits or management measures. The socioeconomic cost o
MPAs has to be considered in the context o these other shery management measures.
The shery benets o MPAs may not be as high where sheries are already being well-
managed outside o MPAs.
Eample rom the eld: Communit perceptions o MPAs. As a way to understandcommunity perceptions and understanding o MPAs, The Nature Conservancy inIndonesia implemented a system to monitor the perception o stakeholders on resource
status, use and management at 4 sites: Komodo, Wakatobi, Derawan and Raja Ampat(Halim and Mous 2006). The objectives o the monitoring tool were to produce basicquantiable indicators on community attitudes (i.e. rules and regulations, perceptionson resource conditions, outreach and awareness programs, etc.) and to identiy culturaland socioeconomic actors that either obstruct or acilitate management strategies.Incorporated into the broader context o MPA design, the socioeconomic inormationgathered rom a monitoring program as illustrated above, can indicate areas or improvedpublic education programs, inorm adaptive management measures and measureprogram eectiveness.
S
TUARTGRee
N
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A.
WhITe
such as MARXAN5 that identiy optimal reserve designs based on explicit trade-os
that have been used in many locations as part o the planning process (e.g. MARXAN)
(Airame et al. 2003; Leslie 2005; Green et al. 2007). These sotware tools have limitations
as the solutions identied are very dependent on the data and assumptions included asinputs, they generally do not explicitly address network connectivity, and results may not
mesh with local knowledge or more complex socioeconomic considerations.
INFORMATION FOR MONITORING AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT
The inormation and data or the planning process also provide a oundation and a system
or designing and implementing a monitoring program that will be part o an adaptive
management ramework. To provide useul and durable inormation that assists with
adaptive management o MPA networks, it is critical that consistent, long-term data be
available so that changes over time can be measured. Long-term inormation provides
reliable eedback on the eectiveness o management that can be provided to managers,
scientists, the communities and stakeholders. However, it is important to identiy and
match the relevant monitoring indicators to the goals and objectives o the MPA network
rom the start o the planning process. This will allow or improvement o protected area
management through learning, adapting and the diagnosis o specic issues infuencing
whether goals and objectives have been achieved (Pomeroy et al. 2004).
5 MARXAN is a cmputr stwar dcisin supprt tl r rsr sstm dsign. Trug ptimiatin algritms,
MARXAN prducs an cint sstm spatiall csi rsr sits, b minimiing t csts and mting
bidirsit targts (Ball and Pssingam 2000).
onc data ar gatrd, analss can b prrmd b map rlas. Wit stakldr inlmnt,ts maps can b usd t lp dtrmin ptntial sits r prtctin.
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BROAD-SCALE CONSIDERATION FOR RESILIENT MPA NETWORKS
Broad-sc
aleconsideration
forresilie
ntMPAnetworks
Systematic monitoring and inormation gathering o key indicators or MPA networks
require the application o the appropriate scientic skills, personnel, training and
partnerships. Training, science programs and research priorities should be based on
the management strategies and needs o the network, as a method to optimize results.
For example, applied research on ecosystem unctions, sustainable shery yields andeconomic valuation analyses can provide essential detail and inormation o the system
when they are consistent with the goals and objectives o the network.
Government agencies can play an important role in improving access to inormation
by making publicly unded inormation readily available. They must also strive to make
privately unded studies and inormation available by purchasing access rights or creating
agreements to share the inormation publicly. Private donors can help this exchange o
vital inormation by requiring that their grantees share data publicly. Examples o publicly
open databases and the process to develop them are shown in Tables 5 and 6.
Table 5 A database o the worlds MPAs
MPA Global is a database o the worlds Marine Protected Areas. It is a collaborativeproject between the University o British Colombia Fisheries Centre, Sea Around UsProject, WWF, UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. The project has two main goals: 1) to developa robust global MPA baseline and 2) to develop alternative scenarios o global MPAnetworks using spatial modelling techniques. The database is reely searchable at http://www.mpaglobal.org, and is currently based on inormation rom the World Database onProtected Areas (WDPA).
