Environmental and Economical Implications of Municipal ...prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1781/1/905S.pdf · of Dar-ul-Ehsan, Faisalabad, my father Allah Ditta Qazi (R.A)

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPOST APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURAL FIELDS

IN PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

By

Mr. Muhammad Akram Qazi, M.Sc. (Hons.), Agriculture (Soil Science)

Under the supervision of

Prof. Dr. Nasir Ahmad M.Sc. (Pb.), Ph.D. (U.K)

Prof. Dr. Atta Muhammad Ranjha

M.Sc. (UAF), Ph.D. (UAF)

A thesis submitted to University of the Punjab in the fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

INSTITUTE OF GEOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE- PAKISTAN

2008

This thesis is dedicated to my spiritual guide the most revered man of his time among the

select of Allah, Hadrat Abu Anees Muhammad Barkat Ali Ludhiyanvi (R.A), the founder

of Dar-ul-Ehsan, Faisalabad, my father Allah Ditta Qazi (R.A) and my mother Sardar

Begum, whose prayers showered me profusely.

CERTIFICATE

It is hereby certified that this thesis is based on the results of experimental work carried out by Muhammad Akram Qazi under our supervision. We have personally gone through all the data/results/materials reported in the manuscript and certify their correctness/ authenticity. We further certify that the materials included in this thesis have not been used in part or full in a manuscript already submitted or in the process of submission in partial/complete fulfillment for the award of any other degree from any other institution. Mr. Qazi has fulfilled all conditions established by the University for the submission of this dissertation and we endorse its evaluation for the award of PhD degree through the official procedure of the University. SUPERVISOR Nasir Ahmad, PhD Professor Institute of Geology University of the Punjab Lahore, Pakistan

SUPERVISOR Atta Muhammad Ranjha, Ph D. Professor Institute of Soil & Environmental Sciences University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan

CONTENTS

Abstract i

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables iv

List of Figures vi

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Description of the Study Area 2

1.3 The Role of Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC) as an Organic Matter Source

4

1.4 Merits and Demerits of MSWC Application 5

1.5 Potential MSWC application rates 6

1.6 Objectives of the Study 7

1.7 Thesis Layout 7

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Application of Municipal Solid Waste Compost as an Organic Matter Source

9

2.2 Effect of MSWC Application on Soil Physical Properties 12

2.3 Heavy Metal Accumulation in MSWC Treated Soil 13

2.4 Environmental Implications of MSWC Application 16

2.5 Need for Judicious MSWC Application Rates 17

2.6 Integrated Use of MSWC with Chemical Fertilizers 18

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 20

3.1 Site for Rice-Wheat Cropping System 20

3.2 Site for Cotton-Wheat Cropping System 22

3.3 Experiment Layout 23

3.4 Fertilization and Agronomic Management 25

3.5 Description of Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC) Application

31

3.6 Depiction of Site-Specific Phosphorus Based Fertilizer Prediction 31

3.7 Yield Calculation 34

3.8 Soil Sampling, Analysis and Data Collection 34

3.9 Economic Analyses 34

3.10 Statistical Analysis 35

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36

4.1 Soil Physical and Chemical Attributes (Rice-Wheat Cropping System)

36

4.1.1 Soil Bulk Density (BD) 36

4.1.2 Penetration Resistance 38

4.1.3 Soil Organic Matter 40

4.1.4 Soil Phosphorus 43

4.1.5 Heavy Metals Accumulation 46

4.1.6 Crop Yields 48

4.1.7 Economical Considerations 50

4.2 Soil Physical and Chemical Attributes (Cotton-Wheat Cropping System)

56

4.2.1 Soil Bulk Density 56

4.2.2 Penetration Resistance 58

4.2.3 Soil Organic Matter 58

4.2.4 Soil Phosphorus 64

4.2.5 Heavy Metals Accumulation 64

4.2.6 Crop Yields 66

4.2.7 Economical Considerations 68

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

74

5.1 Conclusions 74

5.2 Suggestions for future work 76

REFERENCES 78

ANNEXURE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 108

i

ABSTRACT

The application of municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) is rapidly becoming popular

worldwide to enhance and sustain soil organic matter (SOM) and crop productivity. The

use of municipal solid waste as compost also offers a unique opportunity for its

economical disposal. Factually, this disposal prospect is even more important than

upraise of soil fertility and crop yields, especially in developing countries like Pakistan

where management of solid waste is a major environmental issue. Despite of its potential

as nutrient source, widespread acceptability of MSWC has suffered due to the presence of

heavy metals and possible risk to human being through food chain. Furthermore, the sole

use of MSWC to satisfy nutrients need of a crop is not a practical approach and may

result into heavy metals and phosphorus (P) accumulation in soil. Elevated P levels

pose serious environmental risk such as eutrophication. To alleviate risks of heavy

metals and phosphorus accumulation in soil, an integrated nutrient management scheme

mounting to the combined use of MSWC and mineral fertilizers is needed.

To develop a practically viable, economically feasible and environmentally safe

nutrient management plan for rice-wheat and cotton- wheat cropping systems in a region

of Punjab province of Pakistan, two 3-year (2002-05) field trials were conducted on a

permanent layout with six different treatments comprising three management strategies

and two nutrient doses. Management strategies included the application of mineral

fertilizer as the sole nutrient supplement and the application of mineral fertilizer in

combination with MSWC with and without pesticide/herbicide treatments. Within each

management strategy, nutrients were applied in two different doses. One dose was based

on standard N, P and K recommendations without site specific analysis of soil nutrient

levels. For the second dose, the applied fertilizer amount was calculated based on

measured, site specific, plant available soil phosphorus levels. Results revealed that an

integrated application of MSWC and mineral fertilizer based on site specific phosphorus

levels with the use of pesticides and herbicides was an economically viable and

environmentally safe option in comparison with general practice of sole mineral fertilizer

applications. The application of MSWC also led to the improvement (statistically

significant) of physical properties of soil in terms of reduction in soil bulk density and

ii

penetration resistance. Soil organic matter contents were found to be sustainable over 3-

year trial period and almost no significant increase and decrease in SOM was observed.

Measured, site specific, plant available soil phosphorus level for surface (0-15 cm) soil

was significantly higher as compared to initial status in both cropping systems for all

treatments by the end of trial and was near to the target sufficiency levels. Phosphorus

accumulations, important from environmental point of view, were also not observed. No

potential risk of heavy metals (Zn, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni) accumulation was ascertained. On the

basis of experimental results, a combined use of MSWC and chemical fertilizer can be

recommended to the farmers to reap its benefits in terms of improvement in SOM content

and physical properties of soil. Consequently, higher crop yield.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Allah Almighty (SWT) – the Lord of worlds, the Sustainer of the worlds be praised who

through his limitless mercies enabled me to complete the thesis under reference.

All compliments are due to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon Him), the

greatest social reformer and revolutioner, who is a symbol of guidance and source of

knowledge.

I am thankful to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Nasir Ahmad and Prof. Dr. Atta Muhammad

Ranjha for their cooperation, valuable suggestions and encouraging attitude throughout

the study period.

I owe deep gratitude to Dr. Markus Tuller, Department of Soil, Water and Environment,

University of Arizona, USA, for his cooperation and friendly attitude while working as

visiting scholar with him.

I don’t have words adequate enough to express my gratitude to Mr. Muhammad Akram

for his valuable guidance that went a long way to complete the PhD project.

I wish to record my heartiest thanks to my sister, wife, son, daughters, who have been

praying for my success until the completion of this study.

I would also like to acknowledge and thank Higher Education Commission, Islamabad

for financial assistance to complete this research project.

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Crop Production Regions of Pakistan (FAO, 2004) 3

Table 3.1 Soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site

(R-W system) at the beginning of the field trial

21

Table 3.2 Soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site

(C-W system) at the beginning of the field trial

23

Table-3.3 Detail of sowing and harvesting dates 26

Table-3.4 Detail of herbicide and pesticide/insecticide application in rice-

wheat cropping system with dates

27

Table-3.5 Detail of herbicide and pesticide/insecticide application in

Cotton-wheat cropping system with dates

28

Table 3.6 Evaluated treatments 29

Table 3.7 Properties of the applied municipal solid waste compost

(MSWC) and U.S. EPA (1995) established pollutant

concentration (PC) standards, ceiling concentrations (CC), and

cumulative pollutant loading rate limits (CPLR).

29

Table 3.8 Applied mineral fertilizer rates to the experimental site (R-W

system)

30

Table 3.9 Applied mineral fertilizer rates to the experimental site (C-W

system)

30

Table 3.10 Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) application rates to the

experimental site (R-W system)

32

Table 3.11 Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) application rates to the

experimental site (C-W system)

33

Table 4.1 Treatment effects on soil physical properties in R-W system

37

v

Table 4.2 Organic matter and soil phosphorus status at the end of the 3-

year trial in R-W system

42

Table 4.3 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on wheat

and rice yields

51

Table 4.4 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on

cumulative net profits and value-cost ratios in R-W system.

54

Table 4.5 Treatment effects on soil physical properties in C-W system 57

Table 4.6 SOM and soil phosphorus status at the end of the 3-year trial in

C-W system

62

Table 4.7 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on wheat

and rice yields in C-W system

69

Table 4.8 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on

cumulative net profits and value-cost ratios in C-W system.

71

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures (lines) and

precipitation (bars) at the experimental site (R-W system) during

the field trial.

20

Figure 3.2 Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperature (lines) and

precipitation (bars) at the experimental site (C-W system) during

the experimental period (2002-2005).

22

Figure 3.3 Field layout of the experimental site for rice-wheat and cotton-

wheat cropping system

24

Figure 4.1 Evolution of bulk densities over the 3-year trial period in R-W

system

39

Figure 4.2 Evolution of penetration resistances over the 3-year trial period in

R-W system

41

Figure 4.3 Evolution of organic carbon contents over the 3-year trial period

in R-W system

44

Figure 4.4 Evolution of phosphorus levels over the 3-year trial period in R-

W system

45

Figure 4.5 Heavy metal levels at the end of the 3-year trial relative to pretrial

levels in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of

means; means with the same letter on top of the error bar are not

significantly different at the 5% probability level).

47

Figure 4.6 Grain and straw yields for wheat and rice separated for growing

season

52

Figure 4.7 Net profit and value to cost ratio (VCR) for wheat and rice

separated for growing season

55

Figure 4.8 Evolution of bulk densities over the 3-year trial period in C-W

system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

59

vii

Figure 4.9 Evolution of penetration resistances over the 3-year trial period in

C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

60

Figure 4.10 Evolution of SOM contents over the 3-year trial period (error bars

indicate the standard error of means).

63

Figure 4.11 Evolution of phosphorus levels over the 3-year trial period in C-

W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

65

Figure 4.12 Heavy metal levels at the end of the 3-year trial relative to pretrial

levels in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of

means; means with the same letter on top of the error bar are not

significantly different at the 5% probability level).

67

Figure 4.13 Grain and straw yields for wheat and cotton separated for growing

season (error bars indicate the standard error of means)

70

Figure 4.14 Net profit and value to cost ratio (VCR) for wheat and cotton

separated for growing season in C-W system (error bars indicate

the standard error of means)

72

viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CC Ceiling Concentrations

DAP Di-ammonium Phosphate

EC Electrical Conductivity

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

MOP Murate of Potash

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

MSWC Municipal Solid Waste Compost

OM Organic Matter

PC Pollutant Concentration

SOM Soil Organic Matter

STP Soil Test Phosphorus

VCR Value-to-Cost-Ratio

WSP Water Soluble Phosphorus

SS Sewage Sludge

t Metric Tons

BD Bulk Density

R-W Rice-Wheat

C-W Cotton-Wheat

Chapter One Introduction 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

About one-forth of total area (79.61 M ha) of Pakistan is being cultivated to feed a

population of 162.6 million (PCO, 2008). Presently, the agriculture growth rate (1.6 %) is

not compatible with the rapidly growing population at the rate of 2.6 % (MOF, 2006).

Hence, it is enormously needed to produce more grains (food) to meet the demands of the

quickly increasing population. At the same time, agriculture of the country is facing a

fierce competition for land, water and other natural resources with other sectors,

including industry and urbanization. Thus per capita land availability has decreased from

0.25 ha in 1970-71 to 0.15 ha in 2002-03 (FAO, 2004). Since more and more land is lost

to non-agricultural purposes and to land degradation, the increase in food demand has to

be met by increasing produce from the existing land resources. Crop intensification is the

main vehicle for increasing food output. However, intensive cultivation with high

yielding crop varieties augmented with unscrupulous use of fertilizers has led to the

depletion of soil organic matter (SOM) content and the degradation of soil quality

(Sharpley et al., 1998; Aggelides and Londra, 2000; Wells et al., 2000; Blum et al., 2004;

Van-Camp et al., 2004 and Cala et al., 2005).

Risks of soil degradation can be managed by increasing soil organic matter to a

level crucial for sustaining soil quality (Madrid et al., 2007 and Chatrath et al., 2007). It

is reported (Nizami and Khan, 1989 and Zia et al. 1998a) that soil of a vast area of

Pakistan is extremely poor in organic matter which has appeared to be the main cause of

crop yield stagnation (Dawe et al., 2000; Yadav et al., 2000 and Ladha et al., 2003).

