Enhance your For Training Enhancements program Peabody ...testbank360.eu/sample/test-bank-educational-psychology-7th-edition... · Instructor’s Manual for Educational Psychology

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WWWHHH AAA TTT III SSS IIIRRRIIISSS??? The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements is based at Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College and Claremont Graduate University. The Center, supported through a federal grant from the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), creates enhancement materials and resources for college faculty preparing future education professionals and for professional development providers who conduct inservice trainings for current school personnel. WWWhhhaaattt RRR eeesssooouuurrrccceeesss DDDoooeeesss IIIRRRIIISSS OOOffffff eeerrr??? IRIS training enhancements are designed to better prepare school personnel to provide an appropriate education to students with disabilities. To achieve this goal, the Center has created free course enhancement materials for college faculty and professional development providers. These materials can be used either as homework or as in-class or training activities.

STAR LEGACY MODULES

• Offer challenge-based interactive lessons • Apply the How People Learn (HPL) framework (developed by

John Bransford and colleagues) • Translate research into effective teaching practices • Produce significant learner outcomes

CASE STUDIES

• Include three levels of problems to solve • Illustrate evidence-based instructional strategies • Are accompanied by answer keys (upon request)

ACTIVITIES Activities are created to accompany lectures and professional development training, to be assigned as independent homework, or to promote discussion. They cover a wide range of topics related to special education and disabilities.

INFORMATION BRIEFS Information briefs are gathered from a number of sources and are included on the IRIS Web site to offer quick facts and details on a wide range of disability-related subjects.

WEB RESOURCE DIRECTORY The Web Resource Directory is a search engine that helps users locate information about special education and disability-related topics available through other Web sites.

IRIS FILM TOOL The Film Tool is a comprehensive database of motion pictures featuring or having to do with people with disabilities—some of them inaccurate or negative—as a means of stimulating discussions of popular depictions of disabilities. ONLINE DICTIONARY The Online Dictionary contains hundreds of definitions of disability and special education–related terms, plus cross-links between definitions for easier searching. PODCASTS IRIS downloadable podcasts feature audio interviews with some of the most knowledgeable experts in the field.

All IRIS materials are available at no cost through the IRIS Web site http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu

Enhance your program

with these FREE online resources

from IRIS!

For Training Enhancements Peabody College at Vanderbilt University

Instructor’s Manual

for

Educational Psychology Developing Learners

Seventh Edition

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita)

University of New Hampshire

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto

Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

Copyright © 2011, 2008, 2006, Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced from Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, Seventh Edition, by Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without written permission from the copyright owner. To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work, please submit a written request to Permissions Department, 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116; fax your request to 617-671-2290; or email [email protected]

ISBN-10: 0-13-700118-5 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-13-700118-7

i

CONTENTS

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Updates for the Seventh Edition including MyEducationLab.com. . . . . . . . . . . .. .iii

Features of the Manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Chapter 1 Educational Psychology and Teacher Decision Making . . . 1

Chapter 2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 3 Personal and Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … 38

Chapter 4 Group Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chapter 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs . . . . 71

Chapter 6 Learning and Cognitive Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Chapter 7 Knowledge Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 8 Higher-Level Cognitive Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Chapter 9 Behaviorist Views of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Chapter 10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Chapter 11 Motivation and Affect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 12 Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Chapter 13 Creating a Productive Learning Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Chapter 14 Classroom Assessment Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Chapter 15 Summarizing Student Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

References for the Instructor’s Manual and Accompanying Resources . . . .. . . 274

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PREFACE I first taught a course called “Educational Psychology” in the fall of 1974. At this point, I have probably taught the course in one form or another at least 50 times. Yet each time I teach students about educational psychology, I do it somewhat differently than I have before, partly because the field changes so rapidly and partly because, with every new group of students, I continue to discover how I can do something just a little bit better than I have done it in the past. Much of this manual has been derived from my own experiences teaching and writing about educational psychology. I have raided my file cabinets for the many hands-on activities, discussion topics, handouts, slides, and homework assignments I have used successfully over the years. I have developed supplementary lectures concerning topics I have included in my own course at one time or another when instructional objectives required them. Whenever I have removed or condensed discussions of certain topics in order to make room for new material, I have used the deleted subject matter to create new lectures and activities. In a few instances, I have also drawn on the experiences of former and present colleagues; I give them credit when I have done so. If you are teaching educational psychology for the first time, I hope that the suggestions and materials I provide here will help you develop a course that not only is informative and useful for your students but also promotes their interest, engagement, and excitement. If you are an experienced teacher, I hope you will find a few intriguing ideas for diversifying your teaching strategies. I am always eager to hear about the things that do and don’t work for you. Keep in touch. J.E.O.

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UPDATES FOR THE SEVENTH EDITION including

MYEDUCATIONLAB.COM

A textbook is only a small part of a student’s overall college learning experience. The things that happen in the classroom—the ideas discussed, the questions asked, the activities conducted, the assignments given—are just as important, perhaps even more so. This Instructor’s Manual, when used in conjunction with Educational Psychology: Developing Learners is designed to help you show your students just how useful concepts and principles of educational psychology can be for practicing teachers. We have made few changes to this edition of the Instructor’s Manual; primarily we have updated and reorganized it to correspond with the Seventh Edition of Developing Learners. We note here some key features:

- Each chapter of the text now introduces specific instructional objectives that students should strive to accomplish as they read the chapter. In this Manual, we have aligned the objectives with the text section and identified some of the activities, questions, and resources that best address those objectives.

