Epistemological Development and Collaborative Learning: A Hermeneutic Analysis of Music Therapy Students' Experience

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Joumal of t^usic Therapy, XLV (1). 2008. 21 -51

© 2008 by the American Music Therapy Association

Epistemological Development and

Collaborative Learning: A Hermeneutic

Analysis of Music Therapy Students

Experience

David W. Luce, PhD, MT-BC

Chapman University

Undergraduate education must address student s develop-

mental needs as well as their learning needs . Yet, there has

been little discussion regarding music therapy students

epistemological development, how that influences their

education and clinical training, and how that understanding

can inform educators and clinical supervisors. As part of an

introductory music therapy course that was taught using

collaborative learning consensus groups, students provided

written and verbal comments about their experience and

some students agreed to

a

series of interviews (Luce, 2002).

This hermeneutic analysis of that data was based upon

Perry s Scheme

and

W omen s W ays of Knowing

suggested

that (a) the students comm ents reflected the various

perspectives or positions within the models, (b) the

collaborative learning consensus groups facilitated transi-

tions and m ovemen t within the models, and (c) there was a

need for more research to understand music therapy

students developmental needs, to enhance teaching meth-

ods and pedagogy, a nd to address students developmental

needs as they prepare to enter the profession.

The education and training of music therapists has been

extensively discussed and debated. The current approach to

David W. Luce PhD MT-BC is the Director of Music Therapy at Chapman

University Orange California. The original data and findin gs used for this article

were reported in his dissertation and have been edited o r rewritten for this article.

The author acknowledges and thanks the students that participated in this

project and shared their experiences for the benefit of others. The author also



oumal of Music Therapy

curriculum is based upon achieving professional competence with

increased breadth and depth of understanding at each of the

degree levels: bachelors, masters and doctorate. Moreno (1969)

observed that the means by which a music therapist strives to

achieve therapeu tic goals is related to the personality, abilities,

and general orientation of the individual therapist (p. 19).

There is an extensive literature base that considers college

students' epistemological development: that body of knowledge

and research that considers how the individual develops

conceptions of knowledge and knowing and utilizes them in

developing unde rstand ing of the world (Hofer, 2002, p . 4) . Yet,

there has been little discussion regarding music therapy students'

epistemological developm ent or ways of knowing in their

education and clinical training, and how music therapy students'

ways of knowing inñuence that process. Milgram-Luterman

(1997) offered a developmental model of music therapy

education based on theories of epistemological development as

discussed by Belenky, Clinchy, Golberger, and Tarule (1986/

1997) and Perry (1970/1999), and a theory of reflective practice

(Schön, 1983), yet this model has yet to be further researched or

discussed. Thus, it is unclear from the literature if music therapy

students' epistemological development is simply allowed to

emerge as part of the process, intentionally developed through

curricula and teaching methods, or addressed through some

oth er specific training (Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972). Moreover,

there is a distinct need for educators and clinical supervisors to

unders tand studen ts' epistemological developm ent: There were

times in which I simply did not think as the students did. Beyond

that, I couldn't imagine why they thought the way that they did

(Wheeler, 2002, p. 301).

Development and Learning in College Students

Undergraduate education must address student's distinctly

different individual developm ental needs, as well as their leam ing

needs (Baxter Magolda, 1992, 2000, 2001; Corno W inne, 2004;

Granott, 1998; Hill, 2004; Hofer & Pintrich, 2002; King &

Kitchener, 1994; Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972; Parker, 1978; Widick



Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 3

the person to respond to more complex situadons effectively

(Parker, 1978, p . 12). Kohlherg and Mayer (1972) identified three

disdnct ideological perspectives about college students' self

development.

1. The educadonal environment allowed a studen t's good

qualides to emerge from within, rather than force that

unfolding through external adult pressure.

2. The environment l approa ch in which the role of educadon was

the direct transmission of informadon regarding a culture's

cognidve and moral knowledge and the rules of the culture.

3.

The interactionist approach in which the role of educadon

was to nourish the cognitive and affective processes that

emerge as a result of interactions that reorganize the

student's existing cognitive and affective perceptions,

beliefs, or processes.

Silverman and Casazza (2000) idendfied six topics that were

related and interrelated in learning and personal development:

(a) self and idendty, (b) motivadon, (c) interacdon with the

environment, (d) ways of knowing, (e) learning styles and

preferences, and (f) self-reguladon and goal setdng. For Silver-

man and Casazza (2000), ways of knowing were reflected in the

works of Perry (1970/1999), Belenky et al. (1986/1997), and

Gardner (1983). Silverman and Casazza (2000) asserted that each

student brought different perspectives of what consdtuted

knowledge and how knowledge was interpreted as dualisdc and

absolute, relativisdc and permeable, or interdependent and

contextual. Thus, each student experienced, rehearsed, learned,

and expressed their knowledge in a different way, and each

student required a different level of dependence or indepen-

dence from peers or the teacher. In order to meet music therapy

student's developmental needs, there must be an understanding

of the way students think with a teaching pedagogy tha t p rom otes

epistemological development. The purpose of this qualitadve

research project was to conduct a hermeneudc analysis of music

therapy students' comments about their epistemological develop-

ment or ways of knowing during a sophomore level, introductory



ournal of Music Therapy

students to developing inter- and intra-dependence through

building relationships. The research questions for this analysis

were the following:

1. What comments or statements reflected the students' level

of epistemological development as described by Perry

(1970/1999) or Belenky et al. (1986/1997)?

2. Was there any movement or transition along the positions

identified by Perry (1970/1999) or Belenky et al. (1986/

1997) for any students?

3.

Did any statements seem to reflect any epistemological

movement or development as the result of the use of

collaborative learning consensus groups?

Method

hermeneutic analysis searches for meaning and context in the

actions of people, and hermeneutic theory argues that any

interpretation of meaning or context must derive from a

particular perspective or theoretical orientation (Patton, 2002).