Chemical fertilizers in combination with organic manures can be effectively used to level

off the yield stagnation (Subramanian and Kumaraswamy, 1989a; Lal and Stewart, 1995

and Reeves, 1994). Because efficient use of chemical fertilizers requires an optimum

level of organic matter in the soil that can be achieved by integrated use of nutrients

through chemical fertilizers and organic materials or biosolids, including composts

(Subbian et al., 2000). Thus, present study focuses on the integrated use of municipal


solid waste compost (MSWC) on agricultural fields in cotton- wheat and rice wheat

cropping systems to enhance SOM status to remove the yield stagnation and to improve

soil properties. This study is first of its kind in Pakistan and will provide data base for

future research work and guidelines for policy makers.

1.2 Description of the Study Area

Pakistan is an agro-based developing country. It is administratively divided into four

provinces; the Punjab Province, the Sind Province, the Baluchistan Province and the

North West Frontier Province (N.W.F.P). Based on major cropping systems, there are

fifteen crop production regions in Pakistan and their province wise distribution is given in

table 1.1. Cropping system implies a specific pattern in crop succession within a field and

plays an important role in maintaining and enhancing soil quality (Lal, 2003a) for a

sustainable agricultural productivity (Subbian et al., 2000). Therefore, the application of

cropping systems research approach is highly desirable. Rice-wheat and cotton-wheat are

the major cropping systems of the Punjab Province. Rice-wheat cropping system of the

province occupies about 2.8 Mha (66%) of the total area of 4.25 Mha of rice-based

cropping system in Pakistan (FAO, 2004). Rice and wheat are both nutrient-demanding

crops and the rice-wheat cropping system, depending on production level, annually

removes 270-680 kg ha-1 of N, P and K (Singh et al., 2003).

The present study is undertaken at the Adaptive Research Farm Gujranwala,

Department of Agriculture, Punjab, Pakistan (32 o 21726 N and 74 o 23071 E). The area is

228 m above mean sea level and is characterized by a semi-arid climate with total annual

rainfall of 626 to 761 mm during study period (2003-2005). About 70% of rainfall is

received during rice season (June-October) in each year with intense heat. The mean

maximum temperature varies between 30.3 to 41.3 oC while mean minimum temperature

is remained in the range of 16.0 to 26.5 oC during these months. Summer temperatures are

generally higher and maximum temperature in summer is reached to 41.3 °C and

minimum temperature in winter may be as low as 3.9 °C. Soils of this cropping system

are loamy in general derived originally from alluvial material of Indo-Gangetic plain

formed in front of the rising Himalayas (Tahir, 2006)


Table 1.1 Crop Production Regions of Pakistan (FAO, 2004)

Rainfall (mm) (1966-2002)

Sr. No.

Region Cropping Pattern Agricultural area

(million ha)

Source of Irrigation

Average Range

1. Punjab I Cotton-wheat 5.5 Canal, Tube Well 156 55-247

2. Punjab II Rice-wheat 2.8 Canal, Tube Well 800 600-1100

3. Punjab III Mixed crops 4.1 Canal, Tube Well 446 240-688

4. Punjab IV Pulses-wheat 1.9 Canal, Rainfed 300 200-550

5. Punjab V Maize/wheat-oilseeds

1.2 Rainfed 900 700-1200

6. Sindh I Cotton-wheat 1.6 Canal 50 43-70

7. Sindh II Rice-wheat 1.1 Canal 58 40-78

8. Sindh III Mixed crops 1.3 Canal, dry 123 62-200

9. NWFP I Maize-wheat 0.9 Rainfed 1050 240-1700

10. NWFP II Mixed crops 0.53 Canal 520 400-670

11. NWFP III Pulses-wheat 0.36 Canal, dry 500 300-600

12. Balochistan I Mixed crops 0.40 Tube Well Karez 180 65-3405

13. Balochistan II Orchards/vegetables-wheat

0.30 Tube Well Karez 115 27-290

14. Balochistan III Rice-wheat 0.35 Canal - -

15. Balochistan IV Peri-urban 0.02 Tube Well Karez 167 167


Cotton-wheat cropping system is one of the major cropping systems of Pakistan.

This cropping system covers an area of 5.5 million ha in the Punjab of the total area of

7.1 Mha in Pakistan (FAO, 2004). The area includes central and southern parts of the

Punjab province and is characterized as semi-arid to arid region. It is reported that the

soils of semiarid zones are low in organic carbon and mainly depend upon climate,

cropping system and soil nitrogen content (Jarvis et al., 1996 and Pascual et al., 1997).

The Riawind cotton research sub-station is a Desi/Asiatic cotton growing area and is

situated between longitudes 74.21686 o E and latitudes 31.23886o N about 100 km south

of rice-wheat experimental site. Climatic conditions of this station are characterized by

annual rainfall ranging from 495 to 627mm. The daily average minimum air temperature

during cotton season (May–October) is 25.8 0C and maximum temperature is 37.1 0C.

During wheat season (November– April), the average daily minimum air temperature is

13.8 0C and maximum is 24.9 0C. The soil of the research plots is classified as sandy

loam, free from salinity hazard with very poor soil organic matter content (5 g kg-1).

1.3 The Role of Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC) as an Organic Matter Source

It has shown that soils should be amended with proper organic sources in order to

maintain soil organic matter content and quality of soil to a level required for a

sustainable cropping system. Among organic inputs, animal waste (Bulluck et al., 2002

and Edmeades, 2003), crop residues (Lal, 2005 and Kong et al., 2005), green manure

(Sebastiana et al., 2006 and Edmeades, 2003) and municipal solid waste manure (Akram

et al., 2007.) are found to be appropriate to enhance organic constituents of surface soil.

However, sustainable supply of organic matter to soil through these means, excluding

MSWC, is severely limited due to their other utilizations. Thus the application of

municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) is gaining popularity because of its easy

availability, cost-effectiveness, environmentally safe and agronomical importance

(Juwarkar, et al., 1992; Parr et al., 1992; Shiralipour et al., 1992b; Stratton et al., 1995;

Ghosh and Bhattacharyya, 2004; Van-Camp et al., 2004 and Sharholy et al., 2007). The

use of MSWC in agricultural fields is also a feasible alternative to open landfill disposal

or incineration (Said-Pullicino et al., 2004; Litterick et al., 2004; Elherradi et al., 2005

and Bruun et al., 2006; Montemurro et al., 2006; Weber et al., 2007 and Madrid et al.,


2007 and Montemurro et al., 2007) because the application of compost to the soil stops

soil compaction by increasing organic constituents of soil that lowers its bulk density and

increases porosity (Childs et al., 1989; Haynes and Naidue, 1998 and Mosaddeghi et al.,

2000).

1.4 Merits and Demerits of MSWC Application

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a heterogeneous mixture of organic and inorganic

materials and its per capita generation and composition may vary from country to country

because of several factors including dietary habits, cultural traditions, lifestyle, climate

and income (Jin et al., 2006). Approximately 65% of the total MSW in America is

reportedly organic and thus compostable (US EPA, 1988). Composting is the biological

decomposition of the biodegradable organic components under moist and thermophilic

conditions. It is an important component in hierarchy of integrated solid waste

management. Like many other developing/under developing countries, large quantities of

MSW in Pakistan are openly dumped in low lying areas without taking any precaution or

operational control, which poses a serious threat to all components of the environment

and human health (Pontius, 1992; Woodbury, 1992; Kansal et al., 1998; Gupta et al.,

1998; Kansal, 2002; Jha et al., 2003; Sharholy et al., 2005; Ray et al., 2005 and Rathi,

2006). Surprisingly, even not a single proper landfill site exists in Pakistan (PEPA, 2005).

Therefore, MSW management is one of the major environmental problems of

mega cities of developing countries (Sharholy et al., 2008). The agricultural use of this

waste in order to improve soil quality could be considered as an appropriate and adequate

approach for the MSW management. Over the last few years, the private sector of

Pakistan has taken initiative to establish composting facilities for agricultural application

(PEPA, 2005) because of its inherent advantages such as its ability to improve SOM and

nutrient status (Weber, 2007; Madrid et al., 2007; Montemurro, 2006; Parnaudeau et al.,

2004; Zheljazkov and Warman, 2004b and Tejada et al., 2001; Alvarenga et al, 2007 and

Jilani 2007), to enhance soil chemical properties (Madejon et al., 2003; Montemurro et

al., 2005a and Sander et al., 2006), physical properties (Annabi et al., 2007; Alvarenga et

al, 2007 and Weber et al., 2007) and biological characteristics (Serra-Wittling et al.,

1996; Banerjee et al., 1997 and Melero et al., 2007). Besides copious numbers of positive


aspects of MSWC applications, there is justified concern regarding potential

accumulation of compost-borne heavy metals in surface soils (Deportes et al., 1995;

Pinamonti et al., 1997; Illera et al., 2000; Bhattacharyya et al., 2003; Zheljazkov and

Warman, 2004a; Weber et al., 2007 and Madrid et al., 2007) which poses ultimately risk

to human being through food chain (Stratton et al., 1995; Breslin, 1999 and During and

Gath, 2002). To prevent detrimental effects, potential application rates are needed to be

carefully tested in well controlled field trials.

1.5 Potential MSWC application rates

Municipal solid waste compost is considered as low-nutrient fertilizer with a plant

available nitrogen/phosphorus (N/P) ratio of approximately 1:2 (Spargo et al., 2006). In

contrast, optimal soil N/P ratios for most crops range between 7:1 and 10:1 (Heckman et

al., 2003 and Sikora and Enkiri, 2004). So far, much of the work is mainly focused on the

use of MSWC as the sole nutrient source based on N requirement of crop (Eghball and

Gilley, 1999 and Eghball, 2002), which does not appear to be a judicious approach and

lower application rates are desirable to avoid accumulation of heavy metals, salts and

phosphorus (Sikora, and Enkiri, 2000). Applications based on nitrogen demand require

MSWC rates close to 100 tons per hectare (Sikora, and Enkiri, 1999) leading to N/P

imbalance and phosphorus accumulation close to the soil surface. Elevated P levels

are problematic from environmental point of view due to P over loading of surface

water bodies and associated risks of eutrophication (Kundu, et al., 2007; Eghball,

2002; Sharpley and Moyer, 2000 and Sims, et al., 1998). To avoid phosphorus

enrichment while maintaining the appropriate level in soil, it is suggested that MSWC

application rates should be devised on the basis of crop P requirements (Juang et al., 2002

and Singer et al., 2004).

To reduce the risk of heavy metal and phosphorus accumulations, it is also not

advisable to utilize compost as the sole nutrient source for crop production (Shah and

Anwar, 2003; Manios, 2003; Sikora, and Enkiri, 1999). However, combined application

of compost and mineral fertilizer has proved to be effective, environmental friendly and

agronomically sound management strategy (Sikora, and Enkiri, 2000) to uphold SOM

level. However, research is required for the development of ideal integrated nutrient


management strategy (Mohammad, 1999: Manna et al., 2007 and Singh et al., 2007)

through holistic approach (Site-specific nutrient management) to utilize MSWC in

conjunction with mineral fertilizer.

1.6 Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of the study are:

• To evaluate the utilization of municipal solid waste compost in conjunction with

mineral fertilizers as a nutrient and organic matter source.

• To investigate the environmental implications of MSWC application to

agricultural fields.

• To find out cost-effective, environmentally safe and agronomically viable strategy

to use MSWC on regular basis by local farmers.

1.7 Thesis Layout

This thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter one gives rational of the study,

introduces the study area in terms of location and climatic conditions. It also covers the

various cropping systems of the country along with merits and demerits of the application

of municipal solid waste compost in combination with mineral fertilizer, and lays down

study objectives.

Chapter two reviews the pertinent literature which deals mainly with the

significance of MSWC as an organic matter source, its impact on soil properties,

potential risk of heavy metal accretion in MSWC treated soil and integrated use of

MSWC with chemical fertilizer.

Chapter three covers site description and methodology of laboratory analysis and

experimental field research work. It also describes the detail of six evaluated treatments

comprising three management strategies and two nutrient doses along with statistical

method of data analysis.

Chapter four portraits the results of twelve experiments conducted for six crop

seasons from 2002 to 2005 in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems. Treatment

wise cumulative results were discussed for soil bulk density, soil penetration resistance,


soil organic matter, soil phosphorus, surface soil heavy metals specifically cadmium

(Cd), chromium (Cr), nickels(Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), crop yields, net profit and

value cost ratio.

Chapter five includes conclusions of the research work and some suggestions for

future work.

Chapter Two Review of the Literature 9

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

During the past few decades, crop production strategies have been increasingly

investigated to sustain agricultural productivity and maintain soil quality while meeting

the needs and concerns of farming community (Jackson et al., 1993; Drinkwater et al.,

1995 and Mitchell et al., 1998). To satisfy farmers concerns, multidisciplinary

investigations have been suggested and their results showed many differences in soil

properties (Clark et al., 1998; and Pretty et al., 2002).

Many management practices are known to influence the soil properties. These

include crop type (Alberts and Wendt, 1985 and Scott et al., 1994), cultivation and

application of organic residues (Anderson et al, 1990 and Ekwue, 1990 b), site-specific

fertilizer application (Akram et al., 1993 and 1994) and integrated plant nutrients

management (Zeleke et al., 2004 and Akram et al., 2007). The application of organic

residues to agricultural land is considered an economically viable option in order to

increase nutrients and organic matter (Haynes and Naidu, 1998 and Sharma and

Buhushan, 2001) and support crop production. Organic amendments used in combination

with chemical fertilizers can effectively meet the nutrient needs of crops. Hence, this

chapter covers literature review on topics like MSWC as an organic matter source, the

influence of MSWC addition on soil physical properties and its environmental

implications.

