ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND

ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND

LANGUAGE TEACHING

A reference for students of English

Gusti Astika

Ardiyarso Kurniawan

Listyani

Antonina Anggraini Setiamunadi

Wimbo Pambudi Wicaksono

ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING

A reference for students of English

Penulis: Gusti Astika, dkk.

Desain cover: Tim FBS-UKSW

Layout: Harrie Siswanto

Percetakan: Tisara Grafika Salatiga

[email protected]|081228598985

Griya Media, 2020

viii + 86 hlm, 25 cm

Cetakan pertama, Nopember 2020

ISBN 978-623-7528-81-4

Jl. Sonotirto No. 654 Salatiga

Telp./Fax: 298-328933

email: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]%7C081228598985

mailto:[email protected]

ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |iii

PREFACE

Teaching a second language involves teaching the essential concepts,

issues and challenges that are fundamental to students' knowledge. This

book provides essential concepts in language teaching and language

learning we have taught over several years to students in English Language

Department, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana. This book is intended for

self-study, primarily designed to support Current Issues in Second Language

Teaching course for the students in the department. The concepts included

in the book have been selected from the main course book: Teaching and

Learning in the Language Classroom (2000) by Tricia Hedge, published by

Oxford University Press. The concepts have been alphabetically organized,

translated or explained in Indonesian and written in broader discourse

contexts as found in the course book to help students get the general

meanings. More precise meanings of the concepts should be explored

within the paragraphs in the course book where a particular concept is

discussed. This book has been published for internal use of the course.

However, it can also be useful to students who enrolled in other

methodology courses that share similar issues.

We would like to thank the Faculty of Language and Arts for the

funding assistance in the production of the book. We hope that the students

find this book useful in their courses.

Salatiga, November 2020

Writers

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ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |v

Forewords

In second language teaching there are many concepts, terms, and issues

that are challenging to students because of its vast coverage. Sufficient knowledge

and understanding of essential concepts in second language teaching is a necessity

to students as their preparation to become professionals in language teaching. The

concepts, terms, and issues discussed in textbooks and research articles in language

teaching and learning could be quite perplexing that may point to a need for an

innovative technique for learning. The effort to translate and explain new concepts

or technical terms used in the course book is an example of such an innovative effort

initiated by the teachers of the course, Current Issues in Second Language Teaching.

The aim is to support the students enrolled in this course to comprehend the issues

described the main textbook being used in the course. I do hope students taking

this course would find this book useful as a reference and a guide for understanding

the concepts in second language teaching.

I am very pleased to commend this book as a contribution to quality teaching and

learning a second language.

Salatiga, November 2020

Dean Faculty of Language and Arts Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana

vi|Gusti Astika, dkk.

ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |vii

Table of Contents

Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii

Forewords ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………. vii

A ……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 1

B ……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 8

C……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 10

D……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 29

E……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 37

F……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 47

G……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 52

H……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 56

I……………………………………………………………………………................................................. 57

L……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 63

M……………………………………………………………………………...............................................68

N……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 75

O……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 76

P……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 77

R……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 79

S……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 81

T……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 85

V……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 85

W……………………………………………………………………………...............................................85

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ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |1

A

academic contexts

konteks akademis

A serious related criticism is that the process approach does not address the realities of life for those students who are working with English writing in academic contexts.

academic writing

menulis secara akademis

In academic writing, when tutors set assignments, the first step in pedagogy could be to encourage students to work in pairs and arrive at an understanding of the task by questioning and clarifying the meaning of key expressions and selecting the information needed to fulfil the task.

acceptable collocations

Kolokasi atau gabungan antara kata yang benar, dapat diterima

A growing knowledge of acceptable collocations will build associations which give learners clues about compatibility.

(self)-access centre

tempat/pusat belajar (mandiri). Biasanya berupa ruang baca yang menyediakan buku-buku sebagai referensi belajar siswa

In well-resourced institutions, a greater number of readers can be made available in a self-access centre, but they will then need to be graded and coded for learners at different levels of learning.

accompanying activities

kegiatan tambahan

Many institutions now offer their students materials for independent reading through class libraries or through self-access centres, and teachers provide accompanying activities so that students are motivated to use the resources provided.

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accuracy based

berdasarkan ketepatan/akurasi tata bahasa

Typical classroom activities for accuracy-based learning are grammar drilling, fill-in-the-gaps exercises, error analysis, and grammar presentation.

achievement behaviour

Perilaku belajar yang mengarah kepada capaian, prestasi

Achievement behaviour is the behaviour shown by language learners where they try to find ways to deal with their learning problems.

achievement strategies

strategi belajar untuk memperoleh capaian, prestasi

In speaking, in order to deliver the message of their speech, speakers need an ability to negotiate meaning where part of this involves using achievement strategies, such as paraphrase or gesture, to explain things more clearly.

acquire language

memperoleh, memahami bahasa

Children acquire language through interaction - not only with their parents and other adults, but also with other children.

acquisition factors

faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pemerolehan bahasa

Age and motivation are two of the many other acquisition factors.

acquisition process

proses pemerolehan bahasa

The acquisition process, often called a creative construction process. is parallel to that of a child learning its first language.

acquisition studies

penelitian-penelitian tentang pemerolehan bahasa


Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in extensive reading, perhaps as a result of insights from second language acquisition studies into the role and nature of input in the learning process.

active construction

pembentukan bahasa secara aktif

Active construction theory of grammar states that children learn a language by imitating their parents and by listening to inputs in their surrounding environment.

active vocabulary

kosakata aktif

Active vocabulary consists of those words over which one can use in his/her speech and writing (i.e., he/she knows the meaning of those words accurately).

adjacency pairs

percakapan secara berpasangan

The term 'adjacency pairs' has been given to exchanges where a turn by one speaker requires an immediate response, as in greetings, invitations, compliments, enquiries about health, and complaints.

adult learners

pembelajar dewasa

Critics were quick to point out that adult learners can be encouraged on process error correction in useful ways.

affective factors

faktor-faktor afektif, berhubungan dengan perasaan atau suasana batin, sikap

Most discussions have limited affective factors to personality characteristics, attitudes, and emotional responses to the language learning process.

affective filter

filter afektif, yang menghambat seseorang untuk belajar


A learner who has generally negative attitudes towards learning English will have a high affective filter.

ambiguous message

pesan atau informasi yang ambigu, menimbulkan keraguan, kekaburan, ketidakjelasan

Environmental noise and disturbance may create gaps in the message. Thus, it is difficult for a first language listener as well as it is for the second language listener to make sense of the ambiguous message in which the speaker has given in the conversation.

analytic learner

pembelajar analitik (menggunakan analisa atau penalaran logis)

An analytic learner likes to analyse elements in detail.

analytic style

gaya belajar analitik, menggunakan analisa atau penalaran logis

Brown (1987) suggests that Anglo-American have an analytic style. On the other hand, Egyptian students prefer a global approach (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995).

analytical activities

kegiatan yang memerlukan kemampuan analitis

Regular use of analytical activities which draw students attention explicitly to some linguistic features of texts might be beneficial to build their awareness of the grammatical structures of the language.

aptitude test

tes bakat berbahasa

Two well-known language aptitude tests, still widely used, are the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carroll and Sapon, 1955) and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (LAB) (Pimsleur, 1966).

articulatory organs

organ-organ artikulasi yang berfungsi untuk menghasilkan bunyi, suara


Esling and Wong (1983), for instance, suggest that if students are given early instruction on how to set their articulatory organs to produce the typical voice quality of North American English speakers, then it will be easier for them to produce individual sounds.

assimilate language

menyatukan, menggabungkan aspek bahasa

Intake refers to the ways in which learners process input and assimilate language to their interlanguage system.

atomistic approach

pendekatan pembelajaran atau pengajaran atomistik, terpisah-pisah

An atomistic approach to language attempts to analyse language into parts, such as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which can later become the content of a syllabus.

attitudinal variable

Faktor, variabel yang berhubungan dengan sikap

Ethnocentricity is an attitudinal variable which has been investigated, and it will not surprise experienced teachers that studies show a negative correlation with language learning.

audiolingual approach

pendekatan belajar-mengajar audio lingual

The audiolingual approach, for example, suggests that while perceiving listening as the primary skill in the sequence of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, at the same time teachers need to provide only restricted practice of scripted dialogues which have the main aim of presenting repeated practising language forms.

auditory ability

kemampuan untuk mendengarkan

The two well-known language aptitude tests generally put forward a multi-componential view of aptitude as comprising four components: auditory ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and memory.


auditory input

masukan untuk melatih kemampuan mendengar

The role of vision in first language listening, especially lip movements, is particularly important when the auditory input is of poor quality.

aural activity

aktivitas untuk melatih kemampuan mendengar

In most situations, listening is not just an aural activity. We are usually able to see the speaker, who provides non-verbal clues to meaning. For example, lip movements, facial expressions, and gestures.

authentic materials

bahan yang otentik, asli, bukan bahan untuk belajar bahasa

Authentic material is any material written in English that was not created for intentional use in the English language classroom. Some examples of it are news stories, magazine articles, radio programs, etc.

authority figure

figur atau orang yang memiliki otoritas

Authority figure is a person who has or represents authority. Parents, teachers, and police officers are traditional authority figures for children.

automatic production

penggunaan, pemakaian secara otomatis

It is most useful to see vocabulary knowledge as a scale running from recognition of a word at one end to automatic production at the other end of the scale.

available resources

sumber-sumber pembelajaran, pengajaran yang tersedia

There are many available resources for teachers to help them in their teaching.

avoidance behaviour


cara belajar yang menunjukkan perilaku menghindar

Avoidance behaviour is the opposite of achievement behaviour. Learners show avoidance behaviour when they try to eliminate their speaking problem by changing the topic or not participating in a conversation.

awareness raising

menumbuhkan kesadaran dalam proses belajar dan mengajar

Awareness raising activities aim to make learners more aware of language and so improve their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves.


