87

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN INDIA

1. INDIA’S ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY:

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The development and growth of environmental policy in India can be discussed by

classifying it into two phases: pre-independence and post-independence period. The

pre-independence period can be further divided into: ancient period, medieval period

and British period. The post-independence period environmental policy can be

discussed in terms of five year plans till today.

(a) Pre-Independence Period

(i) Ancient Period

The concern regarding the protection of environment by the people in India is not a

recent phenomenon. Since the ancient period, people of India have been involved in

the legislation, execution and operation of the environmental policies. The countries

of the modern age are now involved in the policies for the protection of

environment, but in India, it has been an old phenomenon. In India, the concern for

environment was expressed in ancient period encompassing all the five traditional

elements of natural environment namely, land (ksiti), water (ap), radiation or energy

(tejas), air (marut) and cosmic space (vyoman) and their relation with human

activities. There were many ancient treaties which contain chapters dealing with

sauca (purity and cleanliness) and sadacara (normal ethical behaviour).1 Thus, our

ancestors have been praising and worshipping nature including trees and animals for

many centuries. Writing of the sages, especially Vedas and Upanishads, emphasised

that man and nature should live in harmony and peace; and plants and animals

should be subject to limitless kindness and benevolence as they make no demands

for their sustenance and instead they generously extend their product for the

88

sustenance of humankind.2 It was religion that became the source of policy for

environmental protection. The fear of the unknown spirits to punish the culprit of

nature led people to follow the religion, and subsequently the protection of

environment. The religion of Buddhism and Jainism deplored suffering of not only

man and animals, but went to the extent to protect insects.3

Kautilya‟s Arthashastra written between 321 and 300 B.C. is divided into 14 books

out of which 2 books provide great provisions for environment.4 The well planned

administration and drainage system, pronounced by Kautilya, testify that the ancient

rulers were keen on maintaining clean and healthy environment.5 The Arthashastra

also recommended death penalty for the killing of elephant as elephants were

important elements of armies.6 Kautilya discussed the management of water

resources through construction of tanks and wells.7 The Arthashastra further

discussed the use of water for the development of water works, irrigation, and

transport, specifying that all water belonged to the king and that users have to pay a

water tax to withdraw water for irrigation systems installed by the king. The

Arthashashtra states that in irrigating one‟s own field, no harm is to be caused to

others. It prohibited the release of water from dams without a legitimate reason, the

obstruction of the legitimate use of water by others, the obstruction or diversion of

the watercourse, and the building of water works on the land belonging to someone

else. Where damage was caused to another party as a result of overflowing waters,

compensation was owed to the other party. Furthermore, the Arthashastra provides a

list of damage types and the corresponding compensation or penalty due.8 The

punishment used to vary according to the gravity of the offence committed. The

Manusmriti observes that:

The violence against trees, etc., would attract appropriate punishment in

different degrees, depending upon the usefulness or importance of different

parts of the plant”9

Apart from Kautilya, there were many other social reformers and thinkers like

Gautama, Vasistha, Apastamba, Paraskara, Visnu etc. who compiled various codes

of conduct of environment significance. Therefore, the people in ancient period

knew the significance of healthy environment and its relationship with the man. For

example, the Rig Veda verse says that

89

“Let the feeling of glorious well-being be upon us. May the whole human

race by happy. Let the plant kingdom flourish upwards in great profusion.

May prosperity be with the bipeds and with the quadruped animals as well” 10

Likewise, there was concern for wildlife in that period in the teachings of

Buddha:

“Let all creatures those who are fearful or benign, short or long, large or

medium sized, small, microscopic or fat, or visible and invisible, or those

living far and near, which have been born or unborn, be happy.”11

Similarly, the concern for land was found in the hymn of Atharva-Veda-

samhiti:

“O earth, whatever I dig out from you, must that have to be filled up again

and restored as fast as possible. O pure one, I indeed have no intention to

hit you at your heart of hearts.”12

In addition, there were provisions for draining out excess water from the delta to

Bay of Bengal to protect inhabitants from floods during the reign of Cola King

Karikala.13 Saka Rudradaman (c. AD 150) repaired and strengthened the Sudarsana

dam, originally built by Chandragupta Maurya, whose water breached the walls and

reduced the entire area to a desert.14

The most popular ancient king regarding the conservation of environment was the

Mauryan king Ashoka who considered the preservation of living organisms

including trees, animals, and plants as part of the duties of the king. He restricted the

killing and hunting of a number of animals for game and food; and advocated

planting and preservation of plants and trees. The edicts of Ashoka, from the third

century, in Dhauli, notes as following in translation:

“The king with charming appearance, the beloved of the gods, in his

conquered territories and in the neighbouring countries, thus enjoins that:

medical attendance should be made available to both man and animal; the

medicinal herbs, the fruit trees, the roots and tubers, are to be transplanted

in those places where they are not presently available, after being collected

from those places where they usually grow; wells should be dug and

shadowy trees should be planted by the roadside for enjoyment both by man

and animal.” 15

90

The Fifth Pillar Edict of Ashoka also tells about his concern for animals, birds and

forests:

“……I forbade the killing of the following species of animals, namely:

parrots, mynahs, red-headed ducks…….and all quadrupeds which are of

no utility and are not eaten.……Chaff which contains living things must

not be set on fire. Forests must not be burned in order to kill living things

or without good reason….”16

(ii) Medieval Period

During the medieval period, where Mughals played a dominant role, the concern and

policy for environmental protection was very limited. However still, there were

rulers involved in the protection of environment, particularly water conservation and

utilisation. King Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-61 AD), during his reign arranged the

distribution of water of the Vitasta at Cakradhara which were causing floods by

using a series of water wheels.17 Also during the period of King Avantivarman,

remarkable steps were taken to reduce floods and utilize water for irrigation.18

The Mughals were involved more in aesthetic beauty. Their activities include the

developing of gardens and orchards.

However, from 800 AD a gradual pattern of state forest control had emerged. In

1740s, the rulers were involved in plantations but for own sake of ship building and

revenue rather than for nature. The Maratha rulers acquired control over large tracts

of coastal forests for this reason. This trend of monopolistic control was also

followed in Cochin and Travancore. And between 1770 and 1840, the Amirs of Sind

carried out the most extensive programmes for afforestation and forest protection.19

During the fifteenth century, there was an establishment of Hindu sect, Bishnois,

devoted to India-friendliness and wildlife protection, and bond between man and

nature. The Guru of the Bishnois laid down 29 commandments to be practiced by his

followers. In 1730, it is believed that 360 Bishnois died hugging while trying to save

the Khejdi trees from cutting at the order of Jodhpur king. On learning of the

incident, the king apologised for the mistake committed by his officials and issued a

royal decree prohibiting the cutting of trees and killing of wildlife in Bishnoi

villages. The present Bishnois in India are also active in protecting the wildlife.20

91

(iii) British Period

The colonial period not only in India but around the world is considered to be an

ecological watershed. The environment of the whole world was altered by the

western imperialism, as their expansion degraded the nature, first through trade and

later by colonialism.21 However, colonialism on the other side, led to the trend of

formation of more explicit conservation policies. The Government of India Act,

1935, empowered the provinces to take decisions on water supply, irrigation, canals,

drainage and embankments, water storage and hydro-power. The disputes between

provinces and/or princely states were subjected to the jurisdiction of the Governor

General who could appoint a commission to investigate the sufficiently important

conflicts.22

During the British period in India, there were large amounts of deforestation due to

the need for ship-building, iron smelting and farming. Also, the revenue orientation

of colonial land policy and building of railway network around 1853 added to the

cause of deforestation in India.23 In fact, railway requirements were „the first and by

far the most formidable‟ of the forces for thinning the Indian forests.24 After 1800,

the problems related to sanitary and roads developed as result of rapid urbanisation

in the larger towns and especially, the administrative capital of Calcutta which

further led to the steps in environmental field.25 Also the forests were hurdles to the

movement of armies; it could easily become a base of resistance or guerillas and was

also an obstacle in agricultural expansion.26

As a result of the ecological degradation by colonialism, there was a rise of

distinctive groups of professional naturalists and scientists who disregarded this

trend. In India, the medical surgeons of the East India Company were a popular

group who raised voice for environment in early 19th century. They were quick to

involve in activities regarding conservation or plantations. For instance, they were

involved to establish conservancies or teak plantations in Malabar, Bengal or Burma

between 1805 and 1822. In early 1820s, some of these surgeons lobbied against the

deforestation taking place during that time and favoured plantation programmes.