The analysis requires direct observation of human interactions,

processes, and experiences in order to learn how individuals

cognitively organize their perception of the world, their role in it,

and how they may change or adapt through learning (Aigen,

1995). Hermeneutic analysis is therefore a cyclic and emerging

process: Evaluation, understanding, and theory are reviewed and

reflected upon in order to develop a broader understanding and

interpretation of hum an interactions in what has been referred to

as the

hermeneuti

árele

The goal of hermeneutic research is not

to develop flxed, singular bodies of knowledge, but to engage

deeply in the circle of understanding in order to develop

insightful and plausible inte rpre tatio ns of events (Aigen, 1995,

p. 292). Kenny, Jahn-Lan genb erg, and Loewy (2005) suggested

that musicians, and thus music therapists, are consistendy

involved in hermeneutic inquiry to interpret and understand a

particular musical selection or to interpret and understand the

actions, interactions and expressions of the people we serve.

Moreover, they noted that the researcher's relationship and level

of involvement with a research project would impact the quality



o XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 5

The data for this analysis were derived from an ction rese rch

project in which the researcher was also the instructor for the

course (Luce, 2002). Within the qualitative research paradigm, an

action research project appropriately positions the researcher

within the pheno m enon that is being studied as a way of working

to solve organizational problems. An action research project seeks

to find out what happened from the perspectives of the

participants, and thus action research becomes an essential

component of the change process. One of the purposes of the

original action research project was to facilitate my development

as a music therapy educator: to help me to improve my teaching

methodology and pedagogy. Thus, it is particularly essential to

consider the researcher's perspective for this analysis.

Research er s Perspective

My interest in the education and training of music therapists

came out of my own education, life experience, clinical training

and professional practice. It is grounded in my understanding of

education as being culturally determined and dependent (Freiré,

1970;

Hooks, 1994) and the function of education within a

democratic society (Dewey, 1916). My understanding of curricu-

lum refiects a post-m odern perspective (Doll, 1993) and my belief

that education and training must address student's developmental

needs, as well as their learn ing needs (Kohlberg Mayer, 1972;

Parker, 1978; Silverman Casazza, 2000). In orde r to stimulate

students' cognitive and affective development, my teaching

pedagogy and methodology is based on the principles of

collaborative learning with the preferred use of collaborative

learning consensus groups (Bruffee, 1999). My personal philos-

ophy and definition of music therapy as a profession and clinical

discipline are grounded in Aldridge (1996), Bruscia (1998),

Crowe (2004), Eagle (1991), Kenny (1989), Pavlicevic (1997), and

Ruud (1998).

The lens through which I view music therapy, education, and

clinical training drove the development of this research project

and infiuenced my interpre tation of the da ta. In the course of my

life,

I have developed a philosophical perspective that is




within the material and spiritual universe. I therefore, believe that

we must accept individual responsibility for our actions as being

uniquely our own and for the ultimate impact that they have.

Moreover, we must recognize and honor our individual differ-

ences for they are valuable and important for each of us, and I

believe that this will help us to learn to interact and live together

in a global community. I believe that the role of education is to

nurture and facilitate the development of wisdom and under-

standing through critical reflection, cultural sensitivity, and

attention to the individual.

I believe that the education and clinical training of music

therapists must be holistic to facilitate the student's understand-

ing of their role and influence in the clinical experience and

process (Eagle, 1991; Kenny, 1989). I believe tha t edu cation and

clinical training should facilitate music therapy students' explo-

ration of their own relationship with music so that they may bette r

understand the person or group that they are working with, the

music that is created, and their relationship with that experience

and process. And I believe that educators and clinical trainers

must provide experiences in which the students can learn to

develop their intra- and interdependence as members of an

interdisciplinary treatm ent team. Ruud (1998) noted: Our

profession will forever be populated with people and paradigms

with competing claims of knowledge. The only answer is to learn

from each other and com municate what we learn (p. 114). The

intention of this article is to report this experience and what has

been learned from it.

Epistemolo^cal evelopment

T h e Perry Scheme (Perry, 19 70/1 999 ) and Women s W ays of

Knowing (Belenky et al., 1986/1997) models were used to frame

this hermeneutic analysis. Perry conducted longitudinal inter-

views between 1954 and 1963 with male students at Harvard

University to better understand their learning experience. He

identified forms or structures (p. 1) through which each

student progressed as they made meaning of the world, their view

of the world, and their place in it, as well as their understanding

and development of knowledge, values, and relationships.




gaps in their learning and often doubted their own intellectual

com petence . Moreover, real learning occurred in relationships

and not necessarily within the confmes of

an

academic institution.

They noted that women's ways of und erstand ing and interpreting

the world were considered as less valuable because the re was a

masculine bias at the very heart of most academic disciplines,

methodo logies and theories (p. 6). They discussed a morality of

responsibility and ca re wherein a wom an's self-concept was

rooted in a sense of connection and relatedness to oth ers as

opposed to separation and autonomy (p. 8). They believed that

Perry (1970/1999) was poorly designed to uncover those themes

that might be more prom inent am ong women (p. 9). They

developed five categories or epistemological perspectives [sic]

from which women know and view the world (p. 15).

ollaborative Leaming

Bruffee (1999) identified three basic principles of collaborative

learn ing: (a) knowledge is socially con structed as a consensus

among the members of a community of knowledgeable peers

(p . xii), (b) the authority of knowledge is shared by the members

of the community, and (c) interdependent personal relationships

shape a community of knowledgeable peers. Goodsell, Maher,

Tinto,

Smith, and MacGregor (1992) noted that collaborative

learning changes students from passive recipients of information

given by an expert teacher, to active agents in the construction of

knowledge (p. 4). Collaborative learning emb races multicultural

perspectives and individual differences and explores and creates

new plans for social order and social responsibility

Wolf,

1994,

p.