B

basic approaches

pendekatan mengajar utama

Teachers have a choice of two basic approaches, which Richards (1990) has called direct and indirect. The indirect approach simply involves students in conversation through role-play and problem-solving tasks, and gives them opportunities to practise these things in classroom activities. The direct approach applies a systematic analysis to the themes of speaking competence and takes students through a programme of awareness-raising and practice.

basic concepts

konsep-konsep dasar

Part one is a linguistic analysis of the English lexical system and looks in turn at basic concepts and terms, the notion of core vocabulary, words and patterns, and lexis in discourse.

basic lexicons

kosakata utama, yang paling sering dipakai

A native-speaker child on entering school at the age of five or six would already have a productive vocabulary of some 2,000 to 3,000.words. Compare this with the basic lexicons of similar size used to design the higher levels of graded readers intended for EFL adults (for example, Heinemann Guided Readers Upper Level at 2,200 words or Collins English Library Level Six at 2,500 words) and the substance of the learning task becomes evident.

become accountable

menjadi akuntabel, bertanggung jawab

Collaborative writing makes students become accountable in the way that writers are in real life, and this accountability is a strong incentive for clear and effective writing.

become evident

menjadi jelas


Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.

beneficial effect

pengaruh yang bermanfaat

The pedagogical value attributed to extensive reading is based on the assumption that exposing learners to large quantities of meaningful and interesting L2 material will, in the long run, produce a beneficial effect on the learners' command of the L2.

bilingual dictionary

kamus dwi (dua) bahasa

A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language to another (English - mother tongue; mother tongue - English).

build rapport

membangun hubungan baik

The most important qualities a teacher needs to have, according to a group of teachers on an in-service training course, are having a sense of burnout, self-confidence, sensitivity to learners as people, and ability to build rapport.

build understanding

membangun pengertian, pemahaman

Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.


C

carefully articulated

diucapkan dengan cermat, tepat

In recordings of English, conversations are manipulated in several ways, such as the intonation patterns are exaggerated, pronunciation of words is carefully articulated, the background noise is eliminated, etc.

case studies

studi kasus

The book is illustrated with case studies and contains many practical suggestions for dealing with the professional issues arising from contextual factors.

catchphrases

Slogan, ungkapan yang sering dipakai

Two examples of catchphrases are 'keep smiling' and 'chin up'.

centred teaching

pengajaran terpusat, pada guru atau murid

There are two types of centered teaching. They are teacher-centered teaching or student-centered teaching.

cognate words

kata yang mirip, hampir sama

Students can work in pairs and build a collective picture of cognate words

cognitive ability

kemampuan kognitif

Different students may have different level of cognitive abilities


cognitive challenge

tantangan kognitif

Some students find role-play easier as they do not have to face the cognitive challenge of finding original and intelligent things to contribute.

cognitive hold

pegangan kognitif, tempat untuk menyimpan ingatan

Words are quickly forgotten again as there is no “cognitive hold” in the learners’ memory.

cognitive influences

pengaruh kognitif

It investigates the dimensions of affective and cognitive influences.

cognitive style

cara berpikir, mengingat sesuatu

A possible cause of differences in cognitive style is the kind of teaching methodology.

cognitive operations

cara kerja berpikir

A piece of writing is the outcome of a set of complicated cognitive operations

cognitive processes

proses berpikir

Cognitive processes affects the behaviour of the writer and, in fact, distorts them

cognitive psychologists

ahli psikologi kognitif

Cognitive psychologists have suggested that input becomes intake if there is a depth of processing.


cognitive strategies

strategi kognitif, cara berpikir untuk memecahkan masalah

Other cognitive strategies can be observed when learners try to establish an unfamiliar word.

cohesive device

Alat atau kata untuk mempererat makna antar kalimat

Cohesive devices include such things as reference items.

collaborative classroom

kelas yang kolaboratif, siswa bekerja bersama

Clarke's procedure suggests collaborative classroom work

collective picture

gambaran tugas yang dibuat secara kolektif

Students can work in pairs and build a collective picture of what they have been looking for.

colloquial english

bahasa Inggris sehari-hari

A good deal of listening is to informal colloquial English.

colloquial language

bahasa sehari-hari

A good deal of listening is to informal colloquial language.

colloquial speech

percakapan sehari-hari

This implies familiarizing students with colloquial speech.


combined approach

pendekatan mengajar yang dipadukan, digabungkan

The combined approach was more effective than the keyword method alone.

common derivatives

kata jadian yang umum

It has some 2,000 headwords, together with a list of common derivatives and compounds.

communication strategies

strategi komunikasi

Communication strategies can be strong indicators of gaps and uncertainties in language knowledge.

communicative act

tindakan komunikatif

The communicative act is not in reception of the communicative content.

communicative activity

aktivitas yang komunikatif

In designing communicative activities, teachers need to create opportunities for interaction.

communicative approaches

pendekatan komunikatif

This has been a focus of substantial discussion in our profession especially with the increasing use of communicative approaches.

communicative aspects

aspek komunikatif

The tests focus on language form rather than its communicative aspects.


communicative content

konten komunikatif

The end of the communicative act is not in reception of the communicative content.

communicative events

aktivitas, kegiatan yang bersifat komunikatif

Swales (1990) defines genre as a class of communicative events

communicative function

fungsi komunikatif

Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example communicative function.

communicative interaction

interaksi komunikatif

Communicative interaction has value for negotiating comprehensible input.

communicative tasks

tugas yang komunikatif

Teacher needs to provide a listening situation for communicative tasks.

communicative test

tes yang komunikatif

The criteria below are taken from the upper intermediate level of a communicative test of speaking

communicative textbooks

buku yang komunikatif

The tasks were chosen from communicative textbooks.


completed charts

grafik yang sudah lengkap

In your groups, please compare and discuss your completed charts.

complex contributions

kontribusi yang kompleks

They must be capable of making lengthy and complex contributions as appropriate.

complex endeavour

usaha yang kompleks

They communicate a sense of awareness that language teaching is a complex endeavour.

complex phenomenon

fenomena yang kompleks

It is now clear that motivation is a highly complex phenomenon.

comprehension questions

pertanyaan untuk pemahaman bacaan

Learners would be required to answer comprehension questions.

comprehension strategies

strategi untuk memahami bacaan

Top-down comprehension strategies involve knowledge that a listener brings to a text.

comprehensible output

ucapan, tulisan yang dapat dipahami

Learners need practice in producing comprehensible output.


compulsory subject

mata pelajaran wajib

English is a compulsory subject for all students.

conceptual category

kategori konseptual

A simple definition of prototype is that it is the foremost example of a particular conceptual category.

conceptual system

sistem konseptual

This relates to the points about the conceptual system embodied in the language.

confidence uncertainties

keraguan terhadap rasa percaya diri

One of the individual differences in learners is the confidence uncertainty that exists.

confirm expectations

memastikan terpenuhinya keinginan, harapan

Students can be given activities which require them to confirm expectations.

connecting devices

alat, kata penghubung

The absence of connecting devices can sometimes create ambiguity.

conscious attention

perhatian dengan kesadaran

It makes a distinction between acquiring a language through conscious attention to language study.


conscious efforts

usaha secara sadar

It facilitates learning by actively involving the learner in conscious efforts.

conscious focus

fokus secara sadar

What they have in common is a conscious focus on language.

consciousness raising

membangun kesadaran, perhatian

This early training may involve both consciousness raising and practice.

considerable flexibility

fleksibilitas yang cukup besar

It allows for considerable flexibility in choice of personality and interests.

considerable learning effort

usaha belajar yang cukup besar

Despite sometimes considerable learning effort, they are quickly forgotten again.

considerable methodological responsibilities

tanggung jawab metodologis yang cukup besar

There has been useful discussion about the considerable methodological responsibilities.

considerable task

tugas yang cukup besar

It assists learners with the very considerable task of acquiring vocabulary.


considerable value

nilai yang cukup besar

It can be of considerable value to develop different types of resources for vocabulary teaching.

considerable variation

variasi yang cukup besar

It will also differ according to the preferred style of the considerable variation.

consolidate meaning

memperkuat pemahaman makna kata

'Word networks', for example, can be used to establish and consolidate meaning.

consonant clusters

kelompok konsonan

A very wide range of features could receive attention: for example consonant clusters.

constant interplay

interaksi yang terus-menerus

We need to keep in mind that the processes are in constant interplay.

constant review

pengkajian yang terus-menerus

A constant review has been done by researchers into second language acquisition.

constraining factor

faktor penghambat

The examination system, for example, is usually a heavily constraining factor.


construction process

proses konstruksi, memahami bahasa

Adults are thought to be capable of this same creative construction process.

constructive mix

kelompok yang konstruktif, bersifat membangun

The teacher should be the one to do this in order to achieve a constructive mix.

