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United States Naval Academy

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY'AND LEAD1RSHIP

TART FIVE

4.11LITARY_MANAGEMENT-

COntent Outline

Terminal and Enabling Objectives

May 1971

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROOUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVE() FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGMATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EOUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

WESTINGHOUSE LEARNING CORPORATION

Annapolis, Maryland

1971

sb=I


INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND LEADERSHIP

'FIVE

-MI LitAitY MANAGEMENT

Segment I

Introduction to Management and the Management Process


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

r

INTRODUCTION TO sPSYalOLOGY PART FIVEAND LEADERSHIP CONTENT OUTLINE I

ANTRODUCT,IWTOMANAdEMENTAND-THE_MANAGEMENT PROCESS

_

knowledgeImplications from pteyious knowledge of -indi,4dual and group_

'behaVOt indicate that man- essentially gOd-1.--directed and goaloriented:, that is -,.helWIll-striVe-fortWitk-Vatying degrees of-effi0e-nCyl,attainthent of-ObjeCtive$. (OUthtiei.p. 139 ; WLC)

tOOperatiVe effort Catejnto existence-When it Was realized4-0J0-00=0--goki were-aoiieVWM6fetead4y byi.ttoup than by one

person: -When the magn =itude -of effort regul.redl?,y-as,ingle_in-,OVi`Ua, Was ,e4t4-e4dNe -,fs-eigOt ClearlY:I144 :10in ndf, the nature= .of e.o jleC:five4 thekttie',C:OnCeptfITS 6 4i1T- far liana eMent inVOIVe_t eilitbte$§ of atCoMplishinVO_Ie:dtiVe§ through ±he-Cdotdinated--effortiok-peopte =andreolittes-,

A. beVeloping:a:Contept_of-Managetent

1, Attributes of Management

a. Management is a distinct entity. (Terry, pp. 4-5)

Nanagement 'can be studied and skill in itsapplication can be acquired'.

Management consists of basic and interrelatedfunctions or activities which constitute aprocess.

b. Management is a dynamic unseen force (intangible).(Terry, pp. 4-5)

1) The presence of management is evidenced by theresults of its efforts - orderliness, informedsubordinates, high morale, and adequate workoutput.

2) The identity of management is brought into clearfocus by the results of mismanagement or by thelack of management.

3) Mismanagement is quickly noticed, whereas goodmanagement generally goes unnoticed.

-5.1.1-

1

c

INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS Five/I/C0i

c. Management is exercised through groups of people.(Terry, pp. 4-5)

1) -Goal are achieVed more readily by a- group than-by one perSon.

a)' kei-oUrdes car be amplified.

b) Members dispersed in time.and space.

c) Continuity-of effort maintained. -

What can be done alone without the help, of otherpeople is not management.

a) Stodkrobt -administration

b) Adinini$tering personal checking account. -

. IsdentitY-ol,tanageOeht: --Tle4ynatiCAJr000S.S. by -which

ObjeCtiVe-S-arez.a54110.0.1d-th-ai_reAbi#e.the-toordinated-efforts. of'PeOPleand'-re§ourCeSjtite4 material) .ThoSe who -perform this process ate:ItanagerLqleaderS."(terry; pp. :3-.5).

.Historical Influences on Management

C

1., From Antiquity

a.' The practice and problems of management are ofancient origin. Recorded history indicates thatEgypt, Greece, Rome, and other nations of antiquity:

1) Utilized management principles such as chain ofcommand and delegation of authority. (Hays andThomas, p. 91; Koontz and O'Donnell, pp.. 13-14;Terry, p. 11) 1-

2. From the military (Koontz and O'Donnell, p. 15;Haimann, pp. 3-4)

a. Military organizations developed most of the currentactivity known as management principles. Militaryorganizations provided:

1) Chain of command relationships(Scalar principle)

2) Staff principle

3) Improved techniques of direction; e.g., thecommunication of plans and objectives tosubordinates (what to tell subordinates and why)

-5.1.2-

INTRODUCTION -PTO, MANAGEMENT AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS Five/I/CO

Summary. Although the management process is as old ashist:61'y itself, it was not until the last century thatsystematic analysis of Management and the developmentof a theory of Management had their origin.(Longenecker, p; 6)

Scientific method and human relationShips in management.

a. Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)

1). Emphasized technidal rather than human side ofmanagement- (NOTE': 2MOoris lack of concern forthe worker led to the development of humanfaCtOrS engineering)

b. Henri Fayol contemporary of Taylor Ftench industrialist

1.1 Concluded that there was a single "adtinistrative-$00fide-WhOe i?finciples could- be .USed_in allmanagement SitUatiqinvMatter What type of:itganilatIon=WaS-rbeing managed:

2) Among= the tom important prifitiples or gUides,hedeveloped were: unity-of command, unity ofditedtien, responsibility equal to authority,And esprit de corps. (Dale:. Management Theoryand Practice, 1965, pp. 194-199).

c. Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

1) Principal contribution was to reveal tomanagetent the significance of human relationsin organizational behavior. "ExaMple: Hawthorneexperiteht." (Longenecker, pp. 12-13)

C. Orga nizational Complexity and Importance of Management

(Terry, pp. 5-6)

1. Importance in industry: Of all new business establish-ments started, one-half fail within five years. (Dun &Bradstreet figures for 1967 from W.J. Garvin, SmallBusiness Administration, April 21. 1969) No enterprisecan be successful that does not utilize effective manage-ment. Management in industry is becoming more importantdue to:

a. Increased size of enterprises

b. Extensive specialization of labor

INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS Five/I/CO

c. Greater complexity of work ,(NOTE-: Increasing sizeand complexity usually causes specialization to increaseat a more rapid ra e than coordination

t

Can be developed:.Should this occur, the inevitable result is a loSs ofeffectiveness which can best be regained-by dtcen-trgliting into small functional units where coordina-tion is cOmmensurate with specialization. Managementmust always be perceptive to the interactions of theabciVe factors and maintain a balanced relationshipbetween specialization and coordination. (Principlesb_k_Administration, and Management,.p. 34)

,

. Increased competition

e. Larger span of management (the number of immediatesubordinates a superior can manage) due to:

1) Improved technology ,of communications andcommunication techniques.

2) Automated information technology. (Computerbased systems, etc.)

f. Demands from employees.

g. Demands from stockholders. (Terry, p. 5;Longenecker, pp. 6 -7.; Bass and Vaughn, pp. 4-5;Koontz and O'Donnell, p. 224)

h. Change in industrial orientation toward meetingchallenges of a consumer oriented environment.

2. Importance in the military: Military failures ordisasters are many times the resat of poor managementpractices. Complex relationships of men, material,'timing, etc., require constant managerial monitoring,e.g., Theodore Roosevelt's testimony before the DodgeCommission.emphasized the lack of coordination in theWar Department during the Spanish American War whichcaused staggering confusion during the mobilization

Management in the military is becoming more importantdue to:

a. Increased size of Armed Forces

b. Complexity of equipment and advances in weaponstechnology

c. High degree of specialization in both officer andenlisted ranks with"additional-training requirements

d. Greater administration demands in the handling ofpublic monies.

-5.1.4-

t


e. Expanded missions of Armed Forces

f. More centralization of authOrity

1)- Integration of all parts of the Armed Forcesinto a single.national establishment ,

2) All functions in the Department of Defense andits component agencies pefformed under thedirection, authority, and control of the Secretaryof Defense (Joint Chiefs-of-Staff, ContingencyPlanning, Area Commands, etc.)

g. Congressional demands (responsibility to tax-payingpublic as DOD budget represents 70 percent of totalfederal budget) (Bass and Vaughn, pp. 4-S; Janowitz,p. 9; Naval Orientation, pp. 194-195; Turner, p. 685)

D. the Management Process

1.. Managerial Objectives

a. Definition: A managerial objective is the intendedgoal which prescribes definite scope and suggestsdirection to efforts of a manager. (Terry, p. 29)

b. Relationship of objectives to management: Everyorganization is created and exists to accomplishsome objective or objectives. The purpose ofmanagement is to accomplish the objecti,re(s) in themost effective way possible.

c. Importance of objectives (Terry, pp. 28-,30, 38)

1) Objectives are basic to management and aprerequisite to the determining of any courseof action.

2) Objectives serve to provide a unifying effectfor any organizational group. (Conversely,lack of objectives tends to result in a lossof organizational unity.)

3) Lack of objectives or failure to keep themclearly in mind makes the task of managingunnecessarily difficult.

4) Accomplishment of objectives should result inoverall improvement in any organization.

-5.1.5-


E. Management Functions

1. Introduction: Management texts differ as to the numberof (or names of) the specific funCtions involved in themanagement process. The approach to the functions asidentified and.used by the Naval Academy ismot newwith the Acadethy but fits the needs of the Academy.