2.1 Application of Municipal Solid Waste Compost as an Organic Matter Source

The intensive cropping patterns (Ghosh and Bhattacharyya, 2004), climate (warm and dry

summers with a prolonged drought, and heavy rainfall during autumn) and inadequate

land management in Mediterranean countries have decreased organic matter content and

fertility of soils (Cala et al., 2005). In addition, traditional cultivation practices aggravate

the situation and cause the further depletion of SOM (Wells et al., 2000). Mineral

fertilizers are still considered as a main factor for upholding soil fertility (Wei and Liu,

2005) and practice to apply organic amendment is limited (Zia et al., 1998b) with a


consequence of inability to ensure a sustainable crop production system (Aggelides and

Londra, 2000).

The use of compost derived from municipal solid waste as a soil conditioner is

now becoming worldwide practice (Said-Pullicino et al., 2004) mainly for a sustainable

crop production (Parr and Hornick, 1992 and Slivka et al., 1992) and the recycling of

organic waste may prove a potentially large untapped source of nutrients for crops,

especially grown on agricultural lands near urban centers (Gruhn et al., 2000). Several

investigations have shown that waste recycling and the recirculation of nutrients back to

soil entails the environmental benefits (Braber, 1995; Sakai et al., 1996 and Lema and

Omil, 2001). It provides an economically viable alternative to landfill and incineration

(Woodbury, 1992 and Bruun et al., 2006) because of several advantages, including lower

operational costs, less environmental pollution, and beneficial uses of the end product

(He et al., 1992; Bhattacharyya et al., 2003 and Gigliotti et al. 2005).

Shiralipour et al. (1992b) find incorporation of composted municipal solid waste

to soil has positively effected the growth and yield of many crops. The nutritional value

of MSWC is similar to inorganic fertilizer and some times compost even leads to better

crop yields than sludge, manure and NPK fertilizer (Hortenstine and Rothwell, 1968

and1973). Hortenstine and Rothwell (1973) have shown increased yield of sorghum crop

with the application of MSWC to a sandy soil and the addition of compost at a rate of 64

t ha-1 gave equal or greater sorghum yield than soils treated with N-P-K fertilizer grade10

- 4.4 - 8.3 at the rate of 2 t ha-1. Several other studies (Chu and Wong, 1987; Fritz and

Venter, 1988 and Bryan and Lance, 1991) have also documented positive response of

crops (Chinese cabbage, tomatoes, carrots, spinach, lamb’s lettuce, radish, bean, blackeye

pea and potatoes) in terms of yield with the application of MSWC.

Lal and Kimble (1999) have reported that increased soil organic carbon (SOC)

due to the addition of MSWC improves soil quality, reduces soil erosion, increases

biomass and agronomic productivity and improves environmental quality by adsorbing

pollutants from natural waters and reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)

concentration. The decline of SOM by erosion and leaching is considered one of the most

important threats to soil (Blum et al., 2004 and Van-Camp et al., 2004) and this loss can


only be overcome, in short-term, by the application of organic amendment, such as

MSWC (Han et al., 2000; Parnaudeau et al., 2004 and Van-Camp et al., 2004).

Application of compost to agricultural soils has numerous advantages; it enhances

the plant nutrients status of soil (Khaleel et al., 1981; Lal and Kang, 1982; Gallardo-Lara

and Nogales, 1987; Sanchez et al., 1989; McConnell et al., 1993; Giusquiani et al., 1995;

Rodrigues et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1997; Haynes and Naidu, 1998; Zebarth et al., 1999;

Tejada et al., 2001; Zheljazkov and Warman, 2004; Ghosh and Bhattacharyya, 2004 and

Sharholy et al., 2007), maintains soil organic matter at higher levels as compared to

inorganic fertilizers (Madejon et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2006; Alvarenga et al., 2007 and

Weber et al., 2007), improves soil physico-chemical properties (Alvarenga et al., 2007),

promotes beneficial soil organisms and reduces plant pathogens (Abawi and Widmer,

2000), improves water holding capacity of soil (Wells et al., 2000), establishes a low cost

and an effective disposal method (Gigliotti et al., 2005 and Spargo et al., 2006), reduces

the need for inorganic fertilizers (Iglesias-Jimenez and Alvarez, 1993 and Bellamy et al.,

1995) and controls erosion, water infiltration, and conservation of nutrients

(Franzluebbers, 2002a). Several other researchers (Bevacqua and Mellano, 1993;

McConnel et al., 1993; Smith, 1996; Maynard, 1995: Cortellini et al., 1996;

Korboulewsky et al., 2002; Manna et al., 2006 and Montemurro, 2006) have also reported

similar findings.

The application of MSWC has gained attraction under current scenario wherein

other traditional sources of organic matter are rapidly declining due to burning of waste

and residues for energy purposes, utilization of straw as animal feed and a substantive

drop in green manure due to crop intensification (Juwarkar et al., 1992; Parr and Hornick,

1992; Shiralipour et al., 1992b and Stratton et al., 1995; Lal, 2005; Skoulou and

Zabaniotou, 2007; and Tejada et al., 2008). While maintaining adequate organic matter

levels in soil is crucial for sustaining soil fertility and crop production (Ros et al., 2006

and Madrid et al., 2007). Thus number of composting facilities and the amount of source

separated MSWC with associated land application have been increased in many countries

of Europe (Barth and Kroeger, 1998 and Evans, 2004) and in the United States

(Goldstein, 2003).


2.2 Effect of MSWC Application on Soil Physical Properties

The importance of MSWC application primarily lies in its ability to improve the soil

quality in terms of its physical properties instead of its significance as a fertilizer

(Gallardo-Laro and Nogales, 1987; McConnell et al., 1993; Allievi et al. 1993 and

Pinamonti and Zorzi 1996) because the physical changes in soil properties permit the

nutrients to be utilized more efficiently (Kropisz and Kalinska, 1983 and Hortenstine and

Rothwell, 1972). Numerous workers have reported that MSWC imparts humic and

humic-like substances to agricultural soils and consequently improves soil physical

properties (Hernando et al., 1989; Giusquiani et al., 1995; Leita et al., 1999; Aggelides

and. Londra, 2000 and Trubetskaya et al., 2001).

Application of composted MSW reduces soil bulk density to a significant level

(McConnell et al., 1993; Turner et al., 1994; Carter and Steward, 1996; Zebarth et al.,

1999; Aggelides and Londra, 2000 and Franzluebbers, 2002b). Mays et al. (1973) and

Duggan and Wiles (1976) have observed 4% and 8% reduction in bulk density after the

MSWC application at the rate of 20 tons/acre/year and 40 tons/acre/year respectively. A

reduction in bulk density of soil up to 71 % has also been reported at the MSWC

application rate of 146 tons per acre (McConnell et al., 1993). Celik et al. (2004) report

statistically significant reduction in bulk density of top soil (0–15cm) with compost i.e.

(1.17g cm−3) as compared to manure (1.24g cm−3), chemical fertilizer (1.47g cm−3) and

control (1.46gcm−3) treatments. Khaleel et al. (1981) and Metzger and Yaron, (1987)

have established direct relationships between changes in bulk density and a net increase

in soil organic matter due to the organic amendments. Similar improvements in soil

physical properties due to organic fertilizer/compost are reported by numerous

researchers (Tiarks et al., 1974; Kladivko and Nelson, 1979; Pagliai et al., 1981;

Gallardo-Lara and Nogales, 1987; Sanchez et al., 1989; Mathan, 1994 and Jamroz and

Drozd, 1999).

Another study (Mosaddeghi et al., 2000) cites reduction in soil compactibility

with manure application at the rate of 50 t ha−1. Kumar et al. (1985) and Aggelides and

Londra (2000) have also observed a reduction in soil penetration resistance because of

biosolids application. The addition of compost to soil immediately improves its porosity


and thereby water holding capacity (Annabi et al., 2007). There is reportedly a close

relationship between soil organic matter content and its water holding capacity (Chaney

and Swift, 1984; and Haynes et al., 1991). Addition of organic matter in the form of

compost has substantively influenced soil water infiltration (Bruce et al., 1992 and

Ghuman and Sur, 2001), soil compactibility (Ohu et al., 1985; Ekwue, 1990a and Stone

and Ekwue, 1993), soil strength (Whitebread et al., 2000), soil water regime (Sharma and

Buhushan, 2001), water holding capacity of soils (Hernando et al., 1989), water

penetration into soil, air circulation and water retention in soil (Celik et al., 2004), soil

structure and water- holding capacity (Celis et al., 1998a & 1998b and Giusquiani et al.,

1995) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Epstein, 1975 and Kumar et al., 1985).

Shiralipour et al. (1992a) have documented the effects of MSWC application to

soils. These effects are the improvement in nutrient contents and water holding capacity.

In most of the cases, the improvements are found to be proportional to the application

rates of compost. The effects are well pronounced in the loamy soil relative to the clay

soil (Aggelides and Londra, 2000). However, Haynes and Naidu (1998) conclude from a

range of data that available water contents are not greatly changed by increasing compost

applications. It is argued that improvement in soil quality due to the use of MSWC is a

function of soil properties like soil texture, moisture conditions and the origin of organic

matter (De Leon-Gonzales, 2000 and Drozd, 2003). To obtain more stable effects, long-

term application of compost is essential (Celik et al., 2004).

Bhagat et al., (1996) link crop yield to change in bulk density of soil. Carter and

Tavernetti (1968) have reported a decrease in cotton yield from 1.78 to 0.6 bales per

hectare when soil bulk density was increased from 1.48 to 1.63g cm-3. Reeves et al.

(1984) observe less root growth of wheat grown in soil with bulk density of 1.52g cm-3

than that grown in soil with bulk density of 1.32g cm-3.

2.3 Heavy Metal Accumulation in MSWC Treated Soil

The agricultural use of MSWC has proved scientifically better and economically viable

alternative to municipal solid waste disposal, which is a well-known global problem. But

the main difficulties with the use of MSWC as a nutrient source appear from its native

high content of heavy metals, which accumulate in soil (Zhang et al., 2006). Crops grown


on the metal contaminated soils uptake heavy metals in quantities excessive enough to

cause clinical problems both to animals and human beings consuming these metal rich

plants (Tiller, 1986). There is a justified concern for public health that heavy metals

migrate into food chain, especially when the applied MSWC originates from non-

selective waste collection (Amlinger and Ludwig-Boltzmann, 1996; Petruzzelli, 1996;

Vogtman et al., 1996; Illera et al., 2000). Therefore, heavy metals status in compost

amended soils is an important issue.

Despite its potential as soil amender, widespread acceptability of MSWC as an

organic source has suffered due to the presence of metal elements like Cr and As

(Stratton et al., 1995). It has been reported that the accumulation of heavy metals in soil

due to the use of compost eventually exceeds the critical limits because of its continuous

use (Zhang et al., (2006). A number of workers (Williams, et al., 1980; Darmody et al.,

1983; Chang et al., 1984; Amlinger and Ludwig-Boltzmann, 1996; Petruzzelli, 1996;

Vogtman et al., 1996; Aggelides and Londra, 2000 and Illera et al., 2000) have also found

the increased metal concentrations with the increased rate of compost application to soil.

It is argued that rapid industrialization of cities has increased the possibility of

heavy metals accumulation in soil (Deportes et al., 1995). A compost originating from

such industrial waste, if applied even in small amounts can cause a significant increase in

total concentration of soil heavy metals (Amlinger and Ludwig-Boltzmann, 1996;

Petruzzelli, 1996; Vogtman et al., 1996; Illera et al., 2000 and Weber et al., 2007).

Three consecutive applications of MSWC, with metal contents below permissible

limits, to a sandy soil under intensive farming conditions result in an increase of metal

elements like Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the upper 25cm of the soil (Madrid et al., 2007). The

elevated contents of Zn and Cu in the tissues of sludge and refuse compost treated crops

of leafy vegitables are also observed by Wong et al. (1983). Gupta et al. (1973) find

severe boron toxicity symptoms in barley crop fertilized with compost application.

Barmuda grass grown in compost treated soil showed higher Cd and Mn (root portion

only) metal contents as compared to plants grown in unamended soils (Wong and Lau,

1985). In general, the root portion contains higher levels of metals (Cd, Cu and Zn) than

the aerial parts. They also found higher Cd, Mn and Zn contents in the foliage of the


second harvest as compared to the first one. Sanchez-Monedero et al. (2004) reported low

Cu contents and higher Zn contents in a composted biosolids treated soil. Cabrera et al.

(1989) observed a noticeable increase in total copper and zinc contents of soil as well as

available levels of both metals but other metals remain unaffected by the addition of

compost.

Among heavy metals, cadmium is the most hazardous contaminant in terms of

food-chain contamination (McLaughlin et al., 1999). Therefore, Cd should receive close

inspection in relation to the application of MSWC to agricultural soils (Woodbury, 1992).

In a long-term field experiment on potatoes, where MSWC has been applied @ 40 t ha-1

for 13 years, the concentration of Cd has increased 270% in a sandy soil and 170% in a

clay soil (Haan and Lubbers, 1983). In a four-year experiment with corn, the addition of

MSWC @30 t ha-1 has caused the concentration of Cd in the grain to increase from 0.02

µg g-1 to 0.10 µg g-1 (Petruzelli et al., 1989).