92). Collaborative learning dem and s a distinctively different

relationship between the teacher and student in that it challenges

the teacher to face fundam ental questions abo ut the purposes of

their classes, teacher and student roles and responsibilities, the

relationship between educational form and content, and the

natu re of knowledge itse lf (Smith

MacGregor, 1992, p. 9) . Th e

collaborative learning consensus group is one method for

implementing a collaborative pedagogy.

Collaborative leaming consensus groups Collaborat ive learning

consensus group processes are characterized by phases of




that they are fully responsible for their own learning and social

interacdons. Students are given a high level of autonomy so that

adjusdng can be difficult, dysfuncdonal, and even combadve.

Studen ts who have excelled in competitive teach ing environm ents

may resist because they have learned to focus on their own grade.

Thus, they may not be modvated to change their learning style or

to help the slower studen ts. In addition , cridcal thinking or

reflective pracdce skills may not be equally present in all members

of a group, some students may have a difficult time socializing,

and issues of power and conflict may emerge. In order to

accomplish the group 's tasks, the collaboradve learning consensus

group must work through all of these issues. Thus, the primary

focus of the collaboradve consensus group may be on the group's

process, rather than a specific outcome. For more informadon on

collaborative learning group process and experiences, interested

readers are referred to Bosworth and Hamilton (1994), Bruffee

(1999), Fox (1994), Imel and Tisdell (1996), Luce

(2001,

2002),

Pescosolido and Aminzade (1999), Schrader (2004), and Shor

(1996).

In the inidal research project (Luce, 2002), the class met three

times p er week for 50 minutes p er session. The first weekly

meeting was reserved for musical experiences and was no t part of

the collaboradve learning process. The second weekly meedng

was reserved for small group discussions and the third weekly

meedng was for a full class discussion with a designated group

mem ber repo rdng on' the gro up's responses to the discussion

questions. As the instructor in the original project, I assigned the

students to a sequentially numbered group on the first day of

class. I assigned weekly readings from the course materials

(Bruscia, 1998; Davis, Gfeller, & Thaut, 2001; Gaston, 1968;

Kenny, 1989; Sears, 1968): The assignments were listed in the

course outline. For each week, I developed discussion questions

that were based on the reading material. The students were

required to take personal responsibility for completing the

homework, preparing for discussion, and actively participating

in their group work. The discussion process required that the

students develop inter and intradependent relationships and

social experiences for their individual learning and group process



Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008

9

music therapy knowledge community as inter and intradepen-

dent, competent professionals (Bruffee, 1999). During the

preliminary discussions, I served primarily as timekeeper. As

Bruffee (1999) no ted and as I observed in the class, any specific

influence or interactions by me during the group discussions

often altered peer interactions and group process: The group

would tend to rely on or defer to me as the knowledge authority,

rather than work towards their own construction of knowledge.

Once the group's preliminary discussions were completed, I

facilitated and directed a full-class discussion towards a deeper

understanding of the topics, clarified any misunderstandings, and

helped them to reflect on their newly constructed knowledge

base.

When necessary, I redirected the group to work through

inconsistencies, inaccuracies, or conflicts.

The Students and Their ollaborative Groups

Students were enrolled in a sophomore level, introductory

course in music therapy and ranged in age from 19-32 with a

m ed ia no f2 0y ea rsa nd am od eo f 19years . Of the 17 s tudents , 11

were music therapy majors, 15 were women and the two males

were not music therapy majors. Pseudonyms were used for the

students and I assigned group names based on my personal

reflection of each gro up 's dynamics and character. Th e Task

Masters were a highly focused, directed and in tense g rou p with

an active exchange of dialogue and a clearly deflned leader: The

Quiet Ones were quie t, isolative, and soft-spoken. The Five

Amigos were highly social and appe ared to be good friends. Th e

Seis Co mpañe ros were six students who seemed to be united in

a quest to flnd out what it was that I wanted from them

ata Sources

Data sources for this analysis were collected for my dissertation

(Luce, 2002) and included (a) written course materials submitted

by all students; (b) individual, tape-recorded interviews with

research participants; (c) my written evaluations of group

discussions and presentations; and (d) a reflective journal that I



ournal of M usic Therapy

dependent relationships over a prolonged period of engagement

(Aigen, 1995).

ourse

documents

Multiple written documents were required for

the course: (a) written reports of eight clinical observations and a

single written report covering 5-hours of volunteer service and an

end-of-semester summary for all of this work, (b) a written

summary for each of six, in-class musical experiences, (c) a daily

music listening jou rnal and an end-of-semester summary of that

exp erience, (d) an end-of-semester summary of each studen t s

experience in their collaborative learning consensus group. Thus,

each stud ent created 19 written do cum ents: nine clinical

observation reports, six in-class experiential summaries, a listen-

ing journa l, and three end-of-semester summary repo rts. Th e total

of completed assignments included 210 clinical observation

reports, 117 summary reports (clinical observations, listening

journals, group evaluations), and 116 experiential reports.

Interviews The original researcb project participants completed

a sequence of three audio taped, open-ended interviews (Seid-

man, 1998). The first interview assessed student s motivations,

expectations, critical thinking style, and preferred learning style.

Th e second interview assessed the studen t s experience in their

group and the classroom, level of satisfaction and motivation. The

third interview asked for refiective com ments ab out the stud ent s

experience in the course. A total of 7 interviews were completed

for the original research project.

nstructor

materials As tbe instructor, I observed and listened to

each gro up s process d uring tbeir discussions and provided

written evaluations eacb week. I maintained a refiective journal

that provided an opportunity for the phenomenological bracket-

ing tbat is essential in any qualitative analysis (Patton, 2002).