2. Classifying the management functions. Luther Gulick'studied'the management process and came up, with POSDCORB,which stands for; planning, organizing, staffing,-directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. TheAcademy's method of classifying managerial functions isto group them around the activities of planning, organizing,directing; controlling, and coordinating. .The functionsMay be represented by the concept of a wheel in whichthe hub of the wheel repretentS the objectiVet, theouter rim shows the functions and the spokes show thetomponents:

a. Planning: The funttion of determining in adVancewhat a group should:accompliSh and how the goals(objectives) are to be achieved (Massie).

-5.1.6-


-b. -.rganizing: The funCtion of providing a structure:.hat establishes relationships between men andmaterial grouped together for a common purpose(Hays and Thomas, p. 94).

INTRODUCTION. TO MANAGEMENT AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS Fivcil/C0

c. Directing: The function which provides the vitalstep between preparation and actual operationinvolving the issuance of orders and instructionsto subordinates and others to indicate what isto be done (Hays and Thomas, n. 94).

-5.1.8-


d. Controlling: Thefunction of establishing andapplying fully the necessary means to ensurethat plans, crders, and policies are compliedwith in such a manner that the objective willbe attained (Hays and Thomas, P. 94).

9

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AEP°a71NG&AuDirs

PLANNING

OBJECTIVES

DIRECTING

-5.1.9-

ORGANIZING


e. Coordinating: The orderly sychronizing of theefforts of subordinates to provide the properamount, timing, and quality of execution, sothat the unified efforts will lead to the statedobjective (Haimann, p. 27).

awr.owowkomP..M.O.O..IP,...

10.1.1MIM.Weamrif

-5.1.10-

4


3. Importance of maintaining a balance in functions inthe management process.

a. When the managerial functions of planning, organizing,directing, and controlling are performed properlyand adequate consideration is given to theirinterrelatedness, the results should be an integrated,well-balanced composite of efforts exerted by aninformed and satisfied work group (Terry, p. 167).

b. Any overemphasis on any one of the functions produOesdistortion in the management process. Coordinationprovides the means through which the balance ismaintained.

4. Relationship of naval leadership to the managementfunctions.

a.. Naval leadership includes the management processto "accomplish a mission. Management functions aretools that a military leader may use. to accomplishhis mission. Mission in the military sense meansboth the objective (goal) to be accomplished andthe purpose for the accomplishment.

b. Management is a component of leadership, butfrequently has a less dynamic and less spiritedconnotation than Naval Leadership (Part One,Segment I, p.2).

-5.1.11-


REFERENCES

Part Five Segment I

Bass, B.M., and Vaughn, J.A. Training in Industry: The Managementof Learning. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1966.

Garvin, W.J. Small Business Administration, Washington, D.C.,Personal Communication, April 21, 1969.

Guthrie, E.R. The Psychology of Learning. Gloucester, Mass.:Harper and Brothers, 1969.

Halmann, Theo. Professional Management, Theory and Practice.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962.

Hays, S.H., and Thomas W.N. (ed.) Taking Command. Harrisburg,Pa.: StackpOle Books, 1467.

Janowitz, Morris. The Professibnal Soldier. The Free Pressof Glencoe, 1960.

Koontz, H., and O'Donnell, C. Principles of Management. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.

Longenecker, J.G. Principles of Management and OrganizationalBehavior. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books,Inc., 1964.

Massie, Joseph L. Essentials of Management. Englewood Cliffs,N. J.: -Prentice Hall, Inc., 1965.

Morgan, C.T., and King, R.A. Introduction to Psychology.3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966.

Naval Orientation, Bureau of Naval Personnel, NAVPERS 16138-E,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1965.

Potter, E.B., and Nimitz, C.W. Sea Power, A Naval History.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960.

Principles of Administration and Management. Washington, D.C.:Industrial College of the Armed Forces, 1960.

Terry, George R. Principles of Management 4th ed., Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1964. '

Turner, Gordon B. (ed.) A Histroy of Military Affairs, NewYork: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1956.

United_States Naval Academy


PART FIVE_

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

Segment: 1a Enrichment

Schools of Management Thought


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

-5.1a.13-

1

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PART FIVEAND LEADERSHIP CONTENT OUTLINE Ia

ENRICHMENT: SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

A. The Rise of Schools of Management Thought

1. As the subject of management became more distinct, differentviewpoints began to be expressed regarding its identity.

a. About the same time as Taylbr, Henri Fayol discussedmanagement in terms of 14 basic principles which-correspond to the functions of management to bediscussed here. (Koontz and O'Donnell, pp. 18-19)

b. Different views of management began to be expressedas the subject was studied more intensely.

2. Currently, management thought may be summarized in termsof several "school." (Terry 4th Ed., p. 18) One classi-fication for the schools is:

a. Process school-limits the study of management toperformance of activities or functions which identifymanagement.

b. Experience school-emphasizes the study of the experi-ence of managers and formulates generalizations fromthis.

c. Human behavior school-stresses the behavior ofpeople'as being most significant to studyingmanagement.

d. Social system school-views management as a systemof cultural interrelationships.

e. Mathematics school-sees management as a logicalprocess which can be expressed in terms ofmathematical symbols.

f. Decision theory school-focuses on the managerialdecision.

g. Economic analysis and accounting school-relatesmanagement to optimization and the future costs.

3. Each of the management schools has its limitations andstrengths and is related to its concept of totalmanagement. (Terry, 4th Ed., p. 23)

4. The Academy is using the Process school approach modifiedto relate to the peculiarities of the military situation.

-5.1a.14-

ENRICHMENT: SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

REFERENCES

Part Five - Segment Ia: Enrichment

Koontz, H., and O'Donnell, C. Principles of Management.New York; McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.

Terry, George R. Principles of. Management 4th ed. Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1964:

-5.1a.15-

C)

Five/I/CO

)

la

OBJECTIVES Five/I/TO/E0

OutlineReference Terminal and Enabling Objectives

A. The M will be able to identify, from severalchoices, the most meaningful concept ofmanagement which contains the following keypoints:

A.

B.

a. Management is dynamic process

b. Management is goal directed

c. Management requires the coordinatedefforts of people

d. Management requires the use of resources(time, money, material)

Given examples of management andnon-management situations, the M willbe able to select the example whichillustrates the concept of management(based on his knowledge of thefollowing:

a. Management is exercised throughgroups of people.

b. Objectives are requisites ofmanagement.

c. Management requires coordinationof effort.

d. Definition of management is derivedfrom these features.)

When asked to identify the scalarprinciple, staff principle andfunctional authority as being historicalinfluences on management, the M will beable to select, from several choices,the paragraph which contains the influences.

B.4. Given situations in which leaders usescientific management techniques, the Mwill be able to identify, from seuralchoices, the individual theorist Oiteditedwith developing the techniques (as eitherElton Mayo or Frederick W. Taylor).

-5.1a.16-

TO 1

EO-1

EO-2

EO-31


OutlineReference

B.4.c.

B.4.a.

B.4.b.

C.


The M. will be able to identify, fromseveral choices, the statement whichcorrectly describes the managementphilosophy of Elton Mayo.

The M will identify, from several choices,the 'rounder of modern scientificmanagement. (Frederick W. Taylor.)

The M will be able to identify, fromseveral choices, the statement whichcorrectly describes the managementphilosophy of Henri Fayol.

Given a description illustrating theimportance of management in industry,*theM will be able to select, from severalChoices, a corresponding example whichdescribes why management is importantto the military (Navy).

C.1. The M will be able to identify,fromseveral choices, the paragraph whichcorrectly lists the reasons for theimportance of management in industry.

C.2. Given examples illustrating whymanagement is important in the military,the M will be able to select, fromseveral choices, the casual factor foreach example. (The causal factors are:

a. Increased size of Armed Forces.

b. Complexity of equipment and advancesin weapons technology.

c. High degree of specialization inofficer and enlisted ranks.

d. Greater administrative demandsin handling of public monies.

TO 1EO-4

E0-5

E0-6

TO 2

E0-1

E0-2

.

OBJECTIVES Five/I/TO/BO

Outline ,Reference Teyminal and Enabling Objectives

e. Expanded missions of Armed Forces.

f. More centralization of authority.

g. Congressional demands.)

C.2. The M will be able to explain howmanagement is applied in the military.(according to the principle: Theevolution of modern management is basedon scientific principles which are.universal in nature, and therefOreapplicable to any field of endeavor).

E0-3

D. Given a situation in which a leader is having TO 3difficulty in managing a group because of a.lack of objectives, the M will identify, fromseveral choices, the causes of the difficulty.

D.l.b.

D.1.a.

D.1.c.