- Each chapter begins with a Case Study that situates chapter content in a real-life scenario along with at least one reflective question about the case. Potential responses and occasionally additional questions are included in this Manual.

- All chapters of this Manual are accompanied by a PowerPoint slide set to be used for these activities and supplemental lectures. This slide set replaces the prior “Handouts” and “Transparency” sets from previous editions. Note, these slides are different from the PowerPoint lecture slide set that outlines the chapters of the textbook.

Additions to the Manual are limited because with the Seventh Edition we introduce an exciting new online resource, MyEducationLab (www.myeducationlab.com). MyEducationLab provides readers with the context of real classrooms and artifacts that we know, based on research on teacher education, is so important. The authentic in-class video footage, interactive skill-building exercises and other resources available on MyEducationLab offer a uniquely valuable teacher education tool. Throughout the book, margin notes alert readers to opportunities to apply chapter content and build their teaching skills by going to the new MyEducationLab to complete scaffolded learning units. These materials, many of which are highlighted in this Manual, include:

- Connections to National Standards. In each topic of MyEducationLab, readers will find intended learning outcomes connected to the appropriate national standards.

- Assignments and Activities. Designed to save instructors preparation time and enhance student understanding, these exercises show concepts in action through video, cases, or student and teacher artifacts. They help readers synthesize and apply concepts and strategies they read about in the book. Feedback for these assignments is available to the instructor. Assignments and Activities include:

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- Understanding Research exercises related to particular topics that help readers enhance their research interpretation skills. We have listed these activities by title in this Manual in the relevant chapters.

- Artifact and Video Analysis exercises that provide additional opportunities to practice applying chapter content to interpretations of actual students’ work and teachers’ classroom practices.

Assignments and Activities are mapped to the appropriate learning outcomes as well.

- Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions. These exercises help readers practice and strengthen skills that are essential to quality teaching. First the reader is presented with the core skill or concept and then is given an opportunity to develop this concept multiple times by watching video footage (or interacting with other media) and then critically analyzing the strategy or skill presented. Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions exercises are mapped to the appropriate national standards and learning outcomes MyEducationLab. We have listed these activities by title in this Manual in the relevant chapters.

- IRIS Center Resources. The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu – funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education Programs, OSEP) develops training enhancement materials for pre-service and in-service teachers. The Center works with experts from across the country to create challenge-based interactive modules, case study units, and podcasts that provide research-validated information about working with students in inclusive settings. MyEducationLab includes this content in appropriate topic areas to enhance the content coverage in the book.

- Teacher Talk. This feature links to videos of teachers of the year across the country discussing their personal stories of why they teach. This National Teacher of the Year Program is sponsored by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and focuses public attention on teaching excellence. MyEducationLab includes motivational and inspiring Teacher Talk videos in topic areas to which they are relevant.

- General Resources. The Resources section on MyEducationLab is designed to help teacher candidates pass their licensure exam, put together effective portfolios and lesson plans, prepare for and navigate the first year of teaching, and understand key educational standards, policies, and laws. This section includes: - Licensure Exams. Access guidelines for passing the Praxis exam. The

Practice Test Exam includes multiple choice questions, case history questions, and video case studies with sample questions.

- Lesson Plan Builder. Create and share lesson plans.

- Licensure and Standards. Link to state licensure standards and national standards.

- Beginning Your Career. Access tips, advice, and valuable information on:

- Resume Writing and Interviewing. Expert advice on how to write impressive resumes and prepare for job interviews.

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- Your First Year of Teaching. Practical tips to set up a classroom, manage student behavior, and plan for instruction and assessment.

- Law and Public Policies. Specific directives and requirements teachers need to understand under the No Child Left Behind Act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.

- Special Education Interactive Timeline. Build detailed timelines based on different facets of the history and evolution of special education.

- Book-Specific Resources. The Book-Specific Resources section of

MyEducationLab contains useful material organized by chapter rather than by topic. Readers can go to this section to check their comprehension of chapter content. The Book-Specific Resources section offers the following resources: - Study Plan. The Study Plan is a multiple-choice assessment tied to

chapter objectives, supported by study material. A well-designed Study Plan offers multiple opportunities to fully master required course content as identified by the objectives in each chapter:

- Chapter Objectives identify the learning outcomes for the chapter and give readers targets to shoot for as they read and study.

- Focus Questions help guide the reading of chapter content

- Self-Check Quizzes assess mastery of the content. These assessments are mapped to chapter objectives. Readers can take the multiple choice quiz as many times as needed. Not only do these quizzes provide overall scores for each objective, but they also explain why responses to particular items are correct or incorrect.

- Study Material: Review, Practice and Enrichment gives readers a deeper understanding of what they do and do not know related to chapter content. This material includes text excerpts, activities that include hints and feedback, and interactive multi-media exercises built around videos, simulations, cases, or classroom artifacts.

- Flashcards help readers review the core concepts and principles within each chapter.

- Common Beliefs and Misconceptions about Educational Psychology help alert readers to typical misunderstandings in educational psychology classes

- Video Examples. Video examples, referenced by margin notes in every chapter, provide concrete illustrations of the various core concepts and principles illustrated in each chapter. We have listed these examples by title in this Manual in the relevant chapters.

- Supplementary Readings. Supplementary readings related to chapter concepts provide an opportunity to explore a subject in more depth. We have listed these readings by title in this Manual in the relevant chapters.

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- A Practice for Your Licensure Exam Exercise. Each chapter of the text ends with a Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercise that resembles the kinds of questions that appear on many teacher licensure tests. The same chapter-ending exercise is also located on MyEducationLab, along with feedback. Students can complete the exercise while receiving hints that help guide toward a correct response.