Analysis: The Perry Scheme

This epistemological profile consists of nine positions along a

continuum from absolute dualism, through relativism, towards a

stud ent s com mitmen t to an individual framework or way of

knowing and learning for self-expression. While there were many




Position One: Basic Duality

In this position, there are only absolute, polar opposites of

we-

right-good versus other-wrong-bad. Authority flgures are the

source of knowledge and know the right answers . I would

have liked David to take a slighdy more aggressive role in

conveying the truths of

usic

Therapy [sic] and his own personal

theory (Mary, Task Masters). Studen ts appreciated being in the

right gro up , and they feared being in the wrong gro up in

which one person end ed up doing all the work, and often that

person was m e (Marian, Seis Com pañ eros ). In this position,

students perceive that they can become knowledgeable through

hard work and obedien ce. Perhaps we bon ded , and were

somewhat cohesive in the goal directed structure of getting our

work do ne (Mary, Task Masters).

Position Two: M ultiplidty Pre kgitimate

In this position, diverse opinions and viewpoints are recog-

nized, bu t only because they are he ld by poorly qualified teachers

or presented as exercises to help studen ts learn to find The

Answer for themselves. Th e comments of two students tha t

reflected this position are reported later as a Retreat to this

position.

Position Three: Multiplidty Subordinate

In this position, diversity and uncertainty exist because the

absolute answers have not yet been found, and students perceive

that grades are based on creating and making effective presen-

tations . During ou r flrst day of discussion, we left the class feeling

that

we

had not adequately discussed the question to make a good

presenta tion (Mary, Task M asters).

In the beginning of the semester all of us were very concerned

in [sic] doing well on the group presentations on each Friday.

Everyone has a general hard working attitude and cares about

meeting the deadlines and shows concern for everyone doing

his or her part to put together the final project. (Miranda, Five

Amigos)




groups just trying to decide exactly what David was after" (Susan,

Seis Compañeros).

osition Four:

Multiplidty Correlate or Relativism Subordina te

In this position, diverse opinions are rampant and therefore

anyone has a right to their own opinion in spite of authority's

knowledge and control over what is right or wrong. Or, there is

the perception that relativism exists, but only in special cases and

then it

is

related to what authority wants. Th ere did n ot seem to be

any statements that clearly reflected this position.

osition

Five: Relativism

Correlate Competing

or

Diffuse

In this position, knowledge and values depend upon context

and relationships. "Working with four o the r people gave me ideas

and insights about music therapy that I may never have come up

v^th on my own " (Karen, Quiet O ne s). "Five minds toge ther

means

[sic]

much more information than one alone, and each

unique mind and individual personality influences how that

person interacts within the group" (Beth, Task Masters).

By the end of the semester, I really came to rely on [Marian].

She knows a lot about music therapy and seems to truly love it.

Anytime I had a question about the reading I knew that she

would no t only know the answer, but she would explain it to me

in a way that I und erstood. Th at takes someone special. I d on 't

know w hat would have do ne in class without he r. (Tammy, Seis

Compañeros)

This recognition of the diverse contributions and perspectives

that each member brought to the collaborative leaming group

experience was not necessarily expected.

So you would think that we would all be similar because our

major's

[sic]

are no t tha t far off from each oth er. You would also

think that

we

were similar by just looking at our g roup , all from

white, middle class families, approximately 20 years old and all

pursu ing further education . Well, so much for flrst impressions.

(Tammy, Seis Compañeros)



Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008

It's hard for me to think of any other circumstandal factor that

has affected my oudook and approach to life more than my

extended travels (getdng beyond the tourist phase of travel and

immersing in other cultures). I feel that there was an unspoken

und erstandin g between us based on these separate exp eriences.

The funny thing is that

we

never talked about them in any kind

of depth, or commented on this dynamic, but it's something

that I was aware of. (Sarah, Five Amigos)

At this level, right-wrong dualism only exists in special cases.

Perry (1970/1999) considered that simple dualism condnued

through the midpoint of Posidon 5 as the basis for one's

percepdons and view of the world. Beyond Posidon 5, the

relativisdc aspects of a pard cular issue were perceived and realized,

so that an it depen ds response becam e more prevalent. As a

student moved towards a commitment to relativism at Posidon 9,

personal values and choices were affirmed as a conscious act or

realization of idendty and responsibility (Perry, 1970/1999,

Glossary). He also noted that characterisdcs of the previous levels

were embed ded in the advanced levels and that a stud ent's locadon

along the condnuum was not absolute or exclusive.

Position Six Comm itment Foreseen

In this posidon , the world is perceived as reladvisdc: A persona l

commitment must be made to funcdon within a paradigm, rather

than through an unquesdoned belief in certainty.

y

working in a group, not only will I be expected to know the

material being discussed, but I will also have to share my own

opinions and ideas on the material. Also, I would gain insights

and ideas that I hadn't thought of before from other group

members. (Karen, Quiet Ones)

While looking at all of these different aspects of group work, I

am forced to recognize that this type of learning process

definitely makes me look at different social skills such as

communicadon, listening, and working as a team. These same

social skills that are vital to group work are non-existent in the




Position

Seven

Initial Commitment

At this point, a student chooses an area in which to make some

form of commitment to relativism.

Here, we had to learn to trust, because part of each person's

grade relied on contributions from his or her group members.

And jus t talking to these p eop le every class period help ed build

bon ds tha t go above jus t the academic level. After a while, we

w eren't just interested in each oth er as part of our grade.

(Mandy, Five Amigos)

Position Eight Or ientation in Implications of

Commitment

In this position, students recognize the effect and implications

of personal commitment and explore the meaning and actions

required to accept personal responsibility for that commitment.