The M will be able to identify therelationship of objectives to managementby selecting the appropriate paragraphfrom several choices (based on the rule:Organizations axe created and exist toaccomplish objectives and the purposeof management is to accomplish theseobjectives in the most effectivepossible way.)

Given several choices, the M will beable to select the correct Uefinitionof "managerial objective." (as: Amanagerial objective is the inte.;Idedgoal which prescribes definite scopeand suggests direction to efforts ofa manager.)

The M will be able to identify, fromseveral choices, the paragraph whichcorrectly describes the importanceof objectives to management. (Theimportance of objectives are:

-5.1a.18-

E0-1

EO-2

EO-3



a. Basic in management and a prerequisiteto the determining of any course ofaction.

b. Serve to provide a unifying effectfor any organizational group.

c. Make the tilts!. of managing easierif objectives are definite andkept clearly in mind.)

E. Given examples of various management functions TO 4that are being performed by a leader, the Mwill be able to identify the appropriatefunction illustrated by each example (basedon his knowledge of management functions).(5 /5)

E.2. Given the functions of management(including Gulicks functions) theM will select only those asprojected by the Naval Academy.

E.2. Given several diagrams illustratingthe management process, the M willbe able to select the diagramwhich correctly describes themanagement process (as projectedby this course).

E.2. When required to identify a usefulmethod for the classification of thefunctions of the management process,the M will select, from severalchoices, the statement which correctlyclassifies them (as:

a. Planning

b. Organizing

c. Directing

d. Controlling

e. Coordinating)

-5.1a.19-

EO-1

EO-2

E0-3


OutlineFeference

E.2.a.

E.2.b.

E.2.c.

E.2.d.

E.2.e.


Given several choices, the M will beable to select the correct definitionof "planning." (as: The function ofdetermining in advance what a groupshould accomplish and how the goals[objectives] are to be achieved).

Given several choices, the M will beable to select the correct definitionof "organizing." (as: The functionof providing a structure that establishesrelationships between men and materialgrouped together for a common purpose.)

Given several choices, the M will beable to select the correct definitionof "directing." (as: The functionwhich bridges the gap between planningand organizing [preparation] andactual operation involving the issuanceof orders and instructions tosubordinates and others to indicatewhat is to' be done.)

Given several choices, the'M will beable to select the correct definitionof "controlling." (as: The functionof establishing and applying fullythe necessary means to ensure thatplans, orders and policies are compliedwith in such a manner that theobjective will be attained.)

Given several choices, the M will beable to select the correct definitionof "coordinating." (as: The orderlysynchronizing of the efforts ofsubordinates to provide the properamount, timing, and quality of execution,so that the unified efforts will leadto the stated objectives.)

-S.la.20-

TO 4EO-4

E0-5

EO-6

EO-7

EO- 8

OBJECTIVES . Five /I /TO /EO

'OutlineReference Terminal and Enabling Objectives

E.3. The M will be able to identify the paragraphwhich best describes the importancemaintaining a balance of functions in themanagement process by selecting theappropriate paragraph from several choices.

E.3.b.

E.3.b.

When required tc identify tho statementwhich correctly identifies the cause ofdistortion in the management processes,the M will select the zorrect statementfrom several choices (as: Overemphasison any one of the functions [planning,organizing, directing, controlling]produces distortion in the managementprocess.)

When asked to identify the statementwhich correctly identifies the meansthrough which a balance in functions

in the management process is maintained,the M will select the correct statementfrom several choices (as: Coordinationprovides the means through which thebalance is maintained.)

E.4. The M will be able to draft an acceptableessay paragraph which states the relationshipbetween naval leadership and the managementprocess.

-5.1a.21-

TO 5

E0-1

E0-2

TO 6

0

ti



PART FIVE

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

Segment II

Decision Making and Creativity


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PART FIVEAND LEADERSHIP CONTENT OUTLINE II

DECISIONMAKING AND CREATIVITY

A. Importance of Decisionmaking

1. General

Problem situations require decisions so that resources(manpowex, materials, etc.) may be effectively utilizedto accomplish objectives. No organization can functionon a continuous basis without new situations arising fromtime to time which require decisions. In the military,certain factors prevail which create a unique climatefor development of problem situations and the ability tomake good decisions is of paramount importance to themilitary leader. Among these factors are:

a. Decisions are made in a technologically complexenvironment in which different components may haveapparently conflicting objectives.(Quade, MilitarySystems Analysis, p.'1)

b. Decisions arJ made involving varying degrees of riskin which information is seldom, if ever, complete.

c. Decisions are made in a highly visible environ.-mtin which superiors and subordinates live and woi:-together for extended periods.

d. Modern decisionmaking has highlighted the importanceof making logical analyses, in a complex environment,confronted by accelerating change. (Koontz kO'Donnell, p. 312.)

B. Elements in Decisionmaking

1. Defining the Problem: Not an easy task; what appears tobe the problem may be only its symptoms (may need todig further to locate the real problem) (Haimann, p. 112)The most common source of mistakes in management decisionsis the emphasis on finding the right answer rather thanthe right question. (Peter Drucker, p. 351)

DECISIONMAKING AND CREATIVITY Five/II/CO

2. Gathering and Analyzing the Facts: Recognize that theimportance of gathering information is determined bythe nature of the problem and the availability ofinformation.

a. Will be limited by facts which are not available.

b. Will be limited by facts which are too costly ortime consuming to obtain.

c. In gathering information which is pertinent andavailable, the decision maker may be able torecognize the nature of facts which are missing.

d. Should alert the decision maker to the subjectiveelement present in fact-gathering.

3. Developing Possible Courses of Action: Possible choicesfor achieving a particular objective.

a. Developing possible courses of action is limitedby a person's creativity, the resources which_he has at his disposal and the doctrines ortactics which he expects.to utilize in executinghis decision.

b. Developing possible courses of action pertitsthe decision maker to test the validity of eachagainst the criterion: costs and benefits of each.

c. Despite the possible complexity of a problem thedecision maker will need to reduce the number ofalternatives to a workable number of those whicharc feasible. (Newman and Summer, pp. 361-62 )

4. Analyzing and Comparing the Alternatives

(Newman and Summer, Dale, Koontz & O'Donnell)

a. Measurable factors (Quantitative)

1) Task of the leader is to evaluate each of therelevant factors and decide, on balance, whichalternative has the largest net advantage(Anthony, p. 563)

2) When all the possibilities can be translatedinto costs and benefits, the areas ofUncertainty are greatly reduced (Dale, p. 566)

-5.2.2-

v

v

DECISIONMAKING AND CREATIVITY Five/II/C0

3) Decision maker must weigh the cost of delayand the expense of gathering more informationagainst the risk of proceeding with factswhich may well be incomplete (Dale, p. 566)

4) Hedging (compromise) is a wise procedure indecisions in which some of the facts are'impossible to obtain or cannot be obtainedwithout expenditure of time or resources

- (Dale, p. 566)

5) Advantages (Koontz & O'Donnell, p. 138)

a) May aid in selecting a course of actionsince each alternative may be evaluatedmathematically

b) Comparing costs and benefits of variousalternatives may contribute toward moreaccurate planning

6) Disadvantages (Koontz & O'Donnell, pp. 138-139)

a) Analysts may forget that approximations,estimates, and forecasts usually lie atthe base of their computations.

b) Quantitative values projected into thefuture rarely can be exact and reliable

c) If the margin of error is narrow, leadersneed considerable caution in selectinga course of action, e.g., if a 10% errorwould dramatically change the result.

b. Non-measurable factors (Dale, pp. 567-68)

1) Some decisions involve non-quantifiable factorswhich, even with the passing of time, maybecome no clearer

2) Some decisions involve the element of "judgment"or "hunch" 921ale)

3) Uncertainty may contribute toward the non-measurability of an important factor

4) May require grouping key factors, weighing-their importance by means of fallible judgmentsand reaching a decision(Koontz & O'Dannell,.p. 139)

-5.2.3-


5) Advantages (Koontz & O'Donnell)

a) Few decisions can be so accurately quantifiedthat judgment is unnecessary.

b) it is possible that good judgment is aquality which can be greatly improvedthrough long experience.

Decision maker may take into considerationa cross-section of the other people'sinterests and opinions (Dale, p. 568)

6) Disadvantages (Koontz & O'Donnell, p. 139)

a) Comparing unlike values is exceedinglydifficult; for example, comparing theadvantage of high-grade service againstthe expense of providing that service.

b) "Hunch" may be entirely inaccurate andbased upon wishful thinking ornonrelevant criteria (Dale, p. 568)

5. Deciding on the Best Course of Action

a. Who makes decisions? (Terry, pp. 75-80)

1) An individual

a) The decision to meet an emergency is .typically of the individual. type,

b) Decisionmaking involving highly technicalconsiderations can be well performed bya well qualified individual.

c) Opportunity may present itself fordecision unnoticed by everyone exceptthe individual who interprets factsimaginatively, recognizes the opportunity,and understands decisionmaking; onlythe individual can assess the consequencesof not acting.