In addition to the materials in this Manual and at MyEducationLab, Pearson offers ancillary materials to support this text, including:

- Videotapes. The videotapes that accompany this textbook portray a wide variety of teachers, students, and classrooms in action. Many of the videos present numerous case studies in many content domains and at a variety of grade levels. Two additional videos are A Private Universe (which examines learner misconceptions in science) and Constance Kamii’s Double-Column Addition: A Teacher Uses Piaget’s Theory (which depicts a constructivist approach to teaching mathematics). Opportunities to react to these videos in class discussions can further enhance students’ ability to think analytically and identify good teaching practices.

- Double-Column Addition: A Teacher Uses Piaget's Theory (0-13-

751413-1) - Windows on Classrooms Video Case Studies (0-13-579948-1) - Educational Psychology: Video Package, Video 1 (0-02-389496-2) - A Private Universe (0-13-859646-8) - Elementary Video Case Studies (0-13-118642-6) - Secondary Video Case Studies (0-13-118641-8) - Video Workshop for Educational Psychology: Student Learning Guide

with CD-ROM, Second Edition (0-205-45834-3). Instructors should contact their local Pearson sales representative to order copies of these videos.

- PowerPoint Slides (0-13-700117-7). These PowerPoint slides are intended to support classroom lectures and generally follow the outline of the text chapters. They include key concept summaries, diagrams, and other graphic aids to enhance learning. Text is minimal to encourage students to attend to class lecture and discussion for the details. These slides are available for instructors to download from www.pearsonhighered.com/educators.

- Test Bank (0-13-700078-2) and TestGen (0-13-700115-0). Jeanne Ormrod wrote all the test questions in the Test Bank that accompanies the book. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. Many others (higher-level questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations—that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. Ultimately, it is these higher-level questions that assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice. The test bank is also available

vii

electronically in computerized test bank software known as TestGen, which enables instructors to create and customize exams. TestGen is available in both Macintosh and PC/Windows versions.

- Web CT (0-13-700160-6) and BlackBoard (0-13-700159-2) Course Content Cartridges. The course content cartridges contain the content of the Test Bank, available for use on either course management system.

Additional supplementary materials for students include:

- Case Studies: Applying Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). Many instructors use Ormrod and McGuire’s Case Studies book (0-13-198046-7) as a supplement to this book. It includes 48 real cases involving students and classrooms ranging from preschool to high school. It illustrates concepts and principles in many areas of educational psychology, including child and adolescent development, learning and cognition, motivation, classroom management, instructional practices, and assessment.

- Artifact Case Studies: Interpreting Children’s Work and Teachers’ Classroom Strategies. Another possible supplement to the book is my Artifact Case Studies book (0-13-114671-8). The artifact cases in this supplement offer work samples and instructional materials that cover a broad range of topics, including literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, and art. Every artifact case includes background information and questions to consider as readers examine the artifact. Instructors should contact their local Pearson sales representative to order a copy of this book.

- Simulations in Educational Psychology and Research (version 2.1). This CD-ROM (0-13-113717-4) features five interactive psychological/educational experiments, along with exercises and readings that can help students explore the research components and procedures connected to the experiments. Qualitative and quantitative designs are included. Instructors should contact their local Pearson sales representative to order a copy of these simulations.

- Observing Children and Adolescents CD-ROMs: Guided Interactive Practice in Understanding Development. This unique set of three CDs (0-13-094379-7) guides students through activities that help them develop a discerning “eye” for the developmental nuances of children’s behavior. In more than 50 activities, students view video clips of real children from infancy through adolescence, reflect on their observations, and record their interpretations. Students can explore 14 topics, including Memory, Intrinsic Motivation, Cognitive Development, Emotional Development, Families, Friendship, and Intelligence. Viewing these clips and responding to a series of questions across five age groups will familiarize students with the abilities and concerns of children at every development level—and enhance their understanding of many key concepts.

Instructors should contact their local Pearson sales representative to order a copy of these CDs.

viii

FEATURES OF THE MANUAL

Resource Table Each chapter of the manual includes a three-column table. The left-hand column provides instructional objectives, and the center column provides the corresponding sections of the textbook chapter. The right-hand column identifies relevant materials and activities for each section. At the end of each table is a selection of key resources available at MyEducationLab and a link to the Lecture Slides available at www.pearsonhighered.com. Case Study Analyses Every chapter of the textbook begins with a case study, and each case study concludes with one or more questions designed to help students elaborate on and apply concepts and principles presented in the chapter. Possible answers to questions posed in the opening case studies are included in each chapter of this manual. Discussion Topics Each chapter of this manual includes one or more higher-level questions that are likely to generate a significant amount of student discussion. Some questions have clear-cut answers; others do not. The questions provide a way of eliciting important ideas from the students themselves. In some cases, students’ responses to the questions may be so complete that you will need only to organize their thoughts into a cohesive whole. Cooperative Learning Activities Numerous research studies lead to the same conclusion: Cooperative learning activities promote student learning. Throughout the manual, you will find activities especially suitable for small, cooperative groups. Out-of-Class Activities and Homework Found throughout the manual are suggestions regarding observations in K–12 classroom settings and homework assignments that students might conduct outside of class. Suggested In-Class Activities The textbook includes numerous activities that enable students to experience important ideas firsthand. Additional activities are presented here in the manual. I have used almost all of them myself and have found them to be highly motivating, engaging, and enlightening for my students. Activity Slides for projection or to distribute accompany some of the activities and are available to download from the Instructor’s Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com. Supplementary Lectures Each chapter of the manual includes one or more supplementary lectures that either expand on topics presented in the textbook or introduce topics not specifically addressed in the text. Some are based on material that, due to lack of space, has been deleted from earlier editions of the textbook. Others have come from our own class lectures in either general educational psychology courses or advanced courses in learning, cognition, and measurement. The lectures allow you to supplement textbook material in directions appropriate for your objectives. Please note, however, that their content is not reflected in the test bank for the book. Commercial Video Recommendations Throughout the manual are lists of commercial videos relevant to each chapter. Please note that the descriptions of these videos are modified versions of descriptions that appear in publishers’ brochures. I have used only a few of them myself and cannot speak to the quality or accuracy of the others. You should check with the distributors of the videos regarding current availability for purchase or rental.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology and Teacher Decision Making