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
Six best practices have been identied or network planning that will apply in almost every
network planning process. Employing these best practices will help the network to realize
environmental, economic and social benets. These best practices, however, should also
be applied in conjunction with the broad-scale considerations or the development o
resilient MPA networks (Chapter 3) and with the ecological design principles (Chapter5) to achieve its objectives.
The 6 areas o best practice or planning MPA networks include:
1. Clearly dened goals and objectives.
2. Legal authority and long-term political commitment.
3. Incorporate stakeholders.
4. Use o best available inormation and precautionary approach.
5. Integrated management ramework.
6. Adaptive management measures.
Clearl dened goals and objectives
Clear and measurable objectives are essential or guiding management decisions and
tracking progress and perormance. Goals should be determined as early as possible
in the process because, once set, they will infuence critical decisions regarding such
things as the size, location, boundaries o the MPA, as well as the management measures
and the ocus o the monitoring and evaluation programs (Botsord et al. 2003; Roberts
et al. 2003; Leslie 2005; Halpern et al. 2006). Furthermore, such management goals need
to be ully endorsed by the community and solidly supported in an appropriate political
and social manner i they are to be eective.
Network goals and objectives must refect both the specic needs o an MPA network
and the objectives o individual component MPAs. Thus, goals and objectives can be
viewed at the level o individual MPAs that, through their placement, may perorm
dierent roles within the network to contribute to the goals or the larger network. The
combined eects o each individual MPA can achieve the overall goals or the network.
National conservation policies and regional and global environmental commitments, such
as biodiversity targets and sustainable development goals, should also be supported
through the objectives o the MPA network.
All MPA network objectives should be determined through an open, transparent and
balanced dialogue with all stakeholders. To ensure that the goals are compatible with localand traditional uses, community stakeholders, local leaders, resource users, government,
industry and other groups that infuence investment and development in the area should
Eample rom the eld Clearl dened goals in Mesoamerican Ree (MAR)region. In the eorts to scale up the MPA ramework in the Mesoamerican Ree (MAR)region, the TNC MAR Program has set as a goal the development o a network o MPA thatis resilient to bleaching events through representation and replication and conservationo key biological processes (Arrivillaga and Windevoxhel 2006). This network goalhas helped planners and managers concentrate the initial eorts on the elements orepresentation and replication, and critical areas through regional assessments oridentication o priority conservation sites.
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BEST PRACTICES FOR PLANNING MPA NETWORKS
Bestpracticesfor
planningMPAnetworks
be included in the goal-setting process. To be measurable, goals and objectives must
speciy time rames or achieving objectives and indicators or measuring perormance.
Unrealistic targets can hinder the MPA networks eectiveness, so timetables should be
appropriate.
Planners and designers should consider 3 broad categories o objectives or MPA
networks:
1. Ecological objectives. These typically seek to protect, manage and/or restore
marine ecosystems and their components, including processes, structure, unction
and integrity, as well as wildlie and geographic eatures. Planners must especially
consider objectives that a single MPA cannot achieve.
2. Economic objectives. To determine economic objectives, network planners mustunderstand current resource uses, users and economic prospects or the area.
Assessments need to be made on how the region will benet rom the network and
who may suer negative economic impacts. Economic considerations should involve
a short- and long-term view o costs and benets, as well as a perspective on how
local needs may interace with national sustainable development goals. Economic
objectives may seek to distribute benets to oset short-term costs incurred by
limiting unsustainable uses or to achieve national poverty reduction goals.