The uptake of Cr by plants growing in soils treated with MSW compost is low

because it is usually present in the reduced state, which is not mobile in soil (Woodbury,

1992). Addition of sewage sludge containing 1.36% Cr does not increase the foliar

concentration of Cr (Petruzelli rt al., 1989) and thus Cr toxicity to plants is not possible.

The lead (Pb) content in the leaves of Chinese cabbage and radish decreases from 1.3 µg

g-I to 0.5µg g-I on the application of MSWC (Wong and Lau, 1985). This means that

addition of MSWC may increase the Pb content of soils but uptake by plants is

negligible. However, depending on the plant type, some other trace metals can

accumulate in plant tissues. Trace metal concentrations can vary highly among compost

batches from the same facility because of feedstock variability.

The application of MSWC to soil can be seen as a safe practice with regards to the

availability of heavy metals and their effect on soil micro organisms, as both microbial

activity and size is not affected by heavy metal toxicity (Sanchez-Monedero et al., 2004).

Montemurro et al. (2005a) report that compost application does not increase the total

content of heavy metals but significantly modified the soil chemical properties mainly

available phosphorus. Application of MSWC equivalent to 100 kg N ha-1 increased the

extracted and humified organic carbon by 27.7% and 25.4% respectively and does not


increase the contents of heavy metals (Montemurro et al., 2006). It has been reported that

uptake of metal elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Co, Cr, Pb, and Ni) by carrot and sweet corn

is not affected by an increase in the compost application rate. However, significant and

positive accumulation of Pb and Cu has been observed in case of radish (Perez et al.,

2007). According to Larcheveque et al. (2006), concentrations of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in

soils or tree seedlings with biosolids application are not increased while total and

available concentrations of Cu and Zn only are increased in soils, whereas foliar Cu and

Zn concentrations in the seedlings remain similar in all plots. Zhang et al. (2006) state

that the comparable total heavy metal concentrations in the compost amended soils in the

first and fourth year after compost application at a rate of 50, 100 and 200 t/ha are below

the standard of Canadian Fertilizer Act.

2.4 Environmental Implications of MSWC Application

In addition to its useful effects, agricultural utilization of MSWC also bears

environmental concerns. The role of composts in adsorption and transport of heavy

metals (Kaschl et al., 2002 and DeVolder et al., 2003) and the potential to adsorb or

transform hazardous organic pollutants and persistent biological molecules have been

extensively studied (Moeller and Reeh, 2003 and Loser et al., 2004). Immature composts

with poorly humified OM may form highly soluble complexes with heavy metals (Senesi,

1992 and Massiani and Domeizel, 1996). Furthermore, the use of immature compost can

cause phytotoxic effects, nitrogen (N) deficiency and reduction in plant yield (Bernal et

al., 1998). Some workers (Plauquart et al., 1999 and Illera et al., 2000) have reported the

increased leaching of metals in case of compost treated soils. They expressed the

apprehension of potential migration of heavy metals and organic compounds from the

compost to drinking water and ultimately accumulation in food crops (Tisdell and

Breslin, 1995; Breslin, 1999; Fuentes et al., 2004 and Fjallborg et al., 2005). Increased

leaching of nitrogen after application of MSWC also poses a problem of eutrophication in

aquatic environments (Leclerc et al., 1995 and Mamo et al., 1999). After three years of a

high rate of dry biosolids application (up to 225 t/ha/yr), Zn and Pb moved 5 to 10 cm

below the biosolids mixed surface layer, while there is very little downward movement of

Cd, Cr, Cu and Hg (Williams, et al., 1980).


The application of MSWC to soil is seriously constrained due to the likelihood of

organic and/or inorganic pollutants and microbial contaminants (Van-Camp et al., 2004).

The risk of soluble salt damage with the application of MSWC is however minimal

because salt levels in the MSW compost are diluted by incorporation into soil

(McConnell et al., 1993).

2.5 Need for Judicious MSWC Application Rates

The repeated N-based applications of MSWC may lead to the P enrichment in soil

(Spargo et al., 2006) because the ratio of plant-available N:P in biosolids compost is

approximately 1:2, whereas the ratio of required N:P for most crops is between 7:1 to

10:1 (Eck and Stewart, 1995; Sharpley et al., 1998; Sims et al., 1998; Evanylo, 1999;

Preusch et al., 2002; Heckman et al., 2003 and Sikora and Enkiri, 2004). Elevated P

levels in soils are problematic from environmental point of view, as surface runoff

leads to phosphorus loading in surface water bodies with associated risk of

eutrophication. Likewise, Sommers and Giordano (1984) report that the application of

MSWC adds excess amounts of phosphorous and not compensate the required amounts

of potassium. McConnell et al. (1993) argue that the application of MSWC at the rate of

15 tons/acre/year sufficiently increase the organic matter content of soil. However,

Marchiol et al. (1989) suggest the application of MSWC in agriculture at a maximum rate

10 tons/ha/year.

The application of MSWC to soil on the requirement of N and P is considered a

more careful guideline for crop production (Perez et al., 2007). High rates of compost

application may also lead to the deterioration of soil physical properties such as surface

crusting, increased detachment by raindrops and decreased hydraulic conductivity (Olsen

et al., 1970; Cross et al., 1973; Tiarks et al., 1974; Mazurak et al., 1975 and Weil and

Kroontje, 1979). Sometimes, high rates of compost application may result into water-

repellent properties (Olsen et al., 1970). The production of water repellent organic

substances by fungi involved in the decomposition of organic matter (Weil and Kroontje,

1979). It is also reported that larger doses of MSWC application is an important cause of

soil pollution (Cabrera et al., 1989).


If compensation for the low content of mineral N in compost is made by a higher

application rate, large amounts of heavy metals may be applied along with the compost

(Korboulewsky et al., 2002 and Svensson et al., 2004). Korboulewsky et al. (2002)

propose loading rates of organic amendments for vineyards should be based on P

concentrations rather than N. Similarly, Juang et al. (2002) and Singer et al. (2004)

advocate that MSWC application rates should be based on phosphorus requirement -

rather on nitrogen need in order to avoid phosphorus and heavy metals upsurge in surface

soil.

2.6 Integrated Use of MSWC with Chemical Fertilizers

A viable approach to ensure the sustained supply of nutrients and to increase the nutrient

use efficiency lies in the practice of balanced fertilization through combined use of

organic and inorganic sources (Bhattacharyya et al., 2003). A combined use of these

sources of nutrients as an integrated plant nutrient management proves advantageous over

individual use (Zeleke et al., 2004). Since the nutrients contents of MSWC are quite low,

its application to soil should be supplemented with chemical fertilizers in order to

improve its nutritional value (Tietjen, 1964 and Terman et al., 1973). Chu and Wang

(1987) argue that higher organic matter content of MSWC duly supplemented with

sewage sludge or fertilizers provides potent mean to increase crop yields while

maintaining low metal accumulation in treated soils. A combination of organic fertilizer

and mineral fertilizer results into higher crop yields compared with applying sole organic

fertilizer. (Svensson et al., 2004). Similarly, Aoyama et al. (1999) describe that a

combination of manure and NPK fertilizers causes significant increase in soil organic

matter and the formation of water-stable aggregates, but NPK fertilizers alone do not

affect these properties. Agronomic use of MSWC often benefits from supplemental N

fertilization. Municipal solid waste compost has been applied at the rate ranging from 0 -

325 t ha-1 with 0, 90, and 180 kg N ha-1yr-1 to forage sorghum grown in silt loam for two

years. Yield of forage sorghum in both years was increased as MSWC application rates

were increased. It is reported that application of MSWC in conjunction with nitrogen

resulted in greater forage yields than compost or nitrogen alone. (Terman et al., 1973).

Zan et al. (1987) applied for three years farm yard manure and mineral fertilizer to maize

field individually and in combination. All applications of compost show increase in soil


carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium contents and maize yields compared to untreated

plots. Yields from compost treated plots remain lower than plots fertilized with sole

mineral fertilizer. However, the highest yield was obtained with combined use of mineral

fertilizer and compost.

Bryan and Lance, (1991) find higher yield of black eye peas in a sandy soil

treated with MSWC at a rate in the range of 15 and 22.5 tons/hectare and nitrogen @ 84

kg/hectare as compared to soil amended with compost at a rate of 7.5 tons/hectare.

Hortenstine and Rothwell (1972) report increased sorghum and oat yield when integrated

use of MSWC and NPK is practiced. Paris et al. (1987) find 10-25% increase in yield of

wheat, sorghum, corn and ryegrass after three years with repeated use of MSWC in

combination with chemical fertilizer. Combined application of urea and compost (2.5 and

5.0 t ha-1) produced significantly higher yield of rice than urea or compost alone (Farooq-

e-Azam 1990). Cai and Qin (2006) report that the application of compost without

inorganic fertilizers do not deliver high and steady wheat and maize yields.

Chapter Three Materials and Methods 20

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes field research farms, field experiment layout, initial soil physical

and chemical properties, treatments and agronomic practices, applied compost

characteristics, and data collection and analysis.

3.1 Site for Rice-wheat cropping system

A 3-years field trial was conducted at the Adaptive Research Farm, Gujranwala,

Department of Agriculture, Punjab, Pakistan (32 o 21726 N and 74 o 23071 E) to evaluate

the environmental and economical impacts of MSWC applications to rice and wheat

crops. The experiment was initiated in fall 2002.

Figure 3.1 Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures (lines) and precipitation (bars) at the experimental site (R-W system) during the field trial.


The area has a long history of rice-wheat crop rotation. Annual precipitation during the

study period at site ranged from 626 to 761mm. About 70% of the total precipitation

occurred during rice season in summer (July-October) and 30% during wheat season in

winter. The daily average minimum air temperature during rice growth is 22.1 0C and

maximum temperature is 32.7 0C. During wheat season (November– April) the average

daily minimum air temperature is 10.6 0C and maximum is 20.1 0C (fig. 3.1). The soil of

the fields has been classified as loam. Physical and chemical soil properties determined

prior to the start of the field trial are listed in table 3.1

Table 3.1 Soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site (R-W System)

at the beginning of the field trial

Parameter Value

Physical Soil Properties

Soil texture loam

Sand content (%) 43.6

Silt content (%) 37.2

Clay content (%) 19.2

Bulk density (g cm-3) 1.58

Porosity (cm3 cm-3) 0.43

Penetration Resistance (kPa) 965

Chemical Analysis

EC (dS m-1)† 1.3

pH† 7.9

SOM (g kg-1) 8.2

Soil test phosphorus (mg kg-1) 8.7

Chromium (mg kg-1) < 0.06

Cobalt (mg kg-1) 0.017

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.137

Cadmium (mg kg-1) 0.021

Lead (mg kg-1) 3.23

Zinc (mg kg-1) 1.69 † Determined in saturated paste extract


3.2 Site for Cotton-wheat cropping system

A 3-years (2002-05) field experiment was conducted on permanent lay out in cotton-

wheat cropping system to evaluate the environmental and economical impacts of

municipal solid waste compost application. The experiment was established at the Cotton

Research Sub-Station Raiwind of the Agriculture Department, Punjab, Pakistan (31 o

23886 N and 74 o 21686 E). This area has a long history of Desi/Asiatic cotton

(Gossypium arboretum L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop rotation. Climatic

conditions of this station entail annual rainfall in the range of 495 to 627mm, daily

average minimum air temperature during cotton growth (May–October) of 25.8 0C and

maximum temperature of 37.1 0C. During wheat season (November– April), the average

daily minimum air temperature approaches to 13.8 0C and maximum is reached to 24.9 0C (fig-3.2). The soil of the research plots is classified as sandy loam. Physical and

chemical soil properties determined before starting the field trial are listed in table 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperature (lines) and precipitation (bars) at the experimental site (C-W system) during the experimental period (2002-2005).


Table 3.2 Soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site (C-W system) at the beginning of the field trial

Parameter Value

Physical Soil Properties

Soil texture Sandy Loam

Sand content (%) 64.4

Silt content (%) 21.2

Clay content (%) 14.4

Bulk density (g cm-3) 1.598

Porosity (cm3 cm-3) 0.40

Penetration Resistance (kPa) 1220

Chemical Analysis

EC (dS m-1)† 0.9

pH† 8.0

SOM (g kg-1) 5.0

Soil test phosphorus (mg kg-1) 1.7

Chromium (mg kg-1) <0.06

Cobalt (mg kg-1) 0.017

Nickel (mg kg-1) 0.185

Cadmium (mg kg-1) 0.045

Lead (mg kg-1) 1.56

Zinc (mg kg-1) 1.69

† Determined in saturated paste extract

3.3 Experiment Layout

Both trials were conducted in triplicate on a 65-m long and 60-m wide field that was

divided into 39 plots (5-m wide and 20-m long). Eighteen experimental plots (6

treatments x 3 replicates) were arranged based on a randomized complete block design

and interspaced by untreated plots of equal size to avoid adverse effects of drifting

pesticides and herbicides. Model of lay out is described in fig-3.3.


Replication-1 Replication -2 Replication-3 N

on E

xper

imen

t are

a

T-3

Non

Exp

erim

ent a

rea

T-5

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ent

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T-4

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T-2

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ent

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T-3

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ent a

rea

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ent

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T-6

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ent a

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T-1

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erim

ent

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T-6

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ent a

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T-2 N

on E

xper

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a T-4

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ent

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T-5

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ent

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ent

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T-2

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ent a

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T-4

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ent

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T-3

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ent

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T-5

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ent

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T-6

Non

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erim

ent

area

T-1

Non

Exp

erim

ent a

rea

Figure 3.3 Field layout of the experimental site for rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping system


3.4 Fertilization and Agronomic Management

The experimental plots were planted with wheat (INQLAB-91) each year in November.