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Chapter 1 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND

TEACHER DECISION MAKING

Chapter Objectives

Corresponding Chapter Sections

Instructional Materials

CASE STUDY: PICTURE YOURSELF

Case Study Analysis

Objective 1.1: Explain the importance of research in classroom decision making.

TEACHING AS EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE

Discussion Topics

- Topics 1, 2

Supplementary Lecture

- Why Do We Need Research

Commercial Videos

- Making a Difference: Great Teachers (Parts 1, 2, and/or 3)

Objective 1.2: Draw appropriate conclusions from different types of research studies.

UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Interpreting Research Results: A Cautionary Note

From Research to Practice: The Importance of Theories

Discussion Topics

- Topics 3, 4, 5

Activities

- Bad and Better Research - Classifying Research Studies

- Cooperative Learning Activity

- Homework Activity 1, 2, 3

Supplemental Lectures

- Variables, Constants, and Control

- Basic and Applied Research

Commercial Videos

- Research Methods for the Social Sciences

IM for Educational Psychology: Developing Learners

2

Objective 1.3: Describe several strategies for collecting information about your own students.

COLLECTING DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ABOUT YOUR OWN STUDENTS

Assessing Students’ Achievements and Behaviors

Conducting Action Research

Discussion Topics

- Topic 6

Objective 1.4: Plan long-term strategies for gaining expertise as a teacher.

DEVELOPING AS A TEACHER

Objective 1.5: Use effective strategies when you read and study.

STRATEGIES FOR STUDYING AND LEARNING EFFECTIVELY

Discussion Topics

- Topic 7

Additional chapter materials

Start-of-Term Activities

- Getting to Know Students’ Names (p. 7)

- The OOPS Test (p. 8)

Lecture Slides (www.pearsonhighered.com)

Understanding Research (MyEducationLab for Educational Psychology, Topic: Research Methods and Teacher Reflection, Activities and Applications)

- Studying Teachers’ Content Knowledge

Building Teaching Skills & Dispositions (MyEducationLab for Educational Psychology Topic: Research Methods and Teacher Reflection) - Drawing Conclusions About Cause–and–Effect Relationships

Supplementary Readings (MyEducationLab Book-Specific Resources, Chapter 1)

- Study Tips

- Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients

Go to Chapter 1 of the book-specific resources in MyEducationLab to review the Chapter Study Plan and additional activities and resources.


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Case Study Analysis As the teacher in this situation, what things might you immediately do to increase the likelihood that your students will benefit from your lesson? What things might you also do over the next few days and weeks to increase your students’ ability and desire to learn the things you want to teach them?

Some immediate possibilities: Reinforce children who are engaged and well-behaved. (Chapter 9) Cue or punish inappropriate behaviors. (Chapter 9, Chapter 13) Model appropriate behaviors. (Chapter 10) Focus the lesson on student interests. (Chapter 11) Ask open-ended and authentic questions. (Chapter 12) Rearrange the classroom seating. (Chapter 13) Over time, you may choose to: Reflect on your teaching style and your role in the classroom dynamics. (Chapter 1) Ensure that your lessons are developmentally appropriate and properly scaffolded. (Chapter 2) Work with appropriate staff to identify and assist any children with special educational needs. (Chapter 5) Alter the length or content of lessons to fit with children’s attention and memory span. (Chapter 6) Develop activities that encourage construction and self-regulation. (Chapters 7, 10) Shape appropriate behaviors. (Chapter 9) Develop lessons around student interests and encourage the development of intrinsic motivation. (Chapter 11) Develop hands-on and other student-directed activities. (Chapter 12) Have students help to develop classroom rules and standards. (Chapter 13)

Discussion Topics

1. How can teachers use research when making classroom decisions? 2. How might teachers use research findings when communicating with parents? 3. Which topics in education might best be studied with qualitative research? Which might best be studied

with quantitative research? 4. In educational research, what are the advantages of having control groups that receive either no

intervention or a placebo intervention that is unlikely to have much of an effect? What are the disadvantages? Consider the perspectives of research participants, teachers, and society at large.

5. If we can’t control all the possible variables in a study, can we draw any conclusions from it? Is it even possible to control all possible factors in educational research?

6. What ethical concerns or conflicts of interest must you address when conducting research in your own classroom?

7. What study strategies do you use that you would recommend to your classmates?

Cooperative Learning Activity

1. Find several examples of research studies in recent professional journals. Give a different study to each cooperative group. Ask group members to identify whether the study is descriptive, correlational, or experimental in nature, and to determine what conclusions can appropriately be drawn from the results.


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Homework Assignments

1. Find out how to access your university’s online library catalog from a computer at home or some other off-campus location.