3. Socio-cultural objectives. MPA networks should contribute to quality o lie o the
local community. Fostering understanding, ownership and support or MPA networks
includes assessing the ull range o benets that biodiversity provides, including those
that directly aect human health and well-being. Exploring social and cultural values,
how those values are threatened, and the costs and benets involved in meeting
socio-cultural objectives will help ensure success. Such values might include pride in
the uniqueness o a natural area, local traditions that involve activities such as shing
or hunting, and places considered sacred to local groups.
Legal authorit and long-term political commitment
The authority to establish and manage MPAs is held by various levels o jurisdictions;
rom national, regional, local and/or traditional, depending on the region. One actor
that can greatly contribute to the implementation o the MPA is a solid legal authority
Ke Concept
Setting clear and agreed-upon network objectives at the outset:
Guide designation o component sites, levels o protection and management needs.
Guide monitoring and adaptive management o network sites.
Guide opportunities to reduce, mitigate or eliminate activities that degrade resources
or ecosystem services, while promoting those that support natural processes.
Help determine uture investments in sustainable use o coastal and marine
resources.
Improve transparent decision-making.
Provide a ramework or reviewing the contribution o existing MPAs to a network.Promote stakeholder buy-in and support.
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ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN
incorporating diverse interest groups should be recognized as a necessary component
o successul MPA planning. Active and continuous participation by stakeholder groups
is essential to the long-term success and sustainability o networks.
When designing the process or developing MPA networks, it will be important tounderstand stakeholders uses and values o the marine environment. Local and traditional
knowledge can help network designers identiy important traditional, cultural, historic
or religious uses o resources, places or species. Engaging stakeholders early allows
planners to better understand the range o stakeholder concerns and considerations,
including issues such as current social relationships; relevant distinctions among ethnic
or other groups; power dynamics and power-sharing relationships within communities;
jurisdictional issues and conficts (between dierent levels o government or between
traditional community leaders and ormal government agencies); and tenure rights,
conficts and other related issues.
Eample rom the eld - Stakeholders take local ownership to urther MPAnetwork development in New Zealand. During the 1980s and 1990s, concernamong stakeholders, marine scientists and conservation groups grew with noticeable
declines in sh catches and increasing growth pressures in New Zealands Fiordlandregion. In 1996, The Guardians o Fiordlands Fisheries and Marine Environment (theGuardians) ormed to initiate a more holistic approach to marine management o thearea. Representatives rom the commercial and recreational shers, charter boat andtourism operators, scientists, conservationists, communities and indigenous groupsgathered to address their concerns.
During 2000 to 2003, the Guardiansdeveloped a strategy or managing the marine area,utilizing the technical and nancial support o a number o key central governmentagencies and local government. This bottom-up approach initiated, by the Guardians,was a critical period during which the Guarians and central government worked togetherto produce a management strategy or the marine resources. As a result, in 2005, theFiordland Marine Management Act was implemented. The Act provided jurisdiction or
over 928,000 ha o sea, established a Guarians committee, created 8 marine reserves,introduced controls on anchoring and strengthened biosecurity measures.
When esigning the process ordlping MPA ntwrks, it will b
important to unerstan shermensuses an values o the marinenirnmnt.
A.
WhIT
e
Additionally, stakeholder involvement rom the initial planning stages helps to instill
a sense o ownership and commitment which can encourage long-term local interest
and support or overseeing activities (i.e. monitoring, enorcement) in the protected
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BEST PRACTICES FOR PLANNING MPA NETWORKS
Bestpracticesfor
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Eample rom the eld - Involving stakeholders, scientists and polic-makersin MPA network planning under Caliornias Marine Lie Protection Act. TheCaliornia Marine Lie Protection Act (MLPA), passed in 1999, has 6 goals ocusedon ecosystem protection; sustaining and restoring marine lie populations; improvingrecreational and study opportunities; representation o marine habitats; ensuringclearly dened objectives and sound science; and ensuring that MPAs are designedand managed, to the extent possible, as a network. The MPA network planning andimplementation process is guided by a Master Plan Framework (CDFG 2007) and is
characterized as science-based, but stakeholder driven. Regional groups o stakeholders,representing broad interests, are charged with designing alternative network proposalsor each region, which are then evaluated against science guidelines by a scienceadvisory team.