They quoted the arguments of Humboldt; linking deforestation, increasing aridity

and temperature. Consequently, because of the increasing pressure on the

government, on 17 December 1846, the Government of India authorised the

92

employment of an establishment for the management of the forests under the

Bombay Presidency. And the Bombay Presidency on 2 March 1847, appointed

Gibson as Conservator of Forests, in addition to his duties as Superintendent of the

Dapoorie Botanic Garden.27 In 1855 Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General issued

the “Charter of the Indian Forests,” outlining forest conservancy for the whole of

India.28

In the mid-nineteenth century, there was an appointment of a person named Dietrich

Brandis as Inspector-General of Forests of India, whose contribution in the forestry

of India is significant. He toured and established forest management in India,

arranged for the continental training and established Dehra Dun school for

prospective Indian foresters.29 His guidelines for working plans and silvi-cultural

operations were devised and implemented for the whole country. His successors

established regimes for protecting forests from natural and human destruction.30 In

the same period, in 1862, the Governor-General called out for the creation of a

department for the sustainable availability of large requirements of wood for

different railway companies.31 Consequently, in 1864, the Imperial Forest

Department was created with the help of experts from Germany and in 1865, the

Indian Forest Act was passed.32 But, on the complaint of the foresters that the Act

did not give them and the state adequate amount of control over forest lands, it was

modified in 1878.33 With this Act, hunters were now required to hold permits to hunt

in government forests.34 Also, there was passing of the first British bird protection

legislation and the publication of G. P. Marsh‟s „Man and Nature‟ and the

publication of Dr. Hugh Cleghorn‟s „Forests and Gardens of South India‟.35

Based on these Acts, local rules were made. The forests were classified into three

divisions: reserved, protected and village/communal.36 All the policies that were

followed in India were borrowed from Germany and France. They were considered

to be experts in this field.

Therefore, it can be said that during the British period, the environmental policies

were taken only in the sector of forests. But these policies were seemingly not for

the concern of ecology in India but for the sake of increase in exports, revenue and

other profitable ventures.

93

However, in all, the policies relevant to protection of environment in the British

period, besides the Criminal Code Procedure of 1893 and Indian Penal Code of 1860

are:

1. The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853.

2. The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857.

3. The Serais Act, 1857.

4. The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873.

5. The Obstruction in Fairways Act, 1881.

6. The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.

7. The Indian Ports Act, 1901.

8. The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905.

9. The Explosives Act, 1908.

10. The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912.

11. The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917.

12. The Mysore Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1917.

13. The Poison Act, 1919.

14. The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pest & Diseases Act, 1919.

15. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923.

16. The Workmen‟s Compensation Act, 1923.

17. The Indian Forest Act, 1927.

18. The Motor Vehicles Act, 1939

19. The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation & Improvement) Act, 1946.

20. Forest Act of Madras 1873.

21. Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.

94

22. The Madras River Conservancy Act, 1884.

23. Hailey National Park Act, 1936 (Now Called Corbett National Park).

24. The Petroleum Act, 1934.

25. The Easement Act, 1882. 37

(b) Post Independence Period: Period of Five Year Plans

After the independence of India, the five year plans were formulated by the Planning

Commission of India in pursuance of declared objectives of the government to

promote a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation

of the resources of the country, increasing production and offering opportunities to

all for employment in the service of the community.38 The Planning Commission is,

thus, charged with the responsibility of making assessment of all resources of the

country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective

and balanced utilisation of resources, determining priorities, factors which are

retarding economic development and nature of the machinery, make

recommendations and appraisals from time to time.39 Planning Commission plays an

integrative role in the development of a holistic approach to the policy formulation

in critical areas of human and economic development. The emphasis of the

Commission is on maximising the output by using our limited resources optimally.40

The first Five-year Plan was launched in 1951 and two subsequent five-year plans

were formulated till 1965, when there was a break because of the Indo-Pakistan

Conflict. Two successive years of drought, devaluation of currency, a general rise in

prices and erosion of resources disrupted the planning process and after three

Annual Plans between 1966 and 1969, the fourth Five-year plan was started in 1969.

41 The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political

situation at the Centre and the years 1990-91 and 1991-92 were treated as Annual

Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally launched in 1992 after the initiation of structural

adjustment policies.42

95

In the initial five year plans, the programmes were for the sanitation, public health,

nutrition, water supply and housing. Less priority was given to the natural

environment of the country. It was only in the Fourth Five Year Plan that direct

attention was paid and the following observation was made:

The physical environment is a, dynamic, complex and inter-connected

system in which any action in one part affects others. There is also the

inter-dependence of living things and their relationships with land, air, and

water. Planning for harmonious development recognises this unity of nature

and man. Such planning is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive

appraisal of environmental issues, particularly, economic and ecological.

There are instances in which timely specialised advice on environmental

aspects could have helped in project design and in averting subsequent

adverse effects on the environment, leading to loss of invested resources. It

is necessary, therefore. to introduce the environmental aspect into our

planning and development.43

As a result, the National Council of Environmental Planning and Co-ordination

(NCEPC) was established at the Department of Science and Technology in 1972.

The National Agriculture Commission was created in 1973 and it was referred

several crucial issues pertaining to forests in India. The recommendations of the

Commission included issues like the set up of Export Promotion Council, to identify

forest areas for development, a selective mechanism in logging should be adopted, a

review of the fertilizer requirements should be undertaken, amendments of the tax

law should be considered, and so on.44

The Fifth Five Year Plan stressed that the NCEPC should be involved in all major

industrial decisions, so that environmental goals would be taken into account. The

Plan also emphasised that the pursuit of developmental goals would be less likely to

cause a reduction in the quality of life if a link and balance between development

planning and environmental management was maintained. In this reference, the

Minimum Needs Programme which was concerning the rural and elementary

education, rural health and sanitation, nutrition, drinking water, provision of housing

and so on, received comparatively a high priority, and was expected to minimise

environmental pollution and degradation in rural areas and reduce poverty levels.45

96

In the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85), a full chapter under the name „environment‟

was devoted to the discussion of problems of environment degradation. This plan

stated that “Environmental conservation is, in fact, the very basis of all

development.”46 In this Plan, an amount of Rs. 40 crores was provided for the

environment. Out of which, an amount of 15 crores was provided for Environment

Planning & Coordination (R & D programmes, field action/demonstration,

environmental information system, monitoring network and support to State

Environmental Committees) etc., 10 crores for Eco-Development programmes

(Biosphere reserves, eco-development force, eco-development camps) etc., 5 crores

for Ecology & Environment Education/Training Programmes (training schemes,

centres of excellence, environment management institutions) etc., 5 crore for

Botanical Survey of India and the like, and the rest 5 crores for Zoological Survey of

India and the like.47

Under this plan, the environment problems were divided into two categories:

i. Those arising from conditions of poverty and under-development.

ii. Those arising as negative effects of the very process of development.