2. Go to your university library and locate three different professional journals that publish research articles related to human learning, child development, and/or classroom practice. Describe the kinds of research studies that each of these journals publishes.

3. Browse through professional research journals to find one example each of descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies related to psychology and/or education.

Classroom Observations

1. Consider the specific approach to teaching a topic that the teacher is using and draw conclusions about the teacher’s assumptions about how people learn.

2. Look for specific teacher behaviors that are geared toward the particular ages and developmental levels of the students.

3. Look for signs of diversity (related to culture, gender, socioeconomic status, special needs, etc.) within the class, and describe how the teacher attempts to accommodate for this diversity.


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Activity: Getting to Know Students’ Names

If you have a small class (no more than 35 students), you can use this activity to help you and your students get to know one another on the first day of class.

1. Have the students form groups of three or four. The exercise is most effective if the students in each group

don’t know one another. For example, you might: • Have students line up at the front of the room by height (tallest students at the beginning of the line and

shortest students at the end, or vice versa) and then divide the line into three- or four-person groups. • Assign groups by using your class roll, so that the first three students on your roll are in one group, the

next three are in the second group, etc. 2. Ask the students to find out the following information about each member of their group:

• Name • Birthplace and/or hometown • Career goals • A unique characteristic or pastime (something that will “individualize” each student)

(Allow about 5 or 10 minutes for groups to interact.)

3. Choose one group and ask each group member to introduce another group member to the entire class, providing information about name, birthplace/hometown, career goals, and unique characteristic/pastime. Do likewise with one or more additional groups, until about half of the groups have spoken.

4. Stop to review and “test” the class on the names of the students who have been introduced up to this point. 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the remaining groups.


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Activity: The OOPS Test On the first day of class, you may want to introduce the idea that your students probably have many misconceptions about the subject matter they will be studying in your course. If so, you may want to administer the OOPS Test as an in-class activity. The OOPS Test is on Activity Slide 1.1. 1. Distribute copies of the OOPS Test and give students about 5 minutes to complete it. 2. Ask for a show of hands to indicate how many students think each statement is true and how many think it

is false. Record the number of “trues” and “falses” for each item on the board. 3. Briefly explain why each of the statements is true or false (you can use the textbook’s discussion of the

OOPS test for guidance). 4. Point out that adults often have misconceptions about learning, development, and motivation, as well as

about effective instruction, classroom management, and assessment practices. Urge your students to be continually on the lookout for ideas presented in the course that conflict with their existing beliefs. Encourage them to express their concerns about any new ideas that seem counterintuitive or illogical based on what they already know and believe.


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Activity: Bad and Better Research This activity illustrates the importance of separating and controlling variables in a research study. It is accompanied by Activity Slides 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4. Each student will need only one word list; shuffle your copies of the two handouts so that they are mixed in a more or less random fashion. Describe the activity as one that will give students a feeling for how a researcher might conduct an experiment to study how people learn. 1. Divide the class into two halves based on their seating in the room (left half vs. right half). 2. Tell the right half to “ignore” what you say to the left half. 3. Tell the left half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down as

many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second:

kitchen bandage ribbon

telephone violin brush key fan plate

ketchup sink blanket broom rose picture

4. Tell the left half to write down as many words as they can remember and to “ignore” you while you speak

to the right half of the room. 5. Tell the right half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down

as many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second:

fork salt table chair cup pepper

saucer plate knife spoon placemat glass candle butter napkin

6. Tell the right half to write down as many words as they can remember and give them sufficient time to do

so. 7. Read both lists of words again, and have students count the number of words they remembered correctly.

Write the final scores on the board, and compute separate means for left half vs. right half (you may simply want to estimate the mean by looking at the scores). The mean for the right half will almost certainly be larger.

8. Ask both groups to describe strategies that they used. Among other things, the right half will probably tell

you that they associated the words with a table setting. Discuss the hypothesis tested in the experiment: Interrelatedness facilitates recall.

9. Have the class identify confounding variables that prohibit one from drawing any sound conclusion about

why the right half did better. There are many, including these: • The right half got a preview of the task by observing what the left half was asked to do (i.e., they

probably ignored your instructions to “ignore” what you said to the left half). • The right half heard the word plate twice (it appears in both lists). • The left half was recalling the words under noisier conditions (i.e., you were talking). • There was no random assignment to groups. Perhaps people who sit on the right side of the

classroom are more motivated to learn or are just naturally better learners. • Perhaps someone coughed during the first list, making some words difficult to hear.


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10. Now tell the class that you are going to conduct a second experiment on learning. Place a printed copy of either Activity Slide 1.2 or Activity Slide 1.3 upside down on each student’s desk, with the two handouts being distributed in a more or less random fashion.

11. Tell the students that they will study the list for 2 minutes, and that they will then have to recall the words

in order. 12. Have them study their lists for 2 minutes, and then allow them time for written recall. 13. Show Activity Slide 1.4 and have the students score their own lists. Then ask them to describe strategies

they used in learning their lists. At this point, it should become evident that Word List 1 was organized alphabetically (with the first letters beginning with A, B, C, etc.) and that the alphabet could serve as a retrieval cue. Word List 2 had the same words, but in random arrangement.

14. Put scores for the two lists on the board, and compute or estimate the mean for each group. You may also

wish to distinguish between two subgroups in the “Word list 1” group—those who noticed the alphabetic scheme and those who did not—and compute or estimate separate means for these two subgroups.

15. Ask students to identify those confounding variables in the “bad” experiment that were eliminated in this

“better” experiment. 16. Discuss the need for control in educational research and the fact that confounding variables preclude

conclusions about cause-effect relationships. When students read research, they should be thinking about other possible explanations for the observed results. Caution students to be critical of what they read.