The planning process has been very open and transparent, with many opportunitiesor public input. A task orce, appointed by the governor, is charged with providingpolicy guidance and recommending a preerred alternative to the Fish and GameCommission, the nal authority or adopting a statewide MPA program. The task orcehas demonstrated in the 2 regions completed to date that the key actors weighed inidentiying the preerred alternative include meeting scientic guidelines, identiyingMPA designs that protect marine ecosystems while minimizing socioeconomic impact,and the degree o cross-interest support or proposals. Caliornias Department o Fish
and Game provides input throughout the process, especially on issues o easibility andenorceability. The interactive planning process has acilitated public understanding oand general support or the MPA proposals, allowed or scientic review and renemento proposals, and given policy-makers sucient inormation to guide their decisions.(More inormation on MLPA can be ound at http://www.dg.ca.gov/mlpa).
areas (Lundquist and Granek 2005). By involving a broad spectrum o stakeholders
in network design, managers and decision makers can address the social and scaling
up complexities involved in establishing a network. To be truly open, the development
process should seek to accommodate dierences in stakeholder groups, including
marginalized and disadvantaged communities. Timely, planned consultation processesoperating at meaningul spatial scales are critical to success.
Use o best available science & a precautionar approach
Optimal design o MPA networks requires ecological and socioeconomic inormation.
From the start o the planning process, network designers must bring all best available
data and inormation together in a orm that is useul or marine gap analysis, planningand decision-making. The data should consist o both scientic and socioeconomic
inormation and traditional and local ecological knowledgethe knowledge that
indigenous and local community groups have gained about the ecology o the area,
accumulated by experience and passed through generations. Incorporating traditional
and local ecological knowledge into the planning and design o MPA networks can oster
mutual learning and improve relationships between communities and management.
While the uncertainty and lack o inormation can be a challenge in conservation and
MPA design, MPA networks can still be established, making adjustments and lling in
gaps in science and inormation throughout the process. The precautionary approach
suggests that caution be taken in decision-making, but that it does not lead to paralysis
until perect inormation is available. Thus, a lack o certainty or science should not be
used as an excuse or not planning the MPA network.
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BEST PRACTICES FOR PLANNING MPA NETWORKS
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separate conficting uses, and ensures appropriate spatial allowances or industry,
wildlie and healthy ecosystems. Collaborative, fexible and transparent planning and
management processes are integral to the success o these rameworks, especially since
ecological boundaries rarely align with jurisdictional or political ones. One way to ensure
consistency across jurisdictions is to develop complementary management strategiesthat retain independent authority, such as rules and regulations.
Integrating the network into the economic and socio-cultural setting o an area
involves identiying economic opportunities that are compatible with the networks
social and ecological goals. This involves assessing the socio-cultural, economic and
ecological values related to all scales o local, national and regional economic settings.
Socioeconomic valuation should identiy the changes in current and potential resource
use, those beneting rom such uses and those disadvantaged by them. Discussions with
aected user groups about alternative sources o income and livelihoods help develop
consensus about uture economic goals.Promoting the use o sustainable technologies and industries in MPA networks provides
an opportunity to derive signicant economic benets and to support sustainable
economic development. Opportunities or cultivating sustainable practices include
using green buildings to house network managers and employees, promoting certied
sustainable aquaculture or partnering with restaurants that serve sustainable seaood.
Adaptive management measures
Adaptive management means using the best available inormation to develop the MPA
network and incorporating monitoring and evaluation systems to systematically test theeectiveness o management methods and rene them over time (Figure 5). The availability
o scientic inormation changes over time. As science evolves and new inormation is
distributed, MPA guidelines and strategies should be modied, i changes are warranted.
To do this, the managem