The first category dealt with the effects on the health and integrity of our natural

resources (land, soil, water, forests, wildlife, etc.) because of poverty and the

inadequate availability, for a large section of our population, of the means to fulfill

basic human needs (food, fuel, shelter, employment, etc.). The second category dealt

with the unintended side effects of efforts to achieve rapid economic growth and

development. In this latter category would fall the distortions imposed on national

resources from poorly planned development projects and programmes, as well as

from lack of attention to long term concerns by commercial and vested interests.48

The topics discussed in context of environment in the Sixth Five Year Plan were:

i. Natural resources including land and water, soil, forest marine ecosystem

and other natural living resources;

ii. Environment pollution including water pollution, air pollution, land

pollution, noise and human settlements including, rural and urban;

iii. Environmental impact from development projects; and

iv. Administrative and legislative arrangements for environmental protection.49

97

In recognition of the administrative and legislative arrangements for environmental

protection, the Government of India constituted a High Power Committee under the

Chairmanship of the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission. The Committee

expressed the need for creating a Department of the Environment (DOE) at the

Centre to provide explicit recognition to the pivotal role that environmental

conservation must play for sustainable national development. The functions of the

Department of the Environment were identified as:

(a) 'Nodal' agency for environmental protection and eco-development in the

country.

(b) Carrying out of environmental appraisal of development projects through

other ministries/agencies as well as directly.

(c) Administrative responsibility for

Pollution monitoring and regulation.

Conservation of critical eco-systems designated as Biosphere Reserves.

Conservation of Marine Eco-systems.50

The Plan further discussed about the programmes to be initiated for environmental

protection. The Plan stated that it “will adopt an integrated approach to find and

implement methods of redressing existing environmental problems and build up the

capability for preventing or mitigating those that could arise in the future.”51 It

acknowledged about the Environmental Research and Development Programme, the

process of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), to make an Inventory of

Ecological Resources, monitoring of environmental quality, setting up of an

Environmental Information System, programmes to increase public awareness about

environmental issues, proposed to set up a number of centres and institutions for

studies and training in environmental science, technology and management and in

particular, the Centre for Himalayan Studies and a Centre for Western Ghats

Studies. Further, it identified about a number of field action programmes to be

sponsored by the Department of Environment. The other programmes identified by

the Department were the setting up of Eco-development Force, Eco-Development

Camp and constitution of Rural Environmental Cells.52

98

It provided guidance to administrators and other resource-managers in formulating

and implementing development programmes and lays down an institutional

arrangement for environmental administration at the Central and state levels.53

The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1900) discussed about the environment issues

under the chapter “Environment and Ecology‟. The basic approach to the Seventh

Plan was to emphasise sustainable development in harmony with the

environment.54 Further, it stated that:

“It is now being increasingly recognised that environmental factors and

ecological imperatives must be built in to the total planning process if the

long-term goal of making development sustainable is to be achieved.”

The Seventh Five Year Plan attempted to remove some of the weaknesses in the

existing environmental planning system. The direct goals relating to the subject of

environment as a whole discussed in the Plan were:

Institutionalising the process of integrating environmental management and

development.

Inducing organisations at the Central, State and local levels to incorporate

environmental safeguards in their plans and programmes.

Securing greater public participation in environmental management.

Establishing a strong S&T base for environmental research and development,

demonstration and extension activities.

Strengthening mechanisms for ensuring corrective action with regard to

environmental degradation that has already taken place.55

Further, the salient programmes undertaken included the following thrust areas:

pollution monitoring and control, environmental impact assessment, natural living

resources conservation, eco-development, environmental research promotion,

environmental education, training and awareness, environmental information,

coordination and liaison with state governments and union territories, environmental

policy and law, international cooperation and strengthening of the organisational

structures.56 For the Seventh Five Year Plan, the outlay was of Rs. 427.91 crores,

99

out of which 350 crores were for Centre, 75.71 crores for State and 2.20 crores for

Union Territories.57

Therefore, during this period significant achievements took place in the areas of

environment and ecology such as Ganga Action Plan, forestry and wildlife,

wastelands development and island development subsectors. Important initiatives

were taken place on programmes on waste recycling, prevention of coastal pollution

and schemes concerning pollution. During this period, fourteen river basins of the

country were monitored for water pollution. Two hundred water quality monitoring

stations, 85 air quality monitoring stations and 173 coastal monitoring stations were

established, standards were notified for 26 priority industries, more than 50% of the

major and medium industries installed pollution treatment plants,58 fifteen mangrove

areas were identified, seven biosphere reserves were set up for preserving the

genetic diversity in representative ecosystems and a multi-departmental National

Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) was set up.59 Moreover, 319

research and development projects were sanctioned in the Seventh Plan. 294

economic-development camps were conducted and The Gobind Ballabh Pant

Paryavaran Evam Vikas Sansthan to study Himalayan environment and

development60 and The Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA) was

established at Dehra Dun for the training of Forest Service probationers.61

The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) came in 1992, instead of 1990 because of

political instability. It acknowledged that the degradation of environment is

continuing. It recognised that the areas need to be classified not only on the basis of

their ecological characteristics, including fragility, but also in terms of the types and

severity of threats they face, the source and cause of these threats and the level of

protection they warrant. Further, it recognised three types of threats to natural

environment: pollution, over-use and destruction. Therefore, the following major

tasks were recommended to meet the challenge of environment degradation:

i. To protect the natural environment;

ii. To regenerate and restore degraded ecosystems and increase their

productivity and to generate employment through these activities;

iii. To decentralise control over nature and natural resources;

100

iv. To develop and share an understanding of nature and natural processes;

v. To formulate a national policy for environment and an appropriate

institutional and legal framework in support of the policy;

vi. To ensure co-ordinated and integrated governmental action aimed at

conserving nature and sustainable use of natural resources;

vii. To make individuals and institutions more accountable to the people for their

actions impinging on environment and ecosystem; and

viii. To monitor the state of environment.62

The major achievements during this period by the Central Pollution Control Board

(Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) were the development and expansion of

laboratory facilities, management and operation of the national air and water quality

network, controlling pollution at sources, river basin studies, assessment and

implementation of national standards, hazardous waste management, including

preparation of an inventory of hazardous waste generating industries in different

States, preparation of Zoning Atlas for siting industries in various districts of the

country, development of criteria for eco-labeling of consumer products, remedial

measures for vehicular pollution especially for vehicles in use in metro cities, noise

pollution survey, training of personnel engaged in preventing and controlling

pollution and organising nation-wide awareness programmes for prevention and

control of pollution.63 The submission of an environmental statement by the

polluting units to the concerned State Pollution Control Boards was made

mandatory.64 Further, World Bank assisted Industrial Pollution Prevention Project in

two phases.65 Moreover, the government policies, besides regulatory mechanisms,

incorporated market-based economic instruments in economic and environmental

planning. In this period, over 190 research projects in multi-disciplinary aspects

were initiated,66 more than 5,000 such Eco-clubs have been set up in various schools

of the country, Environmental Information Systems (ENVIS) was set up by the

Ministry of Environment and Forests and 22 ENVIS centres were set up by the end

of Eighth Plan.67 Further, five Centres of Excellence in the field of environmental

education, ecological research, mining, environment and ornithology were set up

and 37 priority areas were identified for undertaking research projects on the

101

recommendations of the Standing Committee on Bio-resources and Environment.68

India became a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biological-diversity (CBD), Basel Convention

on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their

Disposal and Montreal Protocol on Controlling the Substances that Deplete the

Ozone Layer.69 During the Eighth Five Year Plan, considerable success was

achieved in the first phase of Ganga Action Plan and the second phase of the Ganga

Action Plan was launched.70 In addition, the National River Conservation Plan

(NRCP) was approved in July 1995.71 Under forest protection and regeneration, the

scheme „Association of Scheduled Tribes and Rural Poor in Regeneration of

Degraded Forests‟ was taken up on pilot basis with 37 projects in nine States. The

National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board was created and under the

Board, a number of schemes were carried out.72 Under point 16 of the 20-Point

Programme for afforestation, 501.07 million seedlings were distributed and 4.56

million hectares of area was afforested.73 For wasteland development, significant

progress was achieved in the Integrated Wastelands Development Projects Scheme

(IWDP), Technology Development, Training & Extension Scheme, Investment

Promotional Scheme, Wastelands Development Task Force and in the awareness

activities.74

For the Eighth Five Year Plan, in context of financial matters, for the Central Sector

an outlay of Rs. 525 crores was provided for Forestry and Wildlife sub-sector. The

corresponding outlay in the State and UT sector was Rs. 3556.87 crores. For

Ecology and Environment sub-sector in the Central Plan, an outlay of Rs. 675.00

crores was provided. In respect of States and UTs the outlay under this sub-sector

has been kept at Rs. 153.11 crores.75 Thus, the total outlay for the Ministry of

Environment and Forests was Rs. 1200 crore but the actual expenditure was Rs.