Now, I came to the point where I do not want to do that

anymore. I want to be myself and express my true feelings. I

know I am a friendly perso n who is able to express myself It w ll

take time to go through this transition. I think I took a good

step in this class, but it was only one step. I don't want to

pressu re myself

too

much about this however, because I feel like

I have had enough stress in the past. (Mae, Quiet Ones)

Position N ine Developing Commitment s)

In this final position , persona l identity is affirmed as it exists for

the self and among multiple others, and commitment is a

constantly changing process of adaptation for self-expression. I

want to learn different ways of living wherever I go and integrate

them into my personal lifestyle (Mae, Quiet Ones).

Alternatives to Grow th

Perry (1970/1999) identified three alternatives to growth:

Temporizing, Escape and Retreat.



o

XLV No. 1 Spring 2008

5

Escape

The student exploits the opportunity for detachment

offered by the structures of Positions 4 and 5 to deny

responsibility through passive or opportunistic alienation.

etreat

The student entrenches in the dualistic, absolutistic

structures of Position 2 or 3. (p. 11)

Tbe duration of the research project was insufficient to

attribute any statements to Temporizing, and there did not

seem to be any statements that refiected Escape. Perry (1970/

1999) no ted that a final setding for the attitudes described in

'Escape' or 'Retreat' was by definition a failure of growth and

maturity (p. 199). It occurred rarely for Perry, yet wben it

app eared. Retreat was dramatic and called for an enemy

(p . 205). He observed that the main reason for e ntrenchm en t

in dualism, indeed, seems to lie in a dependence on highly

'authoritarian,' all-or-none structures of emotional control

(p. 206). Retreat is the result of a student w ith some natu ral

limitation in academic aptitude trying to deal with the

ambiguous nature of relativism, and the pain implied can be

poig nan t (p. 207). Retreat represen ts a rejection of relativism

and an entrenched grounding in first and second position

thinking. Because of these characteristics, Danni (Seis Compa-

ñeros) and Barb's (Quiet Ones) comments seemed to refiect

the characteristics of a Retreat to Position 2, rather than simply

being within Position 2.

anni

Her group members seemed to feel that she made a

positive contribution to the group. She w s the quiet on e, who all

of a sudden would offer her own bit of comedy, or offer just the

information we were looking for (Susan, Seis Co m pañ eros ).

The really cool thing about [Danni] was that she also brought a

lot of good knowledge about music therapy to the group

(Tammy, Seis Compañeros). Yet, for Danni, the experience was

poignant and dramatic, and there were enemies.

I also originally thought the group I was in was fine, until the

week I was assigned to join a different gro up . Tha t week I found

out what it was like to have people listen to my ideas, and I




When we were in the original groups, it felt like nothing ever

got done. I think one of the main reasons for this is because

everyone is so preoccupied in wanting their opinion heard, yet

no one wanted to hea r anyone else s opinion s. Whenever we

had group discussions I felt like it was pointless for me to even

be the re. Unlike m ost of the o ther mem bers, with the exception

of [Marian], I would not force my opinion on everyone. At the

beginning of the semester I tried to give my opinion on several

occasions, but was unsuccessful and eventually stopped even

attempting to give any sort of feedback.

Danni also asserted her preference for full-class discussions,

rather than within her own collaborative consensus group. She

believed that her^opinions were the minority opin ion in he r g roup

and thus not heard, and that there was a greater likelihood that

someone else from the full class would agree with her.

Being taught by the method of collaborative learning was an

interesting experience that I am not likely to forget. It was

frustrating for me because it was something new and unusual,

and I had a hard time adjusting. I must admit that tt

sic]

made me really think about all the various teaching

techniques and learning styles. This experience definitely was

able to help me realize how I learn the best and why I learn

the best that way.

arb Barb (Quiet Ones) was a senior, and during the second

interview, she disclosed that she was taking the class to improve

her grade point average so that she could get into a top graduate

school. Barb commented that while she found value in collabo-

rative learning as a teaching method, she criticized its implemen-

tation in this course.

If collaborative learning is not accurately facilitated, it can be

harmful in the learning process of class syllabus material and may

even hinder this material while focusing on other issues.

. . Although we all read the material, with no outside help from

our leader (teacher) much of the time we were at a loss or




She expressed her concern regarding the appropriateness of

collaborative learning consensus groups to help the music therapy

majors develop prerequisite or sequential knowledge.

I do no t know what the nex t course in this major entails so I can

not report on if

think that I have learned eno ugh abou t music

therapy to go on to the next course, but frankly I hope that the

rest of my classmates have. I think that the actual process of

collaborative learning could have been better facilitated in our

class.

Barb stated that reading the textbook assignments had not

helped her to learn about music therapy because she was not

getting any confirmation from the instructor that she had

correctly interpreted or comprehended the material. In addition,

she seemed frustrated that m ost of her group discussion time was

spent translating information for the oth er m emb ers of her grou p

whose primary language was not English.

We were forced however, to focus much of our time on

language syntax and the like and much of the time the class

material fell second. I th ink that we also had fewer interac tions

between all group members due to this language barrier.

Barb's comments also reflected the Subjective nowing perspective

described by Belenky et al. (1986/1997).

Analysis: Women's Ways of Knowing

As noted earlier, Belenky et al. (1986/1997) considered that

women's epistemological development was grounded in the

development of relationships and shared understanding as they

moved from Silence to Constructed Knowledge.

ilen e

In this first perspective women experien ce themselves as

mindless and voiceless and subject to the whims of external

authority (Belenky et al., 1986/1997 , p. 15). There is an

underlying sense of dualism and right answers, yet these are

unknow n. Hence , I do no t know responses are typical.




I have no idea what he/she (author) is talking about in this

boo k... I do n't know ...I really do n't know ... We were often

stuck and didn't know what to say. (Mae, Quiet Ones)

More significantly. Silence appeared in one student's inability to

speak or participate in her group's discussions, or to report her

group's findings to the full class.