constructive process

proses memahami bahasa yang terus berjalan

Detailed structure is retained and stored in the long-term memory Memory, as an 'active' and 'constructive' process.

contemporary approaches

pendekatan modern pembelajaran bahasa

It suggests criteria for the evaluation of the vocabulary component of coursebooks from the contemporary approaches.

contemporary society

masyarakat modern

Contemporary society exhibits a shift away from listening to printed media and towards sound.

contemporary textbooks

buku teks modern

Those information should be provided in the contemporary textbooks.

contemporary writing

pelajaran menulis dengan pendekatan modern

What are the features of the contemporary writing classroom?

content information

isi Informasi

Learners were asked to read and recall four versions of a text which contained the same content information


content schemata

pengetahuan tentang sesuatu hal

Content schemata includes world knowledge, sociocultural knowledge, and topic knowledge.

contextual appropriacy

kesesuaian bahasa dalam konteks tertentu

The development of fluency and contextualappropriacy are equally important goals.

contextual clues

petunjuk-petunjuk dalam konteks

Research tends to suggest that if inferencing is easy because the text is rich in contextual clues.

contextual cues

isyarat dalam konteks

Contextual cues are used for inferencing meaning.

contextual factor

faktor yang ada dalam konteks

Many practical suggestions are addressed for dealing with the issues arising from contextual factor.

contextual information

informasi yang ada dalam konteks

The setting can be partly predicted from the picture and contextual information from the written text.

contextual knowledge

pemahaman tentang konteks

Speakers who have a high degree of contextual knowledge can be comprehensible.


contextual use

penggunaan kata dalam konteks

A monolingual dictionary has advantages over a small bilingual one in providing examples of contextual use.

contextualization activities

kegiatan yang dirancang sesuai dengan konteks

It also provides the context of the listening so that contextualization activities become less necessary.

contextualized practice

Kegiatan yang sesuai dengan konteks

Contextualized practice aims to make clear the link between linguistic form and communicative function.

contextualized tasks

tugas yang sesuai dengan konteks

Contextualized tasks aim to develop a sense of audience

continuing focus

fokus yang berkelanjutan

Learners can do choral practice for continuing focus on pronunciation.

contracted forms

bentuk kata yang disingkat, disederhanakan

Spoken language also contains a higher proportion of colloquial language, for example contracted forms.

contrast markers

kata sebagai penanda kontras

A second version was then designed using contrast markers such as “both”.


contrasting opinion

pendapat yang berbeda

The function of the phrase or clause in which the word occurs, for example, aims to give a contrasting opinion.

contrasting texts

teks yang berbeda

A wide range of activities focusing either on the content of the text can be undertaken, for example, reading of contrasting texts.

contrastive link

tautan, hubungan yang bertentangan

It indicates a contrastive link with the next part of the discourse

contrastive studies

studi, penelitian perbandingan (dua) bahasa

It may be sufficient to use the information available from contrastive

studies.

contributory factor

faktor yang mendukung

The extensive reading programme may well have been a contributory

factor.

controlled activities

aktivitas, kegiatan belajar yang terkontrol

Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example: a grammatical structure.

controlled dialogues

dialog, percakapan terbimbing

It will need to move well beyond the controlled dialogues.


controlled language-focused activities

kegiatan belajar terbimbing yang menekankan aspek-aspek bahasa

Students are able to transfer the strategies they practise in more controlled language-focused activity

controlled practice

latihan terbimbing

Controlled practice can be exploited usefully.

conversation interaction

interaksi dalam percakapan

The candidate must be able to evidence of the ability to 'turn-take' in a conversation interaction appropriately.

conversational ability

kemampuan bercakap-cakap

Activities are designed to develop conversational ability.

conversational fillers

ungkapan-ungkapan untuk melancarkan percakapan

Learners should know how to use conversational fillers and small talk.

conversational formulae

Ungkapan-ungkapan dalam percakapan

They need to know how to use appropriate conversational formulae.

conversational gambit

Ungkapan umum dalam percakapan

Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example a conversational gambit.

conversational routines

kebiasaan-kebiasaan dalam percakapan

Learners need to know about conversational routines.


conversational setting

Pengaturan ruang kelas untuk latihan percakapan

Does the activity keep students in the conversational setting of their own classroom?

conversational strategies

strategi dalam percakapan

The success of an indirect approach will depend on such factors as whether input provides examples of conversational strategies.

core skills

keterampilan inti, utama

Learners will need core skills in the mechanics of word processing.

core vocabulary

kosakata inti, utama

It looks at the notion of core vocabulary in discourse.

correction strategies

strategi untuk memperbaiki kesalahan

This review of the questions form the framework of any policy on error treatment that exist for correction strategies.

correction techniques

teknik untuk memperbaiki kesalahan

In the use of correction techniques a balance is needed between accuracy and fluency.

corrective influence

pengaruh karena adanya perbaikan kesalahan

Students need to have exposure to the corrective influence of authentic spoken English.


counter productive

kontra produktif

Methodology which encourages students to plan in detail before writing and to keep to that plan, is possibly counter-productive.

create ambiguity

menciptakan ambiguitas, pemahaman yang tidak jelas

The absence of connecting devices can sometimes create ambiguity.

creative construction process

proses memahami bahasa secara kreatif

The acquisition process is often called a creative construction process.

creative resource book

buku sumber yang kreatif

It is a creative resource book based on a set of assumptions.

critical perspective

perspektif, pandangan kritis

It will help students to develop a critical perspective on texts.

critical awareness

kesadaran kritis

It will help students to develop critical awareness.

critical procedures

prosedur kritis saat mengajar

Teachers who wish to explore critical procedures can apply text comparison as a basis for critical reading.


critical process

proses membaca kritis

In what ways is reading a critical process?

critical questions

pertanyaan kritis

Silberstein (1979) suggest the kind of critical questions which can be built

into reading material.

critical reading

membaca kritis

Critical reading views reading as a social process.

critical stance

sikap kritis

Taking a critical stance to the content of texts is the goal for teaching reading.

cultural clash

benturan budaya

The Anglo-American teacher of Egyptian students could well experience a cultural clash of learning styles.

cultural competence

kompetensi, pemahaman tentang budaya

They also need relevant cultural competence to know what is an appropriate response.

cultural content

konten, unsur budaya

This is the question of cultural content in materials, and the values and attitudes inherent in this


cultural conventions

kebiasaan-kebiasaan dalam suatu budaya

The cultural conventions will need to be learned.

cultural expectations

harapan, keinginan berdasarkan budaya

There is a tension between the requirements of the learning task for teacher behaviour and cultural expectations.

cultural notions

gagasan, pandangan, pendapat berdasarkan budaya

Teachers’ work will be influenced by cultural notions of authority.

cultural stereotyping

pandangan terhadap sesuatu berdasarkan ciri-ciri budayanya

It is equally important to be aware of the dangers of cultural stereotyping.

cultural values

nilai-nilai budaya

One of the purposes of using a text like this to introduce them to unfamiliar

cultural values.

current approaches

pendekatan mengajar saat ini

This has substantially influenced current approaches to task design.

current research

penelitian saat ini

This is demonstrated by current research into the reading process.

current textbook

buku yang dipakai saat ini

There are numerous useful examples in the current textbooks which illustrate good practice.


current trends

trend saat ini

Using authentic materials and is representative of current trends in teaching.

current view

pandangan atau pendapat saat ini

The current view of teaching is to create a balance between holistic and atomistic approaches.

curriculum objective

tujuan kurikulum

Teachers have to keep to the curriculum objectives set our by the educational authorities.


D

denotative meaning

makna denotatif, makna utama, bukan arti kiasan suatu kata

Besides denotative meaning, learners have to learn the complexities of word meanings

design activities

merancang kegiatan atau aktivitas

The teacher's role is to provide materials, design activities, and then step back.

design materials

merancang materi pembelajaran

A teacher can give students ideas for how they might design materials for learning.

detailed criteria

kriteria yang rinci

Detailed criteria for selecting and evaluating textbooks are discussed in Chapter 10.

detailed response

respon yang rinci

A monologue with simple language could require a more detailed response.

detailed structure

struktur yang rinci

It is the gist of the spoken message rather than its detailed structure that is retained and stored in the long-term memory.

develop awareness

mengembangkan kesadaran

An English language course should also develop awareness of the structure of written texts such as rhetorical structure, discourse features, and cohesive devices.


develop confidence

mengembangakan rasa percaya diri

The intention of the book is to develop confidence and independence in listening.

develop fluency

mengembangkan kelancaran berbicara atau membaca

The book has the following aims: to build confidence through controlled practice; to build awareness of how conversation works; to develop fluency; and to equip students with tools for assessing their own performance.

develop listening

mengembangkan keterampilan menyimak

What kinds of classroom procedures will develop listening ability?

develop preferences

mengembangkan keterampilan untuk memilih sesuatu

Many idioms carry quite subtle nuances in meaning and learners need to develop preferences, and make choices which they feel are appropriate for themselves.

develop strategies

mengembangkan strategi

A major strategy in helping students to build vocabulary for reading is to encourage them to develop strategies for guessing word meanings from contextual clues and background knowledge.

developing competence

mengembangkan kompetensi

The reading lesson should aim to build learners' ability to engage in purposeful reading. This implies developing competence in the foreign language, awareness of the structure of written texts, and knowledge about the world.