1631.90 crore.76

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) acknowledged that the Indian Government‟s

policy towards environment is guided by the principles of Agenda 21. The role of

major groups including the NGOs, farmers, mass media and other communities was

being strengthened by directly involving them in the process of identification,

formulation and implementation of environmental programmes. Further, is stated

102

that the major environment problems in India are air and water pollution,

degradation of common property resources, threat to biological diversity, solid waste

disposal and sanitation. It also stated that India is an insignificant contributor to the

GHG emission.77

The Ninth Five Year Plan stated that:

One of the objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan is to ensure

environmental sustainability of the development process through social

mobilisation and participation of people at all levels. The Ninth Plan is also

based on the belief that the principal task of planning in a federal structure

is to evolve a shared vision and commitment to the national objectives and

development strategy. The Ninth Plan also lays greater stress on

reorienting the policies than on direct intervention so as to signal and

induce the various economic agents to function in a manner consistent with

the national objectives.78

The Ninth Plan, thus, envisaged a multi-pronged strategy; based on the belief that

macro-economic stability is fundamental not only for economic growth but also for

sound environmental management. The Plan gave the following important elements

for the strategy:

i. Empowering the people through information generation, dissemination and

access.

ii. Involving the industry in both the private and the public sector.

iii. Integrating environment with decision making through valuation of

environmental impacts; evolving market based economic instruments as an

alternative to the command and control form of environmental regulation;

appropriate pricing of natural resources based on their long-term marginal

cost of supply; appropriate fiscal reforms and natural resource accounting.

iv. Evolving the rights for common property resources.

v. Inter-sectoral coordination and cooperation.

vi. Ensuring scientific and technological inputs.

103

vii. Participation of people (particularly women) in the management and sharing

of usufruct through Joint Forest Management.

viii. Involvement of NGOs for awareness building and as an interface between

forest department and the people would be encouraged during the Ninth

Plan.

ix. Integrated development of villages in and around forests.79

Further, the issue-specific programmes discussed in the Ninth Five Year Plan

were people's involvement and role of information, strengthening of the Surveillance

and Monitoring System, State of Environment Report, integrating environmental

concerns with decision making, Natural Resource Accounting.80 The area-specific

programmes were National River Conservation Programme (NRCP), National Lake

Conservation Programme, Taj Trapezium, Himalayan Region and Islands.81 The

sector specific programmes were strengthening the Central Pollution Control Board,

industrial pollution control and prevention projects, the Common Effluent

Treatment Plants (CETP), Environmental Statistics and Mapping, Environmental

Impact Assessment and Development and Promotion of Clean Technologies,

conservation and survey, biosphere reserves, mangroves, bio-diversity conservation,

assistance to botanical gardens, research and eco-generation, policy and law, the

National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and international cooperation. The Ninth

Five Year Plan also envisaged forestry & wildlife and afforestation and wastelands

development.82

In the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07), the opening line of the chapter on

environment and forest is:

“Sustainability is not an option but imperative.”83

Thus, by this time, it was realised that sustainability cannot be avoided and has

become crucial for a developing country like India. The forests and wildlife were the

prominent issues discussed in this Plan. Under this plan, besides ongoing schemes,

the new schemes were introduced. The scope of the Common Effluent Treatment

Plants scheme was enhanced.84 New schemes were undertaken for eco-restoration,

watershed management, water and energy sectors, bio-diversity, climate change,

ozone layer protection, land degradation etc. with the financial and technical help

104

from India-Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), Global Environment Facility

(GEF), Indo-German Technical Cooperation etc. which are having schemes since

Ninth Plan.85 Schemes under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) were taken

including The State of Environment Scheme.86 In reference to Zoological Survey of

India, it was proposed to explore survey of state fauna (district wise), studies to be

conducted on selected eco-systems of the Indian region, survey of conservation

areas including tiger reserves, taxonomic studies of faunal components, status

survey of endangered species, chromosome mapping and DNA fingerprinting.87

Further, it was proposed to cover thirty identified mangrove and four coral reef areas

for intensive conservation and management. Besides these plans, it was intended to

clear all polluted rivers by 2007, in particular, the Ganga and its tributaries. Further,

a decentralised approach was emphasised for sewage interception, diversion and

treatment would be adopted, demonstration models were to be developed for total

treatment and disposal of sewage in small colonies or housing societies, root zone

treatment/constructing wetland technologies would be promoted, universities and

colleges would also be involved in monitoring the water quality in rivers and lakes

and so on.88 In addition, the Plan devoted a separate chapter to disaster management

and made a number of important recommendations to mainstream disaster risk

reduction into the process of development. Some of the significant initiatives during

the Tenth Five Year Plan include the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2005,

setting up of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster

Response Force and National Institute of Disaster Management. Further, a web-

enabled centralised inventory of resources has been developed to minimise response

time in emergencies. State governments are in the process of setting up State and

District Disaster Management Authorities and so on.89

In context of forest and wildlife, a number of proposals were discussed. In the Tenth

Five Year Plan, the strategy was to bring 25 per cent area under forest/tree cover by

the end of the tenth plan period and 33 per cent by the end of the eleventh plan

period.90 It was acknowledged that watershed approach should be adopted for the

maintenance and development of forests; the future management strategy should

take into account the needs of the forest based community to meet their

requirements; a special programme should be drawn up for development of villages

105

dependent on forest and to provide alternative source of income; agro-forestry

should be encouraged by promoting technology, extension and training, credit

support, marketing infrastructure, etc; greening programmes under the „food for

work‟ scheme should be extensively implemented to ensure productive employment

and food security; to sustain the livelihood of a large number of people, the fragile

eco-systems such as coastal areas, hills and mountains, wet lands, deserts, shifting

cultivation areas need to be protected, promotion of bio-diesel was also encouraged

to enhance the livelihood opportunities and income generation of rural masses. It has

also been proposed to merge all afforestation programmes of National Afforestation

and Eco-development Board (NAEB) into a single scheme called „National

Afforestation Programme‟.91 Moreover, suggestions were made for forest-based

industries, forest plantations, forestry training, forestry research, education, training

and Joint Forest Management (JFM).92 Suggestions were also proposed for Indian

Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE); Indian Plywood Industries

Research and Institute (IPIRI); Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM); and

Forest Survey of India.93

In reference to wildlife, initiatives were taken for strengthening and enhancing the

protected area network, for effective management of protected areas, conservation of

wild and endangered species and their habitat, restoration of degraded habitats

outside protected areas, control of poaching and illegal trade in wild animals and

plant species. Further, suggestions were made for Project Tiger, Project Elephant,

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and Central Zoo Authority.94

This Plan was a period of extensive review of environmental processes and law. The

first National Environment Policy was put into place in May 2006. In addition, the

re-engineering of the environmental clearance process and Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) Notification and review of the Coastal Regulation Zone

Notification were undertaken to improve the quality of environmental governance.95

An outlay of Rs 5945 crore was fixed for Ministry of Environment & Forests in the