[Ann] seemed to know what she planned to say in our

presentations, it was written out for her. We discussed the

presentation as a group before class began. Yet when it came time

for [Ann] to speak in front of the class she 'froze'.

She was

unable

to clearly communicate the thoughts and ideas of our group.

... I wonder what causes this blockage in her self-expression. It

seems to be consistent in our group discussion times as well. It

was clear to me that [Ann] had things she wanted to share, but

was unable to express them in a way that we understood. It

seemed that she often gave up and would simply say 'I don't

know' or 'I don't understand'. (Mary, Task Masters)

It was very hard at dmes to decipher what [Ann] was trying to

say. Every dme that I felt myself becoming irritated, just tryed

sic

to remember that maybe she never had the opportunities

that most of us had to develop skills needed to become an

effecdve communicator. I believe that social skills grow and

develop with age and expe rience, so maybe she jus t ne eds a

litde inore practice. (Beth, Task Masters)

Silence was also related to establishing trust as an essential

com po ne nt of group process. It takes a long time for me to really

express myself to anybody other than those whom I trust, or who

are actually interested in my op inion (Mae, Quiet O nes).

Our first couple of group discussions did not go very well. I

think we were all being a bit shy. No one seemed to want to

share their sic] ideas, and when somebody did, we all jus t

agreed. No one was daring enough yet to state an opposing

view, if they had on e. I am no t normally a shy person, bu t I felt

there was a bit of tension and awkwardness in our g roup during




Silence was also driven by individual fears related to socializa-

tion, grou p acceptance an d peer approval, thus influencing grou p

interactions and cohesion.

My first day in the group confirmed my fears. We got the

questions and everyone just comp lained the whole time abou t

how hard the reading was to understand, or how they didn't

really get thro ugh all of

it

I always feel like a dork in groups like

that. I didn't really want to, at that point, whip out the

highlighted book in my bag and start discussing with

myself

I

knew that I should be bold and try to lead the group, but I was

afraid of rejection. I didn't want to start out on the wrong foot

and have everyone ha te m e all semester. I am sure that everyone

was saying the same thing. (Marian, Seis Compañeros)

As the semester went on, for whatever reason I became less

invested in the group process. It might have been just

circumstances of business with other classes, and life schedule?

It may have been as a result of my frustration with my group and

their lack of cohesiveness and investment in our group? I'm no t

sure. I do take ownership of the fact that I became discouraged

and less of an assertive group member. (Mary, Task Masters)

Finally, Silence was reflected within a cultural context. I was

surprised that American students have their own thoughts, and

express them confidentially [sic] I was not confident to speak

English, so I was nervous to speak up at the first time (Alice, Quiet

Ones). People in Jap an are fairly reserved It s even a part of beauty

in Japan not to speak too much about yourself (Mae, Quiet Ones ).

Received Knowledge

In this epistemological perspective, wom en conceive of themselves

as capable of receiving, even producing, knowledge from the all-

knowing external authorities but not capable of creating knowledge

on their own (Belenky et al., 1986/1997, p. 15). I felt deprived of

the knowledge and self-experiences that a teacher in a regular

classroom would have shared with the class (Ann, Task Masters).

I did n ot know how I was going to learn anything in this form at.




those text books as a professor would. (Marian, Seis Compa-

ñeros)

In this perspective, the individual may also feel capable of

receiving knowledge or information from friends or associates

and then repeating it, but not yet capable of generating their own

knowledge and recognizing its value. I also sat back and learned

as much as possible from the other people in my group. I felt I

had more to learn from them then

sic]

they had to learn from

m e (Tammy, Seis Compañeros).

Received Knowers also believe that they share exactly the same

thoughts, knowledge, ideas, feelings and experiences as their

friends. This sense of commonality is so strong that they are

unaware of how they tend to shape their experience to match that

of others. No one seemed to want to share their ideas, and when

somebody did, we all jus t ag reed. No one was daring eno ugh yet to

state an opposing view, if they had on e (Karen, Qu iet On es) .

Moreover, there is a tendency to celebrate and magnify any

common thought or experience as proof of this

belief

as was the

case with Danni's Retreat. In the larger group setting it is m ore

likely that someone else may have the same perspective, or agree

with your perspective and change their current perspective

(Danni, Seis C om pañeros).

Subjective nowledge

In this third perspective, truth and knowledge are conceived of as

personal, private, and subjectively known or intuited (Belenky et al.,

1986/1997,

p.

15).

This position is essentially dualistic in that th ere is

a belief that the right answers exist s the inner self begins to intu it

the truths of the world in a quest for self-identity. Yet there is also an

increasing recognition of

the

value of intuitive understand ing with a

correspond ing passionate and absolute rejection of logic, iinalysis,

abstraction and even language (p. 71) as artifacts of authoritarian,

male dominated hierarchies. The various complexities within this

perspective were best refiected by Barb's (Quiet Ones) comments

that were reported earlier as Retreat.

Procedural nowledge




knowledge (Belenky et al., 1986 /1997, p. 15). The auth ors

distinguished between separate and connected knowing. Separate

Knowers constitute th e self as separate from othe rs so that

relationships are engaged in from a do unto others, as you would

have them do unto you po int of view.

I think that in a group, every member must have good listening

skills,

and that does not necessarily mean that you have to agree

with what you h eard. T hou gh, it is of utmost impo rtance that at

least you heard it. If you want people to hear you, or even

further, uderstand sic] you, you must have good communica-

tion skills so that p eople can effectively un derstand what you are

saying to them. (Beth, Task Masters)

For Connec ted Knowers, relationships are based on shared

conversations about individual experience to gain a true

understanding of another's perspective through active listening

and empathy.