developing efficiency

mengembangkan efisiensi

A distinction needs to be made between classroom writing aimed at developing efficiency and exam preparation which aims at demonstrating that efficiency.


developing knowledge

pengetahuan yang sedang berkembang

Getting feedback from the teacher and from other students in the class enables learners to test hypotheses and refine their developing knowledge of the language system.

developing resources

mengembangkan sumber-sumber pembelajaran

Developing resources for vocabulary teaching can be of considerable value to learning.

developing skimming

mengembangkan keterampilan membaca skimming, memahami isi bacaan secara umum

The first step in reading is aimed at developing skimming in order to preview the contents of the text.

developing speech

mengembangkan keterampilan menyampaikan gagasan secara lisan

At this time, the students’ practice aims at developing speech within a set time limit.

dialectal differences

perbedaan dialek

It is the dialectal differences that caused misinterpretation in communication.

diary accounts

catatan harian, lisan maupun tertulis

Block (1994) collected oral diary accounts from six students and from their teacher in an EFL class which met daily for two-and-a-half hours over a period of a month.

diary entries

catatan di buku harian

Even with elementary students it is possible to set up the writing of whole texts such as short descriptions, diary entries, and postcards.


dictionary entries

daftar kosakata di kamus

One way to find word meaning would be to check it in a dictionary entry, or with a teacher or native speaker.

different perspectives

perspektif atau pemahaman yang berbeda

Learner-centred ELT is a concept which has been defined from several different perspectives.

different speeds

kecepatan yang berbeda

Now, it is common to find activities which encourage different speeds of reading.

different strengths

kekuatan yang berbeda

Each learner will have different strengths to build on and different weaknesses to

overcome. Therefore, there can be no single, set, rigid methodology for reading.

difficult circumstances

suatu kondisi yang sulit

Mistakes may be caused by inability to perform because of factors to do with carelessness, tiredness, distractions, or difficult circumstances such as talking on a faulty telephone line and having to respond to partly heard messages.

difficult experience

pengalaman yang sulit

Some learners have previous difficult experiences. It is an issue which teachers will need to take into account when considering the individual needs.

direct appeal

permintaan langsung


A direct appeal for help from a learner is: what is this colour?

direct approach

pendekatan langsung

The success of a direct approach will depend on whether students are able to transfer the strategies they practise in more controlled language-focused activity to fluency activities.

direct evidence

bukti langsung

The data from research provide direct evidence from the writer's mind; that they can provide very rich data and allow us to explore many possibilities.

direct instruction

instruksi, petunjuk langsung

Vocabulary learning activities should include direct instruction which aims to shape the associations learners make.

direct teaching

pengajaran langsung

Teachers can facilitate the process of vocabulary learning through direct teaching.

direct vocabulary instruction

pengajaran kosakata secara langsung

It is evidently the view of many current textbook writers that, as well as indirect learning through handling the language in classroom activities, direct vocabulary instruction is useful.

teacher-directed ethos

cara mengajar yang berpusat pada guru

The early twentieth century school classroom is characterized by formal and teacher-directed ethos of teaching.

disadvantage students

merugikan siswa

The physical constraints of the classroom may disadvantage students during learning.


disambiguating information

informasi, penjelasan yang tidak membingungkan

Some learners can tolerate ambiguity better than others and wait for disambiguating information. This might well advantage beginners dealing with the presentation of simplified grammatical rules.

discernible needs

kebutuhan yang jelas, nyata

Adult learners can specify discernible needs for learning English. They can be asked to contribute to the overall design of course content and the selection of learning procedures.

discernible shapes

bentuk, model yang jelas

Other genres, such as farewell speeches, business presentations of new products, appraisal interviews, and presentations of a problem and its potential solutions at a scientific conference, also have discernible shapes, and a study of these might facilitate ways of practising them.

discipline problems

masalah disiplin

Learners know what they need to do and why they are doing it, are motivated to work actively, are monitored and guided when help is needed, and can work undisturbed by discipline problems.

discourse community

komunitas wacana, sekelompok orang yang memiliki tujuan dan cara komunikasi yang sama

It becomes important for learners to understand the shapes of the written genres they have to produce within the discourse community, for example those of medical research, company law.

discourse organization

susunan sebuah wacana, bagaimana sebuah wacana atau teks disusun

Many writing materials now attempt to follow a syllabus in which students explore various types of discourse organization, for example, cause—effect, problem—solution, contrast—comparison, or process description.


discourse signals

sinyal wacana

A reader may also use discourse signals of various kinds to get through a text. These may be connectives such as 'moreover', which signals addition, or 'whereas', which signals contrast.

discussion tasks

tugas untuk didiskusikan

The students were given a given a discussion task in which they were told they had been made redundant, were given several possible courses of action, and had to achieve consensus on which course to follow.

distracting activity

mengganggu kegiatan

Many handbooks for teachers stress the importance of not impeding or distracting activities of the learners to communicate during fluency practice.

dominant role

peran yang dominan

The teacher commented on his enjoyment of project work as one kind of learner-based teaching which allowed him to stand back a little and take on a less dominant role while his pupils organized themselves in collaborative work.

draw conclusions

mengambil kesimpulan

Unfortunately, it would be mistaken to draw conclusions from this discussion of three activity types that their use will ensure that students practise the skills and strategies they try to encourage.

drawing attention

mengarahkan perhatian

It becomes the task of the teacher to help students develop inferencing strategies, drawing attention to the guidance available and applying it through careful and repeated work.


dynamic relationship

hubungan yang dinamis

In recent years the term "interactive” has been used to describe the second language reading process. The term can be interpreted in two ways. First, it describes a dynamic relationship with a text as the reader 'struggles' to make sense of it.


E

educational authorities

pejabat dalam bidang pendidikan

Teachers have a good deal of flexibility in deciding how to use these hours as long as we keep to the curriculum objectives set out by the educational authorities.

educational concerns

masalah yang menjadi perhatian dalam pendidikan

There may be wider educational concerns involved in setting goals for activities.

educational context

kontek pendidikan

Writing about a different educational context, Clark discusses the problems her overseas students face when studying international relations.

educational factors

faktor pendidikan

For ease of discussion, the students divided it into social factors and educational factors.

educational goal

tujuan pendidikan

One reason for promoting group work in some school classrooms is that an educational goal within the general curriculum is to encourage cooperative learning.

educational hierarchy

hierarki pendidikan

The teachers in his school are not merely agents in an educational hierarchy, applying specified methods, but have the creative responsibility of building links between externally imposed curriculum objectives and their own course planning, activity design, materials development, and management of learning procedures.


educational ideas

ide, gagasan pendidikan

One can see immediately how well these educational ideas fit with insights from second language acquisition research about the kind of tasks which promote negotiation of meaning.

educational management

manajemen pendidikan

The field of educational management has much to say about planning and what are considered to be the characteristics of an effective plan.

educational setting

lingkungan pendidikan

Similar issues arise in the use of group work, and particular difficulty can be experienced when students come from an educational setting in which a competitive or individualistic goal structure is the norm.

educational system

sistem pendidikan

The educational system in which teachers work will be influenced by cultural notions of authority which affect the potential roles of teachers and learners

effective listening

menyimak secara efektif

As well as these external problems, first language listeners will experience the same internal pressures and problems which interfere with effective listening such as lack of motivation towards the topic, negative reactions to the speaker or to the event.

effective methodology

metodologi yang efektif

The issue to which we now turn is how to develop an effective methodology for the teaching of listening, one which deals with the points and pitfalls raised so far.


effective revision

revisi yang efektif

Any classroom activities devised to encourage effective revision will need to help student writers in English to see how it relates to all aspects of writing.

effectively organized

terorganisir secara efektif

They can help us build an understanding of how lessons can be effectively organized.

elicit ideas

menggali ide

Elicit ideas from the students as they suggest things, and make a collective mind map on the blackboard as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how you draw out aspects of the topic and subgroup items.

elicit responses

menggali tanggapan

Teachers can elicit responses through a range of careful questions, sufficiently open-ended to provoke attempts at putting ideas together, for example: Where does the story take place? Who are the main characters? Did you like the story?

elicitation procedure

prosedur, cara menggali jawaban

She suggests an elicitation procedure with focusing questions such as 'Who are you writing to?' and 'Flow have you organized your points?'

elicited ideas

menggali ide

There was a phase of work with the whole class in which the teacher elicited ideas from the students about writing a review of the play they had been reading

emotional dispositions

kecenderungan-kecenderungan tertentu yang berhubungan dengan emosi


There are certain attitudes, personality characteristics, emotional dispositions, and learning strategies that somehow create the generically 'good language learner'.

emotional reactions

reaksi emosional

It was an emotional reaction to other students.

emotional response

respon emosional

This is a representation of the way in which affective factors such as attitude, anxiety,

competitiveness, and other emotional responses can help or hinder language learning.

empirical evidence

bukti empiris, berdasarkan penelitian

There is little empirical evidence to support the idea that remembering a word depends on depth of processing.

employing strategies

menggunakan strategi

The process view of writing sees it as thinking, as discovery. Writing is the result of employing strategies to manage the composing process, which is one of gradually developing a text.

encourage negotiation of meaning

mendorong negosiasi makna, misalnya bertanya, memberi penjelasan dll.

A more recent study has also shown the difficulty involved in designing tasks which might encourage negotiation of meaning.

encourage participation

mendorong partisipasi

Which activities encourage participation from all students, and to ensure that they all get practice opportunities?


encourage strategies

mendorong munculnya strategi

Group discussion may encourage strategies for negotiation of meaning. it also provides practice in the 'reporting' style of monologue.

encourage students

mendorong siswa

How far teachers should encourage students to decide on their own goals and targets.

encouraging responses

mengundang, memancing tanggapan

Students can practise the strategies required in interpersonal communication, for example, taking and holding turns, introducing a topic or shifting to a new topic, and encouraging responses and other contributions.

engage learners

mengaktifkan siswa

Meaningful input will engage learners in working with language at a level which is slightly above their competence.

enhance motivation

meningkatkan motivasi

Perhaps the most useful perspective for the teacher to take is to consider what aspects of motivation can be changed and to focus on creating successful teaching and learning experiences which will enhance motivation.

ensure equality of opportunity

memastikan adanya kesempatan yang sama

A third kind of support comes from structuring interactions with suggestions for group roles, such as chair or secretary though the teacher will need to monitor the choice of spokesperson from one activity to another to ensure equality of opportunity for public monologue.


ensure participation

menjamin adanya partisipasi

Free discussion, even if it takes place in small groups, does not ensure participation from all members. For these reasons discussion usually needs support or structure of some kind.

episodic planning

perencanaan yang runtut dan rinci

If indeed episodic planning allows for an interplay between writing and thinking, a methodology which encourages students to plan in detail before writing and to keep to that plan, is naïve and possibly counter productive, a more flexible approach is required.

equip learners

membekali, melengkapi siswa

A preparatory stage is needed to equip learners with the resources they need before engaging in a freer communicatively oriented activity.

error correction

memperbaiki kesalahan siswa

In recent years have seen a debate about the value of error correction in the classroom

essential criterion

kriteria yang penting

Achieving a balance between accuracy- and fluency-based tasks is a further essential criterion in developing a programme.

essential element

elemen, aspek penting

The essential element in the techniques described above—conferencing, revisions with the help of a checklist, and reformulation---is that they all provide feedback to the writer.


essential features

fitur penting

The third need is to build awareness of the social use of language and to practise essential features of this.

essential information

informasi penting

Writing materials now seek ways of helping students to organize their ideas: through planning in groups, guided note-making, strategic questions by the teacher, organizing points in a hierarchy of importance for presentation, highlighting essential information, sequencing given information, and sorting and matching ideas

essential role

peran penting

Insights from the analysis of written texts have an essential role in writing classes. They can help us build an understanding of how texts can be effectively organized.

established lexicon

daftar kosakata yang sudah mapan, sudah diterima secara luas

An evaluation checklist for the teacher could include these questions: Does the book explain its selection of vocabulary? Has the selection been made in relation to an established lexicon such as Threshold Level, COBUILD, or the Cambridge English Lexicon?

establishing goals

menentukan tujuan akhir

Teachers need to realize what is gained and what is lost if they suggest the appointment of roles such as chairperson. A fourth kind of support comes from establishing goals for the discussion.

evaluation checklist

daftar pertanyaan untuk evaluasi

An evaluation checklist for the teacher could include these questions: I Does the book explain its selection of vocabulary?


eventual acquisition

penguasaan bahasa yang diinginkan

By reading what they choose and (more or less) enjoying their homework, students' motivation to learn will increase, which will in turn benefit their eventual acquisition of the target language.

eventual needs

kebutuhan akhir

This is not to suggest that 'needs' should be rigidly interpreted in terms of immediate or eventual needs in the real world.

excessive degree

tingkat yang berlebihan

However, there will only be equality of opportunity for practice where roles have equal significance and 'key roles' do not hold the floor to an excessive degree.

excessive pausing

jeda, berhenti sejanak yang terlalu sering, berlebihan

It is important how to maintain fluency in conversation, through avoiding excessive pausing, breakdowns, and errors of grammar or pronunciation.

exchange drafts

tukar menukar draf

Other types of checklist can be used when students exchange drafts for comment and can focus on a recent teaching point.

exchange information

tukar menukar informasi

Galvin (1985), for example, suggests that there are five general reasons for listening (1) to engage in social rituals; (2) to exchange information; (3) to exert control; (4) to share feelings; and (5) to enjoy yourself.


existing experience

pengalaman yang ada, yang dimiliki

They also fail to appreciate that we integrate linguistic knowledge with our existing experience and knowledge of such things as topic and culture.

existing knowledge

pengetahuan yang ada, yang dimiliki

Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggested, as a learner moves from surface-level activity based on the sound and visual image of a word to a deeper level of meaning, and at the same time relates the word to existing knowledge, then memory traces become more permanent.

explicit instruction

instruksi yang jelas dalam mengajar

It could be argued that the last two meanings are inevitable elements in ELT materials, but decisions could be taken as to how explicit instruction should be when conventions differ between cultures.

explicit reference

referensi, penjelasan, petunjuk yang eksplisit, jelas

Perhaps these difficulties are one reason why so many textbooks produced for the international market avoid explicit reference of phonology and leave it to the teacher's discretion and knowledge of local needs.

exploiting texts

memanfaatkan, menggunakan teks

Awareness of this distinction will guide the teacher into exploiting texts both for reading strategy development and for vocabulary acquisition.

exploratory study

penelitian eksplorasi, penelitian pendahuluan

Nobuyoshi and Ellis (1996) report on a small-scale exploratory study which investigated the effect of using requests for clarification when students produce errors in a form-focused communication activity, rather than making corrections.


expository essays

esei ekspositori yang menjelaskan perbandingan, perbedaan, atau masalah tentang suatu topik

University students should be able to produce a range of expository essays in English, for example comparing and contrasting systems, discussing problems and alternative solutions, or critically reviewing an argument.

extensive exposure

pajanan yang luas melalui bacaan, media audio visual

A global learner is believed to prefer learning through global extensive exposure while an analytic learner likes to analyse elements in detail.

extract information

memilah informasi

Underwood's (1989) list of listening situations seems to fall into six major categories, relates to non-participatory listening. She includes: (1) listening to live conversations in which one takes no part and where the purpose is curious eavesdropping; (2) listening to announcements, news items, and weather forecasts where the purpose is to extract information.

extrovert learners

siswa ekstrovert

Extrovert learners are likely to be more successful than introverted learners, possibly because they are more assertive, more willing to experiment and take risks, and more able to make the social contacts they need to practise language.


F

Face-to-face encounters

Pertemuan langsung, tatap muka

Face-to-face encounters involve evaluation and negotiation. If, for example, a friend is escribing a complex and distressing financial situation.

facilitate comprehension

membantu pemahaman

Traditionally, the language of audio recordings for ELT has been fairly slow, restricted in various ways, and often repetitive, in order to facilitate comprehension.

facilitate development

membantu perkembangan

The component of an English language course could include vocabulary, structure which will facilitate development of greater reading ability.

facilitates intake

membantu pemahaman terhadap apa yang dipelajari

If we are persuaded by Krashen’s view that learners need to be exposed to large amounts of comprehensible input which is meaningful, relevant, and interesting, in a stress-free environment, then clearly individual extensive reading outside class time has value. It can be seen as an input-enabling activity, whether extensive reading facilitates intake is another matter.

feedback session

sesi feedback

In a feedback session, the teacher and students check and discuss the responses to the while-listening task. The teacher's role is to help students see how successful they have been in doing the task.

figurative meanings

arti kiasan

Students need to be able to distinguish between literal and figurative meanings distinguish between facts and opinions.


first encounter

pertama kali menemukan

Other cognitive strategies can be observed when learners first encounter an unfamiliar word and engage in lexical inferencing in order to try to establish meaning.

flexible learning

pembelajaran yang fleksibel

This is a real problem that many teachers face and the issues of mixed ability teaching deserve far greater professional attention in ELT. At the very least it supports arguments for rich, varied, and flexible learning resources.

flood learners

memberi bahan bacaan yang banyak kepada siswa

The aim of extensive reading is usefully described by Hafiz and Tudor (1989) as: ... to 'flood' learners with large quantities of L2 input with few or possibly no specific tasks to perform on this material.

fluency activities

kegiatan untuk meningkatkan kelancaran berbicara atau membaca

Perhaps the most important implication for the teacher is simply to appreciate and understand what is happening when students use communication strategies, as they are likely to do in fluency activities which push them to the limits of their language resources.

fluent readers

pembaca yang sudah lancar

Fluent readers reach automaticity in their reading and do not consciously control the process in the way demanded by the text above.

fluent reading

membaca dengan lancar disertai pemahaman yang benar

It is also useful to remember the distinction between inferencing for the purpose of fluent reading and inferencing as a strategy in vocabulary acquisition.


language-focused activities

kegiatan belajar untuk memahami aspek-aspek kebahasaan seperti tata bahasa, kosa-kata dll.