Tenth Plan96 and the actual expenditure was Rs. 5119.14 crore.97

In the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012), the environment issues are discussed

under the chapter of „Environment and Climate Change‟, thus the environment

problem of climate change is given emphasis. In this Plan, a number of initiatives

106

are proposed to integrate environmental concerns into planning and developmental

activities across all the sectors.98 It is proposed to include the subject of environment

in the Concurrent List, so that the government at all the levels could deal with this

problem. The State Pollution Control Boards should be restructured into statutory

environment protection authorities with the mandate of developing regulations,

standards and upgraded facilities for enforcing compliance. At the district level, it is

proposed that the scheme of Paryavaran Vahinis, or committees of concerned

citizens, should be revived so that they can serve as environmental watchdogs and

undertake selective first hand monitoring of the environmental situation in the

districts.99 Moreover, it is targeted to increase the forest cover by 5% of the total

geographical area. Pertaining to air pollution, it is proposed that all Central

programmes on outdoor pollution should be reorganized under a National Air

Quality Plan, which will cover City based Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs) and

Pollution Control and Prevention in Industrial Areas programmes.100 The entire Air

Quality Monitoring network should be expanded from the current 308 stations to

1000 stations.101 The monitorable target in air quality should be to achieve WHO

standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011–12.102 Under the National River

Conservation Plan (NRCP), it is recommended to strengthen the enforcement of the

scheme of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs); the water quality of the

rivers should be improved to bathing standards and to expand the sewage treatment

capacity in the country. Moreover, for drinking water, the quality standards should

be made mandatory.103 Besides these, the subject of disaster management was also

given prominence in the Eleventh Five Year Plan.104 In this Plan, the forest sector is

dealt separately under the heading of agriculture.105 The total projected GBS in the

Eleventh Plan for the Ministry of Environment and Forests is Rs 8842 crore (at

2006–07 price) and Rs 10000 crore (at current price).106

2. PEOPLE’S RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENT

The role of public in environment policy is no less than the government or any other

organisation. In fact, the basis for any effective policy on the environment is the

level of awareness about environmental concerns and the mobilising of public

opinion. India saw the emergence of mass environmental awareness and opinion in

1970s. However, the people‟s response to save the environment from degradation

107

can be found even in the ancient period, although the agenda in that period differed

from the present period. They were not concern about the environment pollution, but

were involved in dealing with the management and conservation of resources. The

religious teachings, cultural ethos and traditions were the source of guidance for the

people in environmental protection. As noted by environmental activist Vandana

Shiva, the nature and forests have always been treated as teachers; and the message

of the forest has been the message of inter-connectedness and diversity, renewability

and sustainability, integrity and pluralism.107

(a) Environmental Movements:

The contemporary environment movements in India i.e. the movements in the post

independence period, were led by dalits, tribes, forest and hill-dwellers, peasants,

fishermen, and women. These people of lower strata of the society trickled up the

concept of „environmentalism‟ to the middle class people and informed urban

citizens and finally taking the form of NGOs and voluntary organisations. The most

popular environmental movements in India are the Chipko Movement and Narmada

Bachao Andolan.108

(i) Chipko Movement:

It is the most powerful ecological movement in the post-independence period of

India. The word „Chipko‟ means „hugging‟ the trees, and was popularized through

the folk songs of Chipko activist Ghanshyam Sailani. It was inspired from the

Gandhian satyagraha. The Chipko Movement is a series of events in which people

protested against the indiscriminate logging and felling of trees that spelt the

destruction of their environment.

The first battle for the protection of environment took place on 24 April 1973 in

Chamoli district when the villagers of Mandal, led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt and the

Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM), prevented the Allahabad- based sports

goods company „Symonds‟ from felling ash trees. In December of the same year, the

villagers again stopped Symond‟s agent from felling trees in the Phata-Rampur

forest, about 60 km from Gopeshwar.109 In March 1974, under the leadership of

Goura Devi, twenty-seven women saved a number of trees from a contractor's axe in

108

Reni. Following this, the government was forced to abolish the private contract

system of felling of trees and in 1975, the Uttar Pradesh Forest Corporation was set

up to perform this function. This was the first major achievement of the movement

and marks the end of a phase in itself. And, in the next five years, the protection of

forest spread to the various parts of the Garhwal Himalayas and other important

conservation issues were raised. In June 1977, Sarala Behn organised a meeting of

all the activists in the hill areas of Uttar Pradesh, further strengthening the

movement and consolidated the resistance to commercial fellings as well as

excessive tapping of resin from the Chir pine trees.110

There are number of successful stories of Chipko Movement found in Adwani,

Amarsar and Badiyargar and many other places. In September 1977, as a

consequence, an auction of Adwani forests took place in Narendranagar and

Bahuguna, another notable activist of the Movement, tried to stop the auction by

undertaking a fast but could not stop the exercise. In the first week of December

1977, as a consequence, the Adwani forests were scheduled to be felled. As a result,

under the leadersip of Bachhni Devi, large groups of women came forward to save

the forests. Chipko activist, Dhoom Singh Negi, supported the struggle of these

women by undertaking a fast in the forest itself. Women tied sacred threads to the

trees as a symbol of a vow of protection. Between 13 and 20 December a large

number of women from fifteen villages guarded the forests, fearing a backlash, the

axemen left. However they returned back on 1 February 1978 with two truckloads of

armed police. The plan was to encircle the forests with the help of the police in order

to keep the people away during the felling operation. But, by the time the contractors

arrived with the police, each tree was being guarded by three volunteers who

embraced the trees and consequently the police left the place.111

In March 1978 a new auction was planned in Narendranagar. A large popular

demonstration was organised against it and the police arrested twenty-three Chipko

volunteers, including women. In December 1978, the public sector Uttar Pradesh

Forest Development Corporation planned a massive felling programme in the

Badiyargarh region. The local people instantly informed Bahuguna who started a

fast unto death at the felling site, on 9 January 1979. On the eleventh day of his fast,

Bahuguna was arrested in the middle of the night but this act further strengthened

109

the commitment of the people. Folk poet Ghanashyam Raturi and priest Khima

Shastri led the movement as thousands of men and women from the neighbouring

villages joined them in the Badiyargarh forests. The people remained in the forests

and guarded the trees for eleven days, when the contractors finally withdrew and

Bahuguna was released from jail on 31 January 1979.112

The Chipko Movement has been successful in forcing a fifteen year ban on

commercial green felling in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, in stopping clear felling in the

Western Ghats and the Vindhyas, and in generating pressure for a national forest

policy which is more sensitive to people's needs and to the ecological development

of the country.

Thus, this Movement gained popularity not only in India but around the globe. The

Swedish Parliament had presented an award to Chipko activists on 9 December 1987

and the citation read:

The Chipko Movement in India, whose members „hug trees‟ to prevent their

felling, and have revived traditional agro-forestry, is honoured for its

dedication to conservation, restoration and ecologically responsible use of

India‟s natural resources.113

(ii) Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA):

Narmada Bachao Andolan is another popular and organised environmental

movement in India against the development of Narmada Valley Development

project to prevent its dangerous impacts on the environment and the people. The

project was formulated in 1980s including 2 mega-dams, the Narmada Sagar Project

(NSP) and the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP), 30 large dams, 135 medium dams and

over 3000 small reservoirs and dams. The movement is a coalition of project-

affected people, urban activists and supporters protesting the construction of dams

and the displacement of the people.114 The Movement is a coalition of project-

affected people, urban activists and supporters protesting the construction of dams

and the NBA was formed in 1985 with Medha Patkar and a few other social activists

when they organised the disgruntled villagers of the Narmada valley into a

movement against the Sardar Sarovar Project. It too, like the Chipko movement,

started on the lines of Gandhian Satyagraha. Medha Patkar said, “Our weapon is our

110

movement and struggle, and not arms”. The first major event of the NBA was on

August 18, 1988, when the people of the valley staged a protest rally in six different

places. The NBA continuously highlighted the economic fallacy of having big dams

and its social costs. This ultimately led international financial agencies, the most

important being the World Bank and USAID, to withdraw funding for the project.