2) A group

a) A group is more inclined to follow adecision enthusiastically if it helpedin shaping it,

b) Group decisions can help satisfy individualneeds, such as a sense of feeling wanted,of being important, and "being in on theknow."

-5.2.4-


c) A group can provide vigorous discussionof the various alternatives

C. Creativity

1. The Creative Element

a. The creative elemeht in the management process stemsfrom the need to make sound decisions based on avariety of inputs to decision maker.

b. Results from a search for alternatives, throughoutthe decision making process

1) Yesterday's solutions may not be adequate fortoday's needs.

2) The uniqueness of each organization makesinitiation of past solutions hazardous.

c. Decisions that add some new and useful elements arecreative. (Newman and Summer, pp. 335-36; Terry, p. 66)

1) It must be novel.

2) It must be worthwhile,, i.e., enhance organiza-tional objectives.

3) It must be a tangible solution.

4) It must be perceived by others as being novel.(Hays and Thomas, pp. 109-110)

2. Factors in the creative process

a. Developing a climate foi creativity

1) Recognition by the manage: /leader that he mustunderstand and support creative efforts by:

a) Welcoming new ideas

b) Encouraging collective thought while retainingthe requirements for discipline (delegateauthority)

ay Originality will be lacking if creativityis thwarted in an officer's junior years.

(2) It is a.leader's responsibility todevelop and encourage creativity beforea decision is reached.

(3) Once the decision is made, it should befollowed with loyalty and vigor.(Hays &Thomas, p. 112)


c) Leaders and colleagues give positive encouragementto those who want to try something different.

d) There is respect for individuality such thata person can express ideas without fear ofan unfavorable response. (Newman and Summer,p. 354)

e) Allow individuals to participate in settinggoals and standards of the organization

f) Use ideas from subordinates whenever feasibleand give appropriate credit to them

b. Blocks to creativity

1) Risk and responsibility: .creativity involveswillingness to accept responsibility at the riskof failure within reasonable limits.

2) The environment and acceptance of creativity may.conflict with needed elements of conformitywithin an organization.

(NOTE: This is a complex problem, and manyexamples can be cited which reflectother views. (Newman and Summer, p. 356)

3) The use of power and influence to secure acceptanceof authority may inhibit the expression ofchallenging ideas.

4) The leader may be too busy to provide feedbackregarding results of creative thought.

5) Very often an idea cannot be evaluated becausethere is little indication of what its adoptionentails in terms of resources and risks.

6) Ideas are useless unless used and their proof ofusefulness lies in their implementation.

7) The amount of creativity may be affected by theextent to which authority is delegated.

8) The amount of,creativit) to be encouraged isdependent in large measure on the ideas of theleader regarding his and his subordinates relativeroles in the organization.

9) Creativity is in part dependent on the leader'sability to motivate his subordinates.

-5.2.6-


10) The leader must be aware that creativity canconflict with organizational goals if, theprocess of creativity becomes an end.in itself.

11) Once a decision has been made, the leader andsubordinates should recognize the need for support,so that creativity will not be stifled in futurecircumstances.

c. Aids to (and development of) individual creativity(Newman and Summer; Nation's business)

1) Recognize psychological barriers

2) Try changing attributes

3) Be alert for finding things you are not lookingfor: the unexpected.

d. Aids to Aroup creativity (Newman and Summer)

1) Brainstorming

a) Rule out judicial judgment

b) Welcome freewheeling

c) Solicit quantity

d) Seek combinations and improvements

2) Synectics

a) Orient the group thoroughly to the natureof the problem

b) Group leader poses a key aspect of the problemas an issue or hypothesis

c) Develop novel viewpoints and ideas

d) Appraise novelty and feasibility of variousideas

-5.2.7-

DECISIONMAKING AND CREATIVITY FiVe/II/C0

REFERENCES

Part Five - Segment II

Anthony, R.N. Mana ement Accountin . Homewood, Ill.:Richard D. Irwin, 196 .

Dale, Ernest. Management: Theor & Practice. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1965.

Drucker, Peter F. The Practice of Management, New York Harper& Brothers, Publishers, 1954.

Eight Keys to Creativity. Nation's Business, Feb. 1959,p. 58, reprint.

Haimann, Theo. Professional Management, Theory and Practice.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962.

Hays, S.H., and Thomas, W.N. (Eds.) Taking Command. Harrisburg, Pa.:Stackpole Books, 1967.

Koontz, H. and O'Donnell, C. Principles of Management. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Newman, W.H.; Summer, C.E.; Warren, E..K. The Process ofMana ement Conce ts, Behavior, and Practice. EnglewoodCli fs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1967.

Osborn Rules for Brainstorm Session. Public Relations Department,Bristol-Meyers Products Div., New York.

Quade, E.S. Military Systems Analysis. Memorandum RM-3452-PR,United States Air Force, Project Rand, 1963.

Terry, George R. Principles of Management, 4th Ed. HomelMod,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1964.

Terry, George R. Principles of Management, Sth Ed., Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1968.

I OutlineReferenceOBJECTIVES Five/II/TO/E0

TerAinal and Enabling Objectives

A. Given statements about the importance ofdecisionmaking, the M will be able toidentify those that relate to the necessityof the leader being able to make gooddecisions.

TO 1

A. Given statements about the implications of TO 2decisionmaking in the military, the M willidentify those that describe the importanceand risk of making decisions.

A.1.

A.l.b.

The M will select, from several choices,the statement which correctlyidentifies the factors which createthe environment for decisionmakingin the military.

Given several statements about thedegree of risk involved in makingdecisions, the M will identify thestatement which correctly illustratesthe concept.

B. Given a military problem, the M will select,from several choices, the statement thatdefines the problem correctly, providesthe proper facts and the most effectivecourse of action to overcome the problem(based on the elements in decision-making.)

B.1. The M will identify, from severalchoices, the correct requirements ofdefining a problem.

-5.2.9-

E0-1

EO-2

TO 3

EO-1

i

1

I

. ..er'.

OBJECTIVES Five/II/TO/E0


B.2. Given military situations, the Mwill identify, from several choices,the facts to be considered inmaking a decision.

B.3.4..

B.

B.

Given a stated objective and a militarysituation, the M will select, fromseveral choices, the alternatives whichshould be considered in making a finaldecision.

The M will identify, from severalchoices, the elements in thedecision-making process.

Given the elements in the decision-making process, the M will arrangethe elements in the proper order.

B.4. Given a military situation and severalalternatives to reach the objective,the M will select the most appropriatecourse of action.

B.4.a.

B.4.a.

The M will be able to select,fromseveral choices, the statement whichcorrectly describes the use ofmeasurable factors in selecting acourse of action.

The M will be able to identify, fromseveral choices, the factors whichdiffer between the advantages anddisadvantages of using measurablefactors in selecting a course ofaction.

TO 3EO-2

E0-3.

EO-4

EO-S

TO 4

EO-1

EO-2


OutlineReference

B.4.b.

B.4.b.

B.S.

B.S.a.

B.S.b.

C.


The M will be able to select, fromseveral choices, the statement whichcorrectly describes the use of non-measurable factors in selecting acourse of action.

The if will be able to identify,from several choices, the factorswhich differ between the advan-tages and disadvantages of usingnonmeasurable factors in selectthga course of action.

Given military situations in whichdecisions are necessary, the M willselect, from several choices, whetheror not individuals or groups shouldmake the decision.

Given several statements aboutwhen to make decisions, the Mwill select the statementswhich describe when it isappropriate for an individualto make a decision.

Given several decision-makingsituations, the M will identify,from several choices, the rolesof those involved (input provideror decision maker) in thedecision-making process.

Given statements about the element ofcreativity in decisionmaking, the Mwill. identify those statements thatshow the relationship between creativityand developing alternatives for decision-making.

- 5. 2.11-

TO 4EO- 3

EO-4

TO S

E0-1

E0-2

TO 6

OBJECTIVES Five/II/TO/1M

OutlineReference

C.2. .

C. 2. a.

C.

C.2.a.

C.2.b.

C.2.c.

C.2.d. .


The M will identify, from severalchoices, the statement thatcorrectly synthesizes the require-ments of a creative solution.

Given a military situation in which theclimate is not conducive to creativity,the M will select, from several choices,the statement that describes how todevelop a more creative climate.

Given military situations in whichindividuals are exhibiting certainbehavior, the M will identify whetherthe individuals are being creative orcreative beyond the bounds of theorganization.