In April and July of the following year rice (B-SUPER) and Desi/Asiatic cotton (RAVI)

were sown. Information on varieties, sowing and harvesting dates for each crop is

presented in table-3.3. Aboveground crop residues were completely removed after

harvest. Agronomic practices, seedbed preparation, pest control, and irrigation were

performed according to standard recommendations of the agriculture department of the

Punjab, province of Pakistan. Detail of appropriate weedicide and insecticide applied to

stop the weed growth and insect attack in all treatments except T5&T6 is given in tables

3.4 & 3.5. Ground water as well as canal water was used to irrigate the fields through

flood irrigation method that is commonly practiced by farming community of the rice-

wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems. A 3-5 cm water level was continuously

maintained for rice crop. To allow ponding for rice growth, each plot was thoroughly

leveled and surrounded with small soil ridges.

Six different treatments comprising three management strategies with two nutrient

doses were evaluated (table 3.6). Management strategies included: (1) application of

mineral fertilizer as the sole nutrient supplement (S1); (2) application of mineral fertilizer

in combination with MSWC at a ratio of 4:1 with pesticide and herbicide treatments (S2);

and (3) combined mineral and MSWC application at a ratio of 4:1 without pesticides and

herbicides (S3). A 4:1 mineral fertilizer – MSWC ratio was employed to supply organic

matter at economically feasible and beneficial levels while keeping cumulative heavy

metal levels for long-term applications well below EPA (1995) cumulative pollutant

loading rate limits (table 3.7). Within each management strategy, nutrients were applied

in two different doses. Dose one (D1) was based on standard N, P and K

recommendations for wheat, rice and cotton crops by the Punjab Agriculture Department

without site specific analysis of soil nutrient levels prior to application. The second dose

(D2) was calculated based on measured site specific plant available soil phosphorus

levels. An optimum soil test phosphorus (STP) target value of 21 mg kg -1 was fixed for

rice-wheat system while 16 mg kg -1 for cotton-wheat system that were reported to be

sufficient to support 99% and 95% relative yield respectively (Akram et al., 1994).


Table 3.3 Detail of Sowing and Harvesting Dates

Rice-Wheat Cotton-Wheat Crop

Variety Sowing Date Harvesting Date

Variety Sowing Date Harvesting Date

Wheat 2002-03 Inqlab-91 19-12-2002 1-5-2003 Inqlab-91 20-12-2002 5-5-2003

Rice/Cotton 2003 Basmati-385 14-07-2003 29-10-2003 Ravi 17-05-2003 13-09-2003

to 18-10-2003

Wheat 2003-04 Inqlab-91 25-11-2003 27-04-2004 Inqlab-91 18-12-2003 30-04-2004


to 23-09-2004

Wheat 2004-05 Inqlab-91 12/11/2004 2-5-2005 Inqlab-91 3-12-2004 1-5-2005


to 30-10-2005


Table 3.4 Detail of herbicide and pesticide/insecticide application in rice-wheat cropping system with dates

Herbicide Pesticide / Insecticide Crop Arelon 75 SP Machete 60 EC Isoproturon Padan Cartep

Wheat 2002-03 28-01-2003

Rice 2003 17-07-2003 18-08-2003

21-09-2003

Wheat 2003-04 8-1-2004

Rice 2004 22-07-2004

18-08-2003

23-09-2003

Wheat 2004-05 4-1-2005

Rice 2005 25-07-2005 19-08-2005 21-09-2005

Crop Herbicide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Pesticide with Date

Wheat 2002-03 Arelon 75 SP 28-01-2003

Cotton 2003 Astamp @1000-1500 ml/acre 17-07-2003

Deltaphos @600 ml/acre 29-07-03

Curifast @1000ml/acre 8-8-2003

Karate @300 ml/acre 18-08-03

Danitol @250 ml/acre 26-08-03

Wheat 2003-04 Arelon 75 SP 08-01-2004

Cotton 2004 Zinker @250g/acre 22-07-2004

Karate @300 ml/acre 26-07-04

Deltaphos @600ml/acre 18-06-04

Nurrelle D @600ml/acre 3-8-2004

Tracer @80ml/acre 14-09-04

Wheat 2004-05 Arelon 75 SP 04-01-2005

Cotton 2005 Astamp @1000-1500 ml/acre 25-07-2005

Imidacloprid @250g/acre 26-07-04

Tracer @80ml/acre 25-07-05

Triazophos @100ml/acre 2-8-2005

Karate @333 ml/ acre 13-08-05

Triazophos @1000ml/acre23-08-05

Karate @333 ml/acre10-09-2005

Three Materials and Methods

Table 3.5 Detail of herbicide and pesticide/insecticide application in Cotton-wheat cropping system with dates

28Chapter


Applied mineral fertilizer rates are listed in tables 3.8 and 3.9. Phosphorus was

applied as di-ammonium phosphate (DAP), nitrogen was applied as urea and K as murate

of potash (MOP). All P, K and half of the N fertilizers were applied uniformly at sowing.

The remaining half of N fertilizer was applied with the first irrigation 20 days after

germination of wheat, 35 days after transplanting rice and after 40-45 days of sowing in

case of cotton. Zinc @ 5kg/ha was also applied to the rice crop one week after

transplanting. Table 3.6 Evaluated treatments

Treatment Description

T1 Mineral Fertilizer (S1) - Standard Dose (D1)

T2 Mineral Fertilizer (S1) - Site-Specific Dose (D2)

T3 4:1 Mineral Fertilizer/MSWC and Pesticides (S2) - Standard Dose (D1)

T4 4:1 Mineral Fertilizer/MSWC and Pesticides (S2) - Site-Specific Dose (D2)

T5 4:1 Mineral Fertilizer/MSWC w/o Pesticides (S3) - Standard Dose (D1)

T6 4:1 Mineral Fertilizer/MSWC w/o Pesticides (S3) - Site-Specific Dose (D2)

Table 3.7 Properties of the applied municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) and U.S. EPA (1995) established pollutant concentration (PC) standards, ceiling concentrations (CC), and cumulative pollutant loading rate limits (CPLR).

Amount / Value (mg kg-1)†

Pollutant MSWC PC CC

CPLR (kg ha-1)†

Cadmium 34 39 85 39

Chromium 40 1200 3000 3000

Copper 480 1500 4300 1500

Lead 73 300 840 300

Nickel 49 420 420 420

Zinc 1622 2800 7500 2800

† Calculated based on the dry mass


Table 3.8 Applied mineral fertilizer rates to the experimental site (R-W system)

Mineral Fertilizer Doses (kg ha-1)

Conventional (D1) Site-Specific (D2) Season and

Crop Soil Test P

(mg kg-1) N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O

2002-03 Wheat 8.7 135 100 40 135 80 40

2003 Rice 18.4 115 100 40 115 30 40

2003-04 Wheat 14.6 135 100 40 135 73 40

2004 Rice 17.8 115 100 40 115 37 40

2004-05 Wheat 16.7 135 100 40 135 49 40

2005 Rice 14.7 115 100 40 115 72 40

Table 3.9 Applied mineral fertilizer rates to the experimental site (C-W system)

Mineral Fertilizer Doses (kg ha-1)

Conventional (D1) Site-Specific (D2) Season and Crop

Soil Test P(mg kg-1)

N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O

2002-03 Wheat 1.7 135 100 40 135 196 40

2003 Cotton 9.4 115 85 35 115 91 35

2003-04 Wheat 9.4 135 100 40 135 91 40

2004 Cotton 10.0 115 85 35 115 82 35

2004-05 Wheat 11.7 135 100 40 135 59 40

2005 Cotton 14.6 115 85 35 115 19 35


3.5 Description of Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC) Application

The applied MSWC was provided by the Waste Busters, a private enterprise that

launched a community waste management project in Lahore, Pakistan in 1996. The

MSWC originated from recycled mixed municipal solid waste and is marketed as “Green

Force” compost. Measured heavy metal concentrations in the compost were below ceiling

concentrations (CC) and pollutant concentration (PC) standards for sewage sludge and

domestic septage established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in

1995 (table 3.7). The organic matter (OM) content and available N, P, and K levels of the

“Green Force” compost were determined as 400 g kg-1 OM, 5 g kg-1 N, 5 g kg-1 P2O5, and

10 g kg-1 K2O on dry-weight basis. The electrical conductivity (EC) and pH were

measured as 60 dS m-1 and 7.5, respectively. The MSWC was homogenously spread over

the soil surface 20-30 days before sowing and incorporated through plowing. The applied

amounts are listed in tables 3.10 and 3.11.

3.6 Depiction of Site-Specific Phosphorus Based Fertilizer Prediction

Soil P-level based determination of fertilizer and MSWC amounts required for reaching

the recommended STP target values of 21 and 16 mg kg -1 was adapted from McLean et

al. (1982) in the form of following equation.

Pf = Fp (Psl – Pel)

where:

Pf = P Fertilizer required

Fp = P fixation factor

Psl = Sufficiency level of P for maximum yield

Pel = Existing level of P in soil

The P fixation factor was calculated on the basis of P fixation tendencies. These

tendencies were determined by taking 1 g aliquot of soil, adding 0.5 ml of KH2PO4

solution of 60 mg kg-1 P and equilibration for 2 hours. The reciprocal of the fraction of P

recovered of that added was designated as P fixation factor (Fp). It was used as multiplier

of differences in existing and sufficiency levels of P to calculate the amount of fertilizer

for P build up of soil to the respective target sufficiency level.


Table 3.10 Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) application rates to the experimental site (R-W system)

Season and Crop Treatment MSWC (kg ha-1)

Soil Test P (mg kg-1)

T1 and T2 -

T3 and T5 4000 2002-03 Wheat

T4 and T6 3200

8.7

T1 and T2-

T3 and T5 4000 2003 Rice

T4 and T6 1200

18.4

T1 and T2 -

T3 and T5 4000 2003-04 Wheat

T4 and T6 2800

14.6

T1 and T2 -

T3 and T5 4000 2004 Rice

T4 and T6 1600

17.8

T1 and T2 -

T3 and T5 4000 2004-05 Wheat

T4 and T6 2000

16.7

T1 and T2 -

T3 and T5 4000 2005 Rice

T4 and T6 2800

14.7

T3 and T5 24000 - Cumulative

T4 and T6 13600 -


Table 3.11 Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) application rates to the experimental site (C-W system)

Season and Crop Treatment MSWC (kg ha-1)

Soil Test P (mg kg-1)

T1 and T2 - T3 and T5 4000 2002-03 Wheat T4 and T6 7800

1.7

T1 and T2 - T3 and T5 3400 2003 Cotton T4 and T6 3600

9.4


9.4


10.0


11.7


14.6

T3 and T5 22200 - Cumulative

T4 and T6 21600 -


3.7 Yield Calculation

Rice and wheat crops were manually harvested with sickles from 3 randomly distributed

9-m2 subplots. Grain yield was adjusted to 140 and 120-g grain moisture per kg for rice

and wheat, respectively and straw yield was expressed on dry weight basis. Seed cotton

was hand-picked from whole treatment plot. Two to three pickings were made and pooled

over the pickings to determine seed cotton yield. All aboveground biomass was removed

after harvest.

3.8 Soil Sampling, Analysis and Data Collection

Four soil samples for chemical analysis were randomly collected with a 5-cm auger from

the top 15-cm soil layer from each treatment plot immediately before the trial and after

each crop harvest. The samples were thoroughly mixed, air dried, passed through a 2-mm

sieve, and stored in sealed plastic jars. OM content was determined by oxidation with

potassium dichromate and concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) utilizing the heat of

dilution of H2SO4. Unused potassium dichromate was back–titrated with ferrous sulfate

(Walkley and Black, 1934). STP content was determined with sodium bicarbonate

following Olsen et al. (1982). Heavy metal concentrations in DTPA extracts (Lindsay and

Norvell, 1978) were measured with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (Spectra AA-50;

Varian, Palo Alto, CA).

Three undisturbed core samples collected from each treatment plot before the trial

and after each wheat and rice harvest were used to determine bulk density ρb (Blake and

Hartge, 1986). Soil surface penetration resistance was determined with a proctor

penetrometer (Bradford, 1986) with a cross-sectional tip area of 3.23 cm2 (0.5 in2) at the

time of every crop harvest (five readings were randomly taken within each treatment

plot).

3.9 Economic Analysis

A simple economic analysis was performed to evaluate net profits and

value-to-cost-ratios for management strategies and fertilizer doses. The total cost of

production was calculated based on different field operations and applied inputs used for

production of crops, including cost of MSWC and pesticides/herbicides. The prices of


inputs, outputs and operations used in economic analysis were adopted as circulated by

the relevant government departments. Gross returns (GR) are calculated by multiplying

grain/seed cotton and straw/cotton sticks yield by their respective prices. Net profit is

calculated by subtracting total cost of production from gross returns and similarly value

cost ratio is calculated by dividing gross returns with total cost of production.

3.10 Statistical Analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean separations were performed using the general

linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS Institute Inc. (2004). The least significant

difference (LSD) procedure at a probability level of 0.05 was used to determine

statistically significant differences between treatment means.

Chapter Four Results and Discussion 36

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The present study covers two cropping systems namely rice-wheat and cotton-wheat as

independent units. The twelve experiments are conducted for six crop seasons from 2002

to 2005. Treatments according to plan are applied in a permanent layout at the time of

sowing. Crops are harvested at their physiological maturity. Lodging or damaging effects

due to insects/pests have not been observed in any crop system during the entire study

period. Treatment’s effect on environmental and economical repercussions in a cropping

system is hereby discussed below.

4.1 Soil Physical and Chemical Attributes (Rice-Wheat Cropping System)

4.1.1 Soil bulk density (BD)

As shown in table 4.1, the application of MSWC (T3 to T6) significantly reduces soil bulk

density (BD) relative to sole mineral fertilizer treatments (T1 and T2), thereby creating a

more favorable physical environment for plant growth with increased porosity and water

holding capacity in the surface soil. Lower mean value of BD (1.448 g/cm3) is observed

in treatment receiving MSWC on conventional rate without pest management (T5) as

compared to initial level and other treatments. However, MSWC treatments (T3, T5 & T6)

have almost statistically similar BD values in spite of the fact that site-specific MSWC

treatments (T4 and T6) receive 43.3% less MSWC compared to conventional MSWC

treatments (T3 & T5) in three years (table 3.10). Similar improvements of soil physical

properties for organic fertilizer applications are reported by many researchers (Carter and

Steward, 1996; Haynes and Naidue 1998; Zebarth et al., 1999; Aggelides and Londra,

2000 and Celik et al., 2004). Tester (1990) has observed 45% reduction in soil bulk

density after 4 years of annual composted sewage sludge application at the rate of 240

tons per hectare per year. However, excessive application of organic fertilizers can lead

to hydrophobicity and associated decrease of water content at field capacity due to the

production of hydrophobic humic substances during the decomposition process (Olsen et

al., 1970).


Table 4.1 Treatment effects on soil physical properties in R-W system

Treatment Bulk Density (g cm-3)

Penetration Resistance (kPa)

T1 1.539 a† 901 b

T2 1.526 a 1025 a

T3 1.453 c 621 d

T4 1.473 b 745 c

T5 1.448 c 593 d

T6 1.457 c 749 c

Values at the Beginning of Trial

1.580 965

†Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% probability level


A season by season comparison is depicted in fig. 4.1 that reveals an increasing

trend in soil bulk density for treatments T1 and T2 where mineral fertilizers are used as the

sole nutrient supplement. All treatments utilizing MSWC (T3 to T6) as nutrient and

organic matter source portray a decreasing trend in bulk density over the 3-years study

period, which points to improved soil physical conditions for plant growth.

It is interesting to note that the different MSWC application rates (table 3.10) do

not lead to significant differences in soil bulk densities. MSWC treatments with

conventional dose (T3 and T5) seem to lead slightly lower soil bulk densities than MSWC

treatments with site-specific dose (T4 and T6). The presence (T3 and T4) or absence (T5

and T6) of herbicides and pesticides in the MSWC treatments do not seem to have much

effect on soil bulk density.

4.1.2 Penetration resistance

As shown in table 4.1, the application of MSWC (T3 to T6) significantly decreases

penetration resistance like BD relative to sole mineral fertilizer treatments (T1 and T2).

Pooled three years data indicates comparatively significant higher mean values of

penetration resistance for MSWC treatments with site-specific application rate (T4 and

T6) compared to MSWC treatments with conventional application rate (T3 and T5). This

indicates that site-specific way of fertilizer application proves relatively less effective

than conventional use of fertilizer in decreasing soil compaction. This difference is

caused by the amount of MSWC applied in three years. That site-specific dose has

received 13.6 tons ha-1 as against 24 tons ha-1 by conventional dose (table 3.10) in three

years. However, treatments in each MSWC dose are found non significant each other.

Season by season comparison of penetration resistance (fig. 4.2) shows a slightly

different picture. The penetration resistance of sole mineral fertilizer plots (T1 and T2) is

well above the MSWC plots (T3 to T6) throughout the trial period. Treatments with site-

specific MSWC application rate (T4 and T6) in turn show higher penetration resistance

than treatments with the conventional MSWC rate (T3 and T5). Especially the MSWC

treatments show a seasonal variation with higher penetration resistance for wheat than for

rice crops. Again, the presence (T3 and T4) or absence (T5 and T6) of herbicides and

Four Results and Discussion

Figure 4.1 Evolution of bulk densities over the 3-year trial period in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

39Chapter


pesticides in the MSWC treatments do not seem to have much effect on penetration

resistance.

4.1.3 Soil organic matter (SOM)

SOM contents after 3-years of field trial are listed in table 4.2. A slight increase in

SOM from the initial level of 8.2 g kg-1 is evident for all management strategies and

fertilizer doses. Surprisingly, statistically significant differences among treatments are not

observed. Intuitively, one would expect higher SOM levels for treatments with MSWC

(T3 to T6) than for mineral fertilizer applications (T1 and T2). To some extent, site-specific

dose receives slight significance over conventional dose by attaining non-significant

higher mean values of SOM for treatments (T2, T4 & T6) compared to the treatments (T1,

T3 & T5) in conventional dose. On the other hand, it counts high inscription if SOM status

is improved/sustained near to initial status by repeated MSWC applications in any

intensive and exhaustive cropping system. However, there is no simple relationship

between the organic matter application rate (e.g., MSWC) and sustainable increase in

SOM content (Khaleel et al., 1981). The amount of OM accumulation in soils relative to

the organic fertilizer application rate can vary significantly depending on the climatic and

biophysical boundary conditions for decomposition and mineralization (Cadisch and

Giller, 1997). While numerous studies have shown that a considerable increase in soil

organic matter can be achieved through addition of organic amendments (Khaleel et al.,

1981; Madejon et al., 2001; Manna et al., 2006; Herencia et al., 2007), but data indicates

no significant elevation of SOM levels after 3-years of field trial, neither for the MSWC

nor for the mineral fertilizer treatments.

For the semi-arid climatic conditions of the Punjab region, the soil properties of

the trial plots and prevailing management practices for the rice-wheat cropping system,

the addition of new OM source (i.e., MSWC application) and decomposition and

mineralization processes seem to be in balance after the 3-year trial period. This is also

evident from the season by season comparison of SOM contents depicted in fig. 4.3.

After initial fluctuations of SOM contents during cropping seasons one to four, SOM

values seem to approach a steady level around 9.0 g kg-1 in seasons five and six.


Figure 4.2 Evolution of penetration resistances over the 3-year trial period in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

41Chapter


Table 4.2 Organic matter and soil phosphorus status at the end of the 3-year trial in R-W system

Treatment Organic Carbon (g kg-1)

Phosphorus (mg kg-1)

T1 8.4 a† 17.0 a

T2 9.0 a 20.6 a

T3 8.8 a 17.0 a

T4 8.6 a 18.4 a

T5 8.5 a 20.9 a

T6 9.0 a 22.0 a


8.2 8.7

† Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the

5% probability level.


The slight increase of SOM relative to the pretrial level for the mineral fertilizer

treatments (T1 and T2) is in agreement with findings reported by Paustian et al. (1997),

Haynes and Naidu (1998), Gosling and Shepherd (2005), and Shen et al. (2007), and can

be attributed to an increase in belowground biomass (in the years prior to the trial only

small amounts of urea were sporadically applied to the plots).

4.1.4 Soil phosphorus

In course of 3-years study period, a significant increase of soil test phosphorus (STP)

levels is observed relative to the initial status for all management strategies and fertilizer

doses (table 4.2). Though some seasonal variations for rice and wheat crops are observed

(fig. 4.4), the overall STP level in the uppermost 15-cm of soil approaches almost double

for all treatments by the end of the trial and remains close to the target sufficiency level

of 21 mg kg-1 (note that only small amount of phosphorus fertilizer was applied in the

years prior to the field trial). Although statistically significant difference is not noticed

between sole mineral fertilizer application treatments (T1 and T2) and the MSWC

treatments (T3 to T6), it is interesting to note that the site-specific application rates (T2, T4

& T6) yield a slightly higher STP level than the conventional application rates (T1, T3 &

T5) at the end of the trial. This is somewhat surprising to note that over a 3-years study

period, 600 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 341 kg P2O5 ha-1 have been applied (table 3.8) in

conventional and site-specific application rates respectively. The only reasonable

explanation for this observation is leaching of water soluble phosphorus below the depth

of observation (0-15 cm) or transformation of excess phosphorus to non-available form in

the calcareous loam soil. Phosphorus solubility in biosolid-amended soils is controlled by

the concentrations of Fe, Al, and/or Ca in the applied biosolids (Maguire et al., 2000;

Sharpley and Moyer, 2000; Penn and Sims, 2002). Spargo et al (2006) show significantly

higher water soluble phosphorus for compost amended soils than for soils supplied with

mineral fertilizers.


Figure 4.3 Evolution of organic carbon contents over the 3-year trial period in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error

of means)

Four Results and Discussion 45

Figure 4.4 Evolution of phosphorus levels over the 3-year trial period in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

Chapter


4.1.5 Heavy metals accumulation

MSWC carries some amount of heavy metals (Cd, Co, Ni , Pb etc.) and crops grown on

the metal contaminated soils accumulate metals in quantities excessive enough to cause

clinical problems both to animals and human beings consuming these metal rich plants

(Tiller, 1986). Potential migration of heavy metals into the food chain are a justified

concern for public health, especially when the applied MSWC originates from non-

selective waste collection as it is the case for the “Green Force” compost applied in the

current study (Amlinger and Ludwig-Boltzmann, 1996; Petruzzelli, 1996; Vogtman et al.,

1996; Illera et al., 2000). Therefore, heavy metals status in compost amended soils is an

important issue.

To evaluate potential accumulation of compost-borne heavy metals in the surface

soil, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) are tested.

Initial chemical analysis of “Green Force” compost yield heavy metal concentrations well

below U.S. EPA (1995) established pollutant concentration (PC) standards for sewage

sludge and domestic septage (table 3.7) that has been used as a reference for this study.

Based on soil analysis prior to the trial, the loam soil of our field plots can be classified as

a soil with natural concentrations of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn (Kabata-Pendias et al., 1993).

Soil heavy metal concentrations determined for the surface layer (0-15 cm) after the

3-year trial period are depicted in fig. 4.5. For cadmium, a significant increase is seen

relative to the pretrial level (fig. 4.5). The concentration becomes approximately double

for all management strategies and fertilizer doses. It is interesting to note that there is no

statistically significant difference between the mineral fertilizer treatments (T1 and T2)

and the MSWC treatments (T3 to T6). This indicates that cadmium accumulates from the

sources other than MSWC, most likely from the applied mineral fertilizers. A study by

Merry and Tiller (1991) establishes a correlation between soil Cd levels and extractable P

in pasture soils of South Australia, indicating that P fertilizer applications is a significant

source for cadmium. The chemical forms of Cd in phosphorus fertilizers are Cd (H2PO4)2

or CdHPO4, or a mixture of both chemical species, which are Cd analogs of the Ca

compounds found in commercial triple superphosphate (TSP) and diammonium

phosphate (DAP) fertilizers (Mortvedt and Osborn, 1982).


Figure 4.5 Heavy metal levels at the end of the 3-year trial relative to pretrial levels in R-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means; means with the same letter on top of the error bar are not significantly different at the 5% probability level)


Pre- and post-trial chromium (Cr) levels are below the 0.06 mg kg-1 atomic

absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) detection limit and are therefore not shown in fig.

4.5. The mean values of soil nickel (Ni) do not show a significant difference among all

evaluated management strategies and fertilizer doses (fig. 4.5) and also do not

significantly increase relative to the pretrial level. It is clearly revealed that addition of

MSWC @13.6 to 24 t ha-1 in three years do not contribute to increase soil Ni status

envisage non-existence of Ni contamination threat. Similar results are reported by

Woodbury (1992) and Giordano et al. (1975).

For lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn), there is no significant difference between all

evaluated treatments that indicated effect of doses and strategies is non-significant on

enrichment of soil Pb and Zn. However, comparisons of initial and final status envisage

higher Pb and Zn status at final crop harvest (fig. 4.5). Sole mineral fertilizer treatments

(T1 and T2) also result into increased Pb and Zn status, therefore, MSWC can not be

considered as Pb and Zn contaminant in this study. The native Pb (73 mg kg-1) and Zn

(1622 mg kg-1) contents of MSWC are quite lower than established pollutant

concentration (PC) standards and ceiling concentrations (CC) (table 3.7) of U.S.EPA.

In summary, no any significant increase of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the surface

soil layer has been observed that can be attributed by MSWC application. Though we and

numerous other researchers have found no distinct correlation between composted

biosolid application and heavy metal accumulation in soils (Woodbury, 1992;

Montemurro et al., 2005a; Zhang et al., 2006; Montemurro et al., 2007), it is imperative

to thoroughly analyze the available MSWC material and adjust its application rates very

carefully for environmentally safe long-term application.

4.1.6 Crop yields

The 3-years cumulative grain and straw yields for wheat and rice are listed in table 4.3.

For wheat grain, statistically significant difference is not observed between treatments

that indicate the effect of doses and strategies is non-significant in enhancing wheat grain

yield. While in most long-term experiments, combined use of mineral and organic

fertilizers has usually produced the highest crop yields (Liu et al., 2001 and Wang et al.,

2002). The MSWC - mineral fertilizer treatments without pesticide and herbicide


applications (T5 & T6) showed surprisingly high cumulative wheat grain yields in

comparison to the remaining treatments.

For rice grain yields, statistically significant differences are observed among

management strategies. The present data indicates that treatments T3 and T4 where

MSWC has been applied in conjunction with mineral fertilizer and crops are treated with

pesticides and herbicides reveal the highest yields followed by treatments T1 and T2

where mineral fertilizer has been used as the sole nutrient supplement. While ignoring

application of pesticides and herbicides in T5 and T6 decrease paddy yield significantly.

As the N and K fertilizer levels are kept constant in the plan, the varied P recipe

explained the crop response. Cumulative P application (table-3.8) in conventional dose

(600 kg ha-1) for three years is much higher compared to site-specific dose (341 kg ha-1)

that indicates the total quantity of P application is 1.76 times less in site-specific dose

than conventional dose. Pooled three years data indicate that comparatively higher mean

values of cumulative rice grain yield are noted for treatments (T2, T4 & T6) in site-specific

dose compared to treatments (T1, T3 & T5) in conventional dose. This indicates that site-

specific way of fertilizer application proves relatively more effective and efficient than

conventional use of fertilizer in improving rice grain yield.

It is interesting to note that the season by season comparison in fig. 4.6 shows a

steady increase of wheat as well as rice grain yields over the 3-years trial period,

indicating a general increase in soil fertility for all evaluated treatments. Present data also

indicate that the treatments with conventional fertilizer application rates (T1, T3 & T5)

show slight advantages in the beginning of the trial. However, in sixth season, treatments

with site-specific application rates (T2, T4 & T6) yield better results. Repeated application

of MSWC to loam soil under rice-wheat cropping systems and proper insect pest

management tends to improve rice yield significantly. Singh et al. (2001) note an increase

in paddy yield with the use of farmyard and green manure in combination with mineral

fertilizer. Zaka et al. (2003) observe significant increase in rice and wheat yields with the

use of farmyard manure (FYM), rice straw, and Sesbania. Similarly, numerous other

studies (Selvakumari et al., 2000; Mishra and Sharma, 1997; Ahmad et al., 2002; Parmer


and Sharma, 2002) show rice and wheat yields are increased when organic fertilizer has

applied as sole nutrient source or in combination with mineral fertilizers.

For wheat straw, treatments T5 and T6 (MSWC/mineral fertilizer without pesticides)

exhibit surprisingly higher cumulative yields (table 4.3) compared to other treatments.

For rice straw, treatments with site-specific fertilizer application rates (T2, T4 & T6) show

higher cumulative yields when compared to the treatments with standard application

rates, although there is no significant difference between management strategies. Similar

to the grain yield, steady increase has been observed in straw yield over the 3-years trial

period (fig. 4.6).

4.1.7 Economical considerations

For successful implementation of a management plan for any cropping system, it is

essential to demonstrate economical feasibility for local farming communities. A simple

economic analysis has been performed and cumulative net profit and value to cost ratio

for each treatment are calculated (table 4.4) accounting for all costs related to labor,

MSWC, mineral fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides, wheat seeds, rice transplants, and

irrigation and all benefits from selling the grain and straw yields on the local markets.

Benefits to the national economy such as the reduction of municipal solid waste (that

would otherwise be deposited in unlined open landfills), associated benefits for public

health and improvement in soil physical attributes are not considered. As shown in table

4.4, the cumulative net profit is highest for treatment T2 (sole mineral fertilizer/site-

specific application rate), treatment T4 (MSWC/mineral fertilizer with pesticides/site-

specific application rate) and treatment T6 (MSWC/mineral fertilizer without

pesticides/site-specific application rate). This shows that site-specific fertilizer

application rates based on the soil test phosphorus levels yield better economical returns

than the commonly applied standard fertilizer rates recommended by the Agriculture

Department of Punjab, Pakistan. This is a very important and main finding of this study

as site-specific rates also reduce detrimental environmental impacts of field-applied

agrochemicals.


Table 4.3 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on wheat and rice yields

Cumulative Grain Yield (kg ha-1)

Cumulative Straw Yield (kg ha-1) Treatment

Wheat Rice Wheat Rice

T1 8713 a† 11107 bc 12531 bc 39744 ab

T2 8104 a 11693 b 11607 bc 40719 a

T3 8894 a 12641 a 13298 abc 37589 b

T4 8090 a 13118 a 10676 c 39256 ab

T5 8541 a 10389 c 13893 ab 37085 b

T6 9000 a 10304 c 15885 a 39760 ab




Figure 4.6 Grain and straw yields for wheat and rice separated for growing season (error bars indicate the standard error of means)


A second important finding is that the cumulative net profits of treatments with

MSWC/mineral fertilizer/ site-specific application rate (T4 and T6) are not statistically

significant different from treatment T2 where sole mineral fertilizer has been applied at

site-specific rate. In fact, the slightly higher return for treatment T2 is only due to the

relatively high costs for MSWC (about 3.3 cents kg-1).

A comparison of value-to-cost-ratios (VCR) shows slightly different results. The

VCR remains highest for treatment T2 followed by treatment T6, treatment T1, and

treatment T4. Again, site-specific fertilizer application rates yield economically better

results. Not accounting benefits for the national Pakistani economy (i.e. reduction in

municipal solid waste) and potentially long-term beneficial effects of MSWC

amendments for soil fertility (i.e. stabilizing or even increasing soil organic carbon) and

physical properties, the application of mineral fertilizer based on site-specific nutrient

levels seems to be the most economically beneficial strategy for local farming

communities.

However, if MSWC prices would be substituted by the government as is the case

for mineral fertilizers, treatments with MSWC/mineral fertilizer at a ratio of 1:4 applied

based on soil test phosphorus would be a viable alternative and probably yield better

economic return than sole mineral fertilizer application. A season by season comparison

is shown in fig. 4.7 illustrates a steady increase of net profit and VCR values for wheat

and rice crops. The VCR’s of treatments with site-specific fertilizer application rates (T2,

T4 & T6) are always above the treatments with standard application rates (T1, T3 & T5).

Data presented in fig. 4.7 clearly show higher returns for rice cultivation than for the

wheat crop.


Table 4.4 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on cumulative net profits and value-cost ratios in R-W system.

Treatment Cumulative Net Profit USD ha-1

Value-Cost Ratio -

T1 4551 a† 5.04 b

T2 4695 a 5.76 a

T3 4326 ab 3.51 d

T4 4603 a 4.49 c

T5 3960 b 3.59 d

T6 4587 a 5.07 b




Figure 4.7 Net profit and value to cost ratio (VCR) for wheat and rice separated for growing season (error bars indicate the standard error of means)


4.2 Soil Physical and Chemical Attributes (Cotton-Wheat Cropping System)

4.2.1 Soil bulk density (BD)

Like in rice-wheat cropping system, the MSWC treatments (T3 to T6) reduce soil bulk

density significantly compared to sole mineral fertilizer treatments (T1 & T2) in cotton-

wheat system (table-4.5). The use (T3 & T4) or without use (T5 & T6) of herbicides and

pesticides in the MSWC treatments do not have significant effect on bulk density. These

findings are consistent with results from other researchers who have reported positive

responses of soil bulk density to organic matter addition as found in their studies

(Sommerfeldt and Chang, 1987; Mays and Giordano, 1989; Shiralipour et al., 1992a;

Mbagwu, 1992; Nnabude and Mbagwu, 2001; Franzluebbers, 2002b; Edmeades, 2003

and Arriaga and Lowery, 2003).

McConnell et al. (1993) report the reduction of bulk density up to 71% when 146

tons/acre compost has been applied. However, reduction in bulk densities of mineral soils

depends on the rate of compost application, soil type, and degrees of soil compaction. In

another study, composted MSW application at the rate of 20 tons per acre and 40 tons per

acre decreased 4% and 8% bulk density in loam soil respectively (Mays et al., 1973 and

Duggan and wiles, 1976).

A season by season comparison is depicted in fig. 4.8 indicates an increasing trend in

bulk density for treatments T1 and T2 where mineral fertilizers are used as the sole nutrient

supplement. All treatments containing MSWC (T3 to T6) show a decreasing trend over the 3-

years trial period, which depicts improved soil physical conditions for plant growth. This

declining trend is evident both in cotton as well as in wheat cultivation. Non difference in trend

is due to cumulative amounts of MSWC applications that are almost similar at the end of trial

(table 3.11) in all MSWC treatments (T3 to T6).


Table 4.5 Treatment effects on soil physical properties in C-W system

Treatment Bulk Density

(g cm-3)

Penetration Resistance (kPa)

T1 1.598 a† 1241 ab

T2 1.599 a 1264 a

T3 1.546 b 1181 bc

T4 1.545 b 1158 c

T5 1.543 b 1158 c

T6 1.543 b 1167 c


1.598 1220


5% probability level


4.2.2 Penetration resistance

Lower penetration resistance values are obtained with MSWC treatments (T3 to T6) compared

to sole mineral fertilizer treatments (T1 & T2) as indicated in table-4.5. However, inclusion of

MSWC in site-specific application rate (T4 &T6) decreases the penetration resistance

significantly than sole use of mineral fertilizer with site-specific application rate (T2).

Season by season comparison of penetration resistance (fig. 4.9) shows the response

lines of penetration resistance of mineral fertilizer plots (T1 & T2) remain constantly above the

response lines of MSWC plots (T3 to T6) in all seasons. Site-specific MSWC application rate

(T4 & T6) behaved similarly as that of treatments with the standard MSWC rate (T3 & T5).

Seasonal variations with higher penetration resistance are evident at 5th and 6th seasons of wheat

and cotton crops.

Possible reasons for these variations include unlikeness in the effects of tillage, farming

operations during crop seasons and moisture contents at crop harvest. Therefore, more

attention should be paid to seasonal variations during measurement of this soil physical

property to avoid biased estimations.

4.2.3 Soil organic matter

After applying MSWC for 3 years in field trial, the results related to SOM contents are

presented in table 4.6. An increase in SOM to a range of 6.8 - 8.9 g kg-1 from initial status

of 5.0 g kg-1 is evident for all treatments. Looking in detail to the data, it becomes clear

that non-significant higher (P≤ 0.05) SOM contents have been observed in plots of

MSWC treatments (T5 & T6) without herbicides/pesticides application over mineral

fertilizer treatments (T1 & T2) and MSWC treatments with herbicides (T3 & T4).

Earlier, Khaleel et al., (1981) report no simple relationship between carbon

application rate (e.g., MSWC) and sustainable increase in SOM contents. A field study

has shown that land application of biosolids (sewage sludge) for 16 years does not

significantly increase organic carbon concentrations in agricultural soils (Sloan et al.,

1998). According to McConnell et al. (1993), MSWC application rates should be at least


Figure 4.8 Evolution of bulk densities over the 3-year trial period in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).


Figure 4.9 Evolution of penetration resistances over the 3-year trial period in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

60Chapter


15 tons per acre (about 0.25 inch thick) to noticeably increase organic matter in soil.

The results are generally in agreement to those reported by McGrath et al. (2000)

and Bidwell and Dowdy (1987) who conclude that the greatest rate of biosolids organic

matter mineralization is occurred soon after application. Cadisch and Giller (1997) clarify

that amount of organic matter accumulation in soils relative to the organic fertilizer

application rate can vary significantly depending on the climatic and biophysical

boundary conditions for decomposition and mineralization. While numerous studies have

shown that a considerable increase in SOM can be achieved through addition of organic

waste (Maynard, 1995; Aoyama, 1999; Montemurro, 2006; Bevacqua and Mellano, 1993;

Smith, 1995).

The present study indicates no significant differences in SOM by the all three

management strategies. For the semi-arid climatic conditions of the Punjab region, the

soil properties of the trial plots and prevailing management practices for the cotton-wheat

cropping system, the addition of new organic matter (i.e., MSWC application) and

decomposition and mineralization processes seem to be in balance in the 3-years trial

period.

The season by season comparison of SOM contents shows (fig. 4.10) higher

variations in wheat seasons while comparatively lower in cotton seasons. Seemingly,

these seasonal differences may be attributed to varied volume of MSWC rates in different

treatments applied in wheat seasons compared to almost equal volumes in cotton season

except for last season of cotton (table-3.11) where MSWC rate is quite lower in T4 & T6

than T3 & T5. The slight increase of SOM relative to the pre-trial level for the mineral

fertilizer treatments (T1 & T2) is in agreement with findings reported by Zhang (2006) and

can be attributed to an increase in belowground biomass (in the years prior to the trial

only small amounts of urea were sporadically applied to the plots).


Table 4.6 SOM and soil phosphorus status at the end of the 3-year trial in C-W system

Treatment Organic matter (g kg-1)

Phosphorus (mg kg-1)

T1 6.8 b† 12.3 a

T2 7.5 ab 12.2 a

T3 7.1 b 11.9 a

T4 7.1 b 10.7 a

T5 7.9 ab 12.9 a

T6 8.9 a 12.3 a


5.0 1.7




Figure 4.10 Evolution of SOM contents over the 3-year trial period (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

63Chapter


4.2.4 Soil phosphorus

Field experiments have been conducted to determine the effects of three different

strategies and two nutrient doses on soil P status. Based on data given in table 4.6, a

significant increase of soil test phosphorus levels relative to the initial status is noted for

all management strategies and fertilizer doses. Though some seasonal variations for

cotton and wheat crops are observed (fig. 4.11), the overall phosphorus level in the

uppermost 15-cm of soil increases approximately six fold for all treatments by the end of

the trial and remains close to the target sufficiency level of 16 mg kg-1 (please note that

no phosphorus fertilizer was applied in the years prior to the field trial). It is revealed that

all six-treatment combinations keep the soil phosphorus status within target limit and

exhibit no indication of excessive phosphorus accumulation.

Statistically significant difference has not observed between sole mineral fertilizer

application (T1 & T2) and the MSWC treatments (T3 & T6). Similarly, soil test P level is

almost similar in site-specific application rate treatments (T2, T4 & T6) and standard

application rate treatments (T1, T3 & T5) at the end of the trial. This is not surprising

because over a 3-years trial period, 555 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 538 kg P2O5 ha-1 has been

applied in standard as well as in site-specific doses respectively (table 3.9) which are

almost the same rates.

4.2.5 Heavy metals accumulation

The figure 4.12 indicates the addition of MSWC do not increase the concentrations of

any DTPA-extractable metals after three years over pre-trial levels, and remain just about

unchanged. In fact, the levels of Zn, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Ni are statistically non-significant by

all management strategies and fertilizer doses applied in six treatments. However, there

seems an impression of slightly higher Zn status due to application of standard dose (T1,

T3 & T5) of nutrients compared to site-specific dose (T2, T4 & T6) either with or without

use of MSWC. Concisely, there is no indication that amounts of heavy metals even in

small quantity have accumulated in surface soil to a depth of 15 cm that contradicts the

supposition that biosolids are the key component to increase metals concentration in soil

Four Results and Discussion 65

Figure 4.11 Evolution of phosphorus levels over the 3-year trial period in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means).

Chapter


(Sloan et al., 1998; Illera et al., 2000; Keller et al., 2002; Weber et al., 2007 and

Barbarick and Ippolito, 2007). Three consecutive applications of MSWC, with metal

contents below legal limits, to a sandy soil under intensive farming conditions result in an

increase of aqua-regia and DTPA-extractable Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the soil surface

(Madrid et al., 2007). In other studies, the availability of trace metals has also been

reported to decrease with time as organic decomposition rates decreased (Bidwell and

Dowdy, 1987; Walter et al., 2002). Our findings agree with various studies that have been

reported by Montemurro et al, (2005a and 2005b) and Cala et al. (2005). The contrary

results achieved in rice-wheat cropping system where Cd enrichment has observed on

loam soil, here in cotton-wheat cropping system, on sandy loam soil, Cd enrichment has

not been noticed.

4.2.6 Crop yields

Data presented in table-4.7 reveals no significant differences (P<0.05) in cumulative

wheat grain yields for two nutrient doses and three management strategies. Cumulative P

additions are almost equal in both doses (table 3.9).

The repeated MSWC addition in combination with mineral fertilizer (T3 to T6)

produced wheat grain yield statistically at par to sole mineral fertilizer (T1 & T2)

applications. Singer et al., (2004) report similar findings on wheat grain yield that

compost effect is not found statistically significant compared to mineral fertilizer. Similar

results are also obtained in sunflower by Montemurro et al. (2005a). However, higher

non-significant wheat grain yield has obtained by site-specific application rate within

each strategy compared to standard application rate. The results obtained in cotton yield

indicate significant differences (P<0.05) in cumulative cotton yield with two nutrient

doses and three management strategies. The data further depict the significant effect on

cotton yield with MSWC additions (T4 & T6) on site-specific way of nutrients application

basis (table-4.7).

The highest significant cotton yield has obtained by treatment (T4) receiving

MSWC in combination with mineral fertilizer based on site-specific application rate with

proper pest management. Site-specific dose treatments (T2 & T4) with proper pest


Figure 4.12 Heavy metal levels at the end of the 3-year trial relative to pretrial levels in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means; means with the same letter on top of the error bar are not significantly different at the 5% probability level).


management also produces significant higher cumulative cotton yield as compared to

standard dose treatments (T1 & T3). Therefore, site-specific dose earn significance by

producing higher yields of wheat and cotton over standard dose whether significantly or

non-significantly. This positive effect is not achieved in case of wheat straw or cotton

biomass production. The differences in wheat straw yields are found seemingly higher

only when data are arranged over seasons (Fig 4.13) and it is increased considerably in

last wheat season (S5). No progressive increase in seed cotton or cotton biomass is

observed during study period. Progressive increase in wheat grain and straw yield (Fig

4.13) is evident during all three seasons (S1, S3 and S5).

4.2.7 Economical considerations

After 3-years experimentation, cumulated profit has been calculated on the basis of

growing both cotton and wheat crops in order to look into economy of the system as well

as to select best profitable plan from farmer’s point of view. The respective profit and

VCR values are given in table 4.8. Significant higher cumulative net profit and VCR have

obtained by site-specific dose with or without use of MSWC and proper pest control (T2

& T4) compared to standard dose application (T1 & T3). However, without pest control

(T6), significant higher profit and VCR values are not obtained.

The highest cumulative net profit is obtained by sole mineral fertilizer treatment

(T2) applied on site-specific basis that remains non significant with MSWC treatment

(T4). This clearly depicts that nutrients application on site-specific basis with proper pest

control yielded better economical returns compared to standard fertilizer application.

Furthermore, accounting improvements in soil physical properties (table-4.5) with

MSWC application enhance the significance of integrated use of organic and inorganic

sources on site-specific basis. When VCR values are considered, significantly lower

values are recorded by the treatments including MSWC (T3 & T6) like in rice-wheat

system. Major contributory factor to lowering VCR in MSWC treatments (T3 to T6) is the

high cost of MSWC.


Table 4.7 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on wheat and rice yields in C-W system

Cumulative Grain Yield (kg ha-1)

Cumulative Straw Yield

(kg ha-1) Treatment

Wheat Cotton Wheat Cotton

T1 09661 c† 2496 d 16720 b 12020 c

T2 11305 ab 2660 c 18265 ab 12233 c

T3 11280 ab 2361 e 18554 ab 12167 c

T4 11367 a 3037 a 20076 a 14033 b

T5 10406 bc 2961 b 18167 ab 14020 b

T6 10555 abc 2962 b 18658 ab 13000 a




Figure 4.13 Grain and straw yields for wheat and cotton separated for growing season

(error bars indicate the standard error of means)


Table 4.8 Effects of management strategies and fertilizer doses on cumulative net profits and value-cost ratios in C-W system.

Treatment Cumulative Net Profit

USD ha-1

Value-Cost Ratio -

T1 2847 bc† 3.51 b

T2 3293 a 3.88 a

T3 2615 c 2.56 d

T4 3080 ab 2.84 c

T5 2858 bc 2.79 c

T6 2900 b 2.83 c

† Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% probability level.


Figure 4.14 Net profit and value to cost ratio (VCR) for wheat and cotton separated for

growing season in C-W system (error bars indicate the standard error of means)


The results of season by season comparison in fig. 4.14 clearly depict higher

steady returns and VCR for only wheat seasons. Gradual increase in profit and VCR after

every season of wheat has been observed by treatments (T4 & T6). It shows that combined

use of MSWC on site-specific application rate basis has the capacity of adaptation by the

farming community. However, consistent positive results are not achieved by this plan

for cotton cultivation. Role of standard dose with or without MSWC neither in wheat nor

in cotton season is helpful to produce consistent profit and VCR values.

Chapter Five Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work 74

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusions

To evaluate environmental and economical impacts of municipal solid waste compost

applications to rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems in the Punjab province of

Pakistan, two 3-years field trials have been conducted with six different treatments

comprising three management strategies with two nutrient doses. Management strategies

included application of mineral fertilizer as the sole nutrient supplement and application

of mineral fertilizer in combination with MSWC with and without pest management.

Within each management strategy nutrients are applied either based on standard N, P and

K recommendations or based on measured site specific plant available soil phosphorus

levels. Following conclusions are drawn from the study.

• After three years, significant improvements of soil physical properties are noted

for all treatments in both cropping systems. Reductions in values of bulk density

and penetration resistance are observed relative to treatments where sole mineral

fertilizers have been applied. The greater reduction has been observed in rice-

wheat system than cotton-wheat system. Three years of observations are probably

not enough to evaluate potential long-term beneficial effects of repeated MSWC

applications on the physical soil environment and crop yields, but the results of

current study reveal a distinct improvement relative to initial conditions.

• Soil test phosphorus levels have increased relative to the initial status for all

management strategies and fertilizer doses in both cropping systems. Though

some seasonal variations have been recorded in rice-wheat system, the overall

phosphorus level in the uppermost 15-cm of soil almost becomes double for all

treatments by the end of the trial. Higher soil test P levels have been sighted for

the site-specific fertilizer dose than for the common dose where almost double the

amount of P2O5 per hectare has been applied to the trial plots.


• In cotton-wheat system, the increase in overall phosphorus level is about six fold

over pre-trial value convening target sufficiency level of 16 mg kg-1. Statistically

significant difference has not been observed between sole mineral fertilizer

application practice and the MSWC treatments.

• For soil organic matter, a slight increase has been seen from the initial status for

all management strategies and fertilizer doses in rice-wheat system. Surprisingly,

statistically significant differences are not observed between treatments with

MSWC and treatments that used only mineral fertilizer as sole nutrient source.

But in cotton-wheat system, non-significant higher SOM contents are observed in

plots of MSWC treatments without pesticide and herbicide application over other

treatments and over initial status. For the semi-arid climatic conditions of the

Punjab region of Pakistan, the soil properties of the trial plots and prevailing

management practices for the rice-wheat cropping system, the addition of new

organic matter (i.e., MSWC application) and decomposition and mineralization

processes seem to be in balance, at least for the duration of the field trial.

• Concerning increase of heavy metal (Zn, Cd, Cr, Pb & Ni) status has not seen in

the surface soil layer that can be attributed to MSWC applications in both

cropping systems. Concisely, there is no indication that amounts of heavy metals

even in small quantity have accumulated in surface soil to a depth of 15 cm that

contradicts the supposition that biosolids are the key component to increase metals

concentration in soil. Distinctive correlation is also not found between MSWC

application and heavy metal loading, these results need to be interpreted with

caution because potential leaching losses are not measured in this study.

• Site-specific way of fertilizer application proves relatively more effective and

efficient than conventional use of fertilizer in improving rice grain and

straw yield.

• Economic analysis reveals higher economic returns for treatments with site-

specific fertilizer application rates than the commonly applied standard fertilizer

rates in both cropping systems. The value cost ratio of sole mineral fertilizer

application at site-specific rate is significantly higher than all other treatments.


This is a very important and main finding of this study as site-specific rates are

found economically efficient and can perform a key role in sustaining agricultural

productivity. Moreover, detrimental environmental impacts of field-applied

agrochemicals are also reduced with the application of site-specific rates. Role of

standard dose with or without MSWC neither in wheat nor in cotton season is

helpful to produce consistent profit and VCR values.

• The cumulative net profits of treatments with MSWC/mineral fertilizer/ site-

specific application rate (T4 and T6) are not statistically significant different from

treatment T2 where sole mineral fertilizer has been applied at site-specific rate.

However, in cotton-wheat system, it is revealed that without proper pest control,

significant better economical returns can not be achieved. This is another

significant finding of this study that application of MSWC yields net returns

comparable to sole mineral fertilizers.

5.2 Suggestions for Future Work

• The findings indicate the integrated use of MSWC and chemical fertilizer in 20:80

based on measured, site specific, plant available soil phosphorus levels prove

economical and do not likely cause problems for heavy metals and phosphorus

accumulation. It appears a prudent guide line for public policy to use MSWC in

soils under rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems. However, considering

the short-term nature of this work, a long-term (10 years or longer) study is

needed in order to confirm the findings. Future research can also be focused on

measured plant available soil potassium levels for site specific application of

nutrients.

• The results of repeated MSWC application on different parameters vary greatly

with the crop rotation. This situation demands an extensive field experimental

study in order to evaluate MSWC as a viable organic matter source under

different soil-climatic conditions, agro ecological zones and in different cropping

systems, especially those involving vegetable crops.


• In contrary to the supposition that bio-solids application may cause an increase in

soil heavy metals concentration, no accumulation of heavy metals in surface soil

to a depth of 15 cm was found in this study. Since potential leaching losses of

heavy metal elements were not accounted for in this study, a future study may

evaluate the environmental implications of MSWC application in terms of heavy

metals and nitrate migration to deeper depths.

References 78

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ANNEXURE 108

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

M. Akram, M.A. Qazi and N. Ahmad. 2007. Integrated nutrients management for wheat by

municipal solid waste manure in rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems.

Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 16 (4):495-503.

Qazi. M.A., M. Akram, N. Ahmad and M.A. Khattak. 2007. Integrated plant nutrients

management for “Desi” cotton. Science International. 19 (1): 35-39.

M. Akram, M.A., Qazi, N. Ahmad and M.A. Khattak. 2006. Balanced Nutrients Management

in rice-wheat cropping system. In:Proceeding of the International Symposium on

Balanced Fertilization for Sustainability of Crop Productivity, held at Punjab

Agriculture University, Ludhiana, India, 22-25 November, International Potash

Institute, Horgen, Switzerland, pp202-204.

Qazi. M.A., M. Akram and N. Ahmad. 2006. Effect of inorganic fertilizers and municipal

solid waste manure on some soil physical properties in cotton – wheat cropping

system. Science International. 18 (3): 243-249.

N. Ahmad, M. Akram and M.A. Qazi. 2004. Evaluating cropping systems effects on soil

fertility and environment. Pakistan Journal of Soil Science. 23 (3-4): 18-24.

Documents

Environmental and Economical Implications of Municipal ...prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1781/1/905S.pdf · of Dar-ul-Ehsan, Faisalabad, my father Allah Ditta Qazi (R.A)