Recently, the people of that region marked the 25th anniversary of the movement.115

(b) Media:

Besides, affecting policy decisions, mass media also plays an important role in

environmental protection by communicating environmental awareness among

people and fostering an environmentally conscious citizenry.116 In the 1970s itself,

several universities conducted workshops for journalists on environment

conservation and related issues. These developments enabled journalists to reach out

to the people with competent, and often expert, inputs from environmentalists.

Today, almost all newspapers publish articles on environment-related issues on a

fairly regular basis, although there is much scope for qualitative improvement.117

Moreover, some issues of environment are very popular in the media. For instance,

in 2006, it was found that highest number of environment issues discussed in print

media was of climate change, NGOs and wildlife trade.118 A number of magazines

and journals are also published that deal exclusively with the environmental issues.

Some of the famous environmental journals in India are Down to Earth, Indian

Journal for Environment Protection, Indian Journal of Ecology, Indian

Journal of Environment and Toxicology , Journal of Education for Sustainable

Development (JESD), Indian Journal of Environmental Law, Indian

Journal of Environment and Eco-planning, Indian Journal of Environmental

Sciences and so on.

Even the former Chief Justice of India Y.K. Sabharwal in a speech in 2006,

acknowledged the role of media in environmental awareness. He observed:

“It is the poor and illiterate. It is this class which is exploited most –

whether in case of illegal felling of trees or of killing of animals – vested

interests mislead them – misguide them. This class has to be educated about

the need to protect environment for their self-preservation as well. It can be

111

done by the media of television, radio and print media. They can increase

environmental awareness or even help remedying environmental problems.

The communication media can play a positive role in the protection and

preservation of environment. They can play an active role in alerting people

about environmental damages, corporate failure to meet its legal

obligations and truthful analysis of new legislations. The basic

responsibilities of the communication media may include: (i) reporting and

publishing the truth (ii) conducting thorough probes into issues relating to

violations (iii) highlighting the failure of government officials (iv) not

succumb to the pressure tactics adopted by governmental officials/ anti-

social elements and (v) forcing others to avoid making political mileage

from issues relating to the violations.”119

Further, he said that radio and television, particularly Doordarshan, are most

important sources of information as they have the maximum of rural audience.

(c) NGOs:

Again, former Chief Justice of India Y.K. Sabharwal in his speech also acclaimed

the role of NGOS in environmental awareness. He said the NGOs play their role by

advocacy, discussing and debating, bringing awareness, undertaking research and

publication in environmental issues. Further, he recognised the following

contributions of NGOs:120

conducting education and citizen awareness programmes in the field of

environment;

fact-finding and analysis;

filing public interest litigations;

innovation and experimenting in areas which are difficult for government

agencies to make changes in;

providing expertise and policy analysis;

providing factual and reliable information with a network of professional

expert staff;

112

remaining independent while passing relevant information to the public and

governmental bodies;

solidarity and support to environmental defenders;

working in collaboration with the government for capacity building and

promotion of community participation in environmental awareness and

protection; and

working out at the grassroots level and reaching far-flung areas with or

without the government invitation.

Thus, the role of NGOs is no less in the environmental protection, influencing

environmental policies and generating awareness among people. There are countless

environmental groups in India, some dealing with specific environmental issues

while others are general in nature. Groups dealing with particular issues include

Akash Ganga, Animal Rights Fund, India Tiger Welfare Society, We for Yamuna,

and a few others. Groups for environment in general include Centre for Science and

Environment, The Energy and Resources Institute, Environment Support Group,

Green Coalition, Greenpeace India, Green Corporate Network and so on. A brief

description about Centre for Science and Environment may not be out of place as it

is considered to be one of the pioneering agencies working for the protection of

environment.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE):

It is one of the most popular environmental non-government, public interest research

and advocacy organisation in India based in New Delhi. Anil Kumar Agarwal was

the founder-director of this organisation. At present, Sunita Narain is the director of

the Society for Environmental Communications. The Centre has been recognised by

many awards for its contribution and the awards include the Jawaharlal Nehru prize

for 'popularisation of science' in 2008-09, Stockholm Water Prize in 2005 and

UNEP Global 500 Forum Award in 1988. The Centre‟s efforts to accomplish its aim

around five broad programmes: (1) Communication for Awareness, (2) Research

and Advocacy, (3) Education and Training, (4) Knowledge Portal and (5) Pollution

Monitoring.121 The Centre has made a number of major contributions which gained

113

not only national but international uproar. In 1996, CSE started a project to present a

market-oriented framework by which environmental impacts of industrialisation

could be monitored and influenced. CSE's Green Rating Project (GRP) is a civil

society initiative to develop an alternative form of governance to control industrial

pollution in India.122 In 2003, the CSE astonished the country by giving details about

the high levels of toxic pesticides and insecticides in soft drinks and bottled water,

which are high enough to cause cancer, damage the nervous and reproductive

systems, cause birth defects and severe disruption of the immune system. These

startling facts forced the government to constitute a Joint Parliamentary Committee

(JPC), only the fourth in post independent India and the first on health and safety of

Indians. Again, in 2006, CSE undertook a nationwide study of nearly a dozen soft

drink brands and found that little had changed in the intervening period. The study

found pesticide residues in all samples. After this, JPC had asked for setting

standards for carbonated beverages.123

In April 2004, the Centre, in an article published in Down to Earth stated, "Lies,

damned lies and endosulfan", gave detailed information about the manipulation of

data and misinformation that was used by the expert group, known as the O P Dubey

Committee, to base its conclusion, that "there is no link between the use of

endosulfan in PCK (Plantation Corporation of Kerala) plantations and health

problems reported from Padre." Consequently, investigations were conducted and it

was found that the conclusions were doctored.124

Recently, CSE Pollution Monitoring Laboratory exposed the high levels of

antibiotics from the banned chloramphenicol to broad spectrum ciprofloxacin and

erythromycin – in almost all brands of honey including leading brands, sold in

Delhi. The other significant findings and issues of CSE include the toxic toys, lead

in paints, pesticides residue in bloods of Punjab farmers, trans-fat in oils and so

on.125

(d) Private Companies:

The deep response of the public towards environment protection has led even the

companies to include environment issues in their strategies. They have realised that

campaigning for environment issues will enhance their esteem in the public. Further,

the companies have recognised that the increasing complexities of environment have

114

great impacts on the sustainability of their businesses. Therefore, it is found that

number of companies in India has considered environmental protection as their

social responsibility and are thus, campaigning and advertising for it. Further, to

motivate the companies, the Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) instituted the

TERI Corporate Awards for Environmental Excellence in 2001.126 There are a

number of companies that are involved in this area which may be cited as examples:

In 2009, Nokia launched the „take-back‟ programme in four cities to support e-waste

recycling. It was a success as the company was able to collect three tonnes of

electronic waste consisting of 68,000 old devices including 10,000 mobile handsets,