Given military decisions which lackcreativity but illustrate solutions toproblems, the M will be able to identify,from several cFoices, the example whichillustrates how creativity can beincreased.

The M will identify, from severalchoices, problems that blockcreativity.

The M will identify, from severalchoices, factors that can aid

.individual creativity.

The M will identify, from severalchoices, factors that can aidgroup creativity.

-5.2.12-

TO 6EO-1

TO 7

TO 8

TO 9

EO-1

EO-2

EO-3


OutlineReference

-A. E.


SECONDARY/REVIEWS/OR ENRICHMENT OBJECTIVE TO 10

Given a description of a militaryproblem (which contains the necessarydata) that must be solved, the M willbe able to:

a. Define the problem

b. Gather and analyze the facts

c. Develop possible courses of action

d. Analyze and compare the alternatives

e. Decide on the best course of action

-5.2.13-

United States Naval Academyr-


PART FIVE

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

Segment III

Objectives


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

14

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PART FIVEAND LEADERSHIP CONTENT OUTLINE III

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

A. Importance of Objectives

1. Definition: Objectives are the ends, toward whichactivity is aimed (Koontz and O'Donnell [Readings],pp. 72-74); the desired standard, mission, goal, ortarget that the organization is to attain.

a. Relationship to the management wheel (see diagramnext page)

1) At the center

2) All activities of management revolve aroundthem

O

NaVi

0CG

O0U

CORSECTIVGACTION

;Nouvoiryniryr400

MILITARY MANAGEMENT Five/III/CO

B. Hierarchy of Objectives (Massie, pp. 29-30)

1. Principle: Every lower objective should be consistentwith and contribute toward the objectives of the nexthigher level.

2. Order of objectives (aboard ship)

a. Organizational objectives (mission)

1) Guide the activities of a large group.

a) They indicate what the group is going to do(goal), and why the group is doing it(purpose).

2) Serve as media by which multiple interestsare channeled into joint effort.

b. Department objectives

c. Division objectives

3. Example: In typical shipboard situations, organizationalobjectives generally originate from the Captain, and areimplemented to the ship's company through the ExecutiveOfficer. Next, each department head establishes withinhis department a set of departmental objectives whichsupport the broader organizational goals. Similarily,division officers develop a list of objectives specificto 'their unit function, in support of both the departmentand overall command goals. In turn, leading PettyOfficers within each section of the division provideadditional direction for their subordinates in a similarmanner.

C. Classes of Objectives (Hays and Thomas, p. 105)

1. Organization objectives

a. Primary objectives

1) Importance: Primary objectives are importantsince they provide the focal point for leadersto accomplish organizational goals.

2) Example: The Construction Battalion Officerassigned to the Naval Academy has the missionof providing engineer support for minorconstruction projects undertaken by the Academy.


b. Intermediate objectives

1) Importance: Intermediate objectives areimportant since they enable subordindtes toaccomplish goals which they understand andwhich in turn support primary objectives.

D. Personal and Organizational Objectives

1. Relationship of personal to organizational objectives:In the lower levels of the hierarchy, specific objectivesare assigned which must be attained by a smaller group,comprised of individuals with goals of their own.

2. Integration of personal-organizational objectives(Hays and Thomas, pp. 151, 152, 155, 158, 161)

a. Premise: All objectiVes, personal and organizational,must contribute to attainment of the primaryobjective.

b. Technique

1) Evaluate subordinate's personal goals interms of the mission

a) Provide consequences to maintain desirablegoals

(1) Direct reward

(2) Utilization of peer pressure to reward

b) Provide consequences to eliminateunacceptable goals

(1) Punishment

(2) Utilization of peer pressure

c. Importance

1) Incompatible personal and organizationalobjectives can lead to loss of focus on theorganizational objectives and can result in:

a) Poor discipline

b) Low morale

2) Whether an individual becomes an effective leaderdepends in part on his clear understanding ofthe organizational goals.

-5.3.4-

1


E. Setting up an Objectives Program

1. Sources of objectives (N-106 Lesson #38)

a. Your superior

b. You yourself

c. Your subordinates

d. External (Ideas for objectives frequently can bepicked up through visits to other organizationssimilar to your own)

2. Criteria for determining and formulating a list ofobjectives

a. Realistic - not some far distant, way-off goal; but,something meaningful in immediate future.

b. Reasonable - Within the capabilities of theorganization to attain.

c. Clearly and concisely stated - no chance ofmisinterpretation; everyone understands what is tobe accomplished.

d. Harmonized - tie in with objectives of your superior;apply the principle of hierarchy of objectives.

e. Aim at improvement - not change merely for the sakeof change.

3. Management by "Drives" (Drucker; The Practice of Management,p. 127)

a. Proper management requires balanced stress on objectives;rules out the common and pernicious malpractice:management by "crises" and "drives."

b. A sure sign of confusion; a sign that managementdoes not know how to plan.

4. Conclusion: The ability to establish and to accomplishworthwhile objectives, which result in overall improve-ment in the organization, is a characteristic ofoutstanding leaders in the military service.

Key Leadership Factor: "An effective leader establishesobjectives and plans for their accomplishment."

- 5.3.5-


REFERENCES

Part Five - Segment III

Drucker, Peter F. The Practice of Management.' New York:Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1954.

Hays, S. H., and Thomas, W. N. (Eds.) Takin Command.Harrisburg, Pa.: Sta-:kpole Books, 1966

Koontz, H., and O'Donnell, C. Management: A Book of Readings.New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1964.

Massie, Joseph L. Essentials of Management. Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice:Hill, Inc., 196'.1.

USNA, N-106 Course Outline. 1968.

.

-5.3.6-

)

OBJECTIVES

OutlineReference

A.


Given several examples of objectives, theM will be able to select, from severalchoices, the example which illustrates aleader establishing objectives (missions,goals, or targets).

A.1. The M will identify the definitionof objective from several definitions(as: the ends toward which activitiesare aimed).

A.1. The M will select, from a list ofstatements, those statements whichdescribe objectives (as missions,goals, or targets) from severalchoices.

B.2. Given an organizational hierarchy andseveral examples of hierarchy of objectives,the M will be able to select the correctset of objectives.

B.2.a. The M will select, from severalchoices, the statement whichcorrectly illustrates the principle:"Organizational objectives guidethe activities of a large group."

B.1. Given several examples of a hier-archy of objectives stated for anorganization, the M will identifythe example which-correctlyillustrates the hierarchy (basedon the principle that "every lowerobjective should be consistent withand contribute toward the objectivesof the next higher level").

- 5.3.7-

Five/III/TO/E0

TO 1

EO-1

EO-2

TO.2

EO-1

EO-2

OutlineReference

C.

C.l.a.l)

C.l.b.l)

I

C.l.b.l)

C.

C.l.b.l)

OBJECTIVES Five/III/TO/E0


Given several examples of militaryobjectives, the M will classify them asprimary or intermediate.

The M will select, from severalchoices, the statement that describesthe importance of primary objectives,(As: they provide the focal pointfor leaders to.accomplishorganizational goals).

The M will select, from severalchoices, the statement that describesthe importance of intermediateobjectives (as: enables subordinatesto accomplish goals which theyunderstand and which in turnsupport primary objectives).

Given an example of a leader havingdifficulty accomplishing his primaryobjective, the M will determine the causefrom several choices (based on theprinciple: intermediate objectivesfacilitate the achievement of primaryobjectives).

The M will select, from severalchoices, the paragraph which bestdescribes the relationship betweenprimary and intermediate objectives.

Given an example of a primaryobjective (at a specific organiza-tional level) aboard ship, the Mwill be able to select, from severalchoices, an appropriate intermediateobjective to facilitate the

°achievement of the primary objective,(based on his knowledge of the purposeof intermediate objectives).

-5.3.8-

TO 3

E0-1

EO-2

TO 4

EO-1

EO-2

OutlineReference

. OBJECTIVES Five/III/TO/E0

TO 5

EO-1

EO-2

EO-3

Given several examples, the M will EO-4select the statement which correctlyillustrates the technique forintegrating personal and organizationalobjectives.


D.1. Given a military situation where personalgoals are in conflict with organizationalgoals, the M will select the correct solutionto the conflict (based on the relationshipof personal objectives to organizationobjectives).

D.2.c.1)

D.

D.2.c.

D.2.b.

E.

E.1.

Given several statements about theimportance of compatibility betweenpersonal and organizational objectives,the M will be able to select thosethatcorrectly describe theimportance.

The M will identify the paragraphwhich correctly compares andcontrasts personal and organizationalobjectives from severa] choices.

The M will be able to identify, fromseveral choices, whether anindividual's goals are or are notcompatible with the organization'sobjectives.

Given a military situation the M willidentify the best actions to be takenin establishing an objectives program.