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Activity: Classifying Research Studies This activity gives students practice in distinguishing among descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. It can be done in class either individually or in cooperative groups; it can also be done as a homework assignment. It is accompanied by Activity Slide 1.5. 1. Distribute Activity Slide 1.5. Ask students to consider whether each of the results described reflects a descriptive, correlational, or experimental study. In each case, students should explain their reasoning. 2. Solicit students’ conclusions and their rationales within a whole-class discussion. Correct answers are as follows:

Study #1: Descriptive—It describes the most common strategy used to learn spelling words, but it does not relate this strategy to another variable.

Study #2: Correlational—Teachers’ beliefs at the beginning of the school year (either that girls and boys read equally well, or that girls are better readers) are consistent with the pattern of reading achievement test scores at the end of the year. The experimenter does not specifically manipulate teachers’ beliefs but examines them as they already exist.

Study #3: Correlational—There is a relationship between parental education and the amount of reading to children, but the educational level of the parents is not manipulated by the experimenter.

Study #4: Experimental—The experimenters manipulate the tempo of music that the children hear.

Study #5: Descriptive—The amount of wait time after teacher questions is reported, but it is not related to another variable.

Study #6: Correlational—Time doing homework and GPAs are related, but the amount of time each student does homework is not controlled.

Study #7: Experimental—The experimenters determine which students get the training and which do not. Question for students: Why do researchers sometimes conduct correlational studies rather than experimental studies, even though only experimental studies allow conclusions about cause-effect relationships? Notes: There are often legal, ethical, or practical considerations that make experimental studies impossible. For example, an experimenter who is studying the effect of parent-child reading sessions on cognitive development cannot, either realistically or ethically, ask parents to read to their children less frequently than they might otherwise do.


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Supplementary Lecture: Why Do We Need Research?

Over the years, psychologists and educators have used at least four different approaches in their attempts to assess the validity of learning theories and the effectiveness of instructional methods. The first three approaches are not always reliable indicators of the validity of theoretical explanations or the effectiveness of teaching strategies.

1. Common Sense Many of our ideas about learning have been derived from common sense—from things that are logical and

consistent with one’s day-to-day experiences.

Example: If a parent praises a child for picking up her room, the child will be more likely to keep her room clean in the future.

Example: When a teacher repeats information over and over again to his students, they will eventually learn that information.

Unfortunately, different people have different ideas as to what constitutes “common sense.” Just as members of different political parties have varying opinions on the best way to govern a country, so, too, do psychologists and educators differ with regard to fundamental issues in learning.

Example: Many behaviorists believe that, given the evolutionary ties of human beings to other species, conclusions derived from animal research are applicable to humans as well. On the other hand, many cognitivists believe that human beings learn in ways unique to the species (e.g., much of human learning is heavily dependent on language).

Furthermore, ideas that “make sense” are not always totally valid.

Example: Praising a child for cleaning his or her room doesn’t always change the child’s behavior.

Example: Although repetition is one way of helping students learn new information, it is a relatively slow and unmotivating teaching method, and many students will learn the information without really understanding what they have learned.

2. Introspection

Much of the psychological research conducted at the turn of the century was based on a methodology known as introspection. Psychologists would, in essence, examine their own thoughts and develop theories about the learning process from such self-examination. The two exercises below illustrate this process:

• Think of someone you know very well: a spouse, a parent, or a close friend. Now close your eyes and try to picture that person in your mind. What do you notice about the image you have formed? Can you see the person’s hair? the eyes? the mouth? the shape of the head? Do you see an entire body or just the face?

• Imagine you need to write the word that means “author unknown” (hint: it begins with the letters an...). How is the word spelled? Can you picture the word in your mind? If so, can you see all the letters clearly?

Questions for students:

What did you notice about your images? Were they precise enough for you to see some of the finer points, such as the shape of the mouth or the letter y in the middle of anonymous? Or were they fuzzy and missing some crucial details?

Answer:

Visual imagery is an example of a mental phenomenon about which a great deal has been learned through introspective examination.

However, there are at least three difficulties with introspection that make it a questionable source of support for the validity of psychological theories:

• People are not always aware of what they know and feel.


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Example: Psycholinguists have spent several decades trying unsuccessfully to determine how it is that people form sentences that are almost always grammatically correct. People are largely unaware of the mental processes they use to construct sentences.

• Introspection cannot be used with major portions of the population.

Example: Infants and toddlers have few if any language capabilities to describe what they are thinking.

Example: Even elementary school children, although they can verbally communicate their thoughts, often cannot accurately describe their own thinking processes.

• Introspection does not always provide accurate answers to questions about learning.

Example: Although many people will describe the visual images they form in their minds as being sharp and detailed, research suggests that such images are actually rather fuzzy and inaccurate (e.g., see J. R. Anderson, 1990, or Dodd & White, 1980, for reviews).

3. Anecdotal Evidence

Anecdotal evidence is a story or example (i.e., an anecdote) used in support of a theory or practice. It appears prominently in educational literature, particularly in popular paperback books.

Example: A teacher says, “I tried Method X to teach reading, and it worked wonders with my students!”

Example: An educator describes an innovative technique used in a particular school district and reports major changes in students’ achievement and attitudes.

One problem with anecdotal evidence is that people cannot always be objective in their perceptions of situations; they tend to see what they want to see.

Example: Consider the teacher who said, “I tried Method X to teach reading, and it worked wonders with my students!” What exactly are “wonders”? Did the reading skills of the students really improve? How does the teacher know?