During language-focused activities the teacher might well assume the more traditional role of instructor, but when it comes to the reading itself, the teacher's role will be to provide materials, design activities, and then step back.

formal conventions

aturan-aturan baku

The letter of complaint would follow formal conventions of layout and style. The letter to friends would be informal, expressive, probably colloquial, and a mixture of description and comment.

formal practice

latihan pola-pola kalimat

The methodology involves analysis of model texts in order to raise awareness of how they are structured. It also involves formal practice of such features as the use of passives in descriptions of processes, the use of relative clauses in descriptions of people and places.

formal schema

pengetahuan tentang struktur, bagian-bagian dari teks, bacaan

One of the findings suggested by the study is that: if ESL readers possess the appropriate formal schema of the text and if they utilize that formal schema to organize their thoughts, more information is retrieved from the text.

formal structure

struktur, bagian-bagian dari teks

The second group is to do with the content of the text and includes language factors, the formal structure of the text, and the prior knowledge required to infer meaning.

formulate hypotheses

membuat hipotesa, menebak-nebak aturan pemakaian bahasa


A study of children's errors suggests that they use operating' strategies, such as paying attention to the ends of words, to formulate hypotheses about rules in the language, and that these hypotheses are tested out in their own attempts to produce language and gradually revised as they receive feedback on their attempts.

formulate principles

membuat, merumuskan prinsip atau rencana

Teachers who wish to provide direct instruction can find many useful ideas for task types in both coursebooks and supplementary materials but they will need to formulate principles for their own classroom practice in this area.

formulating opinions

merumuskan pendapat

Teachers often worry about less structured fluency activities because there are problems to overcome if the advantages are to be enjoyed: for example, students anxiety in formulating opinions or ideas about topics which may be unfamiliar and which they may never have discussed in their first language.

teacher-fronted classroom

kegiatan belajar di kelas yang berpusat pada guru

The activities are focused on language forms and the teacher takes a dominant role in what is a largely teacher-fronted classroom.

functional language

bahasa yang memiliki fungsi, misalnya untuk menyapa, memberi informasi dll

Learners need to develop at the same time a knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, functional language and communicative skills. Attention to the systems of language is crucial, but the development of fluency and contextual appropriacy are equally important goals.

functional relationships

hubungan fungsional, makna antar kalimat

Inability to understand the cohesive devices in a text will impede understanding of the functional relationships of sentences. Cohesive


devices include such things as reference items, for example, 'they', 'these matters', 'the latter’, and so on.

functional roles

peran siswa dalam percakapan misalnya untuk minta maaf, memberi bantuan, dsb

Functional roles do not present a great problem as all speakers need to apologize or offer help, for example.

professional role

peran siswa dalam percakapan sebagai seorang profesional

However, professional roles may begin to present difficulty as many role-plays involving transactional language assign one student of a pair a role such as 'doctor' or 'travel agent' and students can find this alien and not very useful.

further insights

wawasan, pemahaman lebih mendalam

It is undoubtedly the case that protocol analysis has uncovered a great deal that is of interest to teachers and, while we wanted further insights into how strategies might vary across a range of tasks.

further meaning associations

asosiasi makna yang lebih mendalam

Teachers need to be aware that there will be gaps in students' understanding of nuance and find ways of helping them to fill the gaps with further meaning associations.


G

general recursiveness

proses menulis yang memerlukan revisi berulang-ulang

The findings suggested that a teaching methodology which tries to guide students into a linear sequence of planning, drafting, and revising, might be mistaken. It needs to take into account both the general recursiveness of the process and the individual strategies of writers.

generalizable findings

hasil penelitian yang berlaku umum

It is noteworthy that all three studies cited above were small-scale. We need many more such studies before we have generalizable findings that can provide useful insights for teachers about the efficacy of different activity types.

genre knowledge

pengetahuan tentang jenis teks

It is likely that you used at least six types of knowledge to help you make sense of the text. One of them is genre knowledge, e.g. the information given that the text is from a science fantasy novel might help a reader to realize that the setting is the future

genuine classroom interaction

interaksi belajar di kelas yang muncul secara alami

Clearly the logistics of this procedure require careful management, but reading syndicates usefully combine the motivation of self-chosen books, genuine classroom interaction among changing groups of learners, and potential student recommendation of books to their peers.

genuine reading habit

kebiasaan membaca yang muncul secara alami

The point of the reading class must be reading... not the reinforcement of oral skills, nor grammatical or discourse analysis and not the acquisition of new vocabulary. Improvement in any of these areas can make reading easier but none of them is reading and none contributes directly to the one


legitimate goal of such a class ... the development of genuine reading habit in the language.

giving feedback

memberi balikan, umpan balik

Planning, managing interactions, monitoring learning, giving instructions, and giving feedback are the teacher's main responsibilities.

global errors

kesalahan global, menyebabkan salah pengertian

Global errors cause misunderstanding by the listener while local errors tend not to as they relate only to part of what is said. For example, 'They ate smoked worm' is not immediately apparent as 'They are smoked beef'

global improvement

perkembangan keterampilan menulis secara global, menyeluruh

We know that poorer writers focus on sentence-level revision at the expense of more global improvement. Rather than encouraging them to work on individual sentences, we need to help learners to use the cut and paste facility to move parts of the text around and to delete other parts in order to gain overall improvement.

goal structure

cara, kebiasaan untuk mencapai tujuan belajar

Similar issues arise in the use of group work, and particular difficulty can be experienced when students come from an educational setting in which a competitive or individualistic goal structure is the norm and are not familiar with working cooperatively

graded material

materi yang memiliki tingkat kesulitan bertingkat, dari yang mudah sampai yang sukar

Clearly authentic reading texts will provide an authentic reading challenge but graded material can also be useful. For example, a series of graded readers provides unfamiliar vocabulary at each level to practise inferencing strategies and dictionary skills.


graded readers

bacaan yang tingkat kesulitannya bertingkat

Clearly authentic reading texts will provide an authentic reading challenge but graded material can also be useful. For example, a series of graded readers provides unfamiliar vocabulary at each level to practise inferencing strategies and dictionary skills.

grammatical function

fungsi gramatikal, kata benda, kata kerja, kata keterangan, dsb

The test has a set of grammatical sensitivity to the first language which asks students to identify words in two sentences which have the same grammatical function. Example: Can you decide which word underlined in the second sentence has the same function as 'London' in the first sentence?

1. Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia.

2. He liked to go fishing in Cirebon.

grammatical relations

hubungan gramatikal

Richards (1990) offers a list of what learners need to be able to do in order to listen effectively. One is to recognize grammatical relations between key elements in sentences.

grammatical sensitivity

kepekaan terhadap unsur tata bahasa

Language aptitude comprises four components: auditory ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and memory. Each of these components is tested in order to predict whether a student is likely to be successful in learning a foreign language.

grammatical syllabus

silabus yang berisi unsur-unsur tata bahasa

There was a grammatical syllabus in the map of the book and I think this fitted with their expectations of learning a language.


group composition

menulis dalam kelompok

Our group is working on a group composition.

group discussion

diskusi kelompok

Our group discussion went well.

group dynamics

dinamika kelompok di kelas

Group dynamics in a classroom may increase a learner's motivation, but it can also decrease motivation.

group interaction

interaksi dalam kelompok

Group interaction can happen smoothly if every member appreciates one another.

guided writing

menulis terbimbing

The lowest level of writing in a foreign language is usually guided writing.


H

highly motivated

memiliki motivasi tinggi

These students are highly motivated to learn English.

highly motivating

sangat memotivasi

Getting feedback from a teacher can be highly motivating or demotivating.

holistic approach

pendekatan holistik, secara menyeluruh

A holistic approach is needed to overcome problems of poverty in this area.

humanistic approaches

pendekatan yang humanis

Humanistic approach helps psychologists to handle patients with psychological problems.

hypothesis testing

mengetes, membuktikan sebuah hipotesa

Hypothesis testing can be one of the most confusing parts in statistics for students.

hypothesis making

membuat hipotesa

Do you find difficulties making a hypothesis?


I

idiomatic expressions

ungkapan idiomatik

When learning a language, it is not easy to understand its idiomatic expressions.

inappropriate teaching

pengajaran yang tidak tepat

In the remote area, online teaching can be inappropriate teaching because internet connection is not so good there.

inappropriate transfer

transfer yang tidak tepat dalam berbahasa

Because of a lack of vocabulary in English, many students made inappropriate transfers from Indonesian to English.

increase input

memperbanyak masukan dalam belajar

Language learners need to increase inputs needed during their learning.

increased understanding

pemahaman yang meningkat

As language learners learn a language more deeply, they will have increased understanding of the language.

increasing ability

kemampuan yang terus meningkat

Nindya's increasing ability in speaking impressed everybody.

increasing awareness

kesadaran yang semakin meningkat


A language learner's awareness will increase as he/she learns the language more deeply.

increasing interest

minat yang makin meningkat

After watching a series of Korean dramas, Caroline's interest in Korean language is increasing.

independent learning

belajar mandiri.

In some cases, a second language learner is successful through independent learning.

independent reading

kegiatan membaca mandiri

Many language learners can be successful because of independent reading.

indirect learning

belajar secara tidak langsung.

Indirect learning can sometimes be effective.

indirect strategies

strategi belajar tidak langsung.

Indirect strategies can sometimes be more effective than direct strategies because the learning is fun and free from anxiety.

individual brainstorming

mencari ide secara individual.

Individual brainstorming can be more effective than collaborative brainstorming for students who do not like to work in groups.

individual characteristics

karakteristik individu

Students with their individual characteristics are unique.


individual differences

perbedaan individu

Individual learner differences make every single learner unique and special.

individual personalities

kepribadian individu

Every language learner has individual personalities which are special.

individual reflection

renungan, refleksi pribadi

Every language learner had better make individual reflections along with the progresses she/he makes.

individual strategies

strategi belajar individu

Individual strategies of language learners vary depending on many factors.

individual style

gaya belajar individu

A language learner's individual style reflects the way she/he studies and copes with the difficulties she/ he faces.

infer meaning

menyimpulkan makna (saat membaca)

From the facts provided in the previous paragraphs, we can infer meanings of new words.

inferencing strategy

strategi belajar untuk mengambil kesimpulan

Inferencing strategy is really needed in the language learning process.


information sequencing

proses menyusun informasi

A language learner's information sequencing is similar to first language speech production.

information-gap activities

aktivitas yang memiliki gap informasi

The 'information gap' activity in particular has been studied. This involves each learner in a pair or group possessing information which the other learners do nor have.

information-gap tasks

tugas yang memiliki gap informasi

Another value of this kind of task is the motivation stimulated by bridging the information gap to solve a problem. Information-gap tasks have their own advantages and limitations. They assist language acquisition, but they do not necessarily involve students in conversational strategies in the same way as role-play or discussion.

inhibited learning

pembelajaran yang mengalami hambatan atau halangan.

Lorna seems to have some inhibitions in her French language learning.

inhibition embarrassment

perasaan malu yang menghambat

One of the inhibitions in learning a second language is embarrassment.

inner circle

'inner circle' adalah istilah untuk negara-negara yang memakai Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa pertama, seperti Amerika, Australia, dan Inggris

Do you know what is meant by 'inner circle' , 'outer circle' , and 'expanding circle?

input hypothesis

teori input pembelajaran bahasa yang diciptakan oleh Krashen.


If a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'.

interlanguage development

perkembangan bahasa siswa yang mengandung unsur-unsur bahasa pertama dan bahasa yang sedang dipelajari

How is his interlanguage development? Near proficiency or far from proficiency?

instrumental motivation

motivasi instrumental, berasal dari lingkungan

Sherly has very strong instrumental motivation because her parents want her to be a Stewardess.

integrative motivation

motivasi integratif, berasal dari dalam diri siswa

Dino has high integrative motivation.

intended meaning

makna yang tidak terungkap, yang ingin disampaikan

To state our intended meaning is sometimes not easy.

interference theory

teori interferensi, pengaruh bahasa pertama dalam belajar bahasa asing

Interference theory deals with the negative influence from a learner's mother tongue on his/her second language acquisition.

internal pressures

tekanan dari dalam

One type of internal pressure is lack of self-confidence.

interpersonal communication

komunikasi antara dua orang

Interpersonal communication can go on well if two parties share the same concepts.


interpersonal skills

keterampilan, kemampuan interpersonal

Lea is a very smart girl, but she does not have good interpersonal skills.

introverted learners

siswa yang introvert, tertutup

Jean is an introverted language learner.


L

language acquisition

pemerolehan bahasa secara alami

Language acquisition is different from language learning.

language aptitude

bakat dalam bidang bahasa

Denny has good language aptitude.

language awareness

kesadaran akan bentuk-bentuk bahasa

As a language learner goes more deeply in language learning, his/ her language awareness will get better.

language backgrounds

latar belakang bahasa

My father can speak Dutch because he has various language backgrounds.

language competence

kemampuan berbahasa

The more a language learner is exposed to the second language, the better his/her competence will be.

language confidence

percaya diri dalam berbahasa

Do you think you have good language confidence?

language environment

lingkungan bahasa

One's language environment deeply affects his/her success in learning a second or foreign language.


language system

sistem, struktur bahasa

The language system in this computer is difficult to understand.

language input

Input atau masukan bahasa

If an English language leaner lives in an English-speaking country, it can be interpreted that she/he gets adequate language input.

language pedagogy

ilmu pengajaran bahasa

Language pedagogy from one language is different from one another.

language production

luaran dalam pembelajaran bahasa, berupa tulisan atau ucapan

One's language production is affected by many factors.

language proficiency

kemampuan bahasa

Daniel's language proficiency has been good since he was in primary school.

learner strategies

strategi siswa dalam belajar bahasa

Do you know that a learner's strategies can be unique and different from one another?

learners ability

kemampuan siswa

Learners' ability can be measured.

language awareness

kesadaran berbahasa

Lourie is well known for her good language awareness.


learners expectations

harapan, keinginan siswa

What are learners' expectations in general?

learners memory

daya ingat siswa

According to the theory of SLA or LL, the younger a learner is, the better his/her memory will be.

learners variations

variasi, perbedaan antar siswa

Learner variations are a special feature in second language acquisition.

learning conditions

situasi, kondisi belajar

One's learning condition also takes part in his/ her success.

learning resources

sumber-sumber belajar

Learning resources include text books, videos, software, and some others.

learning strategies

strategi belajar

Learning strategies vary from one learner to another.

learning style

gaya belajar siswa

There are several kinds of learning styles that a learner has, like auditory, visual, and kinesthetic.

lexical accuracy

ketepatan dalam menggunakan kata

One's lexical accuracy can be seen from the use of words in his/her writing.


lexical competence

kompetensi, pengetahuan kosakata

A learner's lexical competence will influence the success of his/ her communicative competence.

lexical errors

kesalahan penggunaan kata

One's lexical knowledge can help him/ her overcome lexical errors.

lexical inferencing ability

kemampuan untuk memahami arti suatu kata.

Do you have good lexical inferencing ability?

lexical knowledge

pengetahuan kosakata

The more someone reads, the better his/her lexical knowledge will be.

lexical system

sistem pembentukan kata

The example of a lexical system of the word 'plant' is tree, flower, and bush.

linguistic contexts

konteks linguistik

Do you know the linguistic context of the word "desire" in this sentence, Deny has a strong desire to learn English?

linguistic features

unsur-unsur kebahasaan

One of the linguistics features of a narration is the use of past tense.

linguistic knowledge

pengetahuan dalam bidang linguistik

Living in Hungary, Dea has good linguistic knowledge of Hungarian.


linguistic studies

penelitian linguistik

I am interested in linguistic studies.

listening process

proses mendengar, menyimak

Listening process in a foreign language can be very difficult.


M

major component

komponen utama

Can you mention the major components in a sentence?

major concern

perhatian utama

What is your major concern in learning speaking?

major features

fitur utama

Please mention one major feature in a language.

major issues

Isu, masalah utama

What major issues can be found in SLA?

major motivations

motivasi utama

A learner's major motivations may come from other people.

major problem

masalah utama

What are your major problems in learning English?

major referential differences

perbedaan referensi utama

This finding demonstrated how students found different solutions to the

problems in an information gap task, one an older and the other a newer

version with some major referential differences.


major resource

sumber utama

Teachers themselves are a major resource.

major response

respon utama

One of the major responses to increasing insights about the role of schematic

knowledge in reading has been the focus in current reading methodology

on a pre-reading stage.

major section

bagian utama

The markers were clues to the overall structure of the lecture and indicated

the major section.

major strategy

strategi utama

A major strategy in helping students to build vocabulary for reading is to

encourage them to develop strategies for guessing word meanings from

contextual clues and background knowledge.

major task

tugas utama

A major task for the teacher in teaching speaking is building students’

confidence.

manage interaction

mengatur interaksi

In teacher-student interactions, the teacher needs to manage the

interaction to ensure turn-taking and other aspects of the conversation

exist.


management roles

peran manajemen

The study is about teachers’ management roles in the development of

communication skills.

managing classroom

mengatur kelas

Time management is one of the key aspects in managing the classroom.

materials development

pengembangan bahan ajar

Materials development for language teaching and learning play a major role

in second language teaching.

materials design

desain material

Frequency has been accorded a high level of significance in ELT for many

years as a result of the use of word-frequency counting as a procedure

informing syllabus and materials design.

meaning associations

asosiasi makna

Learners develop their vocabulary knowledge as words that they have learnt

are met in different contexts and eventually a word might have extensive

and complex meaning associations.

meaning relation

hubungan makna

Meaning relation among words involves the sense relations that exist

among words, i.e the way in which lexemes can substitute for another in the

same context.


meaningful input

masukan yang bermakna, berguna

Second language researchers confirm the need for meaningful input which

will engage learners in working with language at a level which is slightly

above their competence.

meaningful language practice

latihan bahasa yang bermakna

There is increasing evidence that learners progress faster with meaningful

language practice in a rich linguistic environment.

mental involvement

terlibat secara mental

There appears to be growing evidence to support the experience of teachers

and learners that active mental involvement aids retention.

mental lexicon

kamus mental (mental dictionary) yang berisi informasi tentang arti kata,

ucapan, pola-pola tata bahasa, dsb. Kamus mental juga berfungsi untuk

mengakses, menyimpan, memproses kosakata. Kamus mental seseorang

selalu berkembang sejalan dengan bertambahnya penguasaan kosakata.