The M will identify the sourcesof oEjectives in a given situation(as superior, yourself, subordinates,or external).

-5.3.9-

TO 6

EO-1

OutlineReference

E.1.a.

E.l.b.c.

E.2.

OBJECTIVES Five/III/TO/E0


Given examples of objectives, theM will identify, from severalchoices, those from higherauthority.

Given examples of objectives,. theM will identify, from severalchoices, those from an internalsource (you, ycarself,subordinates).

Given a military situation the Mwill be able to identify the.criteria for determining andformulating a list of objectives.

E.3. The M will be able to identifythe common and pernicious malpracticeof management by "crisis" and"Olives."

A.D. SECONDARY/REVIEW/OR ENRICHMENT OBJECTIVES

Given a situation of a military type task(mission) to accomplish, the M will beable to draft an essay paragraph in whichorganizatIonal objectives are establishedin a hierarchy, and objectives areassigned to proper personnel.

-5.3.10-

TO 6E0,2

E0-3

E0-4

E0-5

TO 7



PART FIVE

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

Segment IV

Planning


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PART FIVEAND LEADERSHIP

. CONTENT OUTLINE IV

PLANNING

A. Introduction to Planning

1. Definitions (Koontz and O'Donnell, p. 28;.Hays andThomas, p. 103)

a. The selection, from among alternatives, of coursesof future action

b. The function by which.a leader determines (withinthe area of his authority) what objectives are tobe accomplished and how and when they will bereached.

c. The means by which the organization is guided fromthe present into the future in order to accomplisha mission or objective.

-5.4.1-

PLANNING

2. Relationship to the management wheel

a. The first activity which must be carried out

b. Pictorial representation:

CONTROLLING

4.0 is cv I SCIb7:1 ?.." -1771

DIRT:OTING 1 ORGANIZI NOI

1

Poe tf.

we/

1.

0 e

P 0

e4A 10

BUOGSTING

,....,11.

Five/IV/CO

3. Importance of planning (Longenecker, pp. 25-26)

a. Planning is vital for efficiency and success

b. Careful planning helps to answer such questions aswhat, when, where, who, and why concerning anoperation

c. Planning aids or facilitates the execution offuture action by providing a factual basis

-5.4.2-

1

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

4. Advantages of planning

a. Makes for the utilization of purposeful andorderly activities.

b. Unproductive work minimized.

c. Promotes the use of a measure of performance.

d. Provides for a greater utilization of availablefacilities of an enterprise.

e. Compels visualization of the whole operative pictureclearly and completely.

f. Provides a basis for control.

5. Underplanning and overplanning (N-106, 1967)

a. Underplanning: Failure of a leader to discriminatethe range of contingencies that could occur.

1) Implications of underplanning

a) Incomplete analysis of mission

b) Failure to make realistic assumptions

c) People have more regard for the presentthan for the future.

d) Information and facts about the futureare never accurate.

b. Overplanning: An attempt to predict events thatare unpredictable.

1) Implications of overplanning

a) Too much attention is paid to details beyondany practical need, e.g., efforts may beexpended to prevent situations that wouldnot have developed anyway.

b) Subordinate initiative can be stifledbecause of rigid mode of execution.

c) Inefficient use of resources (the cost ofplanning work may exceed its actualcontribution).

d) May delay action

e) Information and facts about the future arenever accurate.

-5.4.3-

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

B. Long-Range Planning vs Short-Range Planning

1. General discussion

a. Difficulty in discriminating long-range fromshort-range.

1) Situation determines whether leader/managerconsiders plan to be long range or shortrange; contributing factors are:

a) The leader/manager level in theorganization

b) The kind of endeavor in which theorganization is engaged

c) The quality of managerial practices

2. Relationship to military concepts

a. Long-range planning is related to the concept ofstrategy. Strategy is concerned with the generalplan for the employment of a nation's fightingforces (Naval Orientation, p. 408).

b. Short-range planning is related to the conceptof tactics. Tactics refers to specific maneuversand special techniques of fighting (NavalOrientation, p. 408) Example: The actual launchof strike aircraft against enemy targets fromattack aircraft carriers is an example ofmilitary tactics.

.

1) Tactical plans, are not the only short-range plans involving the military. Otherexamples include:

2) Budget: An important short-range financialplan at lower levels since it forces lowerunit commanders to plan their expenditures.

3) Contingency plans

a) A contingency plan is one which is notimplemented until some time in thefuture when necessary in order to meetsome mission. It may be developed farin advance, but its execution isshort range in nature.

1

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

3. Relationship between planning, programing andbudgeting

a) Planning may be described as the process ofdetermining force and support level objectivesand specifying the future actions to accomplishmission requirements.

b) Programing may be described as the process oftranslating force and support requirementsinto manpower, material resources which aretime-phased to meet planned objectives.

c) Budgeting may be described as the process ofexpressing the programed manpower and materialresource requirements in financial terms forfunding.

d) Diagram

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

C. Who Plans

1. It is important, from a motivational point of view,to involve those who will carry out the plan in theplanning stages as much as possible.

2. While every leader performs similar functions the timeand effort spent on each varies according to level inthe organization.

C.O.

EXEC

OFFICER

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',1%

N''''

DEPT

HEAD

OCr4:

.

20

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...

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s.U0

.

EFc-'

PETTY

OFFICER

I A

PETTY

OFFICER

. ,

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%

< TIME >

(Adapted from Haimann, Professional Management, Theory andPractice, 1962)

-5.4.6-

PLANNING

Estimates of Time Spent By Leaders of Various OrganizationalLevels on Planning (according to period covered by plans).

Five/IV/CO

PERIOD COVERED BY PLAN

OrganizationalLevel ofLeader

Current 1 Month

Ahead

6 Months

Ahead

1 Year

,Ahead

5 Years

Ahead

C.N.O. 2% 5% 20% 25% 48%

Fleet Commander 5 15 40 30 10

C.O. 25 50 15 10 NONE

Department Head 50 30 15 5 NONE

Division Officer 80 15 5NONE NONE

(Adapted from Terry, p. 265)

D. Steps in Planning

1. Forecasting (Hays and Thomas, pp. 103-108)

a. Definition: That phase of planning which occursbefore the receipt of a specific mission, or theformulation of primary or intermediate objectives;estimating the future effects of current events.

b. Importance: All leaders must continually look tothe future and plan those activities over whichthey will have direct control.

1) Planning should begin before receipt of thespecific mission which gives direction toplanning.

2) Preparing for possible activities enables theleader to act immediately when problems ariseand decisions have to be made.

c. Techniques (Hays and Thomas, p. 104)

1) The leader and his subordinates constantlygather information which pertains to theiractivities

-5.4.7-

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

2) The leader evaluates trends in current activitiesto predict the situation which will exist atvarious times in the future.

3) The leader develops contingency plans forimplementation in response to arising emergencies.

2. Estimating (Hays and Thomas, pp. 105-107)

a. The estimating phase of planning begins with thedesignation of a mission.

b. Estimating is specific and is aimed at the solutionof a particular problem.

c. The estimate itself is a logical and analyticalapproach to the solution of a problem.

d. Estimating involves five basic actions.

1) Problem clarification or mission analysis

2) Compilation and consideration of all factsthat have a bearing on the accomplishment ofthe desired objectives

3) Designation of possible courses of action

4) Analysis and comparison of the various coursesof action

5) Decision on the best course of action

3. Plan preparation (Hays and Thomas, pp. 107-108)

a. Definition: The means by which a decision istranslated into action

b. Operational definition: The means by which a leaderoutlines a solution that will enable subordinates todiscriminate the appropriate response they mustmake in order to implement his decision.

c. Preparing the plan

1) Every plan must answer the who, what, when,where and why questions.

2) Every plan must be published: When a plan hasbeen completed and approved, it is publishedeither as an order, br as a plan that maybecome an order at some future time.

-5.4.8-

...

PLANNING Five/VI/CO

4. The planning sequence in a designated military operation(War College Sample, 56-12a)

a. Upon receipt of a mission from a higher authority,military leader analyzes the mission to determinehis tasks and objectives.

b. The leader estimates the situation, reviewing allcontingencies, and makes a decision on a course ofaction which will efficiently and effectivelyaccomplish the mission.

c. To carry out his decision, the leader develops aplan, coordinating all objectives with necessaryechelons.

d. From the completed plan, the leader issues anoperating directive to his subordinates, e.g.,construct:

Mission From Higher Authority

(Task and Objectives)

1Estimate of Situation

Decision

Ip

Development of Plan

Published Directive

-5.4,9-

PLANNING Five/IV/CO

REFERENCES

Part Five - Segment IV

Financial Management in the Navy. (Interim Edition: Chapters1-7) Bureau o Naval Personnel, NAVPERS 10792-B,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1966.