A second problem is that even when improvement can be documented by objective data, anecdotal evidence does not show conclusively that the improvement was due specifically to the method or treatment used.

Example: You lose 5 pounds when you go on the Humperdinck Diet. Is your weight loss due to the diet? What other factors might have brought about the weight loss?

4. Empirical Research

The kind of evidence necessary to document the validity of a learning theory or an instructional method is empirical research. Such research, when carefully conducted, will ensure the precise administration of particular teaching strategies and the objective assessment of learning outcomes. Some research designs (i.e., experimental studies) will also ensure that other factors that might also account for any results obtained are ruled out.


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Supplementary Lecture: Variables, Constants, and Control

1. Variables and Constants A variable is anything that varies in a research study. A constant is anything that does not vary in a research study.

Example: A college English professor wants to investigate the effectiveness of WISE (Writing Is Seldom Easy), a new method of teaching writing. She uses WISE in her freshman composition class, and her students are producing excellent compositions by the end of the term. She concludes that WISE is an effective method and plans to use it again. The biggest mistake that the professor has made is that her independent “variable” (method of instruction) doesn’t vary. Her students write well, but compared to whom?

Example: A high school history teacher wants to find out whether pictures help students learn what they read. He decides to investigate this question while teaching a unit on World War I. He prepares two forms of a study workbook, one with pictures and one without. Each student in his class receives one workbook, with the two different forms of the workbook being distributed in a random fashion. The students study their workbooks for the first half-hour of their history class, then take a quiz over the material contained in the workbooks. After class, the teacher scores the students’ quiz papers.

Question for students: What are the variables in this study? Possible answers:

• Presence or absence of pictures in the workbooks • Quiz scores

• Characteristics that make each student unique (intelligence, motivation, etc.)

Question for students: What are the constants in this study?

Possible answers: • Teacher • Content taught • Nature of the quiz • Modality of instruction used in the workbooks (visual) • Classroom environment

One common way of making something vary is to have two or more groups. For example:

• There might be two or more treatment groups. Subjects in each group receive a different treatment (i.e., the treatment varies).

• There might be one treatment group and one control group, consisting of participants who receive either no treatment at all or a placebo treatment that should have little or no effect.

2. Independent and Dependent Variables Every correlational and experimental research study has at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. An independent variable is a variable that is hypothesized to have an effect on another variable. A dependent variable is a variable hypothesized to be affected by an independent variable. The dependent variable depends on the nature or amount of the independent variable.

Example: In the history teacher’s study described earlier, the presence or absence of pictures is the independent variable, and quiz scores are the dependent variable.

Example: To study the effect of punishment on aggression, 10 aggressive boys are given different consequences for aggressive behavior. For 5 of the boys, each aggressive act is followed by placement in a boring room (a type of punishment known as time-out) for 20 minutes. For the other 5 boys, aggressive behaviors are ignored. Aggressive behaviors exhibited by all 10 boys are observed and counted during the following week.

Question for students: What is the independent variable? Answer: Use or nonuse of punishment.


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Question for students: What is the dependent variable? Answer: Aggression.

Example: To determine whether high-achieving students have better memories than low-achieving students, high achievers (GPA≥3.0) and low achievers (GPA≤2.5) are asked to remember strings of numbers of increasing lengths. The performance of the high achievers on this memory task is compared to that of the low achievers.

Question for students: What is the independent variable? Answer: GPA (achievement).

Question for students: What is the dependent variable? Answer: Maximum length of number string correctly remembered (memory).

The independent and dependent variables are important things to consider when examining research studies. In particular, a study from which conclusions about causation can be made is one in which the experimenter has intentionally manipulated the independent variable (an experimental study) rather than one in which the experimenter observes the independent variable as it occurs naturally (a correlational study).

Question for students: In which of the two studies just described is the independent variable manipulated by the experimenter? Answer: Only in the first study (the study of time-out and aggressive behavior). 3. Confounding Variables Correlational studies often have confounding variables—variables associated with the independent variable that might also explain any differences observed in the dependent variable.

Example: To study the effect of pictures on learning, a school district superintendent compares the history achievement of students at two different high schools in the district. Students at Jefferson High School have been using a history book that has an average of one picture for every 2 pages. Students at Madison High have been using a history book with an average of only one picture in every 10 pages. At the end of the school year, the students at both schools are given a history test and their scores compared.

Question for students: How is the superintendent’s study similar to the history teacher’s study described earlier? Answer: The independent and dependent variables are the same.

Question for students: How are the two studies different? Answer: The teacher’s study manipulates the independent variable; the superintendent’s study examines it as it occurs naturally.

Question for students: What are some possible confounding variables in the superintendent’s study? Answer: Any differences between the two high schools—perhaps quality of teaching, quality of textbooks, socioeconomic status (SES) of students, etc.

Question for students: From which study can we draw a conclusion about the causal relationship between pictures and learning? Answer: The teacher’s study.


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4. Controlling Confounding Variables An experimental study utilizes two methods of controlling possible confounding variables.

• Holding some factors constant One way of holding some factors constant is to have the sample of people studied be as similar to one another as possible (e.g., age, grade level, gender, etc.), but it is virtually impossible to keep all factors the same (e.g., prior experiences will vary, motivation will vary, etc.). An alternative strategy is a within-subjects design: The same group of students is given two or more treatments simultaneously.

Example: Students are asked to study 50 spelling words that they don’t already know. For 25 of these words, students must write them correctly only once. For the remaining 25 words, the students must write them correctly 10 times. A few days later, their ability to spell the two groups of words correctly is tested.

• Randomly assigning people to groups

When people are randomly assigned to groups, it is assumed that the characteristics in which those people are likely to vary (intelligence, motivation, personality, mood, etc.) will be roughly the same for all groups and therefore will not affect the average performance of the groups.

Example: In the history teacher’s study, the workbooks were randomly distributed to the students.

Many statistical analyses are based on this idea of random assignment. 5. Studies of Elaboration as Examples of Correlational and Experimental Research The textbook describes the process of elaboration—a process whereby students add the things they already know to new information (e.g., analyzing the new information, interpreting it, considering the “logic” of it, etc.) as a way of learning the information. Correlational studies tell us that good students are more likely to elaborate on information than poor students; that is, good students are more likely to do something with the information beyond just taking it at face value (Pressley, 1982; Van Rossum & Schenk, 1984). So we know that there is a correlation between elaboration and amount of learning.

Question for students: Does elaboration actually cause better learning? Answer: There is no way to know based on correlational evidence.

Question for students: What other variables might be responsible both for the more frequent elaboration and for the greater learning of some students in comparison with others? Answer: Possibilities include intelligence, motivation, reading ability, background knowledge, etc. Experimental studies have demonstrated that elaboration does directly influence learning.

Example: Linden and Wittrock (1981) randomly chose some fifth-grade students for special instruction in how to elaborate on the things they read (e.g., by making inferences, drawing analogies, and mentally imagining the things they were reading about). These students (the experimental group) then showed greater ability to learn from the things they read than did students not selected for the special instruction (the control group). The random assignment of students to groups tells us that the two groups were probably similar in other factors that might also affect learning—factors such as intelligence, motivation, reading ability, and so on. By process of elimination, the degree to which students elaborated on their reading material was probably the cause of their differences in learning.


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6. When Experimental Studies Aren’t Possible Obviously, experimental studies are preferable to correlational studies whenever possible because they lead to conclusions about cause-effect relationships—conclusions that are particularly important for theory development. Sometimes, however, experimental designs are not possible; the independent variable cannot or should not be controlled by the experimenter.

Example: Imagine that we want to find out if being male or female affects people’s tendency toward aggressive behavior. We cannot assign gender to the participants in our study: They come to us already being either male or female.

Example: Imagine that we want to investigate the effects of alcohol abuse on teenagers’ school achievement. Although it is hypothetically possible to randomly place teenagers into two groups, one with high alcohol consumption and one without, such a procedure would be highly unethical.

For a variety of reasons, controlling the independent variable may not always be possible, practical, or ethical, and descriptive or correlational studies may be the only alternatives.


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Supplementary Lecture: Basic and Applied Research

1. Basic Research The primary goal of basic research is the investigation of theoretical issues related to learning, development, or behavior. Whenever possible, basic research studies are designed to establish causal relationships; as such, they tend to be highly controlled so that confounding variables leading to alternative interpretations of the results are eliminated. The tight control found in basic research is obtained in several ways:

• Much of this research is conducted in laboratories, where the experimenter has more control over environmental conditions than would be possible in the “real world.”

• The tasks that participants perform are often simplified compared to the typical learning tasks that people face in the real world.

Example: Participants might study a list of words rather than a chapter in a textbook. • Some basic research, particularly within the behaviorist perspective, employs animals other than

humans. Researchers can control both past and present environments of laboratory animals in ways that they cannot do with human beings.

2. Applied Research The primary goal of applied research is to validate theories obtained from basic research in real-world settings. Control of confounding variables is not always as possible outside of the laboratory as it might be within the lab, but applied research does have an important advantage over basic research: Its results are more likely to generalize to other real-world situations. 3. Internal and External Validity Ideally, a research study should be valid in two ways:

• It should have internal validity—careful control of any confounding variables that would prevent the identification of a cause-effect relationship.

• It should have external validity—generalizability to real-world learning situations. Unfortunately, it is the rare study that has both high internal validity and high external validity at the same time:

• Basic research studies are typically high in internal validity (because they carefully control possible confounding variables) but low in external validity (because they are conducted under artificial conditions).

• Applied research studies are often low in internal validity (the real world of human beings cannot easily be controlled by experimenters) but high in external validity (the studies tend to be similar to everyday situations).

Because it is difficult to conduct research that is high in both internal and external validity, the development of psychological theories often follows a two-step process:

1. Basic research is conducted to identify cause-effect relationships that form the foundation of theory. 2. Applied research is conducted to validate the theory in more realistic settings.

Unfortunately, this two-step process moves slowly, with applied research often following basic research by as much as 20 years or more. Sometimes, when urgent educational questions require immediate empirical answers, researchers bypass the basic research step and begin with applied research. However, the conclusions drawn from such research are often tentative because of the problems with internal validity.


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Videos

- Making a Difference: Great Teachers, Part 1, 1994, 28 min., Films for the Humanities & Sciences.

Focuses on three teachers who have had a positive impact on their students’ lives, and shows these teachers at work in the classroom.

- Making a Difference: Great Teachers, Part 2, 1996, 28 min., Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Follows three outstanding teachers throughout the school day, depicting their motivational strategies, enthusiasm, and concern for students.

- Making a Difference: Great Teachers, Part 3, 1997, 28 min., Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Portrays three outstanding teachers with very different approaches to instruction.

- Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 1995, 33 min., Insight Media. Examines various types of experimental designs. Describes experimental and control groups, and distinguishes between independent and dependent variables. Considers ethical issues in experimentation.

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