The authors suggested that words of different form classes may be

organized differently in learners' mental lexicon.

mental operation

cara berpikir

Metacognitive is not a direct mental operation but indirect strategies which

facilitate learning by actively involving the learner in conscious efforts to

remember new words.


mental (cognitive) representations

bayangan dalam pikiran

When someone arrives at the belief that his or her floor needs sweeping,

the representational theory of mind states that he or she forms a mental

representation that represents the floor and its state of cleanliness.

metacognitive strategies

strategi metakognitif

Metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching goal has

been reached.

methodological choice

pilihan metodologi

It is vital that researchers attend carefully to their methodological choices

and the implications of those choices for what can be learned.

methodological responsibilities

tanggung jawab metodologis

In the context of teaching younger learners, there has been useful

discussion about the considerable methodological responsibilities of

bringing together students and provocative texts.

miscomprehension

kesalahpahaman

Most students made only a few attempts to negotiate meaning through

requests for clarification or comprehension checks to make their own

language more comprehensible in response to signals of miscomprehension.

mixed ability classes

kelas dengan kemampuan siswa yang beragam

Topic-based crosswords can be put to good use in mixed ability classes when

some learners complete tasks before others and have time to fill.


monolingual class

kelas yang menggunakan satu bahasa

Monolingual classes facilitate use of the first language in the classroom and

it is useful to work out a personal policy for this which can be explained and

discussed in class.

monolingual dictionaries

kamus monolingual, menggunakan satu bahasa

If a good monolingual dictionary is kept as a class resource, the teacher can

ask a student to look up an unknown word once other strategies have been

tried.

morphological clues

penanda morfologi seperti awalan, akhiran

The sixth and eighth graders were better at combining contextual and

morphological clues than were the fourth graders, showing significant

improvement in identifying unfamiliar word meanings in both strong and

weak contexts.

morphological knowledge

pengetahuan morfologi

In the lowest level of this scale is the morphological knowledge, followed by

the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic-discursive knowledge.

motivational reasons

alasan untuk memberi motivasi

There may be strong motivational reasons for giving students a range of

purposes for reading and, consequently, for presenting them with a variety

of texts.

multicultural classroom

kelas yang berisi siswa dengan budaya berbeda-beda


With regard to the multicultural classroom, insights into culture and

learning style highlight the teacher's need to create a variety of learning

activities to cater for the range of styles.

multidimensional syllabus

silabus multidemensi, terdiri dari beberapa jenis: skill-based syllabus,

structural syllabus, task syllabus, process syllabus

The proposed project is expected to promote access to multilingual learning

resources and address the specific needs of the target population by

developing a multidimensional syllabus


N

narrative analysis

analisis naratif

The study combines narrative analysis of the change with a philosophical

inquiry about teacher and learning.

negative feedback

umpan balik untuk kesalahan berbahasa

There is always a need to balance negative feedback on errors with positive

feedback on the student's attempts to produce the language.

negotiate meaning

saling bertanya untuk memahami informasi

Most students made only a few attempts to negotiate meaning through

requests for clarification or comprehension checks.


O

observed behavior

tingkah laku, perilaku yang nampak

The major problem of research in this area is that data gathered by

introspective methods using questionnaires and self-report often does not

seem to agree with observed behaviour.

oral fluency

kelancaran berbicara

To help improve students' oral fluency, Upper Intermediate material that is

designed contains a variety of activities aimed at encouraging free

expression.

oral skills

keterampilan berbicara

The point of the reading class is not the reinforcement of oral skills, nor

grammatical or discourse analysis.


P

paradigmatic relations

hubungan paradigmatis, seperti lain kata, lawan kata, dsb.

A synonym, for example, 'very tired', has the advantage of making learners

aware of paradigmatic relations in the language.

paralinguistic features

Fitur, aspek paralinguistik, non-verbal

The availability of video cassettes has enabled teachers to point out cultural

differences in paralinguistic features such as the use of facial expression and

gesture.

participatory listening

mendengarkan secara partisipatif, aktif

Participatory listening (as in listening to lectures, radio programmes, or

public announcements) are complex processes but recent research provides

useful insights and suggests ways in which teachers can help learners to

become good listeners through the design of classroom procedures.

pedagogic materials

materi pedagogis

Many teachers prefer a smaller class, in which he can mine the individual

stories of his students for comic or pedagogic material.

pedagogical procedures

prosedur pedagogis, mengajar

A research agenda for the future could usefully include not only further

comparative studies of the effects of intensive and extensive reading but

also studies of the relative merits of a range of pedagogical procedures to

promote extensive reading,


phonological aspects

aspek-aspek fonologi

It is worth spending some time giving separate consideration to the

phonological aspects of learning English as perspectives on these have

broadened and changed in recent years.

poor intelligibility

ketidak-jelasan

Teachers and learners may face substantial challenges, with poor

intelligibility resulting from interference by the first language.

positive feedback

umpan balik positif, misalnya untuk memuji atau membenarkan jawaban

siswa

It's nice to give some positive feedback.

pronunciation element

elemen, aspek ucapan

Students' needs will vary along a number of dimensions, and these will

affect the teacher's selection of content in the pronunciation element of a

course.


R

raise awareness

menumbuhkan kesadaran

The methodology therefore involves analysis of model texts in order to raise

awareness of how they are structured.

ranking exercise

latihan untuk menentukan peringkat, rangking

Ranking exercises are one of the most popular activities that develop

learners’ language confidence.

reading strategies

strategi membaca

Teachers can train reading strategies through more extensive reading.

reading style

gaya membaca

The reading lesson should aim to build learners' ability to adopt a range of

reading styles necessary for interacting successfully with authentic texts.

reciprocal responsibility

tanggung jawab timbal balik

The teacher's reciprocal responsibility is to ensure that learners have

effective strategies for planning, performing, and monitoring their

independent learning.

rehearsed situations

situasi yang sudah dipersiapkan sebelumnya

Compared to conversation, speaking such as meetings, interviews, and

seminars are more formal and sometimes more rehearsed situations.


relevant schemata

latar belakang pengetahuan yang relevan

In the absence of video, visuals can contextualize some types of listening

text and activate relevant schemata.

relinquish control

melepaskan kontrol

The teacher here seems to accept a need to relinquish control over the

discourse to the learners.


S

schematic knowledge

pengetahuan tentang bentuk, struktur, lokasi, manfaat suatu hal

The language is not likely to cause problems but a lack of schematic

knowledge may well do so.

semantic field

sekelompok kata yang berhubungan dengan konsep / topik yang sama

The semantic field of 'water' could be divided into a number of subfields.

semantic structure

struktur semantik

Learning English therefore means gradually acquiring a knowledge of

synonyms, antonyms, and other relations in its semantic structure.

sense relations

hubungan makna antar kata

The second aspect of meaning involves the sense relations that exist among

words.

shared knowledge

pengetahuan yang dimiliki bersama

The teacher can explain the meaning of a word like 'famous' by giving some

examples, asking students to confirm by checking in their dictionaries and

drawing on students' shared knowledge of the world.

short turns

giliran pendek

The controlled dialogues are presented with short turns that are

traditionally associated with textbooks.


social attitudes

sikap sosial

Social attitudes towards English language learning will partly determine how

much effort teachers have to put into motivating students.

social contacts

kontak sosial

There is a sense of social contact with the books and the characters

themselves.

social process

proses sosial

Critical reading views reading as a social process.

sociocultural background

latar belakang sosiokultural

Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be

commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.

sociocultural knowledge

pengetahuan sosiokultural

Children construct sociocultural knowledge from and within the sociocultural

communities they live in and experience.

speaking competence

kompetensi berbicara

Improving students’ speaking competence is very important.


spoken discourse

wacana bentuk lisan

In order to help students develop their ability in speaking English we need a

descriptive framework for looking at spoken discourse and a way of

categorizing speaking situations and the demands they make of

participants.

strategic competence

kemampuan strategi komunikasi

Teachers might also consider whether and how to teach strategic

competence.

student output

luaran siswa, lisan atau tulis

I found the discussion on the importance of using students' output to affect

your teaching and their learning quite useful.

suprasegmental aspects

aspek suprasegmental

The development of communicative approaches has been accompanied by

a shift of emphasis in pronunciation teaching to suprasegmental aspects of

connected speech such as sentence stress, rhythm, and intonation.

suprasegmental features

fitur suprasegmental

There are usually ample opportunities to integrate work on both segmental

and suprasegmental features into lessons which focus on speaking.

sustain conversation

melangsungkan percakapan

Free discussion can also encourage students to use the language needed to

sustain conversation over a period of time by drawing in other speakers.


sustained language

bahasa yang dipakai secara aktif

More sustained language required by these activities will help students to

develop the confidence to make their turns in interaction longer.

syntactic difficulty

kesulitan sintaksis, struktur kalimat

A pretest was conducted to diagnose the students' independent

performance abilities and their main sources of difficulties, i.e syntactic and

lexical difficulties.


T

task dependency

tugas yang bergantung satu sama lain

The principle involved in these letter exchanges is that of task dependency

as the success of the exchange depends on the clarity of the letters to their

readers.

teaching competence

kompetensi mengajar

Another aspect of teaching competence is the ability to manage activities

and interactions successfully.

teaching methodology

metodologi pengajaran

If teaching methodology is to support planning, then classroom activities

need to guide students in finding their own effective planning.

teaching objectives

tujuan pengajaran

There is no easy direct relationship between the teaching objectives of our

lessons and the learning outcomes for the students.

teaching procedures

prosedur pengajaran

It would be useful to have information from classroom studies as to which

teaching procedures seem to enhance particular learning strategies.

teaching techniques

teknik pengajaran

There are implications here both for teaching techniques and for learner

strategies in dealing with new words.


turn taking

bergiliran

The games are fun for many children and can reinforce good social skills

such as turn-taking and learning skills such as counting and reading.

V

vocabulary acquisition

pemerolehan kosakata

Contemporary coursebooks vary greatly in the degree to which they show a

concern with vocabulary acquisition.

W

word coinage

pembentukan kata baru

Word coinage is often influenced by the first language.

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