Haimann, Theo. Professional Management, Theory and Practice.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962.

Hays, S. H. and Thomas, W. N. (ed.) Taking Command. Harrisburg,Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1967.

Koontz, H. and O'Donnell, C. Management: A Book of Readings.New York: McGraw -Hill. Co., 1964.

Longenecker, J. G. Principles of Management and OrganizationalBehaviors. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1964.

Naval Orientation. Bureau of Naval Personnel, NAVPERS 16138-E,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington7U7777 1965.

Terry, George R. Principles of Management 5th Ed., Homewood,.Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1968.

USNA, N-106. Fall, 1967; Fall, 1968.

-5.4.10-

OBJECTIVES Five/IV/TO/E0


A.1. The M will be able to identify the definition TO 1of planning from several choices.

A.S. Given situations resulting from poor TO 2plans, the M will be able to determinewhich situations resulted from over-planning cr underplanning.

A.5.a. The M will be'able to select the E0-1correct definition of "under-planning", from several choices,(as:_. failure of a leader todiscriminate the range ofcontingencies that could occur).

A.5.b. The M will be able to 'select, EO-2from several choices, thecorrect definition of "over-planning" (as: an attemptto predict events that areunpredictable).

A.5.a.1) The M will be able_to select, EO-3from several choices, thestatement which summarizes thecharacteristics of underplanning.

A.S.b.1) The M will be able to select,.from EO-4several choices, the statementwhich summarizes thecharacteristics of overplanning.

B. Given a plan that is inappropriate fora specific objective, the M will beable to select an appropriate plan forthe objective, from several choices,(based on his knowledge of long andshort-range planning).

-5.4.11-

TO 3


OutlineReference

B.2.a.

B.2.b.


Given several examples whichillustrate types of plans, theM will identify the examplewhich illustrates long-rangeplans.

Given several examples whichillustrate types of plans theM will identify the examplewhich illustrates short-rangeplans.

B.2. The M will be able to select,from several choices, the correctrelationship of long-range andshort-range planning to military'concepts.

B.2. Given an example which describesa plan made because of knowledgeof the plans of a hostile force,the M will select, from severalchoices, the name of the plandescribed.

TO 3E0-1

EO-2

EO-3

EO-4

B.3. Given a plan and a budget, the M will beable to select, from several choices,the appropriate program to put the planinto effect.

TO 4

B.3. The M will be able to select, fromseveral choices, the correctrelationship between planning,programing and budgeting.

EO-1

B.3. The M will be able to identify,fromseveral sources, the

EO-2

statement which correctly describesthe difference between planningand programing.

-5.4.12-

!


OutlineReference

C.

C.

C.

D.1.c.

D.1.a.


Given a situation with two leaders atdifferent levels within the sameorganization, the M will be able toselect from several choices, the examplewhich correctly describe.. the amount oftime and effort they spend planning.

Given a plan and an organizationalstructure, the M will be able toselect, from several choices, the typeof plan and at what level of theorganization the plan was made.

Given a plan, the M will be ableto identify, from several choices,the statement which correctlydescribes at what level ofthe organization the plan wasmade.

Given an example of a military situationwhich illustrates the forecasting stepof planning the M will be able toselect the technique employed in theexample (using his knowledge of thetechniques for forecasting).

The M will be able to select thecorrect definition of forecastingfrom several choices (as thatphase of planning which occursbefore the receipt of a specificmission on the formulation ofprimary or intermediate objectives;estimating the future effects ofcurrent events).

-5.4.13-

TO 5

TO 6

EO-1

TO 7

EO-1

OBJECTIVES Five/IV/TO/HO

OutlineReference

D.l.c.

D.2.d.

D.2.a.

D.2.d.

D.3.c.


The M will be able to selectfrom several choices theparagraph which correctly statesthe techniques for forecasting.

Given an example of a military situationin which a leader must make an estimatebefore deciding the course of action toattain a specified mission, the M willselect from several choices theparagraph which correctly describesthe five basic actions of estimating.

When asked to select the statementwhich specifies when theestimating phase of planningbegins, the M will select thecorrect statement from severalchoices (as the estimating phaseof planning begins with thedesignation of the mission).

Given the instruction to selectthe statement which describesthe five basic actions involvedin estiming, the M will selectthe correlptistatemea from

i /several, eliorc's.1.,;.

The M, will be able to select, fromseveral choices,the statement whichbest describes plan preparation (asanswers to the questions "who, what,when, where, why," and publicationas an order, or as a plan that maybecome an order at some future time).

-5.4.14-

TO 7E0-2

TO 8

EO-1

E0-2

TO 9

OutlineReference

D.3.a.

D.3.b.

OBJECTIVES Five/IV/TO/it r1


The M will be able to select thecorrect definition of plan pre-paration from several choices(as the means by which a decisionis translated into action).

The M will be able to select theoperaional definition of planpreparation from several choices(as the means by which a leaderoutlines a solution that willenable subordinates; to discriminatethe appropriate responses theymust make in order to implementhis decision).

D.4. Given an example of a specific militaryoperation, the M will be able toselect the appropriate planningsequence from several choices (basedon his knowledge of the planningsequence in a military operation).

A D

TO 9E0-1

E0-2

TO 10

SECONDARY/REVIEW/OR ENRICHMENT OBJECTIVE TO 11

Given appropriate input data, the Mwill be able to draft a plan .

_

containing the characteristics of agood plan.

-5.4.15-


INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLrGY AND LEADERSHIP

PART FIVE

MILITARY MANAGEMENT

Segment V

Organizing: Principles and Process


Annapolis, Maryland

1971

. ael4 1 .

r

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYPART FIVE

AND LEADERSHIPCONTENT OUTLINE V

ORGANIZING: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS

A. Purpose of Organizing

1. To enable a groupof people to function as a unit

working

toward a common goal. The job ororganizing is

essentially (1) division of workand responsibility and

(2) provision of a means ofcoordination by obtaining

the most advantageous mixtureof component relationships.

2. Organizing isessential to military management because

only organizing can ensure thatthe diverse

capabilities of the military will merge,at all levels,

in the achievement of their commongoal.

I

ORGANIZING: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS

3. Relationship of the management wheel:

III

CONTFIGLLING; I PLANNING

Five/V/CO

ORGANIZING: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS Five/V/CO

B. Principles of Organizing

1. Scalar Principle (Richards and Nielander, p. 670)There must be clear lines of authority running fromthe top to the bottom of the organization.

2. Unity of Command (Hays and Thomas, pp. 117-118)

a. No one in the organization should report to morethan one line supervisor.

b. Everyone in the organization should know to whomhe reports, and who reports to him.

c. The concept of dual subordination, to beimplemented judiciously, is possible if eachresponsibility is clearly defined.

3. Span of Control (Hays and Thomas, pp. 118-119; Terry(Sth ed.), p. 309; NAVPERS 18371A, pp. 6-7)

a. Definition: The number of immediate subordinatesthat one supervisor can effectively supervise

1) As the number of subordinates increasesarithmetically, the number of relationshipsincreases by geometric progression.

a) Examples

(1) In a four-man group there are 2Spossible interactions. This isdepicted on the next page.

...

f

1

ORGANIZAING: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS Five/V/CO

A B C

A A iB C D C D D

,--

A A A B B B C C

1 1 1 1 1BIC BID CD AC AID CD AB AID BD

A B C D

1 1 1 itBCD ACD ABD ABC

A B A C A D

1C D B D B C

-5.5.4-

A B

'4. .:

D D

I 1A C B C

. 4.


400

375

350

325

300

275

250

200

175

150

125

100

75

50

25

(2) For a six-man group, there are 301possible interactions, as thefollowing graph shows:

0

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THE GROUP

LEGEND

11111 Possi'ole. pairings of any single member

-0 All possible combinations of interactions


2) Span of control is seldom uniform throughoutan organization.

b. Determiners of span of control

1) Diversity and the number of tasks cause spanof control to be broad or narrow.

a) Routine, repetitive, or similar tasks tendto broaden span of control.

b) Complex tasks characterized by a higherdegree of interaction tend to narrow thespan of control.

2) The physical distance between a superiorand his subordinates

fe

3) The time which a superior has available forsupervision will affect the number of men orcomponents which he may effectively supervise.

4) The training and experience of both thesupervisor and his subordinates

c. Two examples of span of control in the Brigade areshown in the chart below:

1

BRIGADE CDR

f

REGT CDR

1stBATT

2ndBATT

3rdBATT

1

REGT CDR

r t 1

1

4th 5th I 6thBATT BATT BATT

Span of control of:Brigade Cdr 2 Regt CdrsEach Regt Cdr 3 Battalion Cdrs

-5.5.6-

.