10,000 batteries, 32,000 chargers, 1,000 headsets, body covers and accessories in

about 45 days. Moreover, the company said that it was able to save 100,000 tonnes

of packaging material over two years when it decided to cut back on the size of

packaging for a few of its models. The company has tied up with NGOs to plant one

tree for every handset that is handed in for recycling.127 Nokia has taken up the

conservation of Nilgiri Tahr.128

Aircel has started the campaign „Save our Tigers‟, in partnership with World

Wildlife Fund, calling for immediate action to protect the national animal. The

campaign went on air on January 30, 2009, has a dedicated site

(www.saveourtigers.com) where the service provider's brand ambassadors actor

Suriya, cricketer Mahender Singh Dhoni and footballer Baichung Bhutia insist that

we roar with them for the cause. Similarly, another cellular company „Idea‟ is

endorsing to go green and is urging people not to waste paper, with Abhishek

Bachchan as their brand Ambassador.129

The electronic company „Panasonic‟ also came up with the environmental initiative

in 2009 in India. Further, for spreading environmental awareness, the company has

launched „eco ideas‟ campaign all over India. In 2010, it revealed its plans to

become the top green innovator in the electronics industry by its centennial

anniversary in 2018, by making its products more energy-efficient and by

minimising the environmental impact of its operations. The company aims to reduce

its carbon dioxide emissions by 120 tonnes compared to the base level in 2006. It

also plans to increase the sales of energy systems business to three trillion yen out of

the total targeted sales of 10 trillion yen by 2018.130 As part of the programme in

115

India, the company has tied up with the Bangalore-based E-Parisaraa Private Ltd for

recycling its products while Panasonic exclusive outlets have been used as collecting

points for old televisions. 131

There are other companies also, involved in environment protection, in particular,

wildlife. For instance, Tata Chemicals is lending its voice for saving whale sharks

and Gir lions. HSBC is involved in turtle conservation. It provides Rs 4 lakh per

year for Operation Kachhapa to spread awareness about the conservation of the sea

turtle, a project by the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) and Wildlife

Society of Orissa.132

Greenathon:

NDTV with the support of Toyoto started a campaign to save the environment in

which they telecasted 24-hour nonstop programming -THE GREENATHON, urging

Indian citizens to take a pledge towards a greener tomorrow. Taking forward its

'Open Up Tomorrow, Today' campaign to save our planet. The Greenathon started

across the NDTV network on the 7 February 2009. It was inaugurated by Dr. R.K.

Pachauri, Nobel-prize winner, Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change and Director-General of TERI, and Dr. Prannoy Roy, Chairman of NDTV.

Popular Indian actress Priyanka Chopra is the brand ambassador of this campaign.

The campaign roped in a number of Bollywood celebrities like Shahrukh Khan,

Preity Zinta, Aamir Khan, Aishwarya Rai, Madhuri Dixit and many more. The

NDTV-Toyota Greenathon in its first year helped raise funds to solar power over 55

villages in India through TERI's Lighting a Billion Lives initiative.133

People from all fields are encouraged to involve in programmes and activities for the

protection of the environment. A number of colleges and schools are organising

environment programmes, rallies, competitions and activities to enhance awareness

and a sense of responsibility among students towards environment. In 2006, the

Bharathidasan University in Tiruchi, stepped in to offer MBA in Environmental

Management and, in 2008, the University Grants Commission recognised the course

under „Innovative Programme' with a grant of Rs.50 lakh.134 Recently, before

Diwali, an anti-crackers rally was organised by Kendriya Vidyalaya students in the

capital city of Delhi to sensitise residents of adjoining areas about the ill-effects of

116

pollution caused by bursting of crackers.135 The educational institutions have also

adopted green technologies in their campuses to promote environmental protection

among students. Top educational institutions like Jadavpur University, St Xavier‟s

College, Scottish Church College in Kolkata have installed solar power facilities.136

The Indian army, too, got involved in environmental protection. In the 1980s, a

comprehensive environmental programme was formulated by the Army which

envisages a three-pronged strategy:

1. To educate all ranks to conserve environment.

2. To authorise infrastructure and limited funds available to the Army for eco-

generation work on ground.

3. To create environmental cells at all levels of command to provide

institutional back-up.137

To further enhance the awareness of public regarding environment, the government

also organises rallies and festivals. One of the major environmental film festivals

being held in India is the CMS Vatavaran Film Festival initiated in 2002. It is

India‟s premier festival on environment and wildlife issues in the country organised

by the CMS Environment team. The festival has two different versions (1)

competitive festival and (2) travelling festival. The competitive festival is held in

every odd year in New Delhi. In the competitive festival more than a 100 green

films are screened over a period of five days. Eminent personalities from diverse

fields constitute the award jury and the awards are conferred on to the filmmakers in

a gala award ceremony. The cash component of the award ranges from Rs. 25,000 to

Rs. 1.5 lakh. Five editions of competitive festivals have been organised till date. The

sixth competitive festival will be held in November 2011 in New Delhi. In the

travelling festival, seminars, symposiums, technical workshops, painting

competitions, exhibitions, games, talks and eco-trips are held.138

117

REFERENCES

1 S. P. Das Gupta, „Environmental Science in Ancient India‟, Geographical

Review of India, Volume 60, Number 2, 1998, pp. 101- 113.

2 Mahesh Mathur, Legal Control of Environmental Pollution: Jurisprudence

and Laws Applicable to Environmental Violation and Prevention, Deep and

Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1996, p. 135.

3 Ibid, p. 137.

4 Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, Environmental Law and Policy in

India: Cases, Materials and Statutes (Second Edition), Oxford University

Press, New Delhi, 2001, p. 23.

5 Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, The Use and Abuse of Nature:

Incorporating This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India and

Ecology and Equity, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2000, p. 137.

6 Madhav Gadgil, „Towards an Ecological History of India‟, Economic and

Political Weekly, Volume 20, Number 45/47, 1985, pp. 1909-

1911+1913+1915+1917-1918.

7 Ranabir Chakravarti, „The Creation and Expansion of Settlements and

Management of Hydraulic Resources in Ancient India‟, in Richard H. Grove,

Vinita Damodaran and Satpul Sangwan (eds.) Nature and the Orient: The

Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Oxford University

Press, New Delhi, 1998, p. 93.

8 Phillippe Cullet and Joyeeta Gupta, „India: Evolution of Water Law and

Policy‟, available at http://www.ielrc.org/content/a0901.pdf accessed on 22

November 2010 at 7:21 pm.

9 S. P. Das Gupta, op. cit.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 Ranabir Chakravarti, op.cit., pp. 95-96.

118

14 Ibid, p. 96.

15 Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., pp. 88-89.

16 Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (Second Edition)

Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1973, p. 264.

17 Ranabir Chakravarti, op.cit., p. 98.

18 Ibid, p. 99.

19 Richard Grove, „Conserving Eden: The (European) East India Companies

and Their Environmental Policies on St. Helena, Mauritius and in Western

India, 1660 to 1854‟, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Volume

35, Number 2, 1993, pp. 318-351.

20 Aparna Sawhney, New Face of Environmental Management in India,

Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire, 2004, p. 125.

21 Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., p. 116.

22 Phillippe Cullet and Joyeeta Gupta, op. cit.

23 Ibid, pp. 118-120.

24 H. Cleghorn, Forests and Gardens of South India, W. H. Allen, London, p.

60.

25 Mark Harrison, Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and

British Imperialism in India 1600-1850, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi, 1999, p. 21.

26 Jacques Pouchepadass, „Colonialism and Environment in India: Comparative

Perspective‟, Economic and Political Weekly, Volume 30, Number 33, 1995,

pp. 2059-2067.

27 Richard Grove, op.cit.

28 S. Shyamsunder and S. Parameswarappa, „Forestry in India: The Forester's

View‟, Ambio, Volume 16, Number 6, 1987, pp. 332-337.

29 Ravi Rajan, „Imperial Environmentalism or Environmental Imperialism?

European Forestry, Colonial Foresters and the Agendas of Forest

Management in British India 1800-1900‟, in Richard H. Grove, Vinita

Damodaran and Satpul Sangwan(eds.) Nature and the Orient, op. cit., pp.

343-344.

30 Ibid, p. 347

119

31 Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., p. 121.

32 Ibid, pp. 122-123.

33 Ravi Rajan, op. cit., p. 352.

34 Joseph Sramek, “Face Him Like a Briton”: Tiger Hunting, Imperialism, and

British Masculinity in Colonial India, 1800–1875‟, Victorian Studies,

Volume 48, Number 4, 2006, pp. 661-680.

35 Richard H. Grove, Ecology, Climate and Empire: The Indian Legacy in

Global Environmental History, 1400-1940, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi, 1998, p. 19.

36 Ravi Rajan, op. cit., p. 352.

37 http://indiacode.nic.in/ accessed on 22 November 2010 at 6:32 pm.

38 First Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New

Delhi, p. 1.

39 Ibid.

40 http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/history/func.htm accessed on 17

January 2011 at 3:08 pm.

41 http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/index.html accessed on 17

January 2011 at 3:09 pm.

42 H.P. Chattopadhyay and Indu Baghel, Indian Administration (Volume I)

Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi, 2009, p. 211.

43 O. P. Dwivedi, India‟s Environmental Policies, Programmes and

Stewardship, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 64.

44 Ravindra N. Saxena and Sangita Saxena, The Handbook of Environment and

Forest Legislations, Guidelines and Procedures in India (with special

reference to mining) Green Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003, pp.139-141.

45 O.P. Dwivedi, op. cit., p. 64.

46 Sixth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New

Delhi, p. 343.

47 Ibid, p. 351.

48 Ibid, p. 343.

49 Ibid, pp. 343-348.

50 Ibid, pp. 348-349.

120

51 Ibid, p. 349.

52 Ibid, pp. 349-350.

53 O.P. Dwivedi, op. cit., pp. 64-65.

54 Seventh Year Plan (Volume II), Planning Commission, Government of India,

New Delhi, p. 385.

55 Ibid, p. 388.

56 Ibid, pp. 388-393.

57 Ibid, p. 394.

58 Eighth Five Year Plan (Volume II), Planning Commission, Government of

India, New Delhi, p. 95.

59 Ibid, p. 96.

60 Ibid.

61 Ibid, p. 97.

62 Ibid, p. 92.

63 Ninth Five Year Plan (Volume II) Planning Commission, Government of

India, New Delhi, p. 936.

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid, pp. 937-938.

66 Ibid, p. 940.

67 Ibid, p. 941.

68 Ibid.

69 Ibid, p. 942.

70 Ibid, pp. 942-944.

71 Ibid, p. 944.

72 Ibid, pp. 946-947

73 Ibid, p. 947.

74 Ibid, pp. 949-951.

75 Eighth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 100.

76 Ninth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 935.

77 Ibid, p. 930.

78 Ibid, p. 951.

79 Ibid, p. 952.

121

80 Ibid, pp. 955-957.

81 Ibid, pp. 957-960.

82 Ibid, pp. 961-966.

83 Tenth Five Year Plan, Volume 2, Planning Commission, Government of

India, New Delhi, p. 1055.

84 Ibid, p. 1073.

85 Ibid, p. 1074.

86 Ibid.

87 Ibid, p. 1075.

88 Ibid.

89 Eleventh Five Year Plan (Volume II) Planning Commission, Government of

India, New Delhi, p. 207.

90 Tenth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 1059.

91 Ibid, p. 1061.

92 Ibid, pp. 1062-1063.

93 Ibid, pp. 1064-1065.

94 Ibid, pp. 1066-1067.

95 Eleventh Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 191.

96 Tenth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 1076.

97 Eleventh Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 217.

98 Ibid, p. 191.

99 Ibid, p. 192.

100 Ibid, p. 195.

101 Ibid.

102 Ibid, p. 196.

103 Ibid, p. 197.

104 Ibid, pp. 207-214.

105 Ibid, Volume 3, pp. 65-76.

106 Ibid, Appendix.

107 Uma S. Nabhi, „Environmental Movements in India: An Assessment of their

Impact on State and Non-state Actors‟, India Quarterly, Volume 62, Number

1, 2006, pp. 123-145.

122

108 Ibid.

109 Ibid.

110 http://unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a03e/80A03E08.htm accessed on 21

January 2011 at 9:56 pm.

111 Ibid.

112 Ibid.

113 Uma S. Nabhi, op.cit.

114 Shepard Krech, John Robert McNeill, Carolyn Merchant, Encyclopedia of

World Environmental History: F-N, Volume 2, Routledge, London, 2004, pp.

869-870.

115 Ajoy Ashirwad Mahaprashasta, „Call of the River‟, Frontline, Volume 27,

Number 23, 2010, pp. 29-32.

116 World Wide Fund for Nature-India ENVIS Centre (NGOs, Parliament &

Media), Volume 6, Number 19, October- December 2006, p. 3.

117 S. Viswanathan, „Growing Awareness about Environment‟, The Hindu, 28

June 2010, available at

http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/28/stories/2010062851060900.htm accessed

on 20 January 2011.

118 World Wide Fund for Nature-India ENVIS CENTRE (NGOs, Parliament &

Media), Volume 5, Number 17, p. 9.

119 http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2006/E-APJA.pdf

accessed on 2 November 2010 at 10: 47 pm.

120 Ibid.

121 http://www.cseindia.org/node/214 accessed on 3 November 2010 at 6:47

pm

122 Fighting for a Better, Cleaner World, India Together, April 2005, available at

http://www.indiatogether.org/2005/apr/env-csenarain.htm accessed on 3

November 2010 at 6:45 pm

123 http://www.cseindia.org/node/527 accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:48 pm.

124 Press Release, „Disclosed: Lies about Endosulfan‟, 5 April 2004, available at

http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/endosulfan-pressrelease.pdf accessed on 3

November 2010 at 7:11 pm.

123

125 Press Release, CSE Lab Study: Busting the Myth about „Pure and Natural‟

Honey, 15 September 2010, New Delhi, available at

http://www.cseindia.org/node/1728, accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:38

pm.

126 http://www.teriin.org/awards/ accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:34 pm.

127 „Hand in Old Phone, Nokia will Plant a Tree‟, The Hindu, available at

http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2009/06/06/stories/200906065094110

0.htm accessed on 3 November 2010 at 10:40 pm.

128 Unit Prasanna Mukherji & Krishnendu Mukherjee, „Beyond the Tigers:

Corporates Turn Green Crusaders‟, The Times of India, 21 October 2010,

New Delhi (NCR), p. 23.

129 Sangeetha Devi Dundoo, „Stripey wins Hearts‟, The Hindu, 14 February

2010, available at http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/society/article105969.ece

accessed on 3 November 2010 at 10:53 pm.

130 „Panasonic to Invest Rs 1,000 cr in New Plant‟, Business Line, 12 October 2010, available at

http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/10/12/stories/201010125285030

0.htm accessed on 3 November 2010 at 11:03 pm.

131 „Panasonic to Extend Recycling Programme‟, 25 September 2010, The Hindu, New

Delhi, available at http://www.thehindu.com/business/companies/article795483.ece

accessed on 3 November 2010 at 11:08 pm.

132 Unit Prasanna Mukherji & Krishnendu Mukherjee, op.cit.

133 http://green.ndtv.com/Greenathon-campaign.aspx accessed on 21 January

2011 at 11:15 pm.

134 R. Krishnamoorthy, „The Need of the Hour is Environment Management‟, 21

June 2010, The Hindu, available at http://www.hindu.com /edu

/2010/06/21/stories/2010062150070400.htm accessed on 21 January 2011 at

11:14 pm.

135 „School Children Pitch in for an Eco-friendly Diwali‟, The Hindu, New

Delhi, 3 November 2010, p. 4.

136 „Colleges in Kolkata Run on Solar Power‟, The Pioneer, 20 September 2010,

New Delhi, p. 6.

124

137 Seveshree Mohapatra, „Conservation of the Environmental and Indian

Army‟, Kurukshetra, Volume 45, Number 4 & 5, 1997.

138 http://cmsvatavaran.org/indexinner.php?cat=home%20&%20id=30 accessed

on 5 November 2010 at 5:12 pm.