I think there was an extremely interesting theory behind this

learning style. I was able to interact with my classmates and

learn about them on a deeper level. I learned their different

views, how they were different from m ine , and how they interact

with different people. (Mae, Quiet Ones)

As noted earlier, the students' comments reflected a need for

trust in order to work together as a collaborative group: There

need ed to be a shared sense of personal comm itment. In o rder to

actively participate in the collaborative group process, there was a

need to break outside of previously held notions about the

self

knowledge, and learning. The re was an un derstan ding of

v lue

in

that this process added to the construction of knowledge and

persona l growth. Five minds together means

sic]

much more

information than one alone, and each unique mind and

individual personality influences how that pe rson interacts within

the gro up (Beth, Task Masters).

When there were different ideas and different opinions coming

from people, there is sic] so much more to learn. Every person

has had their own experiences and each group member brings




just one persons

[sic]

idea, the class gets a collection of 20

different people's ideas. (Natalie, Seis Compañeros)

onstructed Knowledge

In this perspective, women view all knowledge as con textu al,

experience themselves as creators of knowledge, and value both

subjective and objective strategies for knowing (Belenky et al.,

1986/1997, p. 15). For some students in this course, there was a

clear understanding of the personal responsibility for one's

participation in the collaborative learning group and the creation

of knowledge. I know that the information, ideas, and

experiences I am leaving this course with are only pardy due to

what

read in ou r textbooks, and are mainly due to my experien ce

working in a grou p (Karen, Quiet On es).

I am now a firm believer in the fact that we learned m uch m ore

from this format than we would've

sic]

from a lecture. We all

had individual learning to do: reading the books. Then we

brought what we learned to class and combined it to become a

much bigger pool of knowledge within o ur groups. This allowed

the whole class to walk away with an understanding of the topic,

instead of each person taking home what they thought was

going on, and maybe not being sure of it (Mandy, Five Amigos)

Analysis: Movement or Transformation

While both epistemological schemes suggest a developmental

sequence or progression through the positions or perspectives, it

is important to understand that the qualities of any position or

perspective may emerge as students explore new situations, new

areas of knowledge or personal growth so that movement or

transformation may be temporary or contextua l. For Perry (197 0/

1999),

movem ent along the continuu m required the reorgani-

zation of major personal investments and the work of

considerable psychic energy (p. 54). Th e analysis of students'

statements for this paper demonstrated several aspects of

movement or transformation.

Perry (1970/1999) considered Retreat as movement because




failure in growth and maturity, and the analysis suggested that

Danni and Barb's retreats

w r

related to their reacdons to being in

a collaboradve learning environment. Both students ardculated a

preference for a learning environment of lectures about the truths

of music therapy that could be memorized and repeated on tests

for good grades. Both studen ts clearly retreated to Perry's Posidon

2 dualism and Belenky et al.'s Received or Subjecdve Knowledge.

A transformadon was apparent for Marian (Seis Compañeros),

who by the end of the semester moved from Received Knowledge

to Procedural Knowledge.

I came h ere to be taught about music therapy by a professor. ...

After thirteen weeks, am I terribly in love with groups?, sic] not

so much. I have, however, learned that it is possible to teach

yours lf

if you are given some lead in quesdons.

Mae (Quiet Ones) reflected on her tradidonal learning

experiences in her primary culture as being clearly grounded in

dualisdc roles for the instructor and studen t. Our teachers jus t

lectured for the whole dme and wrote some important points on

the board. Everything was to get good scores on exams so that we

could get into a good high school and the n university. As this

course began, she was reluctan t to speak ou t in her g rou p because

of her cultural tradidon, her personal life-experience, and the

issue of trust as no ted earlier. Mae reflected a transidon to seventh

posidon Inidal Commitment by affirming her determinadon to be

herself and acdvely pardcipate in her learning and the construc-

tion of knowledge.

For Alice (Quiet Ones), her transidon was related to communi-

cadons within a cultural context. As noted earlier, her Silence was

not due to a lack of self-expression, but rather a cultural tradidon

that imposes Silence as a form of respect for those in authority.

Addidonally, Alice's Silence was related to her perceived confi-

dence in her ability to effecdvely communicate in English. Thus,

her transidon was related to Perry's sixth posidon commitment to

work within a new cultural paradigm by acdvely con tributing to the

construcdon of knowledge, and it also reflected a transidon to

Procedural Knowledge (Belenky et al., 1986/1997).




hesitate to speak up. I realized it was important to speak up so

that I communicated with classmates, otherwise I may not be

able to have chances to express myself I think most important

thing is not how I speak, but what I speak.

Alice, Barb, Danni, Mae, and Marian experienced transfor-

mation or movement along these epistemological continua, and

it seems to have been the collaborative learning consensus

group structure that provided the opportunity and environ-

ment for that change.

Conclusion

A hermeneutic analysis searches for meaning and context

within the interactions among people as they are situated in a

particular environment or setting, and to understand how those

interactions may fit within a particular perspective or theoretical

orientation. The analysis requires direct observation or participa-

tion in the environmen t or setting in orde r to unde rstand how the

participants cognitively organize their perception of the world,

their role in it, and whether or not any change or adaptation is

necessary. The purpose of this hermeneutic analysis was to

consider students comments and statements about their experi-

ence in an introductory course in music therapy. The research

questions for the analysis sought to identify comments or

statements that reflected the epistemological frameworks of the

Perry Scheme (Perry, 197 0/19 99) an d Wom en s Ways of Knoxving

(Belenky et al., 1986/1997). Additionally, these frameworks were

used to de term ine if the re was any change in a stud en t s

epistemological development as evidenced by movement or

transition along the positions of either of these models. The

course was taught using collaborative learning consensus groups,

so the analysis also sought to understand if any comments or

statements suggested that any movement or transition in

epistemological development could be attributed to the use of

collaborative learning consensus groups in the classroom.

The analysis found that the studen ts comm ents predom inantly

fell into the dualistic frameworks of Positions 1 through 5 (Perry,



VoL XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 5

perspectives were primarily from older or upper division students.

This finding refiected a consistency with the age appropria te basis

and developmental character of the models. However, the

frequency of statements related to Silence (Belenky et al., 1986/

1997) should be of particular concern for educators and clinical

trainers as movement from this position is essential for active

participation in clinical practice and interdisciplinary treatment.

The content of the comments suggested that any positioning

along the epistemological frameworks were directly refiective of the

students' participation in the collaborative learning consensus

groups. Th e structure of that learning paradigm clearly altered the

na ture of authority in tbe traditional student-instructor relation-

ship. Since the authority of knowledge was shared, the students

were immediately confronted with a need to refiect on the

instructor's role in the experience and to consider tbe authority

of knowledge in relation to tbeir own epistemological perspective

and development. Tbus, the analysis found that a student's

epistemological perspective was related to their experience of

exploring and understanding knowledge and how they perceived

their role in the world and if changes needed to be made.

The withdrawal of authority by tbe instructor in the collabora-

tive learning process also required tbe students to explore and

confront their own understanding of relativism and thus triggered

the intra-psychic confiict that Perry (1970/1999) asserted was

essential to movement or transformation within that framework.

At least

fiv

students refiected transformation or movem ent within

the epistemological models, and two students retreated to

dualistic positions. In e ither case of transformation or Retreat, it

was the student's confrontation witb relativism during the

collaborative learning consensus group process that facilitated

the movement. Moreover, it was a student's participation in the

collaborative learning consensus groups tbat facilitated some

form of commitment to personal development, awareness of

personal learning style, or a decision to remain within a particular

level of epistemological development.

Transformation through the epistemological stages is essential

to college students' development and thus for the proper




al identity (Bruscia, 1987). Without an individual's firm commit-

m ent and understanding of relativism, the music therapist may be

locked in a one way fits all app roach to professional p ractice

that would ignore individual and cultural characteristics. More-

over, a purely dualistic epistemology would limit the therapist's

ability to (a) effectively transition from the academic environment

to an internship and then the profession, (b) modify therapeutic

interventions, (c) adapt to different professional settings, and

thus grow as a professional. Post baccalaureate difficulties in

dealing with relativism could trigger an intra-psychic conflict that

may lead the practicing therapist to false conclusions such as (a)

they were not adequately prepared for the profession, (b) a

particular professor was poorly qualified, or (c) that the

profession is not what they imagined it to be. All of these

conclusions could lead the therapist away from the profession.

More importandy, without a transition to an understanding and

commitment to relativism, beginning professional music thera-

pists may look outside of themselves for the knowledge or

experience that justifies their viability as a treatment team

member, or the efficacy of the profession. They may find

themselves asking what outside authority figures want rather than

affirming their own knowledge and belief n the efficacy of clinical

practice and the profession. Or, the entering therapist may be so

concerned with his or her own agenda, that developing

appropriate empathy and understanding for the people that he

or she serves may not be possible. Again, leading these young

professionals away from the profession.

Belenky et al. (1986/1997) advocated for connected and

collaborative relationships, in-depth understanding and accep)-

tance through firsthand experiences that encouraged students to

evolve and develop their own approaches to problem solving.

These students clearly recognized their need to ground their

relationships in trust as they developed a certain level of cohesion

within their groups through social interaction. Some students

grew to understand that their work toge ther was driven by sincere

interest and appreciation for each other and no t just to get a good

grade. The collaborative learning consensus group structure

provided the opportunity to create that environment and the




enjoyed the opportunity to develop connected and collaborative

relationships, and their comments seemed to suggest that they

learned more effectively. The ability to develop these relationships

and to understand the contexts in which the relationships were

formed was significant in this analysis in multiple contexts. The

collaborative learning consensus groups provided the students

with practice and experience in modeling the new social

structures that they vnW confront and create as interns and

practicing professionals. These social structures will emerge and

change as part of (a) therapeutic process and progress, (b) a

music therapist's professional development, (c) effective partici-

pation in multi-disciplinary treatment planning, and (d) main-

taining, establishing or promoting the efficacy of music therapy.

Culture is a significant component of learning and epistemo-

logical development, and the importance of multicultural

perspectives is another fundamental principle of collaborative

learning (Bruffee, 1999; Ortiz, 2000). Cultural perspective and

understanding is of ever increasing importance for music therapy

education, clinical training and professional practice (Darrow

Malloy, 1998; Toppozada, 1995). Th ere is increased interest in

music therapy around the world. The number of international

music therapy students in the United States is increasing, and the

demographic character of the United States is rapidly changing.

Our teaching methods must honor and recognize the unique

contributions that international students bring to the classroom

environment and the learning process, and we must explore

multicultural approaches to music therapy to meet the needs of

our changing population. Alice's recognition that what she said

was not as important as the fact that she said something was

significant in terms of her acculturation in the United States.

Mae's comment about Silence as a form of eauty within her

culture provided important cultural information for the instruc-

tor. Her participation in the collaborative learning consensus

group did not discount her cultural perspective, but rather it

helped her to understand a different cultural perspective and

facilitated her transformation and acculturation. For other

students, the seeming similarities and perceived homogeneity

within the pred om inan t culture were found to be suspect and the




Understanding students' epistemological needs is essential to

help educators and clinical supervisors effecdvely guide, nurture,

and prepare students for entry into the field. Clearly there is a

need for much more discussion and research that considers the

epistemological develop ment of music therapy studen ts, as well as

research that explores teaching methods and pedagogy for

educators and clinical supervisors. This experience has helped

me to better understand those needs, improve my teaching

methods, and affirm my personal perspecdve regarding educa-

don. Hopefully, others will begin to understand or explore

student's epistemological development to inform their work.

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Epistemological Development and Collaborative Learning: A Hermeneutic Analysis of Music Therapy Students' Experience