ORGANIZING: PRINCILES AND PROCESS Five/V/CO

4. Delegation of Authority (Decentralization) (Terry,pp. 336-46)

a. Delegation of specific grants of authority forspecific duties makes it possible for a superiorto cope with his responsibilities which frequentlyare numerous, complex, and time consuming.

b. Delegation of authority permits subordinates tocarry out their responsibilities with properauthority without diluting the overallresponsibility of a superior.

c. Delegation of authority makes it possible todevelop the skills and capabilities ofsubordinates as well as those of the persondelegating.

d. Determiners of delegation of authority (Hays andThomas, pp. 120-121, 143)

1) Delegation of authority is often influencedby self- .confidence.

a) Underdelegation may occur, causingfrustration, and a stifling of creativitywhich can be detrimental to motivationand morale. This may occur whensubordinate is not given enough freedomto act.

b) Overdelegation or giving away too muchauthority; superior who lacks self-confidence or who wants to pursue"outside" interests may overdelegateauthority in an attempt to avoid makingdecisions himself.

2) The complexity of the task influences the amountof delegation.

3) The remoteness of a person or unit may contributetoward the need for delegation.

4) The extent to which a leader is willing toaccept risks may contribute to the amount ofauthority he delegates.

5. Levels of Authority (Richards and Nielander, p. 673) Thenumber of levels of authority should be kept at aminimum. The greater the number of levels, the longerthe chain of command, and the longer it takes forinstructions to travel down and for information to travelup and down within the organization. Example: The SearsRoebuck studies (Koontz & O'Donnell) - 4th Edition, p. 253)

-5.5.7-


C. Organizing Process

1. Basic Objectives

a. To ensure that the organization is one that willcarry out most effectively the mission and tasks. ofthe command.

b. To ensure that all essential functions are recognizedand assigned as specific tasks of an appropriateorganizational component.

c. To ensure that there is clear recognition andunderstanding among units of the command as totheir individual duties, responsibilities, authority,and organizational relationships.

2. Steps in the organizing process

a. Determine and list the tasks (Hays and Thomas,p. 117; NAVPERS 18371A) by dividing the overallmission into specific tasks that can be accomplished.

1) How the leader determines the task

a) :7.-Specified activities-to-be-performed (inkeeping with the objectives) are to beidentified.

b) Large tasks are divided into smaller,manageable tasks.

c) Tasks are determined on the basis of whois available to do them who also haveprerequisite abilities, skills and interests.(Terry, p. 305)

2) Example: In organizing the Midshipmen Glee Club,we would first determine and list the varioustasks, such as, tenors, baritones, basses,accompanist, music arrangers, officerrepresentative, funding for trips, etc.

b. Group the tasks (NAVPERS, 18371A, pp. 11-14)

1) Definition: Detailed breakdown of tasks anddetermination of specific activities andresponsibilities of the individuals who willperform the tasks

-5.5.8-


2) Steps in grouping the tasks (Terry, p. 306)

a) Groups are constructed in order of importance,subordination, and expected time ofcompletion.

b) Tasks are grouped into practical units ofactivities.

(1) Activities considered major, minor,and sub-minor are arrayed so that therelative importance of each task canbe seen from its position on the list.

(2) Homogeneous tasks are grouped together.

(a) Definition: Tasks which arealike, similar, or allied

(b) Various functions, dissimilarbut related, can be groupedtogether to provide economyand effectiveness.

(c) By grouping homogeneous orsimilar tasks together it ispossible to isolate thoseproblems of a similar naturewhich recur.

(d) Makes it possible to selectmanpower possessing the requisiteintelligence and experience.

(3) Grouping the tasks efficientlyfacilitates coordination.

(a) Example: In organizing the GleeClub, we would probably groupthe tasks as to: various typesof voices, musical supportfunctions, administrativefunctions, etc.

c.* Provide leadership and resources.

1) The leader should select qualified leaders,delegating them appropriate authority, to be incharge of a specified group of tasks.

2) Enough men and equipment must be made availablein the right place at the right time to accomplishthe mission.

-5.5.9-


3) Example: The Professor of Music, as overalldirector of the Glee Club, would probablyselect qualified leaders to head up the variousvoice sections (for preliminary rehearsals).He would also designate individuals to be incharge of musical support and administrativetasks. He would provide top-most leadershipin Glee Club full rehearsals and concerts.

3. Organizing vs Re-organizing

a. In the military service, an officer will encounteronly rarely a situation wherein a "brand new"organization is being created. However, he willoften be given an assignment involving the"re- organization" of an existing unit. The stepsgiven above for the organizing process should befollowed in a re-organizing task.

b. The junior officer should be aware that many problemsin his unit (low morale, undue number of requestsfor transfer, low re-enlistment rate, etc.) canquite frequently be traced to faulty organization.

D. Hazards in Organizing (Richards & Nielander, 2nd Edition,Pages 772-779)

1. Too many levels

a. Poor for communications; information gets garbled ornever reaches the bottom.

b. For information that must move upward, the organi-zational barriers slow down matters that need quicktop-level decisions.

c. Extremely costly in terms of number of personnelneeded.

2. Reporting to more than one boss (dual subordination)

a. Consequences: conflicting orders, confusion overpriority of assignments, no one source of appealfor individual's training, development, or promotion.

b. Better to avoid this one at all costs. If thiscannot be done, make assignments on time allocationbasis.

3. Too many reporting to one

a. Dangerous because it dilutes the superior's attention,often forcing him to snap decisions and to puttingout fires rather than planning his work.

-5.5.10-


b. There's no universally "right" number of immediatesubordinates under a given superior. Better tolook at each problem of span of control on anindividual basis.

4. One over one

a. Not altogether bad, but it has its risks. Assistantmay become more of a barrier than an aide orfunction merely as a messenger boy.

b. This arrangement can and does work; but, the totalwork-load must be divided between the two so thateach knows precisely what tasks each one handles.They must keep each other informed on a daily basis.

-5.5.11-


REFERENCES

PART FIVE - Segment V

Hays, S. H., and Thomas, W. N. (Eds.) Taking Command.Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1967.

Organization Planning for Naval Units. Bureau of NavalPersonnel NAVPERSW.J.S.,evernment PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C., 1964.

Terry, George R. Princi les of Mana ement 4th Ed., HomewoodIll.: Richard D. Irwin, nc., 9 .

Richards, M. D., and Nielander, W. A., Readings in Management2nd Ed., South-Western Publishing Co., Cincinnati, Ohio,1963.

OBJECTIVES Five/V/TO/E0


A. The M will be able to identify, from several TO 1choices, statements about the importance oforganizing to military management (based onthe purpose of organizing).

A.

B.

The M will select, from several choices,the statement which correctly describesthe purpose of organizing.

Given a description of a military group whichis poorly organized, the M will select, fromseveral choices, the paragraph which correctsthe deficiency (by using the five basicprinciples of organizing).

B.2. Given an example of one man fulfillingmore than one function, the M willidentify, from several choices, whetheror not unity of command exists and to whichsuperior theman reports for eachfunction.

B.2.c. Given several examples which illustratedual subordination, the M will identifythe example in which unity of commandhas been maintained.

B.3. Given an example in which an improper span ofcontrol results in poor communications andcauses failure to accomplish a mission, theM will identify, from several choices, theparagraph which states the cause of thefailure and the action to be taken in orderto prevent recurrence of such a failure (basedon his knowledge of span of control).

-5.5.13-

E0-1

TO 2

E0-1

EO-2

TO 3

OutlineReference

OBJECTIVES Five/V/TO/E0


B.3. Given a military situation in which severaltasks are to be supervised, the M willidentify, from several choices, The paragraphwhich illustrates a workable span of controlfor the leader.

B.3.a.1)

B.3.b.

TO 4

The M will identify, from several choices, E0-1the general rule of span of control (asthe number of subordinates increasesarithmetically, the number ofrelationships increases by geometricprogression).

Given a list of statements the M willselect those statements ,that aredeterminers of span of control.

B.4. Given an example in which authority must bedelegated, the M will identify, fromseveral choices, the paragraph which.correctly states the procedure for, andamount of, delegation necessary to solvethe problem (according to the determinersfor delegating authority).

B.4. The M will idt.r.tify, from severalchoices, the paragraph whichdescribes the importance of delegatingauthority.

B.4.d. Given several examples of authorityhaving been delegated, the M willselect those examples in which theproper amount of authority hasbeen. delegated.

EO-2

TO S

EO-1

EO-2

3.

4.t

OurlincReference

C.

Documents

Es 04' Oth cm, a era -XduCat- onvElton Mayo (1880-1949) 1) Principal contribution was to reveal to managetent the significance of human relations in organizational behavior. "ExaMple: