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Virginija Tuomait6Ingrida Zindziuvien6
Anglq kalbaa o
VlSlCInS
UDK 802.6Tir71
Recenzavo dr. doc. JONAS SKARULIS
Pirmasis leidimas 2002
@ Virginija Tuomait6, 2002@ Ingrida zindliuvierlC, 2002@ Leidykla ,,Sviesa", 2002rsBN 5-430-03388-X
C O N T E N T SAutoriq Zodis
tf c r" m,na r............. 6Articles
The Use of Articles 6Pronouns .................... 11
Demonstrative Pronouns ............ 11Indefinite Pronouns ..................... 11Relative Pronouns...... .................. 72
Nouns........... ............... 13Countable Nouns: Formation of plural (Regular Nouns) ........................ 13Formation of plural (Irregular Nouns)....................... .......... 14!9"n1 Used Only in Singularlplural............... ....................... 15Classification of Nouns...... ......... 15The Use of Nouns with Indefinite pronouns. ...................... 16
Adjectives ................... 17legrees of Comparison.................... ................. 17The Use of Degrees of Comparison ................... .................. 1gOrder of Adjectives..... ................ 19
Adverbs........ ............... 20Types of Adverbs ......................... 20Forms of Adverbs ........................ ZlThe Comparison of Adverbs ..... ZzPosition of Adverbs ..................... Zz
Numerals .................... 24Cardinal/Ordinal Numera1s..................... ........., 24The Use of Numerals ................. 25
Prepositions ............... 26Prepositions of Time ................... 26Prepositions of Place .................. 27Prepositions of Method .............. 29
- Other Meanings of Some prepositions .......... 30Conjunctions .............. 31
Coordinating Conjunctions ........ 31Subordinating Conjunctions ....... 32
verbs ""'....... ............... 33Division of verbs ......................... 33Special Verbs............ .................... 33Verb Tenses (Active and passive Voice) ........... .................... 34The Use of Tenses in the Active Voice ............ .................... 36Supplements to Active Voice ............ ............... 44Passive Voice ............ .................... 45
Reported Speech and the Sequence of Tenses...... .................. 46Modal Verbs in Reported Speech ................... 47Pronouns and Time Words in Reported Speech ................. 47
CONTENTS 3
Paragraph Writing ........................... 62Structure of a Topic Sentence ,...,..................... 62Paragraph Example/Paragraph Structure .................. ............ 62Topic Sentence Openings/Helpful Phrases..................... ....... 63Common Devices for Linking Ideas............. ......................... 63Tiansitions in a Paragraph.................... ............ 64The Use of Tiansitional Expressions .............. 69Paragraph Development ............. 69
Essay Writing ............. 7lEssay TypesIntroductory Paragraph..... .......... 7lConcluding Paragraph ................. 72Essay Structure................... .......... 73
Punctuation Marks and Usage............Comparison of English and Lithuanian Punctuation....................CapitalizationComparison of English and Lithuanian Capitalization ...............Abbreviations.....................
7483858688
Hints for Speech Preparation ....... 89Pre-presentational Checklist ................... .............. 90Evaluation Form............. ................. 91How to Prepare for and Present a Successful Speech.................................. 92Some Expressions to Help You Make a Good Presentation.......................T02Tiansitions That May Help You .......................... 104
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4 CONTENTS
A u t o r i q Z o d i s
St knygo skiiama viduini4 molqkl4 ir gimnazij4 mokiniams, auki-t4i4 molgtkl4 studentams ir visiems, nointiems iimokti ar pakartoti netik angl4 kalbos gramatikq, bet ir kitus svarbius dalykus. Knyga su-skirstyta i ketuis slcyrius: GRAMMAR (GRAMATIKA), WRITING
@ASYMAS), PUNCTUATION (SI{YRYBA) ir MAKING PRESEN-TATr O N S ( r<ALB EJ I MA S ).
Kiekvienoje dalyje remiamasi skaitytojo gimtosios kalbos filologinepatinimi. Lentelise ir diagramose aiikinami anglq ir lietuvi4 kalbqskirtumai, akcentuojami angl4 kalbos ypatumai. Autoris tikisi, kad iiknyga bus naudinga besirengiantiems lailqti ivairius egzaminus - mo-lcyklinius ar gimnazij4, brandos, TOEFL ir kitus.
Pirmojoje dalyje, GRAMMAR, aiikiai ir paprastai pateikiamipagrindiniai angl4 kalbos gramatikos ypatumai su paaiikinimais beivertimais i lietuvi4 kalbq. Antrojoje dalyje, WRITING, akcentuojamireikalavimai pastraipos ir raiinio raiymui ypai svarbfis viduriniqmolqkl4 mokiniams. Tieiioji dalis, PUNCTUATION, supaZindina irprimena skaitytojams pagrindines angl4 kalbos slcyrybos, didii4i4 rai-dii4 raiymo ir santrumpq taisykles, pateikiama daug pavyzdZir4, aiiki'nami pagrindiniai angl4 ir lietuvit4 kalb4 sl<yrybos skirtumai. Kenirto-joje dalyje, MAKING PRESENTATIONS, pateikiami esminiai aiikauskalbijimo pincipai, skaitytojai Zaismingai supaLindinami su svarbiau-siais retorikos reikalavimais, kuiuos tui iinoti kiekvienas iisilavinqsZmogus.
Lentelds sudarytos, remiantis ilgamete pedagoginio darbo patirtimi,atsiivelgiant i mokiniq ir student4 poreikius bei pastabas. Lenteliseiiddstyta teoini mediiaga padis ugdyti besimokanti2i4 mqstymq iratidumq, skatins teoines iinias tailEti praktiikai. Sia knyga gali nau'dotis ne tik besimokantieji, bet ir angl4 kalbos molqtoiai bei distyto-jat, nes medZiaga pateikiama labai koncentruotai, remiantis ivaiiaisialtiniais ir lyginant su lietuviq kalba.
Autords tikisi, kad knyga patil<s skaitytojams ne tik del aiikaus te-m4 iiddstymo ir palyginimo su lietuvi4 kalba, bet ir tuo, kad kiekvienqtemq lydi trumpos imaikiiios istorijos. Painkdamos tas sitis, kuriosangl4 kalbos besimokantiems lietuviams kelia sunkum4, autoris vilia-si, jog Ji knyga padis ulpildyti angl4 kalbos Zini4 spragas.
V Tilomait4 I. ZindiiuvieniVytauto Didiiojo universitetas
AUTORTU zOOrS 5
GneuMARGRAMATIKA
ARTICLESARTIKELIAI
The Use of ArticlesArtikeliq vartojimas
Tlpes of ArticlesArtikeliq ru5ys
Countable NounsSkaidiuotiniai daiktav ardLiai Uncountable Nouns
NeskaidiuotiniaidaiktavardZiaiSingular
VienaskaitaIndefinite Article
NeZvmimasis artikelisDefinite Article
LzvmlmasN artll(ells
alanIndefinite Article
NeZvmimasis artikelis
theDefinite Article
:-Zvmlmasrs artrkells
Zero ArticleArtikelis nevartojamas
r su skaidiuotiniaisvienaskaitos daikta-vardZiais:
- prie5 priebalsi - a:a boolE a university
- prie5 balsi - an:an egg, an hour
r su skaidiuotiniu vienaskai-tos bei daugiskaitos daik-tavardZiu ir su neskaidiuo-tiniais daiktavardZiais:
- jei daiktavardis teksteminimas ne pirm4 kart4:I have a car. The car isblack.
- prie5 daiktavardi, kurisapibldinamas Salutiniusakiniu:I've lost the book vou
r prie5 skaidiuotiniusdaugiskaitos daikta-vardZius, nekonkreti-nant:
r prie5 neskaidiuotinidaiktavardi, kaikalbama abstrakdiai:Ltk is wonderful.
o prie5 tikrinius daikta-vardZius:
- asmenvardZius(Jane Brown)
- Zemynq pavadinimus(Europe, Asia)
- Saliq pavadinimus(Lithuania, GreatBritain)
rprie5 sakinyje pirm4kart4 minim4 skai-diuotini vienaskaitosdaiktavardi:I have a car.
rprie5 kelintini skaitvardiir auk5diausiojo laipsniobldvardi:Neil Amstrong was the firstman to walk on the Moon.He is the best sportsmanin the class.
o Ir cRRMMARvcnnMArtKA
alan the zero article
estingShe is
I priei b[dvardi,apibldinantivienaskaitosdaiktavardi:I have an inter-
book.
girl.
r kalbant apie konkre-tq, Zinom4 asmeni,gyv[n4, daikt4 arviet4:Come to the window!(There is only onewindow in the room.)Let's talk in thekitchen. (The kitchenis in our flat.)
- miestq pavadinimus(Vilnius, London)
- pavieniq eLen4 pavadinimus(Lake Ontario)
- kai kuriuos tiltq pavadinimus(Tbwer Bridge)
- stodiq, oro uostq pavadinimus(Victoia Station, Heathrow)
- kalnq (vir5ukalniq) pavadinimus((Mount) Everest, (Mount)McKinley)
- atskirq salq pavadinimus(Cyprus, Coney Island)
- uZeigq, restoranq, parduotuviq,vie5budiq, bankq, ligoniniqpavadinimus, kuriuose yraasmenvardis arba savybinislinksnis ('s):Marks & Spencer's, Hanods,Lloyds Bank
- parkq pavadinimus:Hyde Park
- piliq, r[mq, baZnydiqpavadinimus:Gediminas Castle,Buckingham Palace
t nurodant profe-sii4:I'm q doctor anamy wife is anartist.
o prie5 muzikos instru-mentus, ypad posa-kiuose su ,,play":to play the piano, theviolin
l vietoj skaitvar-dZio ,,vienas":She has qdaughter and ason.
prie5 upiq, kanalq,jlrq, vandenynq,kalnynq, salynq,dykumq, elerq grupiqpavadinimus:the Thames, the BalticSea, the AtlanticOcean, the Alps, theBahamas, the Sahara,the Great Lakes
o posakiuose:- nurodant laik4,
atstum4, viet4,svori:twice g daylweektmonthlyearin an hour (povalandos)an hour and ahalf (pusantrosvalandos)$3 q kilo (trysdoleriai ul kg)
r prieS daiktavardZiussu ,,of' (arba jei jisnumanomas):the USA, the Tbwer ofLondon, the cover ofthe book
I prie5 daiktavardZius church,college, court, hospital, prisonljail, school, university, kai jierei5kia 3iq istaigq veikl4, taippat prie5 ZodZius bed ir work:I was in hospital. (gydZiausi)I was in the hospital. (lan-kiausi, dirbau ir kt.)I was in pison. (kalejau)I was in the prison. (lankiausikitais tikslais)I was in church. (meldZiausi)I was in the church. (domejausipastatu, menu, muzika ir kt.)
o su pasaulio/Saliq daliqpavadinimais:the SouthlWestlNorthlEastthe SouthlNorth Polethe Equatorthe North of Enpland
lT"cnnvvAR/cMMATTKA 7
5 litas a metretake a seat (sdstis)
- nurodant kieki, talp4:q lot of (daug)o few (keletas)q little (truputis)a great deal (daug) (suneskaidiuotiniaisdaiktavardZiais)a great number (daug)(su skaidiuotiniaisdaiktavardZiais)a piece of (cake,advice)a glasslbottle of (water)q jar of (jam)a rasher of (bacon)a box of (chocolates)a packet of (tea)a slicelloaf of (bread)q pot of (yoghurt)a potlcup of (tea)q kilolpound of (meat,flour)a bottle of (vinegar)a tube of (toothpaste)a bar of chocolatelsoapq bitlpiece of (chalk)s lump of (sugar)a droplcan of (oil)a can of (Coke)a carton of (milk)a block of (wood)s. bag of (flou6 rice)
- posakiuose:a pair of (trousers)a game of (soccer)q(n) itemlpiece of(news)
- prie5 daiktavardi poLodLir4 what, quite,
r prie5 vie5budiq, resto-ranq, teatrq, kinoteatrq, galerijq, muzie-jq, laikra5diq, ivairiqinstitucijq pavadini-mus:the Hilton, the Odeon,the Thte Gallery, theBritish Museum, theGuardian, the Titanic,the BBC
I was in school.(mokiausi)I was in the school.(lankiausi kitaistikslais)He went to bed early.(miegoti)Don't sit on the bed.(sedeti ant lovos)He is still at work.(dirba)I visited him at thework. (darbo vietoje)r prie5 daiktavardZius,
padarytus i5 bldvar-dZiq, rei5kiandiq grupgZmoniq:ghe deaf (kurtieji), fueblind (aklieji), thedisabled (neigalieji)
r su tautybiq pavadini-mais:the Lithuanian(s), theEnglish
r prie5 vienaskaitosskaidiuotini daiktavar-di, rei5kianti vis4 r[Si:The rose is my favou-ite flower.The penguin cannot fly.
o prie5 transportopriemoniqpavadinimus posa-kiuose su ,,by":by bus I tra in I c ar I plane Itaxi
I l7 cRAMMAFycRAMATTKA
rather ir such:What a beautiful day!We had quite a nicemeal.You have such a nicedress!It was rather an oldhouse.(tik su skaidiuotiniaisvienaskaitos daiktavar-dZiais)
o prie5 irengimq ariSradimq pavadinimus,valiut4:The telephone wasinvented by A. G. Bell.The dollar is thecurrency of the USA.
. su sporto Sakq, Zaidi-mq, savaitds dienq,m6nesiq, Svendiq,metq laikq, spalvq,gerimq, kalbq pavadi-nimais:tennis, basketball,Sunday, fanuary,Mother's Day, sping,green, Coca-Cola,English
o prieS Seimos, giminds,dinastijos, politinespartijos, religinesgrupes pavadinim4:the Brownsthe Liberals
kituose posakiuose:a temperaturea coldg headacheltoothacheg sore throatg restq smokeldrinka good timeg nice day(palinkejimas!)
g swimltalklshowerlbath
I q taxilbusltrain etc.take l, a showerlbath
Lg great interest in...
as a matter of factas a ruleIt's a pity ...
o su kuopiniaisdaiktavardZiais:police, army, firebrigade, government,press
r su ZodZiais radio,cinema, theatre:She went to the theatreyesterday.
I su daiktavardZiaisbreakfast, lunch, dinner;supper, coffee, tea
r prie5 ZodZius mothe6father, home, kaikalbama apie Seimosnarius:Mother is at home.
r prie5 daiktavardZius,rei5kiandius vieninteles4vok4:the Sun, the Moon,the Earth, the slE,the world
o prie5 ligq pavadinrmus:malaria, cancer, bron-chitis
o posakiuose:in the mominglafter-noonleveningin the daytime (duingthe day)in the countryin the sunon the rishtlleft
,l] cnnuuAR/cMMATtKA 9
a/an the zero article
on the phoneon the floorlceilingon the wholewhat's the time?to tell the truththe samethe rightlwrong sizethe onlyllastlfirst
I posakiuose:by heart (mintinai) |by phone Iby chance (atsitiktinai)by landlseawatch TVnext weeklmonthlyearIast weeklmonthlyeartoday, yesterday,tomorrowfrom moming till nightfrom day to dayat noonlmidnightat nightat presentin facton footon purpose
lmagine Columbus' expedition sailing in the open sea for many days withoutseeing anything but water and water. Suddenly one sailor (an Englishman)notices something on the horizon. Will he put an article before the word "land"?
Which article? "A land", "the land" or just "land"? What do you think?
10 F CNNTTIUAFYGRAMATIKA
PRONOUNSIVARDZIAI
PersonalAsmeniniai ivardZiai
PossessiveSavybiniai ivardZiai
ReflexiveSangrqZiniai
ivardZiai
SubjectVeiksniofunkcija
(kas)
ObjectPapildinio funkcija(ko, kam, kq, kuo)
AttributePazyminiofunkcija(kieno)
Absolutepossessives
SavarankiSkieji
I me my mlne myselfyou you your yours yourselfhe him his his himselfshe her her hers herselfi t i t its its itselfwe US our ours ourselvesvou you your yours yourselvesthey them their theirs themselves
I love him.He loves me.
It's my book! -) No, it's hers! Do ityourself !! I t 's = i t ' is ,* i ts :
Demonstrat ive PronounsParodomieji ivardZiai
MeaningReikSme
SingularVienaskaita
PluralDaugiskaita
arti this (Sis, 5i, 5itas, Sita) these (Sie, Sios, 5itie, Sitos)toli that (tas, ta, anas, ana) those (tie, tos, anie, anos)
Indef ini te PronounsNeZymimieji ivardZiai
AfTirmative statementsTeigiamieji sakiniai
Negative sentencesand questions
Neigiamieji sakiniaiir klausimai
NegativesNeiginiai
some anv no : not anvsomethins anything n o t h i n g : n o t * a n Y t h i n gsomebodysomeone
anybodyanyone
nobodY: not * anybodyno one : not + anyone
lJ" cnnvvAR/cMMATtKA 1'l
Relative PronounsJungia.mieji jvard2iai
SubjectVeiksnys
ObjectPapildinys
PossessivesSawbiniai
ExamplesPawzdLiai
people who/that who/whom/that whose I know the girl who livesnext doon
things which/that which/that/what I've read the book thatyou told me about.
Teacher: Name two pronouns!Student: Who? Me?Teacher: That's right!
12 .F CNNTT,TUAR/GRAMATIKA
NOUNSDAIKTAVARDZAI
Countable Nouns: Formation of Plural (Regular Nouns)Daugiskaitos sudarymas (taisyklingieji daiktavardZiai)
SingularSpelling Rules
Daugiskaitos ra5yba
booh a car -+ bookg carg
bus, a wish, a watch, -+ busgg wish6box watchgg boxqpotato, a tomato, a hero-+ potatogs, tomatog&
heroes
jei daiktavardis baigiasi s, sgx, sh, ch, tch, pridedama -es
! I5imtis: ZodZiq, kuriebaigiasi q daugiskaita turigallng -es
b a b y a p a r t y a l a d y jei daiktavardis baigiasipriebalse * y, ! virsta ipridedama -es
jei daiktavardis baigiasibalse *y pridedama-s
a shelf, a wtfe, a wolf, --> shelyes, wiyes, wolyes,knt fe ,a leaf ,acal f ,half
kniyes, leayes,halyes
jei daiktavardis baigiasi /arba fe, / virsta v irpridedama -es
S ennuuARycRAMATrKA 13
Formation of Plural ( l r regular Nouns)Daugiskaitos sudarymas (netaisyklingieji daiktavardZiai)
Singular PluralI By changing the root vowel(s) (Keidiant Saknies balsg, -es):
a man, a womana foot, a tootha mousea lousea Soose
+ mgn womgn-+ fget, testh-+ mice-> lice-) geese
o By adding suflix -gn (su priesaga -en):
a childan ox
-+ children+ oxen
o The same form informos sutampa):
singular and in plural (Vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos
a sheepa deera salmona trouta meansa fish
-) | sheep-)
| deer- manv ) salmon-+ '
I trout-+
| means-) | fith
a Scientific termsir graikq kalbq):
from Latin and Greek (Mokslo terminai i5 lotynq
a datuma cisisa citeriona speciesa thesisa phenomenon
-+ data-> cises-+ criteria--> species-+ theses-+ phenomena
t Compound nouns (Sudurtiniai daiktavardZiai)
The last part is plural:
a bookcasea writing tablea toothbrusha drawback
-) bookcaseswiting tablestoothbrushesdrawbacks
-)--)-)
The first component is plural:
a father-in-lawa commander-in-chiefa passer-by
-) fathers-in-lawcommanders-in-chiefpassers-by
-)-)
14 F cnnnanrnRycRAMATtKA
Vienaskaitiniai daiktavardZiai
moneyadvicefurniturenewsinformationmathematicsmechanics
! Lietuviq. kalboje visi Sie daiktavardZiairurr tr vrenaskait4, ir daugiskaita:ptaukas - plaukai
511"-,?;i,' ; t: "Jt ?i,,, ",baldas - baldainaujiena - naujienos
ruff.*";f?tarim4).
Nouns Used Only in pluralUau giska iti n ioi daiklav arrtli a;
glasses (akiniar)pyjamas (piZama)
scissors (Zirklds)shorts (Sortai) It'f,'JIJff:ff:5mt Si" ouittu Y't '
!!#y;",r. "1
.,nu.g1o*r.r (Nor:,."J:i'kaitos u*ik'*izodziu'NoTE: a s ht i rt _> s hins (li;i;"i; ili;;j, S"rSkin iai,, vartojam
Ins are cheap' i tik daugiskaita)'
Classification of NounsDaiktavardZiu mSvs
Common NounsBendriniai daiktavardZiai
a boy, people, a rii4 oniffiProper NouniTikr iniai daiktavardZiai
Srrsan, Europe, tltezbs
Countable NounsSkaidiuotiniai daiktava rdliai
a book, a cat, i-ice
Uncountable Nouns __-__.-
Neskai i iuot iniai daiktavardZiaIove, wnte,;ii
Individual Njunr-V ienet in ia i
. (nekuop in ia i )oarktavard2iai
a hottse, a tree, a strutent
Collective NounsKuopiniai daiktavardZiai
t: *,i ll. (yi ma.), r"am 1k@ts^::,! :, 1, yu l !
i c (p u.ftjka ), crew ( iguta ), urmyf ry il a,1, a u.diencb ftkusyro1 ai),' ;7;l'
- " "'
K ji!!,|: ̂ 1,' I i c e (no I i g ii a ) : 9! 9,s fttv a s inin kij asiikiai), poutiry lporit imilKuopiniai ouiktuuu@da ugiskai tos ir vien aska itos veilsm aiodi:iu.This football team is wonderful
--'
This football team qre wearing red Tshins.
17 cncr\4N4ARycMMATtKA 15
Countable NounsSkaidiuotiniai daiktav afiLiai
Uncountable NounsNeskaidiuotiniai daiktavardZiai
Skaidiuotiniai daiktav ar dLiaivartojami su neZymimuojuartikeliu (a/an), turi daugiskait4,derinami su skaitvardZiais ir
ivardZiais:a house, many trees, five bottles,some pens, few mistakes, a fewdavs
Neskaidiuotiniai daikt avardLiai neturidaugiskaitos, nevartojami su neZymimuojuartikeliu (a/an) ir skaitvardZiais. Kiekiuinurodyti vartojami Sie ZodZiai beiposakiai:some, a piece of (cake), a bowl of (water),a glass of (wine), a bottle of (Cola),a bar of (chocolate), a can of (oil),a cup of (tea), a packet of (flour) etc.
The Use of Nouns with Indefinite PronounsDaiktavardZiq vartojimas su neZymimaisiais ivardZiais
Countable NounsSkaidiuotiniaidaiktavardZiai
BothSkaidiuotiniai ir neskaidiuotiniai
daiktavardZiai
Uncountable NounsNeskaidiuotiniaidaiktavardZiai
a few(maZai, tadiau keliyra)few(malai, beveik nera)a few bool<s (kelios)few bool<s (mahai)
some (keletas, truputis)in affirmative sentences(teigiamuosiuose sakiniuose)some boolcs (keletas)some water (truputis, iiek tiek)any in negative sentences andquestions (neigiamuosiuosesakiniuose ir klausimuose)
a little(maLai, truputis)little(malai, beveik nera)a little sugar(truputis, iiek tiek)Iittle sugar (malai)
many (daug)in negativesentences andquestions(neigiamuosiuosesakiniuose irklausimuose)many books (daug)
a lot of (daug)lots of (daug)only in the affirmative sentences(tik teigiamuosiuose sakiniuose)a lot of bool<s (daug)a lot of sugar (daug)
much (daug)in negative sentencesand questions(neigiamuosiuosesakiniuose irklausimuose)much sugar (daug)
NOTE:Would you like some coffee?]Can I have some tea? J
in offers and requests use 'some', not'any' (pasitlymuose, pageidavimuosevartokite ,,some", o ne ,,any")
Irousers is a peculiar noun which is singular at the top and plural at thebottom.
16 tr7 cnnuuARvcRAMATlKA o
ADJECTIVESBUDVARDZIAI
Degrees of Gomparison
Nelyginamasis laipsnisComparative
AukStesnysis laipsnisperlative
Auk5diausiasis laipsnisI. vienskiemeniai ir dviskiemeniai bfrdvardiiai su gatfrndmis -!, -€t, -ow, -le
Auk5tesnysis laipsnis padaromas pridedant Sa- pridedant galfing -est.
o Jeigu budvardis baigiasi netariama -e, pridedant laipsniq galflnes ji iilieka.
-+ clean * er-+ clever * er-> narrow * er
-+ wide * r-+ simplq * y
-+ the clean * est-> the clever * est-+ the nanow * est
-+ the widg * $lL-+ the simple * sJ
Jeigu b[dvardis baigiasi priebalse, pries kuri4 eina trumpa balsd, ta priebalsesudvigubeja.h g t - + h o t * t * e r - + t h e h o t + t + e s tJeigu budvardis baigiasi -y, tai pridedant laipsnig galunes -y virsta -i.
- - ) h e a v * i + e r - + t h e h e a v * i * e s t
II. Dviskiemeniq, triskiemeniq ir ilgesniq bfldvardiiq laipsniavimasAuk5tesnysis laipsnis sudaromas pridedant more/less, auk5diausiasis laipsni- pridedant the most/the least.
the most
the least
the most
the least
more f--) | modem --)
Iess J
more fttful ->
| beauttful -+less J
l modem
l beautifut
2.578 fTcnnuuARycRAMATtKA i7
III. Netaisyklingai laipsniuojami bfldvardZiai
good
badlittle
fo,
betterworseless
I furtherL farther
nearer
1 older (senesnis)\ elder (vyresnis ieimoje)
I later (velesnis)I latter (pastarasis)
the bestthe worstthe least
I the furthestI the farthest
7 the nearest\ the next kitas)y the oldest (seniausias)\ the eldest (vyriausias Jeimoje)
1 the latest (viliausias)I the last (paskutinis)
old
late
IV. Nelaipsniuojami budvardZiai
Kai kurie bfidvardZiai yra nelaipsniuojami, nes jq nelyginamasis laipsnisiSrei5kia auk5diausiojo laipsnio savybg:perfect unique square universalsingle supreme fatal emPtYvertical full alone deadfinal mortal round deadlYstraight blind everlasting wrong
eg If a circle is absolutely round, another circle could not be more round.If a bottle is empty, another bottle could not be more empty.
The Use of Degrees of ComparisonLyginamieji posakiai
Positive a s * p o s i t i v e * a snot as * positive * asnot so t positive * ashalf as * positive * astwice as * positive * as
She is as tall as her sistenShe is not as tall as her sister
Comparative . . . -er * thanmore ... * than
the*compara t i ve * the
Ann is olderJhsn her brotherJohn is more handsome than his
fatherThe warmer the weather, the better theholidays.
Superlative the ... -est * of/ in .. .the most ... + of/in .
He is the best dentist oflin our town.It was the most exciting holiday oflinmy hk.
18 ll cnnuunRvcMMATtKA
Order of AdjectivesB0dvardZiq eil6s tvarka sakinyje
OpinionNuomond
SizeDydis
fueAmZius
ShapeForma
ColourSpalva
OriginKilme
Material * NounMedZiaga + Daiktavardis
lovelybeautiful
smallbig
oldnew
roundsquare
whitebrown
ChineseFrench
porcelain * platewooden * stool
It was a lovely small old round while Chinese porcelain plate.It was a beautiful big new square brown French wooden stool.
"Mike, what is the comparative degree of ,bad'?"
ft "lt 's worse than bad."
\\l "Can you compare the word 'bad'?""Yes, of course, 'bad', 'worse', 'dead'."
p cnnvuAFycMMATtKA 19
ADVERBSPRIEVEIKSMIAI
Dpes of AdverbsPrieveiksmiq rt5ys
QuestionKlausimas
ExamplesPavyzdLiai
Definite TimeApibreZto laiko
When? yesterday, today, tomorrowtwo days lweeks I months lyears ago,nowlast I next weekl month lyear
Indefinite TimeNeapibreZto laiko
When? already, before, early, late, just,soon, still, yet, nowadays, norythen, lately, at once, immediately
FrequencyDaZnumo
How often?How long?
neve4 continually, frequently,rarely, seldom, often, sometimes,always, usually, once, twice,occasionally, ever, constantly
Place or DirectionVietos arba krypties
Where? above, below, over, unde4 close,next to, near, behind, everywhere,
far, away, here, there, upstairs,dow ns ta irs, forw ard (s ),northward(s), to and fro
MannerBldo
How? well, quickly, nicely, bravely, fast,happily, hard, carefully, badly
DegreeLaipsnio
In what degree?To what extent?
wholly, only, hardly, absolutely,quite, much, little, perfectly, soloudly, enough, very, extremely
Interroga tive/Exclamatory. . . . , x
Kl aus l am reJ r/5au K I amleJ l
when, how, why
Relative (Conjunctive)Sakinio jungiamieji
when, where, how, whyIt happened when I waswatching TV
Reason, Consequenceand ConclusionPrieZasties, pasekmesir iSvados
therefore, then, consequently,finally, nevertheless, howeve1thus
Sentence certainly, probably, possibly,perhaps, clearly, luckily,maybe, of course
20 17' cnnvvAFycRAMATrKA
Forms of AdverbsPrieveiksmiq formos
AdjectiveBIdvardis
AdverbPrieveiksmis
Adverb * -lyPrieveiksmis su lv
Prieveiksmio ir btdvardZio formos sutampa Pridejus -ly, reik5me keidiasi
deep(gilus)
deep (giliai)She went deep into the wood.
deeply - greatly (labai)He was deeply hurt by her words.
hard(sunkus)
hard (sunkiai, daug)She works hard.
hardly = scarcely (vos, beveikne)She hardbt works.
high(aukStas)
high (auk5tai)The plane flew hrsh into theskv.
highly = very much (labai)She is hishly respected.
near(artimas)
near (arti)The library is near my house.
nearlY : almost (beveik)It's nearlv dawn.
late(vdlus, velyvas)
late (velai, velu)h's Istre.
late[ = recentl' (neseniai,pastaruoju metu)I haven't seen him hleh.
short(trumpas)
short (trumpai)He cut his hair short.
shortlY = soon, not long(greitai, netrukus)She will anive shortlv.
Iast(paskutinis)
(paskiausiai)anived here last.
lastHe
lastly = finally (galq gale,galiausiai)Lastly, I would like to thank youfor your attention!
pretty(graZus)
pretty (gana, gerokai)The film was prc_lq_ awful.
PrettilY : in an attractive way(graLiai)She smiled prettily.
f] cnnuuAR/cMMATTKA 21
The Gomparison of AdverbsPrieveiksmiq laipsniavimas
o Prieveiksmiai laipsniuojami pagal tas padias taisykles, kaip ir bfidvardZiai
Regular ComparisonThisyklingai laipsniuojami prieveiksmiai
PositiveNelyginamasis
laipsnis
ComparativeAuk5tesnysis
laipsnis
SuperlativeAukSdiausiasis
laipsnisr Vienskiemeniai
ir earlvfast -+ fast * er -+ the fast * estearly -+ earl * i * er --> the earl + i * est
o Dviskiemeniaiir daugiaskiemeniai
seldompolitely
-) more seldom--t more politely
-+ the most seldom--> the most politely
Tlpes of ComparisonLyginamieji posakiai
Irregular ComparisonNetaisyklingai laipsniuojami prieveiksmiai
a s * p o s i t i v e * a sShe finished it asquickly as her friend.s o * p o s i t i v e * a sI can't swim so wellas you.comparative * thanShe sings better thanher sister
-+ the best
-) the worst
-+ the most
--) the least
betterwell
badly -+ worse
muchla lot oflmany -+ more
little -) less
fo,I farther I the farthest-) | lurtlre,
-) | the furthest
Position of AdverbsPrieveiksmiq vieta sakinyje
Front(in the beginning of
the sentence)
Mid(before the main verb and
the auxiliary)
End(at the end of the
sentence)
L. adverbs offrequency:usually, sometimes
2. adverbs of time:yesterday
L. adverbs of frequency:often, usually, never, evetiregularly, barely, seldom,scarcely, rarely, sometimes
2. adverbs of time:already, no longer
3. adverbs of degree:hardly, nearly, almost
4. adverbs of manner:angrily, happily
adverbs of manner:beautifully, badly,eagerly, well
adverbs of place:here, there
1.
2.
22 l7 CnnrtrrrlARYGRAMATtM
Adverbialof
frequencyDaZnumoaplinkybe
was
has
spoke
alreadynever
his work.meat.
(allo'!)
yester-day.
A grammar-tired student of English said: ' l decline to decline any more'.
17 eneuuARvcRAMATrKA
CardinalKiekiniai
OrdinalKelintiniai
CardinalKiekiniai
OrdinalKelintiniai
0 zeto
17 seventeen l'Jth the seventeenthI one I t t the firstaL two 2n, the second 18 eighteen 18'h the eiehteenthaJ three 3'd the third L9 nlneteen 19th the nineteenth4 four 4,h the fourth 20 twenty 20th the twentieth5 five 5 'h the fifth 27 twenty-one 2I't the twenty-first6 slx 6,h the sixth 22 twentv-two 22"d the twentv-second7 SEVEN 7rh the seventh 30 thirty 30,h the thirtieth8 eieht 8,h the eighth 3T thirty-one 3L",the thirtv-first9 nlne 9,h the ninth 40 forW 40th the fortieth
10 ten 10,t the tenth 50 fifty 50,h the fiftieth1 1 eleven 11 ' the eleventh 60 sixty 60,h the sixtietht2 twelve rz,t the twelfth 70 SEVENTV 70'h the seventieth13 thirteen 13,rthe thirteenth 80 eighty 80'h the eightiethI4 fourteen r4'r the fourteentt 90 ninety 90,h the ninetieth15 rtteen 15'r the fifteenth 100a/one hundred 100,hthe (one) hundredth1.6sixteen 16,h the sixteenth 200 two hundred 200,hthe two hundredth
NUMERALSSKAITVARDZIAI
*Compare: There were four thousand people in the street. (exact number)Thousands (hundreds, millions) of people gathered in the streets. (expression)
fi1 tnere are fifty ways of saying 'yes' and five hundred nuances (shades) of\il meaning for the word 'no'.
1.
)
3.
4.
5,
350 three hundred and fiftyordinal: the three hundred and fiftieth
1,000 a/one thousand* (ordinal:the thousandth)
once (1x)(vien4 kart4)
single - viengubas
2,000 two thousand (ordinal:the two thousandth)
twice (2x)(dukart)
double - dvigubas
3,565 three thousand, fivehundred and sixty-five
three times (3x)(triskart)
threefold - trigubas
1.000.000 a/one million(ordinal: the millionth)
four times (4x)(keturiskart)
fourfold - keturgubas
2.000.000 two million five times (5x)(penkiskart)
fivefold - penkiagubas
1.000.000.00fa billion
24 F CNNT',TUNFYGRAMATIKA
The Use of NumeralsSkaitvard2iq vartojimasRules
ThisyklesExamplesPavyzdliai
1. Telephonenumbers
All numbers are said sepa-rately. 0 is pronounced leul.
7028995467 seven oh twoeight double nine five four sixseven
2. Dates:a) years
b) day,month,year
Usuallv said as two numbers. 1996 Qineteen ninety-six)1805 (eighteen oh five)
But 2000 --+ (the y".q_r), two thoilsand t, . t,, ,British: the day comes beforethe month
American: the month comesbefore the day
22 June, 1996 or 221611996(the twenty-second of June,nineteen ninety-six)June 22, 1996 or 612211996(the twenty-second of June,nineteen nineN-six)
3. Age When saying a person's ageonly numbers are used.In writing, descriptions or toemphasize sb's age years old isused.
Ann is five and John isseven.You are fifty years old - stopbehaving like a child!
4. Timea) hours
b) minutes
The l2-hour systemis used * amlpm*
11.00 It is eleven am.23.00 It is eleven pm.
fior:..
'Ihe word "minutes" can beomitted after 5, I0,20 and 25,but it is almost always usedwith other numbers.
11.10 It is ten past eleven.11.18 It is eighteen minutespast eleven.
5. TemperatureCelsius ('C)orFahrenheit('F)
In Britain, temperatures areoften given in both Celsius andFahrenheit, in the US temper-atures are given in Fahrenheit.
Freezing point of water= OoC or 32"FBoiling point of water= 100'C or 212"FNormal body temperature= 37"C or 98.6'F
*See the Abbreviations section.
f]' cnnvrrlARycMMATtKA 2s
PREPOSITIONSPRIELINKSNIAI
JlIlj
l:ll
Prepositions of TimeLaiko pr iel inksniai
attimes/festivals
IN
months/seasons/yearson
days/dates
nurodant valandas:at 5 o'clock, at 11.45posakiuose:at night, at midnight,at noonat the weekendlatweekendsat ChistmaslatEasterat the momentlatpresentat the same timeat the age of ...at that timeat lunchldinnerlbreakfast
o nurodant laik4 mdnesiais,metq laikais, metais:in Mayin (the) summerin the 19th centuryin 1960lin the 1970sin the Middle Ages
a nurodant paros laik4:in the morning(s)in the aftemoon(s)in the evening(s)
nurodant tiksli4dien4, dat4:on 13 March (onthe thirteenth ofMarch)on Monday(s)on Monday morn-ing(s)laftemoon(s)leveningson Friday nighton Christmas Dayon Easter momingon a summer after-noonon that day
t posakiuose:in a few minutes (po keliqminudiq)in a week (po savaites)in two years (po dvejq metq)in four weeks' time (po 4-ir4savaidiq)
Other Prepositions of TimeKiti laiko prielinksniai
PrepositionPrielinksnis
UsageVartosena
MeaningReik5me
about about 5 o'clock apieafter after breakfast poago three vears apo pnes
before before breakfast prieSbetween between2and3o 'c lock tarp
by bv March 13th ikiduring during the lesson per, metu
26 17" cnnvuAR/cRAMATTKA
Preposition Usage Meaning
fo, for 5 years veriiamas salininkufrom ... to from May to June nuo. . . ik iover over 2 hours perpqst f ive past f ive poSINCC since Chistmas nuothroughout throushout the year pertill, until till now ikito f r o m 5 t o 6 o ' c l o c k ikiwithin within a month per
Prepositions of PlaceVietos prielinksniai
at tn on
o nurodant viet4 (erdvdje):at the bus stopat the doctor'sat the hairdresser'sat the windowat the toplbottom (of thepage)at the end of the roadat the backlfrontat w orkl sc hool lunive rsityat homeat the airportat the seasideat seaat the cinemaltheatreat a concert/partyat a tennis match
o nurodant adres4(gyvenamqj4 viet4):at l0 Downing Streetat Peter's houseat Jane's
t nurodant viet4 viduje:in a building 1in a room Ii n a b o x l i n s i d ein the garden Iin the pocket J
o nurodant konkredi4viet4 (Sali, miest4 ir kt.):in Vilniusin Lithuaniain the villagein the city centre
o posakiuose:in the waterin the seain a iverin a rowin a newspaperlbookin bedin hospitallpisonin the slcyin the worldin the streetin a picturelphotographin the middle of ...in the countryin the lesson
o nurodant gatvg fiei neratikslaus adreso):He lives in MeadowRoad.
o nurodant viet4pavirSiuje:on the walllfloorlceilingon my headon the tablelchairon the second flooron the pavement
o posakiuose:on the leftlrighton the coaston the riveron the islandon the borderon the beachon the farmon the screenon the back of anenvelope
l pei on a busliaii".i' But:: eCt.into ihe iai
I7 GRAMMAFVGMMATTKA 27
at ln onlsimintini posakiai:J at the corner of a street
(gatves kampe)-r in the corner of a room
(kambario kampe)-)on the corner of a street
(gatves kampe)-+ arrive at (small places):
at the airportat the universitv
-+ arrive in (large places)rin townslcitiesin VilniuslLondon
-+ to travel:in a car
-+to travel:on a buson a trainon a plane
Nurodyti krypti, ypad sulinksnis to:We went to the cinema.
veiksmaZodLiais go, come, walk, vartojamas prie-
Other Prepositions of PlaceKiti vietos prielinksniai
PrepositionPrielinksnis
UsageVartosena
MeaningReikime
around around the stadium aplinkabove above the desk vlrs
across across the street pera.fter run after the dog piskuiagainst against the wall
along along the street i5i lgai, paleiamonS among the girls tarp (daugelio)away from away from the city ls-, nu-
behind behind the desk uzbelow below the sea level zemlau
beside beside the bed Saliabetween between the girls tarp (dviejq)beyond beyond the garden uZ, anapusby by the river Salia, priedown down the river Lemyn
for to leave for London tfro* from Lithuania rS
28 F cnnnrnrAR/cRAMATtKA
Preposition Usage Meaning
in front of in front of the house prie5ais, priekyje
inside inside the house vidujeinto into the box inear near London SA a, netolinext to We live next to the libran. SA a, pne pat
off off the centreget off the busltrain
i5 (nuo)
on the top of on the top of the box ant, vir5ujeopposite He lives opposite the chemist's. prie5ais (kitoje puseje)
out of to get out of the car IS
outside outside the house i5oreje (lauke)
over over the bridge
over my head
VITS
past go past the church pro, pro Saliround round the house
go round London
aplink
through Iook through the window
go through the door
pro/per
towards towards London linkunder under the bed po, apacloJe
up up the river aukStynwithin within 5 square metres veriiama vietininku
Prepositions of MethodBUdo pr iel inksniai
PrepositionPrielinksnis
UsageVartosena
MeaningReikSme
by by handby carlbusltrain
veriiarna inagininku
tn in a hurry veriiama dalyviulpadalyviu
with to eat with fingers veriiama inagininku
tr} cnnuuAR/cMMATTKA 29
Other Meanings of Some PrepositionsKitos kai kuriq prielinksniq reik5mes
PrepositionPrielinksnis
UsageVartosena
MeaningReikSmd
about Tbll me about henabout 5 million people
apie
beveikaccording to according to the newspaper pagalagainst to fight against himlthe law prieS, subecause of because of bad weather delbeneath beneath the waves
beneath the surface
po, Zemiau
besides besides the children befo, It's for him.
to go for holidaysveriiama naudininku
instead of I like watching TV instead of goingto the theatre.
vietoj (ko), uZuot
in spite of in spite of bad weather nepaisantinto to change the prince into a frog
translate into LithuanianI
of the cover of the book
made of stone
verctama
ls
kilmininku
owing to owing to his illness delto Give it to me!
to my surprise
veriiama naudininku
with with melher/him SU
without 2 days without food be
"Nick, you again had a fight with that boy? How was the fight?""lt was always a change of prepositions," answered Nick. "At first he was onme, then I was under him".
30 17' cnnuunRycRAMAlKA
CONJUNCTIONSJUNGTUKAI
Coordinat ing Gonjunct ionsSujungiamieji jungtukai
ConjunctionJunstukas
MeaningReikSme
UsageVartosena
taip pat She has also composed 5symphonies.
r my sister and I
taip pat (sakinio gale) He is very clever. His sister isverv clever as well.
taip pat ir in May as well as in July
lr lr both vou and me
bet She's not attractive but very nice.
taip pat (neigiamojosakinio gale)
I don't like bananas. He doesn'tlike them either.
a rba . . . a rba . either this girl or that one
tadiau Hehis
speaks English well. However,brother speaks better.
nel . . . ne l He has neither relatives norfriends.
ner I haven't eaten it. nor will I
ne t ik... bet ir He is not onlv rich but alsovery friendly.
ar (arba) Choose: Tom or me.
taigi (todel) We have finished our work, solet's go home.
taigi (del to) She is ill, and she thereforehasn't come.
uZ (negu) She is nicer than her sister.
taip pat (sakinio gale) She likes Tom and I like him too.
tuo tarpu; o She's right whereas you're wrong.
ar ar She didn't know whether towrite him or to phone.
tuo tarpu; o I've passed the exam while Tomhasn't.
tadiau. bet He is old yetL very lively.
17 ennvuAR/cRAMATTKA 31
Subordinat i ng Conju nct ionsPriju ngiamieji ju n gtukai
ConjunctionJunstukas
MeaningReik5me
UsageVartosena
after , '"-i po I went after we had had dinner
qlthough, thouglnors Although she was nice I didn't like herKal She met him as he was leavinT.kadangi 4; you like Chinese food, I'll take you
to the Chinese restaurant.taip (taip kaip) Do as I do.
toks .. . kaip lom ts as tall as his broth,er
tarytum He spoke English s!_tf he was bornin England.
kol As long as I am here, I can help you.jeigu I can help you as long as you will lend
me this book.
vos tik, kai tik,kadansi
As soon as he met her he told herabout it.
kadansi. nes I watch W because I like it.
net ieigu Even if it rains, I will visit you.befoiE.T,. *I, l pnes Before you write, read it careJully.
kadangi I can't phone him, fot my telephonedoesn't work.
.ieigu IJ I were you, I'd learn more.ar I wonder { you like hertuo atveju, jei Thke an umbrella in case it rains.
tam, kad In order to pass the exam, learn more.not s'&;..""Xi.-' : ne toks . . . kaip She is not so tall as her sistern6S; (that) :I&:l
Ielgu lau Now you are here, sit down.
eFoniAec*ftuai)'lsu s4lyga, jei Provided that I have a lot of monev.'T- 'lnuo to laiko, kai.. Since I met he4 I can't think of anyone.kadangi Since he insisted I've told him.
tffit:*g;:r11-.it. ,.kad She said that she was buw.utreslffi:5ilg1;1'lelgu ne They will come unless it rains.undt$ illsffiffii*r iki/kol Wait until I phone you.
tuo metu, kai. Don't listen to the radio while you study.koltol Wile I live here I'll alwavs visit her
nors (nepaisant to,kad)
Wile I like you, I must tell you the truth.
32 17" cnnrrlvARycRAMATtKA
VERBSVEIKSMAZOOZNI
Division of VerbsVeiksmaZodZiq skirstymas
Main VerbsPagrindiniai' i l zc f ro )^ . IX io i
regular (taisyklingieji)The past tense and past
participle end in -ed.
help, like, love, work, play,want etc.
irregular (netaisyklingieji)The past tense and pastparticiple are made not
following the usual pattern.
think, make, take, come,read, write etc.
Special VerbsSpecialieji
reiksmaZodZiai
auxiliary (pagalbiniai) be, have, do
modal (modaliniai)may/might, can/could, wilVwould, must/have to, need,should/ought to, used to, dare
Specialieji veiksmaZodZiaiAuxiliary Verbs
Pagalbiniai veiksmaZodliai to be, to have, to doInfinitive Past participle
to haveto do
am, ls, arehave, hasdo, does
was,haddid
Modal Verbs (Defective verbs)Modaliniai veiksmaZodZiai
can, must, may, ought, will, shall, need, dare, used to
can
mustmayneedwillshallought todareused to
to have to
to Jure
to be able canarba amlislareable tomustmayneedwillshallought todare
arba waslwereable tohad tomight
wouldshould
been able to
had to
Our"J
,S cnnuuAR/GRAMATnG 33
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u 17 cnnuuAFvcMMATrKA
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IJ" ONNUUAR/GMMATIKA 35
The Use of Tenses in the Active VoiceVeikiamosios rfiSies veiksmaZodZiq laikq vartojimas
PAST SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLEI went to England last year.yesterday, 2 days ago, in 1960,in summer, lnst yearlweek
played*. . . /wrote* *.. .
did not
didn't
play ... /write .. .?
p l a y . . - ?p lay . . . ?
1. He smokes too much.2. Water turns into ice at 0"C.3. I'm ill.ofien, usually, always, sometimes, never,seldom, rarely, every daylweeklmonthlyear
. . /w r i t e . . .
. . . /wr i tes . . .
l ,,' /write
play ... /write .. .?
play .. . /write .. .?
Positive
l"' I 0,",w e tThey J
ln Inruv,I t JNegativer lYou I do notWe I don'tThey J
lt; ] oo., no,I t J doesn't
Question
D. {k}"""'{ l,* }WhenWhere
doesdoes
hehe
30 17" cnnnruAFycMMATrKA
FUTURE SIMPLE FUTURE in the PAST1. I think he will win.2. I will help you.3. I will have a cup of tea, please!tomorrow, nert Fridaylday, in 2020,in summir, in a weeklmonthlyear
Positiver lYou IH e lShe I willr t l ' uw e lThey J 1
t- ,wri,e
Negativer lYou IHe I will notShe I won'tI t lw e lThey J l
,,- /write
Question
I i"'l h "
Will I she
I LI they
When lwil lWhere lwill
Who will play ...?What girl will play ...?
play .. . /write .. .?
1. He was afraid he would be late.2. He said he would phone.3. If I were a rich man, I would buy
a new car.4. When he was younger, he would
eat much more.
Positive
L, l IH e l Iil" I
would I
ntav .../write...
w e l Irhey J JNegative
would notwouldn't
1 t- ,wri,e
IYouHeSheItWeThey
Question
Would
l t' ,wri,e ?
Iyouhesheitwethey
lf cnnuuARycRAMATtKA gT
At thworki
PositiIHeSheItWeYouThey
NegalIYouHeSheItWeThey
Quesl
will
WherWher
WhoWhal
PRBSENT CONTINUOUSPAST CONTINUOUS
1. I was fishing when my friend fellinto the water.
2. While I was watching TV, mymum was cooking and my dadwas sleeping.
3. Yesterday I was doing myhomework for 5 hours.
while, when
Positiver lH e lShe f
was
It Jw e rYou f wereThey JNegativer lHe Iwas notShe fwasn'tI t Jw e lYou fwere not
TheyJ weren't
When I wasWhere I was
Question
[1"was t"If w e
Were { you
I they
playingplaying
hehe
Who was playing ...?What gir l was playing ...?
1. I am reading now.2. She is visiting her sonnow. at the moment
next month.
PositiveI a mH e lShe I i tI t jw e lYou I areThey J
NegativeI am notI 'm not
ffi li'l:'I t J
I S N T
Y" I are .,otfi:rlaren'tQuestion
I
f h e
til"{x;I they
Am
Is
Are
WhenWhere
playing .. . ?p lay ing . . . ?
heyou
Who is playing ...?What girl is playing ...?
IS
are
38 17' cnnvruAFvcMMATtKA
FUTURE CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS in the PAST
At this time tomorrow I will beworkins.
PositiIHeSheItWeYou
NegativeIYouHeSheItWe
will notwon't
p lay ing. . . /writ ing .. .
Iheshei t l beweyouthey
playing ... /writ ing .. .?
When lw i l l lh " lb " lR tay ing . . .?Where lwil l lyou lbe lplaying ...?
Who will be playing ...?What girl will be playing ...?
1. Would you be meeting her today?2.My sister would be writing her tests
now.3. He would be having a nap after dinner.4. Tom said he would be watchins TV at
11 o'clock.
Positive
i., lH e lShe I would lbe
k lTheyJ
NegativeIYou
y; fwourd,o,lu"I t lwouldn't I
WeThey
Question
Would
Iyouheshe I beitwethey
,l] cnnuvARycMMATtKA 39
By tlthis
bv th
I*YouHeSheItWe
IYouHeSheItWe
Whe
WhoWha
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
1. Before I left, I had eaten mybreakfast.
2.I couldn't come in because I hadlost my key.
before, after, for, since, lately, yet,already, just, never, ever
Positiver lYou IH e lShe II t lw e lThey J
Negative
had
had nothadn't
IYouHeSheItWeThey
played ... /writ ten ...
lt*.
/written
played ... /writ ten ...?
Question
Had
Iyouhesheitwethey
When lhadWhere lhad
Who had written ...?What girl had played ...?
1. I have worked here for 5 years.2. I have just done my homework.3. Someone has eaten my apples.
since, ever, never, lately, recently, yet,already, just, so far
Positiver lYou Iw e fThey JH e rShe II t J
have
has
I IHave ] vou
l w eI they
f h eHas J she
L i t
played ... /writ ten ...
Negativer lYou I have notWe f haven'tThey JH e tShe I has not
It J nasn't
Question
lt*.
/written
played ... /writ ten ...?
When lhas lh"Where lhave lyou
Who has written ...?What girl has played ...?
40 17 cnnnauAFvGRAMArKA
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE FUTURE PERFECT in the PAST
By this time tomorrowthis book.
by the time
Positive
I will have read
I*YouHeSheIt
will I have lplayed .../written
WelThey
NegativeIYouHe
lSheItWeThey
wi l l not l . | .. . I havelplayed ... /writ ten
w o n r | |
QuestionIyouhe
Will{ she havel played .../writtenitwethey
When lwi l l lhe Ihave lp layed . . . tWhere lwil l lyou lhave lwrit ten ...?
Who will have written ...?What girl will have played ...?
If I had had time,your party.
Positive
I would have come
IYouHeSheItWeThey
wouldlhavelnlaveo. . . /writ ten ..
NegativeIYouHeSheItWeThey
QuestionIyouhesheitwe
Would havelplaved ... /writ ten ...?t "
they
flcnnvuARycRAMATtKA 41
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS PRESENT PBRFECT CONTINUOUS
I had been reading a book for twohours before my friend came.
PositiveIYouHeSheI tWeThey
IYouHeSheItWeThey
Negative
t l
hadl beenl playing ... /writ ing
had not l , Ilbeenl p lay lng . . . /
h a d n ' t I l * . i i i n s . . .
Question
Had beenl playing ...1
l w r i t i n g . . . ?
Iyouhesheirwethey
When ;had ;he lbeen l t laVine . . .?Where lhad lyou lbeen lwrit ing .. .?
Who had been writ ing .. .?What girl had been playing ...?
1. I have been waitins for her for2 hours.
2. She has been smoking since 19703. I have been teaching for 10 years
for, since + now, at the momentHow long ... ?
beenlRla/ne . . . /lwr l t lng . . .
beenltlavin8lwnnng
Question
f rHaue] You
l * eL theyf h e
Has { she
l i t
beenl playing ... /I wr i t ing . . .?
When lhas lhe lbeenlRlaVinSWhere lhavelVou I been lwrit ingHow longlhavelyou I been lplaying
Who has been writ ing .. .?What gir l has been playing ...?
Positiver lYou IWe f
have
They JH e lShe I hasI t J
Negativer lYou I have notWe I haven'tThey J
lt; I has notIt J hasn't
??,|
42,F" cnnrrrrvrARycRAMATtKA
B v JEngbv (,
Posi,IYouHeSheItWe
NegtIYouHeSheItWeThe
Que'
Wh,Wh,
Wh,Whr
FUTURE PERFBCT CONTINUOUS FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUSin the PAST
By July she will have been learningEnglish for 3 years.
(the time in the future)
PositiveIYouHeSheIt
will not
won't
wil l I have lUeen I playing ... it t t '| | l w n t r n g . . .
Iyouhesheitwethey
havel been
en lwil l I he I have lbeen I playine .. . ?ere lwil l lyou I have lbeen I playing .. . ?
ave
lt
ill playing ... /wr i t ing. . .?
Who will have been writing ...?What girl will have been playing ...?
1. She explained that by July they wouldhave been learning English for2 years.
2. But for the fog we wouldn't havebeen driving for 3 long hours.
veIYouHeSheItWe
ey
would
ve
would notwouldn't
playing .../writ ing .. .
been
IYouHeSheItWeThey
Question
Would
Iyouhesheitwethey
have peen lplaying .I li"'iii"i ...
havelbeen I nlavins| | wntrng
$ cnnuvAFyGRAMATrKA
Supplements to Active VoicePriedai
1 priedas Esamojo paprastojo laiko vienaskaitos 3-iame asmenyje pridedamagallne -s arba -es:-es pridedama:- jei Zodis baigiasi s, ss, sh, ch, tch, x Qtass --> passes)- j"i veiksmaZodis baigiasi -o (do -+ does)- jei veiksmaZodis baigiasi priebalse + y (y -+ i) (try -+ tries)Jei veiksmaZodis baigiasi balse * y, tai y i5lieka ir pridedama tikgallne -s (play -+ plays)
2 priedas Vietoj will st vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos l-uoju asmeniu galimavartoti shall (shall not = shan't):r btsimajam laikui reik5ti st I ir we:
(I shall do it.)o mandagiame pasiulyme ar klausime:
(Shall I open the window?)r ispejant ar grasinant:
(You shall be punished!)
3 priedas Su galfine -ing vartojami veiksmaLodliai, einantieji po Siq veiksma-iodLiq:
admire, adore, astonish, be, believe, belong, concem, consist, contain,depend, deserve, detest, dislike, doubt, envy, exist, fit, forget, hate, have,hea6 imagine, impress, include, involve, keep, know, lack, last, Iike,love, matte4 mean, need, own, please, possess, prefef realise,recognise, remember, satisfy, seem, sound, stop, suppose, surprise,survive, suspect, think, understand, want
4 priedas for - fut 5 years (penkerius metus)since - since 1990 (nuo)lately, recently - I have met her latellt. (neseniai, pastaruoju metu)yet - t haven't done it yglt. (neigiamajame sakinyje - dar ne\yet - Have you done it W? (klausiamajame sakinyje - jau)already - I have alreadlt done it. Qau)just - I have ju;1tr done ir. (ka tik)never - I have never seen... (niekada)eyer - Have you ever seen ... ? (klausiamajame sakinyje - kada nors)so far - I have read 5 pages so far. (iki Siol)
44 l7o cnnnanaAR/cRAMATtKA
;
PrPrPtPrPrPzF'R
a
t2)
t4)
Passive VoiceNeveikiamoji r0Sis
r Neveikiamoji r[Sis sudaroma i5 veiksmaZodZio to be * veiksmaZodZio IIIforma (b[tojo laiko dalyvis arba veiksmaZodis su galflne -ed).
Present SimplePresent ContinuousPast SimplePast ContinuousPresent PerfectPast PerfectFuture SimpleFuture Perfect
atn, ,s, are
islarelam being
waslwere
waslwere being
haslhave been
had been
will be
will have been
written
o Neveikiamoji r[Sis vartojama:
1) kai veikejas neZinomas, nesvarbusarba suprantamas i5 konteksto
My car ryas stolen yesterday.The burglars have been arrested.
2)oficialioje arba mandagioje kalboje My new suit ftas been burnt.(You have burnt my suit is impolite.)
3)kai veiksmas yra svarbiau neglveikejas
Thking pictures is not allowed.Bread is baked for about 45 minutes.
4)kai norima pabrdZti veikej4 The Tower of London was built byWilliam the Conqueror.
til,
t€t
c,l€,
t€, Little Johnny came home from school with a bleeding nose and a black eye.His mother reprimanded him sternly: 'Shame on you, Johnny! You've beenfighting!''Oh, Mummy, you're using a wrong grammar voice! I haven't been fighting,'corrected her the boy: 'l 've been fought.'
lTcnnuuARycRAMATrKA 45
verdiant tiesioging kalb4 i netiesioging, keidiasi anglq kalbos sakinio zodziqtvarka ir gali keistis veiksmaZodZio laikq formos:
I. Jeigu pagrindiniame sakinyje veiksmaZodis pavartotas esamuoju laiku, taiSalutiniame sakinyje veiksmaZodZio laikas gali blti bet koks, keidiasi tikLodLi4 tvarka ir ivardZiai.
II. Jeigu pagrindiniame sakinyje veiksmaZodis pavartotas butuoju laiku, taiSalutiniame sakinyje turi blti derinami veiksmaZodZiq laikai, gali keistisLodiiq tvarka, ivardZiai bei aplinkybes.
Direct SpeechTiesiosind kalba
Reported SpeechNetiesiogine kalba
ExamplesPavyzdliai
Main ClausePagrindinis sakinys
Subordinate CIausex ,Saluttnls saktnvs
1 .
2.
J .
4.
'I have just come back
from London.'
'I'm going to Englandnext year'
'I will visit mvgrandmother.'
'I spend my holidays inthe mountains.'
She says (that)(Esamasis laikas)
(I) she has just come backfrom London.(2) she is going to Englandnext year(3) she will visit hergrandmother(4) she spends her holidays inthe mountains.
She said (that)(Butasis laikas)
II. (I) she had just comeback from London.(2) she was going to Englandthe following yean(3) she would visit hergrandmother.(4) she Wsn! her holidays inthe mountains.
REPORTED SPEECHNETIESIOGINE
AND THE SEQUENCE OF TENSESKALBA IR LAIKU DERINIMAS
ca
c(
m
n
slsl
w
o
IT
h
!lqbn
!!Iv!a
46 lI' cnnuvnR/cMMATtKA
nl
aiik
lJ" cnnuuAFvcRAMATtKA 47
Modal Verbs in Reported SpeechModaliniq veiksma2odZiq formq derinimas netiesiogin6je kalboje
Direct SpeechTiesiosine kalba
Reported SpeechNetiesiogind kalba
can could
could could
may mightmight m shtshall shouldshould shouldwill wouldwould would
ought to ought tomust had to/would have to/must
had better had better
Pronouns and Time Words in Reported SpeechlvardZiq ir laiko aplinkybiq pasikeitimai netiesiogindje kalboje
Direct SpeechTiesioeine kalba
Reported SpeechNetiesiogine kalba
this that
these those
here there
now then
today that day
tomorrow the next dav
next day/yearletc. the followi ng day lyear I etc.
yesterday the day before, the previous day
last week/yearletc. the week before, the previous week
ago before
ReportingVeiksmaZodZiai, vartojami
Verbsnetiesiogineje kalboje
Reporting Verb ExamplesPavyzdLiai
Direct SpeechTiesiogind kalba
Reported SpeechNetiesioeine kalba
agreeofferpromiserefusethreaten
-+ * to-infinitive
'Shall I carryyour bag?''I'll help you!'
He offered to carry my bag.
He prni;sd_la lryJp me.
adviseaskbegcommandinviteorderremindwam
--> f somebody *to-infinitive
'Don't forget to
post the letter''Will you havetea with me?'
She reminded me to postthe letterHe invited me to have teawith him.
admitdenyprefersuSSestaccuse sb ofappologize forboast oflaboutcomplain to sb ofirtsist on
-+ * gerund(-ing form)
'Let's go to thecinema.'
You took mypurse.'
He suggested going to thecinema.
She accused me of takinglhaving taken her purse.
agreecomplaindenyexplainexc.laimremarkpromisesuggest
-+ * that-clause(Salutinispapildiniosakinys)
You'd better teher the truth!'
You're alwayscoming late!'
He suggested that I(should) tell her the truth.
He complained that I wasalways coming late.
48 l7u cnnuvnFyGRAMATtKA
AI
Pr,T]
Pr,H
Pr,H
Pr,H
2 '
Pa,H
Pa
,H
sh,
Pa,H
Pa,H
2 ,
Fu,H
sh
Fu,H
sh'
Fr,H
sh
Fr,H
2 ,
4. 511
Sequence of TensesLaiku derinimas
Reported SpeechNetiesiogind kalba
Atpasakojant bltuoju laiku, keidiasi veiksmaZodZio laikai:
Present Simple -+ Past Simple'He likes swimming,' she said. She said he likeslliked swimming.
Present Continuous -+ Past Continuous'He is playing football,' she said. She said he was playing footbatl.Present Perfect -+ Past Perfect'He has just come,' she said. She said he had just come.
Present Perfect Continuous -+ Past Perfect Continuous'He has been reading a book for She said he had been reading2 hours,' she said. a book for 2 hours.
Past Simple -) Past Perfect/Past Simple'He came an hour ago,' she said. She said he had corne an hour ago.
Past Continuous -+ Past Perfect Continuous/pastContinuous
'He was cleaning the house,' She said he had been cleaningsaid. the house.
Past Perfect -r Past Perfect'He had already left,' she said. She said he had already teft.
Past Perfect Continuous -+ Past Perfect Continuous'He had been washing dishes for she said he had been washing dishes2 hours,' she said. for 2 hours.
Future Simple -+ Future Simple in the past'He will be back in five minutes,' She said he would be back
said. in five minutes.
Future Continuous -) Future Continuous in the past'He will be lying on the beach,' She said he would be lying
said. on the beach.
Future Perfect -+ Future Perfect in the past'He will have Jinished by then,' She said he would have finished
said. by then.
ture Perfect Continuous -+ Future Perfect Continuous in the past'He will have been reading for she said he would have been reading
hours by then,' she said. for 2 hours by then.
17 ennrrrurAFycMMATtKA 49
word order In Reponed SpeecnZod2itq tua rka netiesiogi n6s ka I bos sakini uose
Tlpes of SentencesSakiniq rflSys
Direct SpeechTiesiogind kalba
Reported SpeechNetiesiogine kalba
StatementsTeigiamieji sakiniai
'I want to go to themountains,' she said.
She said she wanted to go tothe mountains.
Special QuestionsSpecialieji klausimai(su klausiamaisiais
ZodZiais)
t 2 3 4'Why didn't you do your
5homework?,' asked hermother.
1Her mother asked her whlt3 2 4
she hadn't done her5
homework.*
General QuestionsBendrieji klausimai
1 2 3'Have you ever been to
4Britain?' Susan askedme.
2Susan asked me whetherlif I
1 3 4had been to Britain.*
Requests/Commands/Orders
PraSymai/liepimai/isakymai
'Open your books!,'said the teacher'Wite this essay,' shesaid to Tbm.
The teacher asked us toopen our books.She ordered Tbm to write theessav.
TIFfRehaltut
TYPRUrtopr(alsad'TYPAUrintocri'
ttrl E H E E T
* Atpasakojant specialiuosius ir bendruosius klausimus, netiesiogin6je kalboje b0tina laikytis anglq kalbos
teigiamojo sakinio ZodZiq tvarkos taisykliq:
A philosopher said: 'Fancy what silence would set in if people said only whatthey really understood!'
50 l7' cnnrrruAFycRAMATt(A
CONDITIONAL SENTENCESSnlurtrutAt sALYGos sAKlNlAl
l l-clauseSalutinis sakinys
Main clausePagrindinis sakinys
UsageVartojimas
TYPE 1FUTUREReal - likely tohappen in thefuture or present
If * any presenttense (PresentSimple, PresentContinuous,Present Perfect)(Active or Passive)
Future Simple,Imperative,Present Simple(for generaltruths)
If I have money, I will buya car.If you are tired, p. to bed.If you heat snow, it melts.If you hqejni;hcd- yourwork, we can go for a walk.
TYPE 2PRESENTUnreal - unlikelyto happen in thepresent or future;also used to giveadvice
If * PastSimple/PastContinuous(Active or Passive
would/could/might+
infinitive
If I hsd money, I wouldbu), a carIf I were you, I wouldn'ttell this.If it weren't rainins. wecould go for a walk.
TYPE 3PASTUnreal situationin the past; usedto expresscriticism or regret
If * Past Perfect/Past PerfectContinuous(Active or Passive)
would/could/might+
have+
past participle
If I had had money, Iwould have bought a carIf I had locked the flat, itwouldn't have beenbroken into.If the child had behavedwell, he wouldn't havebeen nunished.
He can't hear you unlessyou shout.Supposing your car breaksdown in the middle of thedessert.I don't want to go out,unless John phones.But for the rain, we wouldhave arived on time.
If I have time, I will come.I will come if I have time.
If (jeigu) she comes, shewill tell us.I don't know if (ar) shewill come.
l
hat
l7 cnnvuAR/cMMATtKA 51
Mixed ConditionalsMi5rls Salutiniai s4lygos sakiniai
Ir pagrindiniame, ir Salutiniame sakinyje galima vartoti bet kuri Salutinios4lygos sakinio tip4, jei to reikalauja kontekstas.
Tlperequired If-clause Main clause Tlpe
used2
2
3
If nobody phaued him,
If she knew him,
If he had found a job,
he won't come to the meeting.
she would have spoken to him.
he wouldn't be searching
for one now.
I
3
2
' lf I challenged you to a duel what weapons would you select?''lf it ever came to a choice of weapons against you, I would choose grammar.'
s2 17 cnnuuARycRAMATrKA
TlpesRtSys
Form used in thesentence
Forma, vartojamasakinyje
ExampleVartojimo pavyzdys
1 FUTUREr wish for a future
change (unlikely tohappen)
o wish to expressdissatisfaction
o polite requestimplying dissatisfac-tion or lack of hope
I wish * subject* infinitive
(If only)(Active or Passive)
I wish fte would enter theuniversity. (unlikely to happen)(Norddiau, kad jis istotqi universitet4.)I wishyoa would be quiet. (lackof hope)(O, kad tu nutiltum.)I wish ir would stop raining. (fu-ture change or disappointment)(B[tq gerai, jei nustotq lyti.)
2 PRESENTo regret about a
present situationwhich we want to bedifferent
I wish * Past Simple/Past Continuous
(If only)(Active or Passive)
I wish I were a doctor.(Gaila, kad nesu daktaras.)I wish I didn't have so muchwork to do.(Gaila, kad turiu tiek daugdarbo.)
3 PAST. regret that sth
happened or didn'thappen in the past
I wish * Past Perfect/Past PerfectContinuous
(If only)(Active or Passive)
I wish I had been a doctor.(Gaila, kad netapau daktaru.)I wish I hadn't bought thisdress.(Gaila, kad pirkau 5i4 suknelg.)
I wish (If only) I were taller.(Norediau blti auk5tesnis.)If she were here, she wouldknow what to do.(Jei ji b[tq dia, Zinotq, k4daryti.)
WISH.SENTENCESTARIAMOSIOS NUOSAKOS SAKINIAI
The grammar teacher wrote a sentence on the blackboard and asked thestudent: 'William, where is the subject?'. The student kept silent. The teacherrepeated the question. Then the student looked up at her and saidsympathetically: ' l wish I had your worries, ma'am'.
,lf cnnrrrrrrAR/cRAMATtKA 53
Salutiniuose laiko aplinkybes sakiniuose, prasidedandiuose when, as soon as,untilltill, as, while, before, afte4 wheneve4 once, since, blsimasis laikasnevartojamas vietoj jo vartojamas bet kuris iS veikiamosios arneveikiamosios rlSies esamqjq laikq.
when
(kai)
He'll phone you when he gets home.
as soon as(kai tik)
The children will go out for a walk as soon asthe rain stops.
until/till(kol, iki)
Wait here until they come back,
while
(kol)
Can you look after my cat white I am away?
before
(prie5)
Before you leave; you must meet my sister.
after
(kai)
You'll feel better after you've had something to drink.
by the time(iki to laiko, kai)
I will have washedmother comes.
the dishes by the time my
whenever
(kad ir kada)
Whenever she comes, she brings a friend.
once(kai; kai tik)
Once you learn the basic rules, it's easy to startspeaking correctly.
slnce(nuo to laiko, kai)
It is five years since I've seen her.
TIME CLAUSESSnlurruAr LArKo ApLtNKyBES sAKlNlAl
What is it you must keep after you have given it to somebody? (The answer:Your word.)
S
s4 lT cnnurrrnRycRAMATtKA
The Inf ini t iveBendratis
Infinitive formsBendraties
formos
Active VoiceVeikiamoji rt5is
Passive VoiceNeveikiamoji rt5is
UsageVartojimas
Simple to writeShe has to writethis essay.He appears(appeared) to writea letter to hismother every day.
to be writtenThis essay has tobe written.A letter to hismother aDDears(aooeared\ to bewritten by himevery day.
Sios bendratiesformos vartoja-mos esamajamlaikui reik5ti, t. y.ivardyti veiksmui,kurio atlikimassinchroni5kas susakinio turiniuivardyto veiksmoatlikimu.Continuous to be rwiting
She has to be wri t ingthis essay now.He aooears (ao-
peared) to be writinga letter to hismother now (then).
to be beingwritten*
Perfect to have writtenShe ought to havewritten this essay.He appears (appea-red) ro have written aletter to his motheryesterday (severaldays before).
to have beenwrittenThis essay ought tohave been written.
Sios bendratiesformosvartojamosbutajam laikuii5reik5ti, t. y.
ivardyti veiksm4,ivykusi prie5tariniu ivardyt4veiksm4.
A letter to hismother aDDears(aooeared) to havebeen wittenyesterday (severaldays before).
PerfectContinuous
to have been writingShe ought to havebeen writing thisessay.He appears (appeared)to have been writinga letter to his motherfor 2 hours(for several hours).
VERBALSN EASMENUOJAMOSIOS VEIKSMAZOOZIO FORMOS
veiksmaZodZiais.
.ff cnnHauAR/cMMATtKA 55
*Si forma vartojama tik su tranzityviniais (galininkiniais)
The GerundVeiksmaZodZio su galOne -ing formos
Gerund formGerundijaus
forma
Active VoiceVeikiamoji rt5is
Passive VoiceNeveikiamoji rfiSis
UsageVartojimas
Simple learningtranslatingI hate interrupt-ing people.
being learntbeing translatedI hate beinginterruoted.
Abiejose sakinio dalysevartojami veiksmaZo-dZiai rei5kia tuo patmetu vykstanti veiksm4.
Perfect having learnthaving translatedHe enteredwithout havingknocked at thedoor.
having been learnthaving beentranslatedThe door openedwithout havingbeen knocked on.
VeiksmaZodZio sugallne -ing formai5rei5kia anksiiauivykusi veiksm4.
Verb * -ing (Gerund)VeiksmaZodis + -ins forma
Verb * to-infinitiveVeiksmaZodis + bendratis
VeiksmaZodZiai, po kuriq vartojamiveiksmaZodZiai su galune -ing:
admit, adore, advise, appreciate, avoid,celebrate, conside4 contemplate, delay,deny, detest, discuss, dislike, dread,endure, enjoy, escrpe, excuse, face,fancy, feel like, finish, forget, forgive, go,give up, hate, imagine, involve, keep, lie,like, loathe, love, ntention, mind, miss,postpone, practise, put off, regret,remembe4 report, resent, resist, risk,stop, suggest, untlerstand etc.
Posakiai:
can't bearcan't helpcan't standgo (eg swimming)spend timelmoney (on)no goodno useno wofth
He denied stealing the money.I feel like goigg to the theatre.
verb + -ing
VeiksmaZodZiai, po kuriq vartojamabendrat is:afford, agree, aim, appea\ an'ange, ask,attempt, bea6 beg, care, claint, choose,consent, dare, decide, demand, deserve,determine, expect, fail, fight, forget, help,hesitate, hope, intend, learn, long,managq nl.ean, need, neglect, offer, plan,prepare, pretend, promise, propose,prove, refuse, seenr, start, swea6 tend,trouble, threaten, try, wait, want, wish,would like, would love, would prefer etc.
Susan wanted ta_ watch this play.They decided to stay at home.
Verb * object * infinitive
VeiksmaZodiiai, po kuriq vartojamaspapildinys ir bendratis be dalelytes to:let, make, know, hea4 feel, helpExample:She made them do it.I heard her sing.
56 17 cnnvunRycRAMATtKA
Verb*sb+ to - i n f i n i t i ve Modal verb * infinitive
Bendratis vartojama, kai papildinyseina po Siq veiksmai.odLittr:
advise, allow, ask, beg, cause, dare,encourage, expect, forbid, force, get,help, intend, invite, leave, order,persuade, prefe4 recommend, remind,teach, tell, urge, want, wam
She asked us to visit her motherHe wanted us to close the windows.
Bendratis be ro vartojama po Siqmodaliniq veiksmaZodZiq:
can, could, may, might, must, need, hadbette4 would rather
You must do your homework.She could come to my parry.
Verb * to-infinitive or * -ing
Ir -ing forma, ir bendratis gali eiti po Siq veiksmaZodZiq:Tttempt, begin, bothe4 cease, continue, deserve, fea4 hate, like, love, prefe4 start
IMPERATIVE MOODLIEPIAMOJI NUOSAKA
l] cnnuuARvcMMATrKA
OrderLiepimas
ProhibitionDraudimas
PersonAsmuo
SingularVienaskaita
PluralDaugiskaita
SingularVienaskaita
PluralDaugiskaita
1 let me read let us read
don't
let me read
don't
let us read,2 read read read read
J let him/her/
it read
Iet them read let him/her/it read
let them read
IRREGULAR VERBS INSUGRUPUOTI NETAISYKLINGIEJI
GROUPSVEIKSMAZOOZNI
l + 2 + 3(Skiriasi visos trys formos)
to
(a)wakebearbeginbiteblowbreakchoosecomedivedodrawdrinkdriveeatfallfly(for)bidforgetforsakefreezegivegogrowhewhideknowliemowrideringriserunsawseesewshakeshowshrink
(a)wokeborebeganbitblewbrokechosecamedove/diveddiddrewdrankdroveatefellflew(for)badeforgotforsookfrozegavewentgrewhewedhidknewlaymowedroderangroseransawedsawsewedshookshowedshrank
(a)wokenborn(e)begunbit tenblownbrokenchosencomediveddonedrawndrunkdriveneatenfallenflown(for)biddenforgottenforsakenfrozengivengonegrownhewed/hewnhid/hiddenknownlainmowed/mownriddenrungrisenrunsawed/sawnseensewed/sewnshakenshowed/shownshrunk
pabustigimdyti; pakeltipradetiik4stiplstilauiytipa(si)rinktiateitinerti, Sokti i vandenidarytipieStigertivairuotivalgyti(nu)kristiskristi(uZ)draustiuZmirStiatsisakytiSalt iduotieit iaugtikirsti, kapotislepti(s)ZinotiguletiSienautivaZiuotiskambinti (telefonu)pakiltibegtipjautimatytisiItikratyti(s)rodytisusitraukti, susiraukSleti
GRAMMARiGMMATIKA
to
slngsinkslaysowspeakspringstealstinkstrewstriveswearswellswimtaketearthrivethrowtreadwearweavewrite
sangsanksledslayedsowedspokesprangstolestank/stunkstrewedstrovesworeswelledswamtooktorethrovethrewtrodworewovewrote
sungsunkslainsowed/sownspokensprungstolenstunkstrewed/strewnstrivenswornswollen/swelledswumtakentornthriventhrowntrodden/trodwornwovenwritten
clamuotrskgsti; grimztiuZmu5ti, nuZudytiapsetikalbetipaSoktivogtidvoktistengtis; siektii5metyti, i5barstytiprisiekti; keiktistinti, padidetiplauktiimtiple5yti, draskytiklesteti, tarpti(i5)mestiLengti; uZliptineSioti, vilketiaustiraSyti
l + 2 = 3(Sutampa antroii ir tredioii forma)
to
bendbeseechbindbleedbreedbringbuildburnbuycatchclingcreepdealdigdreamdwellfeedfeelfieht
bentbesoughtboundbledbredbroughtbuiltburntboughtcaughtclungcreptdealtdugdreamtdweltfedfeltfought
bentbesoughtboundbledbredbroughtbuiltburntboughtcaughtclungcreptdealtdugdreamtdweltfedfeltfought
linkti, su(si)lenktipra5yti, maldauti(su)ri5tikraujuotiauginti, veistiatneStistatytidegtipirktipagautitvirtai laikytis, kabintisSliauZtibendrauti, tureti reikalqkasti; knaisiotissapnuoti, svajotigyventi, apsistotimaitinti(s)jaustikovoti
.17 cnnvvAR/cMMATTKA 59
to
laylead
tlnclfleeflinggetgrindhanghavehearholdkeepkneel
leanleaplearnleavelendlightlosemeanmeetreadrend
sellshineshootsit
slingslinksmellspeedspellspendspillspinspitspoil
sayseeksend
sleepslide
Ioundfledflunggotgroundhunghadheardheldkeptkneltlaidledleant/leanedleapt/leapedlearnt/learnedleftlentlitlostmeantmetreadrentsaidsoughtsentsoldshoneshotsatsleptslidslungslunksmelt/smelledsped/speededspeltspentspiltspun (span)spatspoilt/spoiled
toundfledflunggotgroundhunghadheardheldkeptkneltlaidledleant/leanedleapt/leapedlearnt/learnedleftlentlitlostmeantmetreadrentsaidsoughtsentsoldshoneshotsatsleptslidslungslunksmelt/smelledsped/speededspeltspentspiltspunspatspoilt/spoiled
(su)rasti(pa)begtipulti, mestisgautimalti(uZ)kabinti, kabdtituretigirdeti, i5girstilaikyti(s)(i5)laikytiklaupti(s)padengti (stal4)vadovautipalinktiSokti, Sokinetimokyti(s)(pa)likti(pa)skolintiuZdegti, ap5viestipamestireik5ti, tureti omenysu(si)tiktiskaitytipld5ti, ple5ytisakytiieSkoti; siekti; stengtissiqstiparduotiSviestiSautis6d6timiegotislystisviesti, mestiselinti, slinkti(uZ)uosti, kvepetipagreitinti, paspartintiparaidZiui skaityti/ra5yti(iS)leisti, eikvotii5(si)lietiverptispjaudyti(su)gadinti
60 F Cnnr'Ir'IAFyGRAMATIKA
to
ndstastickstingstridestrikestringsweepswingteachtellthinkweepwinwindwring
Stoodstuckstungstrodestruckstrungsweptswungtaughttoldthoughtweptwonwoundwrung
stooclstuckstungstrodestruckstrungsweptswungtaughttoldthoughtweptwonwoundwrung
stovetldurti, smeigti; klijuoti(i)geltiLengti, Zingsniuotimu5ti, suduotiuZri5ti. suri5tiSluoti; lekti, dumtisuptis, svyruotimokytisakyti, papasakotigalvotiverktilaimetiraityti(s), sukti(s), vynioti(s)(i5)ersZti
I = 2 = 3(Sutampa visos trys formos)
to
betbidburstcastcostcuthithurtknitletputquitridsetshedshitshutslitsplitspreadsweatthrustwedwet
betbidburstcastcostcuthithurtknitletputquitridsetshedshitshutslitsplitspreadsweatthrustwedwet
betbidburstcastcostcuthithurtknitletputquitridsetshedshitshutslitsplitspreadsweatthrustwedwet
kirsti laZybqsillyti kain4sprogti, pratrlktimesti, metytikainuotipjauti, kirstismogti, suduotiskaudeti; su(si)Zeistimegztileisti(pa)detipalikti, mesti (darba)i5vaduoti, atsikratytisustatyti, i5destytimesti/SertismeLtiuZdarytiprapjauti/plyStisuskiltisklistiprakaituotimesti; verZtistuokti(s)Slapti, drekti; drekinti
'Freddy, what's the past tense of the verb "wake up"?'.'Sleep'.
61.17 cnnuuARvcRAMATrKA
WnlrlrucRASYMAS
PARAGRAPH WRITINGPastraipos ra5ymas
Topic sentenceTeminis sakinys
Controlling IdeaTem4 sukonkretinantis
Zodis/posakisPirmasis pagrinding
pport Iminti paremiantis teiginys
Antrasis inding minti paremiantis teiginys
Support 3t"{qrtr pagrinding minti paremiantis teiginys
Joncluding sentenceBaigiamasis sakinvs
Structure of a Topic SentenceTeminio sakinio strukt0ra
People give many reasons for owning a car.TopicTema
Controlling IdeaTem4 sukonkretinanti mintis
"owning a car" "reasons"
All the supporting ideas in the paragraph should be "reasons for owning a car".
Paragraph ExamplePastraipos pavyzdys
Paragraph StructurePastraipos strukt0ra
Before applying to a foreign university, oneshould consider the disadvantages of studyingabroad" First, a student may feel alone bybeing far from family and friends. Also, diffi-culty in understanding a foreign language canbe very frustrating and can affect the student,sgrades. Finally, it may appear to be veryexpensive to pay the costs of travel and hous-ing in a different country. Therefore,loneliness,language bareer and shortage of money maycause difficulties for studying abroad.
Topic sentence (controllingidea. tonic)Support 1Support 2
Support 3
Concluding sentence
Ef" wnrrrruc/RAsyMAs
Topic Sentence OpeningsTeminio sakinio prad2ia
Helpful phrases in the topic sentento express the controlling idea
I t is general ly agreed that .. .I t must be remembered that .. .It cannot be too strongly emphasizedthat . . .
l t has now been proved that .. .I t is often taken for granted that .. .It has often been questionedwhe the r . . .
There is no doubt that ...It goes without saying that ...It stands to r.eason tliat ...I t is easy enough to believe that .. .It is difficult to prove that ...It is impossible [o argue that ...It. is/seems unlikely (slrange/ridiculous) that .. .
It is.evident (likely/obvious/possible/probable) that .. .
It is doubtful whether ...It would be absurd to suppose that ...It remains to be seen whbther ...
the reason for ...the causes of (the effects of) ...the steps for (the procedure for) ...the advantages of (the disadvaniagesof) . . .
the ways to (the methods of) ...the different sections (parts, kinds,types) of ...the characteristics (traits, qualities)o f . . .
the problems of ...the precautions for ...the changes to ...
common Devices for Linking rdeas within a comprex sentenceMindiq siejimas sudetiniame prijungiamajame sakinyie
Simple ConjunctionsRelatives which, who, that etc.Conjunctions: Time
ReasonConditionConcession
when, afte.r, before, until, while etc.Decause. srnceif, unlessalthough, however (important)
Preposition and prepositionalPhrase $ft^er (examining tne corpsQ
Pgfgr" (le.aving the couniry)'Without (informing his suri6riors)Due to (the shortage of money)'As a result of (breaking the law
Present ParticipG (-1ng 161rrq looking (at the plans, he-aw that Jy"lng (rnteresred I applied to join ...)A box containing ...
Past Participle (-ed formJ Confused (by the news, he JThis invention, introduced by ...
ISTART AND CONTINUATIONA.small boy was reading from the Bibre: "ln the beginning was the word.,,J€*omry1lgg_hjr rather, ,,and then TE ."n.!"i"1gpgr sentences.,,
lp wnrruc/MSyMAs 63
TRANSITIONS IN A PARAGRAPHZod2iai, siejantys pastraipos sakinius
Time (Laiko)after a (+ time expression)after a short/long timeafterwardsat firstat leastat the same timebefore that timebefore theneventuallyimmediatelyin the endlatelyIatermeanwhilenextnownowadayspresentlyrecentlyshortlyslncesince thensoontemporarilythenthereafter
vdliau, paskuinetrukus, po kurio laikovdliau, paskuii5 pradZiqbent jautuo pat metu, taipogiprieS taiprie5 taipagaliautuojau (pat), tudtuojaugalq galeneseniai, pastaruoju metuv6liautuo tarpu, tuo pat metupaskuidabar, tuojau, tadadabar, rnlsq laikaisnetrukus, tuojau patpastaruoju metu, neseniaitrumpai, greitai, netrukuskadangi, jei taipnuo to laiko, nuo tadagreitai, netrukuslaikinaitada, tokiu atveju, vadinasinuo to laiko, atitinkamai
Augmentation (Papildymas)
additionallyagalnalsoandand thenapart from thisas well asbesidesfurtherfurthermorein addition toin the same waylikewisenornot only ... but alsomoreovertoowhat is more
be tov6l, dar kart4, be totaip pat, irgiir, bei, oir tada, o tadai5skyrus, be to, nekalbanttiek pat, taip patbe to, be, i5skyrusbe to, toliaube tobe totaip patpana5iai, taip patnelne t ik . . . , bet i r . . .toliau, be totaip patbe to, dar (daugiau)
aple..
u S wnrlrue/nnSyMAs
Contrast, opposition (Prie5prie5a, kontrastas)
and yetafter allalthoughalthough this may be trueat the same timebutdespite this (+ noun)howeverin contrastin contrast to (+ noun)in spite of (+ noun)nevertheless (after a negative idea)notwithstandingon the contraryon the one handon the other handstill
whereasyet
bet, betgi, tadiau, vis ddltopagaliau, galq galenors, neZitrintnors tai t iesa...taip pat, tuo pat metubetnepaisanttadiau, kaip ne, kiek ne, kad ir kaip(pa)lyginti suprie5ingai neinepaisantvis delto, nepaisant tonepaisant (ko), tadiauprieSingaii5 vienos pusesi5 kitos pusdsdar, vis dar, iki Siol, tadiau, vis d6lto,dar (lyginant)tada, kai, tuo tarpu, kaidar, vis dar, bet, betgi, tadiau, vis delto
Comparison, similarity, equivalent (Palyginimas, pana5umas, sugretinimas)
againalsoalternativelyequally (+ adjective)in a like mannerin comparisonin other wordsin the same wayin a similar mannerlikewisenamelysimilarlythat is to say
dar kart4, vdl, be totaip patpasirinktinaitaip pat, at i t inkamaipanaSiailyginantkitaip tariant, kita vertustaip patpanaSiaipana5iai, taip patbutentpanaSiaitai yra
ff wnrrrruc/nRsYMAs 65
Concession, attitude (Prielaida, poZiflris)
admittedlyafter allalthoughand yetas a matter of factat the same timecertainlyeven thoughfortunatelyhowever muchluckilynaturallyof courseoddly enoughperhapsstillstrangely enoughundoubtedlyunfortunately
Zinoma, reikia pripaZintipagaliau, Siaip ar taipnors (ir), net jeibet, betgi, tadiau, vis ddltoi5 tikrqjqtuo padiu metu, taip patZinomanors, nepaisant, net jeigulaimei, laim6kad ir kaip... , kiek nelaimei, laimeZinomaZinoma(kad ir labai) keistagalbutvis dar, tadiau, vis deltokeistas dalykas, ...neabejotinai, be abejodeja, nelaimei
Demonstration, illustration, example (f rodymas, pavyzdLiai)
as a matter of factas an exampleas followsfor examplefor instanceincidentallyindeedin factin other wordsin particularin this casenamelyparticularlyspecificallythat isthat is to sayto illustrate
ties4 sakantpavyzdZiu'ikaip toliau i5destytapavyzdLi:.tipavyzdiiuibejei5 tikrqjqi5 tiesq, faktiSkaikitaip tariantypadSiuo atvejubltentypad, labai, konkrediaiypadtai yratai yrapateikiant pavyzdi
60 llF wntrrruc/RASYMAS
Sequence, order (Seka)
finallyfirst of allfirst, second, third etc.in the first, second (etc.) placefirstlylastlast of alllastlynextsecondlythenthirdlyto begin withto end with
galq gale., pagaliauDlrmlauslapirma, antra, tredia ir t . tpirmiausia, antraplrmlausla, plrmagale, paskutini kartqgaliausiaigaliausiai, pagaliaupaskui, toliauantratada, paskui, tuo laikutrediavisq pirma, pirmiausiabaigiant, pabaigoje
Result (Rezultatas)
accordinglyas a resultconsequentlyfor this reasonhenceSOotherwisethentherebythereforethus
atitinkamaitodeltodel, del tos prieZasties, taigiddl to, del Sios prieZastiesvadinasi, taigitaigi, taip, tuo b[du, tiek, vadinasiprie5ingu atveju, kitais atZvilgiais, kitaiptada, tokiu atveju, vadinasituo budu, taigid6l to, todel, taigitaigi, taip, tuo budu
Purpose (Tikslas)tor tnls purposefor this reasonowing to thisto this purposewith this object (objective)
Sruo trkslu. srekrantdel todel toSiuo tikslu, siekiant, kaip tik laikuSiuo tikslu
Location (Vieta)
adjacent to (+ noun)at the topat the rightbeyondfar aheadfar behindherein the centerin the distancenearbyopposite (+ noun)straight ahead
Salia, gretimaivirSujedeSinejeuZ, vir5priekyje, prie5akyjetoli uZdiacentre, viduryjetolumojeSalia, artiprieSais, prieStiesiai prieSakyje
ITI, WRIIruC/RASYMAS 67
Stating the obvious, generalizing (AkivaizdZiq faktq pateikimas, apibendrinimas)
alternativelyas one might expectas a ruleclearlyfor the most partit goes without sayingin generalin most casesin other wordsnaturallyobviouslyof courseon the wholeor ratherthe rather that ...speaking generallysurelyto be more preciseto put it another wayusually
atitinkamai, pasirinktinaigalima tiketis, kad...paprastai, daZniausiaiaiSkiaidaugiausiai, daZniausiai, paprastaisavaime suprantamaapskritaidaugeliu atvejq, daZniausiaikitaip tariantZinomaaiSku. akivaizduZinomai5 viso, apskritaitiksliau (sakant)tuo labiau, kad...apskritaiZinoma, be abejo, tikraitiksliau (sakant)kitaip tariantkaip paprastai
Conclusion, summary (I5vados, santrauka)
accordinglyas a resultas I have said, noted, statedbrieflybriefly statedconsequentlyfinallyin briefin conclusionin other wordsin shortit goes without saying (that)..on the wholethereforethusto concludeto summarizeto sum up
atitinkamai. todeltodelkaip minejautrumpaitrumpai tarianttoddl, del tos prieZasties, taigi, vadinasipagaliau, galq galetrumpai(uZ)baigiantkitaip tarianttrumpaiakivaizdu, savaime suprantamai5 viso, apskritaitaigi, del to, todeltoddl, taip, tuo b[du, taigibaigiantreziumuojantapibendrinant, susumuojant, reziumuojant
Gustave Flaubert, a famous French writer (1821-1880), defined the followingthree rules for the use of language in writing: clarity, clarity and clarity.
68 IIF wnrrrruc/nnsYMAs
The Use of Transitional Expressions in a ParagraphJungiamqjq posakiq vartojimas pastraipoje
Food is the source ofenergr for the body. Food and the energy it produces areimportant. Indeed, we need this energy just to keep alive. Naturally, energy isrequired just to digest the food needed to produce energy in the first place.Moreover, energy is essential for all continuous body processes such asbreathing, the beating of the heart, and the maintenance of muscle tone. Also,children and youths need energy for growth. In brief, we need energy producedby food for carrying out all work and leisure activities.
Paragraph DevelopmentPastraipos pl6tojimas
To make a more fully developed paragraph, add details to the supportingideas. Your details can be facts, examples, personal experience or description.Ra5ydami pastraip4, pagrinding minti paremiandius teiginius papildykite
faktais, pavyzdiiais, paties patirtais ispudEiais ar apraiymais.
TopicTema
The Controlling IdeaTema sukonkretinantis Zodis/posakis
"the Smithsonian Institution" "reasons for a visit"
Topic SentenceTeminis sakinvs
The Smithsonian Institution is worth visiting for a number of reasons.
Supporting IdeasTem4 patvirtinandios mintys
Details for a More Fully Developed ParagraphPapildymai
Supporting idea IL pagrinding mintiparemiantis teiginys
FactsFaktai
The Smithsonian Institutionis composed of variousmuseums that offersomething for everyone.
These museums consist of the NationalMuseum of History and Technology, theNational Collection of Fine arts, the NationalMuseum of Natural History, The NationalAeronautics and Space Museum, and severalothers.
Supporting idea 22 pagrinding mintiparemiantis teiginys
ExamplePavyzdys
A person can do more thanjust look at the exibits.
For example, in the insect zoo at theNational Museum of Natural History, anyonewho so desires can handle some of theexibits.
lly' wnrrrruc/RASYMAS 69
Supporting idea 33 pagrinding mintiparemiantis teiginys
Personal ExperiencePatirti isp[dZiai
The museums provideunforgettable experiences.
Climbing through slqlab at the nationalAeronautics and space Museum, I was able toimagine what it would be like to be anastronaut in space.
Supporting idea 44 pagrinding mintiparemiantis teiginys
DescriptionApra5ymas
Movies shown at regularintervals aid in building anappreciation of our world.
In the National Aeronautics and Space Museum,there is a theatre which has a large screen. Whenthe movie is shown, it gives the illusion that theviewer is in the movie itself, either floatingabove the earth in a hot-air balloon or hans-gliding over cliffs.
70 llf wnrrrue/RASYMAS
ESSAY WRITINGRASINIO RASYMAS
*Yra ir daugiau raSiniq t ipq; dia pateikiami daZniausiai pasitaikantys.
Essay Types*Ra5iniq t ipai
Purpose of an essayRaSinio t ikslas
The Examole Essav To i l lustrate bv an example
The Comparison/ContrastEssay To compare or contrast a topicThe Classification Essay To define/describe by classification
The Process Analysis Essay To describe and analyse the processThe Cause and Effect Analvsis
Essay
To describe the cause and eive the
analysis of effectThe Argumentative Essay To give and explain arguments or to
persuade; to express or support anopinion
Introductory ParagraphlZangind pastraipa
To write an introduction for an essay, follow these procedures:
ProceduresDarbo tvarka
Introduction (example)
lZangos pavyzdys
1. Introduce the topic in general. When a person decides to enter auniversity away from home, he or shemust also consider living accomodations.
2. Narrow the topic down tofocus more on the question.
Although most universities offer studentdormitories, students frequently opt tolive in an apartment.
3. Restate the specific questionyour own words and in astatement form.
ln While there are many advantages toapartment living, there are also manydisadvantages.
4. Write the concluding statementwhich is the thesis statementand indicates the controllingidea of the essav.
Before a student decides to live in anapartment, all the aspects of that kind ofaccomodation should be reviewed.
WRITING/RASYTT RS
Concluding Paragraphl5vados (pabaiga)
To write a concluding paragraph, follow these procedures:
ProceduresDarbo tvarka
Conclusion (example)Pabaigos pavyzdys
1. Restate the thesis statement. Even though there are manyadvantages to apartment living, Iwould prefer to live in the universitydormitory for the following reasons.
2. Restate the topic sentences fromthe developmental paragraphs.
First, I will be new at the universityand meeting people will be easier ina dormitory setting. Second, I willnot have to worry about purchasingand cooking food or cleaningafterwards. Finally, I will be withinwalking distance of my classes andthe university library.
3. State your opinion or preference,make a prediction, or give asolution.
Consequently, I will have betterconditions and more time for mvstudies.
4. Conclude with a statement thatsums up the essay.
In conclusion, living on campus ismore advantageous for me thanliving in an apartment.
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e l le
PuttcruATroNSKYRYBA
PUNCTUATION MARKS AND USAGESKYRYBOS ZENKLAI IR JU VARTOSENA
Punctuation marksSkvrvbos Zenklai
Usage (Rules)Vartosena
ExamplesPavyzdLiai
Full stop(AntE Period)
1. At the end of a sentence(statement).
2. Sometimes in abbreviations.3. In decimal fractions.4. In internet and e-mai l
addresses (sa id 'do t ' ) .
It is very important to leantEtryl ish punctuat iot t .Ian., Jr6.5www.sviesa.lt
Comma 1. To separate items in asenes:words in ser ies,
phrases in series,
subordinate clauses inseries.
The dog growled, snarled,and leaped at the intrttder.We have a governnrcnt of thepeople, by the people, and forthe people.I know that I will pass the testif I take good notes, if I studyhard, and if I get a goodnight's sleep.
When the last two items in a seriesare joined by and, you may omitthe comma before the and and ifthe comma is not necessarv tomaKe tne meanrng clear.Some words appear so oftenpaked with one another that theymay be set off in a series as onel tem.If all i tems in a Series areioined bv and or or (nor) weshould not use commas toseparate them.lndependent clauses in a seriesare usually separated bysemtcolons.
Short independent clauses.however, may be separated bycommas, ,,,..1,::,- i:
We ran, walked and even limped to
the finish hne l
peanut butter and jelly, baconand eggs. salt and pepper etc.
A volunteer addresses enuelopes oranswus ph,ones or files(offesponaence.
For physical fitness we swam twenty-
five laps in the;pool; we jogged fourmiles around the,..lake; and weexerc ised-.with worfu if equipment inPam's basement. flong clattses]For physical fitnesi we swam, wejoggecl and we exercised. [shoi'ctiluesJ
74 IIF' puncruATroN/sKYRYBA
Punctuation marks Usage (Rules) Examples
Comma 2. To separate two or moread jec t ives prcced inga noun.
The accident was n friglrten-ing, horriblc siglt.
! When the last adiective beforcthe noun is thought o [ as par t o fthe noun, the comma before thead jec t ive is t - rmi t ted .To determine whether it is rightto pu t commas between twoadjectivcs in a serics of adjec-tives modifying a noun, substi-tu te the word und fo r the doubt -lu l conrma. l f the and soundswrong, then you do not need acomma.
The ncw st'coruhry school will becompleted nut August.
I cautiously roised my broken righthand in response-(It would sound wrong with and:'nry brokcn and r ight hand').
3. Between independentc lauses :
Use a comma before and,but, nor, fbr, so and yetwhen they jo in independ-ent clauses.
Pat brougltt the hot dogsantl bttns, anrl Cirulybrought the potnto salad,
! Indcpendent clauses joined byand. but. or. nor. need not beseparated by a comma if theyare very short. I f the clauscsare joincd by the conjunctions)l9l, so or for, they must bescparatcd.
The poodle tertsed ancl tlrc Gemrurtshepherd growlctl. [Clauses are tooshort to require commas.]We bought Ann a lovely gifi, frtr sheis very special /o as. [Comma isneeded because clauses are ioinedby for.l
4. To set off non-defining(non-restrictive) clausesand phrases.Use commas to set of fnon-def in ing c lauses andnon-def ining part ic ipialphrases.
Peter Snitl4 who works witltnry fathe4 bought a new cory e s te rrlay. (n o n- d eJining )All books tltat are dnntagedgo in these boxes. (tlefining)
A non-def l in ins (o r non-res t r i c t i ve) c lause is asubordinate clause that is notcssent ia l to the mean ing o f thesentence (they serve only toadd some extra information orto explain something further;they could be omitted withoutaltering the fundamentalmcan ing o f a sentcncc .A de f in ins (o r rcs t r i c t i ve)clause, on the other hand,, is onethat cannot be omitted and.thus , no commas are needed.The same pr inc ip les governpart icipiat phrases.
Norr-defining:. Attn, nutning at aslow, leisurely pace, easily finishedlhe tnaralhon.
Defining: Tlrc woman ntnning ata slow, Ieisurcly puce eusilyfittisltctl tlrc marathon.
[tF purucruATroN/sKYRYBA75
5. After certain introductoryelements:
a) after well, ps, no, whywhen they begin asentence. Exclamationslike wow, good grief, p9(whiz), if not followed byan exclamation point,must also be set off bvcommas;
b)after an introductory
No, I haven't taken theacam yet.W I thought you left
wow, that was great!
Calling for time-out, thereferee began waving his arms.
c) after an introductoryadrrerbial clause.
6. To set off expressions thatinterrupt.There are 3 kinds of'interrupters' that youshould be able to recog-nize and punctuateproperly:
a) appositive phrases areusually set off by commas:
When you have gone to thisas long as we have,
will lcnow your way
I loved my grft, a pearl ring.
7G ill/ purucruATroN/sKYRYBA
Puncfuation marks Usage (Rules) Examples
, Comma b)words used in directaddress are set off bycommas;
c) parenthetical expressionsare set off by commas:These expressions areoften used parenthetically:I believe (thinlt suppose,hope etc.), on the contrary,on the other hand, ofcourse, in my opinion, forexample, however, to tellthe truth, nevertheless, infact, on the whole, also,too, in addition, thus.
David, please close thedoor.
You are, I hope, planning tocome.
His new poems, in fact, areas inspiring as his earlierones.
7. To separate a tagquestion.
8. Before or after 'he said'etc. when writing downa conversation.
9. Before a shortquotation.
f0. To separate items indates and addresses.
He is coming, isn't he?
'Come back soon,' she said.
It was Albert Einstein whosaid, 'Imagination is farmore important thanknowledge!'.On fune 15, 1985, my bestfnend Cary moved to 814Georgia Avenue, MiamiBeach. Floida 33139.
11. After the salutation of afriendly letter and afterthe closing of any letter.
12. After a name followedby Jr., Sr., PhD etc.
13. To divide large numbersinto groups of 3 figures.
Dear Ruth,Yours truly,Sincerely Yours,Elena Moreno, PhD
7,002; 10,245; 2,760,453 etc.
[FpurucruATroN/sKYRYBA 7T
Punctuation marks Usage (Rules) Examples
Colon 1. To introduce a list ofitems (not after a verbor a preposit ion!).
2.In formal writing, beforea clause or phrase thatgives more informationabout the main clause.
3. To introduce a quotation.
4. In certain conventionalsi tuat ions:
a) between the hour andthe minute(s);
b) between the chapter andverse referring topassages from the Bible;
c) after the salutation of abusiness letter.
These are our options: wego by train and leave beforethe end of the show, or wetake a taxi and see it all.
The garden had beenneglected for a long time: itwas overgrown and f"ll ofweeds.
As Kenneth Morgan writes:The truth was perhaps, thatBitain in the years from1914 to 1983 had notchanged ...
6:15
Luke 10:27
Dear Sir: (formal)
Semicolon The semicolon is a veryuseful mark of punctuation.It says to the reader,'Pause here a little longerthan you do for a comma,but not as long as you dofor a full stop.'
l. Use a semicolon betweenindependent clauses in asentence if they are notjoined by and, but, or,nor. for. so. yet.
Everyone else in my familyIikes sports; I seem to bethe only exception.
2. Use a semicolon betweenindependent clausesjoined by such words asfor example, for instance,
I am planning to go shoppingtomorrow; however. I couldwait and go with you onSaturdav.
llF" pu NcruATtoN/sKYRYBA
Punctuation marks Usage (Rutes) Examples
Semicolon that is, besides, accordingly,moreovet; nevertheless,
furthermore, otherwise,therefore, howeve7 conse-quently, instead, hence.
3. A semicolon (rather thana comma) may be neededto separate independentclauses joined by acoordinating conjunctionif there are commas withinthe clauses.
My birthday gift to Margaretis a surprise, and I thinkshe will enjoy it. (A commais sufficient)
t
4. Use a semicolon betweenitems in a series if theitems contain commas.
You may tum the reports onThursday, May 8; Friday,May 9; or Monday, May 12.
? Question mark 1. At the end of a directquestion.
2, Especially with a date, toexpress doubt.
Where's Tbm?
Iohn Marston (?1575-1634).
! Exclamationmark(AmE Exclama-tion point)
At the end of a sentenceexpressing surprise, joy,anger, shock or otherstrong emotions.
That's superb!
'Apostrophe 1.In Possessive Case.2. Omission of letters or
figures.3. With s to form the plural
of a letter, a figure or anabbreviation.
My friend's carI'm; in the summer of '99.
Duing the 1970's; mindyour t's in pronouncing'tempted'.
lllT'purucruAroN/sKYRYBA 79
Usage (Rules)
L. To form a compoundfrom 2 or more otherwords.
2. To form a compoundfrom a prefix and aproper name, incompound numbers orfractions.
3. Sometimes, in BritishEnglish, to separate aprefix ending in a vowelfrorn a word beginningwith the same vowel.
4. After the first section ofa word that is dividedbetween one line and thenext (k6limas i kit4eilutg).
H ard- he art e d, mo ther- t o - b e
Pre-Raphaelite, twenty -one,
one -half, three -fourths
Co-operate, pre-eminent
1. Use a dash to indicatean abrupt breakin thought.
2. Use a dash to meannamely, that is, in otherwords or the like beforean explanation.
The party - I'm sorry Ito tell you - was
changed to next week.We think that the food here isthe best in town - they serueour favourite Chinese dishes.
3. Use a dash to suggesthalting or hesitantspeech.
'Well - er - it's hard toacplain,' he uttered.
Bo lllF purucruAroN/sKYRYBA
Punctuation marks Usage (Rules) Examples- Dash 4. Use a dash to add
emphasis to parentheticalmaterial or mark anemphatic separationbetween parentheticalmaterial and the rest ofthe sentence.
5. Use a dash to set off anappositive or anappositive phrase when acomma would provideless than the desiredemphasis.
His influence - he was apowerful figure in thecommunity - was rathereffective.
The Premier's promise ofchanges - land reform andhigher wages - was notfulfilled.
.. Three dots(ellipsis)(AmE Ellipsis(omission marks)
To indicate that wordshave been ommited,especially from aquotation or at the endof a conversation.
... challenging the view thatBritain ... had not changedall that fundamentally.
/ Slash (oblique)(AmE Virgule)
1. To separate alternativewords or phrases.
2. To indicate the end of aline of poetry where thelines are not separated.
3. Represent a period oftime.
Have some pudding andlorcheese.
The fog comeslon little catfeet. llt sits lookingloverharbor and citylon silenthaunches land then moveson.l (Carl Sandburg)The 200112002 BasketballSeason.
' Singlequotation marks(Inverted commas,single quotes)" (AmE Doublequotation marks(double quotes)
1. To enclose words andpunctuation in directspeech.
2. To draw attention toa word that is unusual forthe context, for examplea slang expression, or toa word that is being usedfor special effect (eg irony).
3. To enclose the letters ofarticles, books, poems,plays etc.
4. Around short quotationsor sayings.
'I'll take it,' she replied.
Thousands were imprisonedin the name of 'national
security'.
Sandburg's 'The Fog'.
Do you know the origin ofthe saying: 'A little leamiigis a dangerous thing'?
@,purucruATtoN/sKyRyBA g1
Punctuation marks Usage (Rules) Examples
) Brackets(Parentheses)
l. To separate extra informa-tion or a comment fromthe rest of a sentence.
2. To enclose cross-referen-ces.
3. Around numbers or lettersin a text.
Mount McKinley (20,320feet) is the highest mountainin North America.This moral ambiguity is afeature of Shakespeare's laterworks (see Chapter Etght).Our objectives are (1) toarouse interest (2) to improvequality and (3) to speed upthe leaming process.
[ ] Squarebrackets(AmE Brackets)
To enclose editorial com-ments or around wordsinserted to make aquotation grammaticallycorrect.
Bitain in [these] years waswithout ...
ItalicsIn handwritten ortyped text, italicsare indicated byunderlining
1. To show emphasis.2. To indicate titles of
books, plays etc.3. For foreign words and
phrases.
I'm not leaving - he is.Shakespeare's Hamlet.
The cranberry (Orycoccuspalustris).
82 IIIF puncruAloN/sKYRYBA
COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN PUNCTUATION(MOST TMPORTANT ASPECTS)
ANGLU IR LIETUVIU KALBU SKYRYBOS PAGRINDINIAI SKIRTUMAISphere of UsageVartojimo sritis
EnglishAnglq kalba
LithuanianLietuviu kalba
1. Decimal fractionsDeSimtaines trupmenos
a full stop is used:4.5
a comma is used:4,5
2. Subordinate clausesSa lu t in ia i sak in ia i
are not separated bycomma lrom the mainclause:She said that she wouldcome.You'll succeed if you try.
are separated bycomma from the mainclause:Ji saki, kad ateis.
Thu pavyks, jei pasistengsi.3. Defining/restrictive
relative clausesApibreZiamieji SalutiniaipaZyminio sakiniai
are not separated bycomma from the mainclause:A person who habitualbttells lies is called a liar.
are separated by commafrom the main clause:
+Lmogus, Kuns tun lprotlmeluoti, vadinamas melasiu.
4. A clause/phrase thatgives more informationabout the main clausePaaiSkinamasis sakinys
colon or semicolon isused:The garden had been neg-lected for a long time: (;) itwas ovetgrown with weeds.
comma is enough:
Sodas buvo ilgq laikqapleistas, jis buvopriielgs piktioli4.
5. Vocative formula at thebeginning of lettersKreipinys
In formal AmE colon isused:Dear Mr Wilson:Thank you . . .
This is never the casein Li thuanian.
i. Abrupt break ofthought anddoubtfulnessStaigus minties Suolisir abejone
dash is used:' B u t l t e l l y o u - I b e g i n
to donbt it. ''That yott will ever lovea woman?''Well - yes - what youwould trLtly call love -'You doubt it?'' W e l l - I b e g i n t o . '
three dots are used:- Bet sakau tau ...pradedu tuo abejoti.- Kad kada nors panilsimoteri?- Na ... taip ... kq ii ties4pavadintum meile -..- Tu abejoji?- Na ... pradedu.
/. Suppression ofobscenityKeiksmaZodZionutylej imas
eg. 'F- off' pvz. ,,eik tu i..
EU'puNcruATroN/sKyRyBA 83
)
Sphere of Usage English Lithuanian
8. Direct speechTiesiosind kalba
quotation marks areused:'How are yott?''Fine, thanks.'
dashes are used:
- Kaip gtveni?- Aiiu, gerai.
9. Author's words beforethe direct speechAutor iaus LodLiaiprie5 tiesioging kalb4
He said, 'I am delightedto see you'.
Jis tare:- Kaip malonu jusmatyti.
10. Author's words afterthe direct speechAutoriaus ZodZiai potiesiogin6s kalbos
'That's all I know,' saidJohn.'Whv?' asked Nick.
- Thi viskas, kq ai ii-nau, - pasakd D\onas.- Kodel? - paklausiNikas.
11. Quotation withinquotationKabutes kabutese
You knew,' said Ursula.'Who knew?'now ciedthe father.
'Who knew?Wat do you mean byyour 'Jtou knew"?'
- Jus Zinojot, - nesutikoUriuld.- Kas iinojo? - dabarjau rekte suiko tdvas.- Kas linojo? Kq tuiomeny su tuo savo ,,jilsZinojot"?
12. The titles of printedmaterial (books,plays etc.)Knygq, pjesiq ir pan.pavadinimai
underlined or italicised:Shakespeare's Romeoand JulietShakespeare's Romeoand Juliet
quotation marks areused:Sekspyro ,,Romeo irDiiulieta"
w PUNCTUATION/SKYRYBA
CAPITALIZATIONDlDzruJU RArDzrU RASYMAS
UsageVartojimas
ExamplesPavyzdliai
l .
)
The first word of a sentence orfragment (eg the beginning of anew line in a poem).The name of a day or a month.
3. The name of a language,nationality or an ethnic group.
4. A word expressing a connectionwith a place.
5. a) Names of persons and titles;
b) geographical names;
c) names of ships, plains, trains,monuments, firms, organizations,awards.
6. The names of distinctivehistorical periods.
7. The names of holidays.
8. Significant religious terms.
9. The first and each significantword in a title or name of abook, a play, a poem, a film, amagazinelnewspaper or a pieceof music. Articles, prepositions orconjunctions are not capitalizedunless they appear as the firstword.
L0. The first word of a directquotation which is a sentence.
11. Brand name.
12. Roman numerals.
L3. The pronoun 'I'.
Nobody knew where he was.
Sunday, Monday, March, September
Lithuanian, English
Siberian
Richard Brown, President AdamkuslthePresidentSweden, the Atlantic Ocean, the BalticSea, the Himalayasthe Titanic, Oscar, United Airlines
The Middle Ages
Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah
The Old Testament. God
The Winter of Our Discontent
Of Human Bondage
Mark Twain wrote, 'Great people arethose who make others feel that they,too, can become great!'
Kleenex, Sony
LX
I'm not sure if I can come.
lllPpurucruAloN/sKYRYBA 85
COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIANcAptTALtzATtoN (coNTRASTtNG CASES)
DtDztuJU RAtDztV RASYMAS ANGLUrR LtETUV|U KALBOJE (SKtRTUMAI)
CapitalizationDidZiosios raides
EnglishAnglq kalboje
LithuanianLietuviq kalboje
1. Geographical names:
a) names of oceans,seas, lakes, rivers;
b) names of islands,peninsulas, straits,canals, beaches,mountains, deserts;
c) names of parks,forests, dams,canyons, valleys;
names of streets,buildings, bridges,special places;
names of recognizecparts of countriesor world, unoflicialgeographical names.
d)
e)
the Atlantic Ocean, theBaltic Sea, Lake Michigan
the Hebrides Islands. theStrait of Gibraltar; thePanama Canal, DaytonaBeach, the Sahara Desert
Yellowstone NationalPark, Hoover Dam,Grand Canyon, SilverValley
Trafalgar Sqttare, theWhite House, BuckinghamPalace, Yl/estminsterBidge
the North, the BalticStates
Atlanto vandenynas, Bal-tijos jura, Miiigano eieras
Hebrid4 salos, Gibraltarosqsiauris, Panamos kana-Ias, Deitonos papludimys,Sacharos dykuma
Jeloustono nacionalinisparkas, Huverio uZtvanka,Didysis kanjonas, Sidabrosldnis
Trafalgaro aikiti, Baltiejirumai, Bakingamo rumai,Vestminsterio tiltas
Siaure, Baltijos ialys
2. Names of monuments the Statue of Liberty Laisves statula
3. Names of awardsprizes, documents
Booker Prize, VersaillesTreaty
Bukeio prizas, Versaliosutartis
4. Names of specificrooms and othernames followed bvnumeral or letter
a
Room 602, Chapter 5 602 kambarys, S-asslgtrius
5. Names of schoolclasses
Senior Class, SophomoreClass, Iunior Prom
vyresnit4j4 klase, antrokurso studentr4 grupe,iaunesniosios klasismokinit4 koncertas
Bo IlF" purucruATtoN/sKyRyBA
Capitalization English Lithuanian
6. Names of firms,organizations,departments,churches
American Book Com-pany, United Airlines,Harvard University,St Ann's Church
Amerikos knyg,4 kompa-nija, Jungtinis oroIinijos, Haruardo univer-sitetas, Sv. Onos baZnyiia
7. Names ofnationalities, races,religions, languages
Lithuanian, English,Protestant
Iietuvis, anglas,protestantas
8. Historical events andperiods of time, daysof the week, namesof months
World War One. IronAg", Wednesday, April
Pirmasis pasauliniskaras, geleiies amiius,treiiadienis. balandis
9. Names with titles Mayor Thompson,Doctor Brown
meras Tompsonas,daktaras Braunas
10. Titles of books.stories, poems,periodicals, songs,films etc.
Chicago Tribune, Bridgesof Madison County
,,Kauno diena",,,Medisono grafystestiltai"
11. The pronoun 'I' He told me I could come. Jis man pasake, kad (ai)galiu ateiti.
lfl/' purucruATtoNisKYRYBA 87
ABBREVIATIONS (The Most Common Cases)SANTRUMPOS (DaZniausiai pasitaikantys atvejai)
1. Address forms: Mr*MrsMsDrSt
2. First name(s) of a person: T S. Eliot, D. H. Lawrence3. Writing the time: 3 am (AmE - A.M.)
9 pm (AmE - P.M.)4. In eras: BC (Before Christ - prie5 Kristq)
AD (Anno domini - po Kristaus)5. Well-known orqanizations NATO, UNESCO, NASA, BBC6. Some other abbreviations: mount(ain) -; Mt
Saint -+ StProfessor -+ ProfJunior -+ JrSenior + SrDoctor -+ DrDrive -+ Dr (in an address)
7. Latin abbreviations usedin English texts:
eg (for example)ie (in other words, that is)viz (namely)sc (which means, that is)cf (compare)etc (and so forth)et al (and other people or things)PS (postscript)
8. Desrees: BA (Bachelor of Arts)MA (Master of Arts)PhD (Doctor of Philosophy)
During dictation the teacher noticed that one of her students had notdotted his 'l 's, crossed his 'T's, put commas and marked dashes."Michael, where're your dots, crosses, commas and dashes?" she asked."They are stil l in the pen," explained the student.
BB lllF puNcruATroN/sKYRYBA
MnxIruc PRESENTATIoNS(EFFECTTVE SPEAKTNG)KALBEJIMAS
HINTS FOR SPEECH PREPARATIONPatarimai, rengiantis sakyti kalbq
Surprise theaudience with
something unusual(Nustebinkite
klausytojus kokianors neiprasta
pagrindinius kalbos
Analyse the mainaims of the topic(ISanalizuokite
outline of thespeech
(Sudarykite tikstq
Make a detai
Organize yourspeech material(Susisteminkite
surinktE medliag4 Write down yourwhole speech(UZsira5ykite
kalb4)
presentational aids(PasiruoSkite
vaizdinespriemones)
CONSIDER THE TOPICAND THE MOST
APPROPRIAIE TITLE
(Pasirinkite temq ir sugalvokitetinkam4 pavadinimE) l
Analyse andevaluate your
audience(fvertinkite
klausytojus, jqpatirti, Zinias)
ink of rhetoricalquestlons
(Sugalvokiteretorinir; klausimq) knowledge of the
topic(Parodykite, kadgerai i5manotedestomq tem4)
'While speaking,-demonstrate good
Use quotationsfrom well-known
sources(fterpkite garsiqZmoniq citatq)
Explain to yourlisteners why the topic$ lmportant to them
(PaaiSkinkiteklausytojams, kuo
jiems svarbi Bi tema)
Rehearse yourspeech
(Parepetuokite)
lMunxrruceRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS 89
1.
)
3.
PRE-PRESENTATIONAL CH ECKLISTPRIES SAKANT KALBA
Fears (Baime)Have I taken any steps to overcome my fears?(Ar ko nors dmiausi, kad atsikratydiau baimes?)Choosing a topic (Temos pasirinkimas)Have I chosen a topic I feel comfortable with?(Ar man priimtina pasirinktoji tema?)Planning (Planavimas)considered my audience's needs?(atsiZvelgiau i klausytojq poreikius?)provided a catching opening?(sugalvojau patraukli4 1Lang1?)developed the ideas logically and clearly?(ai5kiai ir nuosekliai desiiau mintis?)concluded appropriately?(tinkamai uZbaigiau?)prepared good activities/visuals/handouts?(parengiau tinkamas uZduotis/vaizdinespriemones/padalomqj4 medZiagq?)prepared easy-to-follow personal notes?(pasiraSiau pastabas?)
Title (Pavadinimas)Have I thought carefully about the title?(Ar gerai apsvarsdiau pavadinim4?)Equipment ( l ranga)Have I thought about what equipment I wil l need?(Ar pagalvojau, kokios irangos reikes?)Delivery (Kalba)practised enough?(pakankamai repetavau?)timed myself?(Zinau, kiek laiko kalbesiu?)thought about how to hold my audience's attention?(pam4siiau, kaip i5laikyti klausytojq clemes!?)learned how to project my voice?(iSmokau valdyti bals4?)mastered a natural image?(kalbu ir elgiuosi natlraliai?)Evaluation (Vertinimas)Have I asked a trusted colleague to come to thepresentation and give me feedback?(Ar papra5iau patikimo draugo, kad Sis ateitq pasiklausytimano kalbos, o paskui i5sakytq pastabas?)
Yes No(Taip) (r.re)
t r rT T
T I
Have I
(Ar)
Have I(Ar)
rTTTTT
trT
TlTTI
4.
6.
IltrrnnT
T
rTrlT
1
Having f in ishedmay expect the
your speech ask yourself:answer: "Yes, everybody
"Did I make a moving speech?" youmoved to the door".
90 IF n,tnxrruc pRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS
Speaker(Kalbdtojas)Evaluator(Vertintojas)Topic
EVALUATION FORM*KALBOS VERTINIMAS
Rating system:(Vertinimas)
excellent (puiku)average (vidutini5kai)weak (prastai)
Presen ta tion/DeliveryKalba- Eye contact (Akiq kalba)- Vitality (Energija)- Gestures (Gestai)- Rapport with audience
(Ry5ys su klausytojais)- Convincing speaking
(Kalbos itaigumas)- Use of note cards or
outline (Naudojimasiskorteldmis bei planu)
Voice controlBalsas- Volume (Stiprumas)- Rate (Tempas)
E _A _w -
(Temos (pranesimo) pavadinimas)
Content/Organization/preparationTirrinys/sistema/pasiren gimas- Opening attracted listeners,
attention.([Langa patrauke klausytoiu demesi)
- Background informaiion-was suificient.(Pateikta pakankamai faktq)
- Speaker's point of view was clear.(Kalbetojas ai5kiai i5deste savo poZilri)Arguments were clear. List below:
(AiSkiis argumentai)
- References to source materials were(Pakankamai remtasi citatomis)
- Speech had a suitable conclusion_(Tinkama pabaiga)
- Visual aids were effective.(Tinkamos vaizdines priemones)
- Content fit time limit.(Laiko pakako)
- Fluency (Sklandumas)-- Comprehensibility
. (Ai5kumas)adequate.
Comments and suggestions for improvement:Pastabos ir sillymai:
* Do not forset that voj .may be evaluated according to the above-enumerated criteria.Look throrfih them: This ri"y n"rp-v"rio*i-.prou"-the speech yo.,-rruu" prepared and payattention to the most important pirints.(Rengdamiesi.sakyti kalbq perzvelkite anksdiau i5vardytus punktus. Jie padds patobulintikalbq ir atkreipti demesi I ivarbiausius dalykus.l
llp uarrruc pRESENTATIoNs/KALBEJTMAS 91
HOW TO PREPARE FOR AND PRESENT A SUCCESSFULSPEECH
MOKYKIMES KALBETI,,Nemokiti kalbiti inteligentiikam imogui yra ne iiaip trukumas, o socialine irasmenine tragedija lygiai taip, kaip nemokefi skaityti ir raiyti." (2. Nauckunaite
,,Iikalbos molcymas", 1998)
PARTS OF SPEECHl. Introduction: gains audience attention,
orients the listeners to your topic andprepares them for your speech.
2. Body: contains at least 75Vo of theinformation you will speak about. It isdivided into 3-5 main points. Each mainpoint is clearly stated and supported bysubord ina te po in ts conta in ing yourresearch and supporting material.
3. Conclusion: reviews your main pointsand provides closure by ending with astrong final statement.
o The delivery speech is effective when thespeaker knows the material well ,maintains eye contact with the audience,uses a variety of vocal changes andappears to move naturally.
VIESOSIOS KALBOS SUDETINES DALYSl. lZanga sudominami klausytojai,
patraukiamas auditori jos ddmesys,parodomas temos svarbumas, ivardijamapagrindine mintis, apZvelgiamipagrindiniai teiginiai.
2. D6stymas turi apimti bent 75Voinformacijos, apie kuriq kalbesite. Si dalisskirstoma i 3-5 svarbiausius teiginius,kurie turi bnti ai5kiai suformuluoti irparemti faktais.Pabaigoje apibendrinami teiginiai,paskelbiamas baigiamasis teiginys.
o Kalba gera, jei kalbantysis gerai i5manotai, apie k4 kalba, palaiko kontakt4akimis su klausytojais, keidia balsotembrq ir natural iai elgiasi.
TYPES OF SPEECHESo An informative speech, oral report,
lecture or workshopDesigned to explain, instruct, define,clari fy, demonstrate or teach.
o Persuasive speeches, debates, salespresentations, and sermonsTo influence, convince, motivate, sellproducts, preach, or st imulate action.
o The evocative speechEntertains, inspires, or helps listeners tocelebrate, bond, or commemorate.
0Impromptu speechYou are asked to speak on the spur ofthe moment with little or no preparationtime.
KALBU RUSYSa Informacin6 kalba, prane5imas, paskaita,
seminaras, ataskaita/projektas(aiSkinama, mokoma, nurodoma,apibrdZiama, demonstruojama).
o {tikin€janiios (irodaniios) kalbos,debatai, pristatymai, pamokslai(irodinejama, motyvuojama, daroma
itaka, pamokslaujama).I Emocionali (iausmus Zadinanti) kalba
(l inksmina, ikvepia, kviedia Svgsti , pamin6tii r t . t . ) .
t Improvizuota kalba (be pasirengimo).
92 lS vnrrnc eRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS
SPEECH TOPICSo Select and analyze your speech purpose
and topic:l. Determine the purpose of your speech
and decide which type of speech youare giving.
2. Consider the occasion, audienceexpectations, circumstances surroundingyour speech.
3. Evaluate your own background andknowledge.Brainstorm by making a Concept Mapwhich allows you to generate ideaswithout evaluating them. It helps youdevelop a wide variety of choices.
I Once you have your topic, choose two tofive main areas that you will speak on.
o A Thesis statement should be distilledand stated in one single declarativesentence.
KALBOS TEMA,,Kad oratorius rastq kalbos tem4, jamreikalingi trys dalykai: lZvalgumas,supratimas ir pastangos." (Ciceronas)r Numatykite ir i5analizuokite savo kalbos
temq bei tikslus:l. Apsisprgskite, kokia tai bus kalba.2. Numatykite klausytojq llkesdius,
iSsiaiSkinkite jq pasirengim4.3. [vertinkite savo patirt[ ir Zinias.
r Ai5kiai suformuluoti tikslai pad6s:- nusprgsti, kokios medZiagos reikes
ie5koti;- logiSkai i5destyti mintis;- susikaupti rengiantis kalbai.
R.ESEARCH YOUR TOPICa Locate research material using:
l. Card catalogs2. Periodical & other indexes3. Abstracts4. Government resources5. Electronic information retrieval
serviceso Common sources for speech material:
1. Print Media such as fiction andnonfiction books, reference books,dictionaries, encyclopedias, abstracts,magazines, journals, newspapers andpamphlets.
2. Electronic Media such as databases,computer networks, video or television,cassette or radio programs.
3. Personal interviews with experts in thefield; conducted once you are familiarwith your subject.
o Remember to write down:1. The author's name, title of the book,
magazine and article, computerprogram and the specific quotation.
2. Citing your sources aloud will give youcredibility as a speaker.
GERAr TSANALTZUOKTTE SAVO TEMAo Surinkite vis4 imanomq informacij4
(straipsnius, dokumentus, elektroninginformacij4 ir kt.).
o Patikrinkite, kokie faktai (i[sq tema)pateikiami groZindje ir mokslindjeliteraturoje, enciklopedijose, Zodynuose,Zinynuose ir kt.
o Pasi5nekdkite su Zinovais irprofesionalais, gerai iSmanandiais j[sqtemos specifik4.
o AtidZiai laikykitds reikalavimq citatoms,literaturinems nuorodoms (plagijuotidraudZiama!).
(Surinkg medliag4, nusprgskite, k4naudosite kalboje, citatas pasirinkitetrumpesnes ir efektyvesnes.)
||p, rrltnxrruc eRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS 93
ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCEo Analyze the demographics and attitudes
of your audiencel. Determine how you will address infor-
mation in relation to your audience'sage, gender, ethnicity and status.
2. Anticipate that your audience willagree, remain neutral or disagree withyour message.
3. Think about how your audience willreact to your message and structureyour words and ideas accordingly.
4. Consider how your audience's age andknowledge of your topic will affect theway you will shape your message.
oWhen possible- collect information about your
audience before you begin your speech;- interview selected audience members to
gain insight on the views of the audience;- observe the audience. or draw from
your general inferences.
{VERTINKTTE SAVO KLAUSYTOJUSo I5analizuokite, kokie Zmonds sudaro jfisq
auditorijq, koks jq poZifris.l. Nusprgskite, kaip pateiksite informaci-
jz1, atsiZvelgdami i klausytojq amZiq,lyti, tauti3kum4 ir socialing padeti.
2. Pameginkite i5 anksto numatyti, arklausytojai sutiks su jumis, busneutralfis, ar nesutiks.
3. Apgalvokite, kaip klausytojai reaguosi jlsq pateikiam4 informacij4, iratit inkamai formuluokite mintis.
o Jeigu imanoma:- i5 anksto surinkite informacij4 apie
klausytojus;- pasikalbekite su kai kuriais busimaisiais
klausytojais, kad suZinotumete jqpoZitri;
- stebekite klausytojus, arba apgalvokitevisa tai, kq apie juos Zinote.
THE BASIC SPEECH OUTLINEI. Introduction
l. Attention Getter 4. Thesis Statement2. Significance 5. Preview3. Credibil i ty
- (Transition into your first main point)II. The main bodyA. First main point:
First subpoint:a) supporting materialb) supporting material
(Tiansition: closing off main Point One andopening main Point Two)
B. Second main point:l. First subpoint:
supporting material2.Second subpoint:
a) supporting materialb) supporting material
(Transition closing off main Point Twoand opening main Point Three\
C. Third main point:First subpoint:supporting material(Tra n s itio n into co nclus io r t )
III. ConclusionA. Review of main pointsB. Final Statement
IV. Bibliography (list of material used inspeech)
I I .A.
KALBOS PLANASI. lianga
l. Klausytojq sudominimas2. Temos reik5mingumas3. Temos it ikinamumas4. Pagrindines minties formulavimas5. Pagrindiniq teiginiq aplvalgaD€stymasPirmasis svarbus teiginysl. Pirmasis ,,atraminis" teiginys ir jo
analizd:a) patvirt inamoji informacijab) patvirt inamoji informacija
(Perejimas prie antrojo teiginio)Antrasis svarbus teiginys ir jo analize:l. Pirmasis ,,atraminis" teiginys
patvirt inamoji informacija2. Antrasis ,,atraminis" teiginys
a) patvirt inamoji informacijab) patvirt inamoji informacija
(Perdjimas prie treiiojo teiginio)Tiediasis svarbus teiginys ir jo analize:,,Atraminis" teiginys, patvirtinamojilnlormacua(Perejimas prie pabaigos (iSvadq)
III. Pabaiga (i5vados)A. Pagrindiniq teiginiq apibendrinimasB. Baigiamasis teiginysIV. Bibliografija
B.
C.
ffl: MAKI NG PRESENTATIONS/KALBEJI MAS
ITNTRODUCTION
lThe purpose of the introduction is to prepare theaudience to l isten to your speech.o It consists of five steps:l. Attention Getter: the very first statement that
comes out of the speaker's mouth. The attentiongetter should engage your audience and drawthem into your speech.a) Rhetorical question: a question which does
not require an answer. Rhetorical questionsare effective because they make the audiencethink about your topic.
b) Story: stories contain the following parts: setup, climax, and outcome. Everyone wants tohear a good story especially if it is told withsuspense and conflict. Stories can be aboutreal or hypothetical events of the past orpresent t ime.
c) Start ing Statement: a statement intended tosurprise your audience.
d) Start ing Statist ics: a stat ist ic intended tosurprise your audience.
e) Humour: when you use humour make sure i tis related to a point you are going to makein your speech. This will keep you frombecoming a flop if your joke or humorousstatement does not work.
2. Significance: give the audience a reason to listento your speech. Motivate them by tel l ing themthe reason the topic is relevant to their lives.
3. Credibi l i ty: tel l the audience why you arequalified to give the speech. Have you workedon the project, taken a class, or conductedresearch on the topic?
4. Thesis Statement: a single declarat ive statementcapsuling the central idea or specific purposeof your speech.
5. Preview: a way of forecasting your main pointsto your audience. In the preview you l ist eachof the main points you wil l cover in yourspeech.Sometimes the thesis statement and the prevleware combined.
o Your introduction should be writ ten out worofor word and memorized.1. This wil l help you maintain eye contact with
your audience.2. Engaging your audience in the introduction
is important because audience members wil ldecide i f they wil l continue to l isten duringthe first minute of your speech.
IZANGAlZangos tikslas - parengti klausytojus
kalbai.r 5 etapai:l. Atkreipiamas klausytojq ddmesys.
Pirmasis kalbandiojo teiginys turisudominti klausytojus. Thi galibIti:a)retorinis klausimas fi is naudin-
gas tuo, jog priverdia klausyto-jus galvoti apie kalbos temq);
b)trumpa istori ja (atsit ikimas) i5praei t ies ar dabart ies;
c) stulbinantis teiginys: t ikslas -nustebinti klausytojus;
d)statistika: t ikslas - nustebintiklausytojus;
e)anekdotas: t ik isit ikinkite, kadklausytojai tikrai supras,prie5ingu atveju pats tapsitepajuokos objektu. Be to, j is turibtti susijgs su tema.
2. Reik5mingumas. Motyvuokite,nurodykite prieZasti, kuo klausy-tojams bus naudinga j[sq kalba.
3. ltikinamumas. Klausytojams turitenurodyti, jog esate kompetentin-ga(s) ir gerai i5manote tai, apiekq kalbesite.
4. Pagrindine mintis. Ji turi bttiaiSki, suprantama, pateiktaglaustai, be i lgq i5vedZiojimq.
5. Pagrindiniq teiginiq apZvalga.Vardijami klausimai, apie kuriuoskalbesite praneSime.
o lLanga - svarbi kalbos dalis. J4uZsira5ykite ir i5mokite. Pradejgkalbeti galesite Zilreti i klausyto-jus (nereikes Ziureti i uZra5us arplan4).Svarbu, kad klausytojai pradetqj[sq klausytis - bltent iZangosmetu (per pirm4sias minutes) j ienusprendZia - verta jusq klausytis,ar ne.
[f rrrnrlruc eRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS 95
TRANSITIONSI They form a bridge between the parts of
your speech.Tiansitions appear between yourintroduction and your first main point,then again between your main points andfinally between your last main point andyour conclusion.Intemal transitions are used betlveenwords and/or sentences and tell theaudience how two ideas may be related.External transitions tell your audience thatone main idea is endine and another isbeginning.
MAIN BODYo Main points & their subpointsl.The body of a speech has between 3-5
main points each with 1 or moresubpoints and supporting material.
2. Orally state each main point as youbegin discussing it.
o Tlpes of supporting material (thesubstance that gives the audience areason to believe your main points).
l. Testimony: The opinion of an eye witnessor expert about an event that took place.Always qualify (discuss the qualificationsof the person) and cite (orally state thesource or expert's name). (eg 'In herbook, Speech Therapy, Dr. Sharon Milanstates that you can eliminate the use of'um' and other filler words by simplypausing.')
2. Analogr: A comparison between twodifferent items which reveals theirlikeness. (eg A computer is like a humanbrain because they both processinformation.')
3. Statistics: A numerical collection or facts(may need to be defined in order toclarif its meaning). (eg 'It's 60Vo fatt'.)
4. Story: Has a set up, a climax and aconclusion. Suspense, conflict anddescription help a story to hold theattention of the audience.
5. Example: Factual or hypothetical (usedto illustrate a point).
JUNGIAMIEII LONZLINr Raskite tinkamus jungiamuosius ZodZius,
siejandius iZang4 bei pirmqjq destymodali; pirmEf4 ir antrqjq dali; antrqj4 irtrediqj4 bei paskuting destymo dali iri5vadas.Jungiamieji ZodLiai yra dviejq r[Siq:,,vidiniai" (ungiantieji ZodZius arsakinius) ir,, i5oriniai" (iungiantiejimintis).(Pasirinkite kuo daugiau jungiamrjqioclLit4, kad nevartotumdte tq padiq!)
PAGRINDINE KALBOS DALIS _DESTYMAS
I Ddstyme buna 3-5 svarbios dalys arteiginiai, kurie dar gali bnti paremiamivienu ar keliais teiginiais.
I Kaip galima pagristi savo teiginius?(Klausytojai turi patikdri jfisq teiginirlpagristumu.)
l. lrodymas. Remiantis eksperto ar ivykioliudininko nuomone, cituojant Saltinius irkt.
2. Analogija. Lyginami du rei5kiniai arfaktai, ie5koma pana5umq (arba jienurodomi).Statistika. Ddstoma, pasitelkiant skaidius.Pasakojamas ivykis, kuris akivaizdLiaipatvirtina jnsq teigini.
5. Pateikiamas pavyzdys: faktinis arbaZodinis.
IF unrr ruc pRESENTATIoNS/MLBEJ IMAS
CONCLUSIONSA way of bringing your talk to a close,
reinforcing your major ideas, letting youraudience know what you expect of them andproviding a final impact. Consists of areview and then a final statement:
a Review: A restatement of the main pointsyou presented in your speech.
o Final statement: Should leave a lastingimpact on your audience and bring yourideas to a close.
1. Using a powerful quotation is a good way toend a speech.
2. You can also end by tying your conclusioninto a story that you started in yourintroduction.
3. Your final statement should be refined andthe language should be powerful and direct.
o The conclusion for the persuasive speechalso contains a call to action.
MODES OF DELIVERYChoose the mode of delivery that enhances
your speech:l. Extemporaneous: The speaker uses a brief
outline and key terms and quotes. S/hedemonstrates knowledge and understandingof the content. This method allows thespeaker to maintain eye contact, adapt tothe audience and speak .in a dynamicconversational style.
2. Impromptu: The speaker has limited time toprepare, usually less than five minutes. S/hecan generate three main points and a firstand last line by taking a moment to gatherhis or her thoughts. This method can oftenappear spontaneous and dynarnic.Memorized: The speaker memorizes thespeech word for word. This method is notrecommended for beginning speakersbecause it is very difficult to build audiencedynamics when you are thinking about thewords rather than the meanings they convey.Manuscript: The speaker reads the speechword for word from a manuscript, cards or ateleprompter. This method is used whenprecise accuracy is required. It is not asdynamic as the extemporaneous modebecause the speaker's eyes are on the papernot the audience.
PABAIGA GSVADOS)Baigdami kalb4, akcentuokite
pagrindinius teiginius, apibendrinkite.r Pagrindiniq teiginiq apivalga.o Baigiamasis teiginys. Jis turi
sustiprinti klausytojq emocijas.Baigiamasis sakinys gali sietis su tamtikra iZangos dalimi. Jis turi bfitiitaigus, skambus, sklandus.
Kalbos pabaiga taip pat gali bflti kaipkvietimas veiklai, pa(si)keitimui ir kt.
VIESOSIOS KALBOS TIPAI:l. Improvizuota (i5 anksto visa kalba
nepara5yta). Kalbantysis naudojasitrumpu planu, pagrindiniais teiginiaisir citatomis. Naudojantis Siuo bfrdu,palaikomas rySys su klausytojais, kalbaskamba neformaliai.
2. Ekspromtu. Kalbantysis neturi arbeveik neturi laiko (maZiau nei 5 min.)pasirengti kalbai. Patartina pasirinkti3 pagrindinius teiginius ir ivadini beibaigiam4ii sakini. Tokia kalbaspontani5ka ir dinami5ka.(Pradedantiesiems nepatartina naudotisSiuo b[du!)
3. I5rnokta mintinai. Kalbantysisi5moksta visq kalbq paZodZiui.Pradedantiesiems Sis bfldasnepatartinas - galvojama apie ZodZius,o ne apie jq prasmg, ndra rySio suklausytojais.
4. Skaitoma. Kalbantysis skaito vis4tekst4. Sis b[das tinka, kai b0tinastikslumas. Siuo aweju rySys suklausytojais minimalus.
7. 578 sF unxrruc pRESENTAnoNS/KALBEJTMAS 97
VOCAL DELIVERY SKILLSo Volume
Created by using your diaphragm to push airforcefully through your larynx and out of yourmouth.
o Rate1. How fast or slowly we talk.2.Optimal range is 150 to 185 words per
minute.a Pitchl.The highness or lowness of your voice.2.The faster your vocal folds vibrate the
higher your pitch; the slower they vibrate thelower the pitch.
a Pausesl. Vary in length and frequency.2. A skilful speaker will control and place
them to create impact.o Word emphasis
The emphasizing of key words by changes inthe volume, rate, pitch or pause patterns tohighlight key ideas.
o The dynamic speakerl.Variety in volume, rate, pitch and rhythm.2.Pauses and emphases on key words will
make important concepts stand out.3. Good speakers convey meaning in their
voice.
PHYSICAL DELIVERYo Appearance: Decide on the kind of message
you want to send to the audience throughyour dress, hairstyle and accessories.
O Movement: Control your movement, avoidlooking at the watch/clock, do not look atone person - make sure there is an eye-contact with the whole audience.
o Facial expressions: If you know yourmaterial and have an emotional connectionto it, facial expressions will happen naturallyfor most speakers.Make sure your facial expressions agree withyour message. If you talk about death andsmile your audience will think you areinsensitive.
o Gestures: Use hand movements similar tothose you normally use in conversation.Gestures should coincide with the meaninqof your message.
KUNO KALBAo l5vaizda. Pam4stykite, kuo vilkesite,
kaip susiSukuosite, kokius aksesuaruspasirinksite. Jie neturi blaSkytiklausytojq ddmesio, bet, prieSingai, jisutelkti.
o Laikysena. Drausminkite save,netrypdiokite, nemindZikuokite vietoje,nenukreipkite Zvilgsnio i vien4 taSkqar Zmogq (iis gali pasijusti nejaukiai).NesiZvalgykite pro lang4, neZitrdkitei laikrodi, netampykite skvernq,kiSeniq, plaukq.
o Mimika turi blti tinkama fiuknekalbdsite apie mirusi Zmogq suSypsena veide!). Venkite familiariqar kvailq mimikq, nesiraukykite!Patarimas: parepetuokite prie5veidrodi!,,Viskas atsispindi veide." (Ciceronas)
O Gestai. Pasistenkite elgtis nat[raliai.Gestai turi atitikti kalbos turini.
GARSINIAI KALBOS ASPEKTAIo Balso stiprumas. Kalbeti reikia
pakankamai garsiai, kad visi girdetq.o Kalb6jimo tempas. Reik€tg vengti
kalbeti per greitai arba pabreZtinaildtai, geriausia pasirinkti normalq,iprast4 kalbejimo temp4.
a Garso aukitis. Visada maloniauklausytis Zemesnio tono.
o Pauzds. Rengiantis kalb6ti, pravartupasiZymdti pauziq vietas. Pauzdsbfitinos - jos pabreZia pagrindiniusteiginius, padeda klausytojams geriaujuos suvokti.
o Zodl:iq akcentavimas - svarbiq LodligpabreZimas kitokiu tonu, tempu, balsoauk5diu arba intonacija.
I Intonacija - kalbos tonas, melodija,balso pakilimq ir nusileidimqkaitalioj imasis.
MAKINGP RES E NTATION S/KALB EJ I MASM
INCREASING INTERESTAND UNDERSTANDING
o Use repetition.
o Start with simple concepts and graduallybring up more complex ones.
I Avoid overloading the audience with toomuch information.
I Use examples, motivators, humour.stories and presentational aidsthroughout your speech in order to keepyour audience's attentton.
o Give your listeners a framework forunderstanding your information.
KArP PADTDTNTT Kr_dusyloJvSUSIDOME.IIMA?
o Praddkite.nuo paprastrl sqvokq,patalpsnrui pereidami prie suddtingesniu.
r Neapkraukite klausytojq per didelilu =
rntormacijos kiekiu.o Norddami i5lailryti klausytojq demesi,
kalbq paivairinkite pavyzdZiais,humoristiniais pasakoiimais beivaizdinemis priemondmis.
o Informacijq pateikite sistemingai.o
flausVto.ii geriau isimins pag"rindiniusraKrus, Jet juos keletq kartq pakartosite.
TYPES OF PRESENTATIONAL AIDSo Flip charts, poster-board, or boards can
be used to display sketches, charts,graphs, diagrams, photographs, artwork,or computer generated imaees.
o Slidesl. Have a plan as to where you will be^
projecting your slides (scrien or wall?).2. Be- knowledgeable of tire projec,orlo,l
will be using.3. Make sure you are very familiar with
your notes. you may not be able to seethem in the dark-
O Overhead transparencies. The textshould be easy to read. Also you shouldevaluate the surroundings.
o Physical objects (booksikeyboards orcomputers make excellent presentationalaids).
O Audio.and video clips (make sure you9o* how to stop/rewind etc.).
o Computer gette"at"d images. Thistechnology makes speaking easier. Thkineadvantage of this technology allows vouto_concentrate. on your speech and forgetpolnters, flipping and advancing slides."
VAIZDINES PRIEMONESo lelta,.plakatai, paveikslai. fsitikinkite,ar iskaitoma tai, kas uZra5yti, ar
suprantama tai, kas pavaizduota.Kalbedami rodvkite.
o Skaidrds. pamqstykite, kur projektuositesKatdres (ekrane ar ant sienos). I5mokitenaudotis aparatu arba iS ankstopapra5ykite, kad jums kas padetq.Thmsoje gali blti sunku skaityti, iodelgerai.i5mokite tekstq, kuri sakysite.
o Skaidruolds (OHp). Tekstas turi bDtil"nry3t
ska.itomas. [vertinkite patal;;,kurioje kalbesite _ daZnai sauletole
"
patalpoje blogas matomumas.o Knygds, kompiuteriai, modeliai ir kt.o Vaizdo bei garso aparatiira.
Pasitikrinkite, u. rnokut" sustabdvtiaparat4, prasukti juost4 ir t. t.
o Kompiuterinis vaizdas _ moderni ir labaiefektyvi priemone.
F n,tnxrruc pRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJIMAs 99
WHEN USING ANY TYPE OF PRESEN-TATIONAL AID YOU SHOULD:
o Design your visual aids to have apurpose or support an important point.
o Make sure your visual materials arelarge, clear and uncluttered.
o Practice using them prior to speechdelivery.
i Practice speaking aloud while using theaid. You want to be able to maintain eyecontact with the audience and continuetalking while displaying or explainingyour presentational aid.
o Make sure you know how to turn allequipment on and off.
o You may want to ask an assistantto handle your aids (flip your charts, playyour tapes, or advance your slides) soyou can concentrate on your audience.
o Cover or turn off all presentational aidswhen you are not using them.
PRACTICEo Complete all research and writing at
least two weeks prior to the speech date.o Practice reading aloud using your
outline. Reduce your outline to a few keywords.
o Write your key words on note cards.o Practice speaking aloud from your note
cards.o Modularize your topics for mental
clarity:l. Organize your topics in your mind by
creating blocks or modules ofinformation that can be independentlydiscussed.
2.Engage your friends, family or co-workers in conversations that allow youto discuss the module of information youhave stored in vour mind.
K4 SVARBU PRISIMINTI PRIESNAUDOJANT VAIZDINES PRIEMONES
o Gerai apgalvokite vaizdines priemones,jos turi atitikti kalbos tem4.
o Vaizdin€s priemon€s turi blti dideles,esteti5kos ir tvarkingos.
o Pasipraktikuokite naudotis vaizdindmispriemondmis.
o Pamdginkite sakyti kalb4 naudodamivaizdines priemones (ir palaikydamikontakt4 akimis su isivaizduojamaisklausytojais).
o Pasitikrinkite, ar mokate naudotisreikiamais prietaisais.
PRATYBOSo Kalbq pasistenkite uibaigti kuo
anksiiau, kad liktq laiko pasipraktikuoti.I Skaitykite garsiai.o Ant korteliq susira5ykite pagrindinius
teiginius, pasiraSykite planeli.o Pam€ginkite kalb€ti naudodamiesi
uZraSais.o Parepetubkite prie5 draugus, Seimos
narius arba prie5 veidrodi.
IIF unrtNc pRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS
OVERCOMING FEARo Fear of public speaking is normal.
To eliminate your fear:l.Know your topic well. Research your topic
and practice talking about your content inyour daily conversations.
2.Practice your speech out loud, preferably infront of people you trust. It is not enough toread through your notes silently, you mustread them out loud and understand thematerial.
3. Use relaxation and redirection techniques toreduce the tension caused by thephysiological effects of fear.
4. Replace your negative thoughts with positiveones."I'm going to foryet my speech" can bereplaced with "1 know my material well andhave practiced it out loud several times".
KAIP ATSIKRATYTI BAIMESo Auditorijos baime - nat0ralus
dalykas. Kai tinkamai nepasirengta,baime kyla ddl nepasitikejimo savimi.Tod6l reikia:
l. Gerai pasirengti kalbai.2. Parepetuoti prie5 sakant kalbq.3. Nusiteikti teigiamai (iums tikrai
pasiseks!).4. Pasitiketi savimi (l[s tikrai sugebdsite!).
OHOW TO BE A TRULY ROTTEN SPEAKER
Anyone can learn to be a truly rotten speaker.Just follow these easy rules:l.Stand or sit with your head down.
Remember to keep looking at the floor.2. If you use a microphone, turn it up to
produce a high-pitched wine. Blow into itvigorously from time to time. That shouldkeep the audience awake.
3. Read from a written text very rapidly ormonotonously, mumble. Remember that agood presentation must be a bit challengingfor the audience.
4. If you use an overhead projector or showslides, make sure you stand in front of it.Don't be boring - project the image on tothe wall or ceiling rather than the screen.
Now it is your turn to continue this list ofrules:
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.
o K.{ DARYTI, KAnSUGADINTUMETE KALB,{:
l. Stov6kite arba sedekite nuleidgsgalvq. Prisiminkite, kad reikia vis4laikq Zilreti i grindis.
2. Jei kalbate i mikrofon4, turite taip jisureguliuoti, kad garsas bltq aukitasir cypiantis. Laikas nuo laikopap[skite i mikrofon4 - tai neleisklausytojams uZmigti arba paZadinsmiegandius.
3. Tekst4 skaitykite labai greitai arbamonotoni5kai, murmdkite - galbflttaip suintriguosite klausytojus.
4. Jei demonstruojate skaidres,atsistokite taip, kad uZstotumdtevaizdE- Venkite nuobodumo - vaizd4nukreipkite ne i ekranq, bet i sienasar lubas.
O toliau tgskite j[s:
6.
[|p, unrrruc eRESENTATToNS/KALBEJTMAS 101
SOME EXPRESSIONS TO HELP YOU MAKE A GOODPRESENTATION
POSAKIAI GERAI KALBAI PARENGTI
z
f i^<x \ J= z\ / , N
Fz
FormalOficialioji kalba
InformalNeoficialioji kalba
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen!..My name's .. .This morning I'd like to ...If you have any questions you'd liketo ask, I'll be happy to answer themlaterlat the end (of this lecture) ...I'd like to thank you for coming ...Thank you for coming ...May I take this opportunity to thankyou for coming ...I'm delighted/pleased/glad to bemaking this presentation ...
Morning everyone!Hello, everybody!I ' m . . .What I want to do this morning .Feel free to ask any question,there'll be plenty of time left atthe end . . .Thanks for coming ...I'm glad you could all get here .Thank you for making everyeffort to come todav ...
(D .^
9 <5 |
(nF( ' r !
O,r t t
z 6- v= Ev)
Today/this morning I'm going to be showing you ...talking to you about ...taking a look at . . .
i:fi ,'"1' ;i "' :#;, l: :'' "The subject of my presentation is ...Today's topic is ...
So I'll begin by I making a few observations(Let me begin by) | outlining the main points ..(I'd like to start with/off/byJ giving you an overview ...
... and then I'll (go on to) discuss the progress ...make suggestions ...highlight the main facts ...talk about .. .
u ) -C D <: Hz . w> 7 "7 = qF r ! 1
r i <z 2F r ii r r>1
A ZF , <F ' Nl J l +
How many of youthink/believe ...Suppose ...Have you everthought .. .Imagine ...
Have you ever heardthat . . .According to the lateststatistics/research ...Do you know that ...
I remember when .This reminds me of ..Let me tel l you ...
102 fVt, MAKTNG pRESENTATToNS/KALBEJ tMAS
(/)f T l
z
r T l
u) v)
4 Z< Nd <F r >
\ ) 7z 7= ^v ) Ap o
Fi
H
?U)
I'd like to draw your attention ...I'd like us to look at ... whichclearly show/indicate theimportance of ...If we look at this ...You can see on this overhead(sl ide) (that) . . .The figures in blue indicate/shodstand for .. .
Have a look at this (BrE)(Take a look at this) (AmE)As you can see ...Let's take a closer look (at) ...Here we can see ...
If you look at it more closely ..., lou'll see/notice/understand ...
The ... represents .. . and the ... represents .. .
Just over/just under/well over/well under (eg50Vo)...1 (explainingabout/approximately/roughly/more or less J a diagram)
u ) jz ;
8 Ar I 1 Y
fu (t)X r D
r r {= Z< t sOi -l
n >l l r r l
IAVe strongly suggest/recommend ...
IAVe sincerely hope ...
I/IVe completely agree with ...
IAVe firmly opposite ...
IAVe categorically deny ...
IAVe honestly believe ...
It is extremely/absolutely (necessary)
The main thing is ...
In part iculdr, . . .
What's more, .. .
In addition (to that) ...
P lus, . . .
Above all ...
What's especially/moreimportant .. .
I'd like to emphasize ...
One of the hazards that trouble any story-teller is the risk of repetition.One fellow has a nice way of forestalling* that I've heard-it-beforeresponse to a story. He plays safe by saying: "lf you've heard this storybefore, don't stop me because I'd like to hear it again".* forestall - uZbdgti u2 akiq
lS unrrruc eRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS 103
TRANSITIONS THAT MAY HELP YOUJUNGIAMIEJI POSAKIAI
Enumeration
first, secondly, third, next, then,after that, finally, again
Addition
additionally, also, and, furthermore,in addition, moreover, too, besides,and then
Comparisonlikewise, similarly, in the same way(manner)
Concessionas you probably know, certainly,of course, naturally, no doubt
Contrastalthough, but, even though, however,nevertheless, on the other hand, yet,on the contrary, despite
Emphasisabove all, especially, indeed, in fact,in particular, most importantly,without doubt, obviously,as a matter of fact, in any case
Illustrationas an example (illustration),for example, for instance, in particular,such as, that is, in the follbwingmanner, namely
Possibilitymaybe, perhaps, possibly
Reasonas, because, because of, for, since,a reason for this is
Conclusionand so, in summary, in other words,in short, to summarize, to sum up,consequently, accordingly,as a result, in conclusion, hence,therefore. thus
Repetitionin brief, in short, as I have said,as I have noted
104 NF, MAKTNG eRESENTATIoNS/KALBEJTMAS
GI.oSSARY oF TERIvISTERM|NU ZoovNELfS
abbreviations 8gadjectives 17-19adverbs 20-23
rnterrogative/exclamatory 20of definite time 20of degree 20of frequency 20of indefinite time 2Oof manner 20of place/direction 20of.reason, consequence, conclusion 20relative 2Osentence 20
apostrophe 79articles 6-10
definite 6-10indefinite 6_10zero 6-1.0
concluding sentence 62conditional sentences 5I_52conjunctions
coordinatins 31subordinatiig 32
controlling idea 62
comparative 1.7_lg, 22positive 77-t9.22superlative I7-1g,22
direct speech 46-50
ellipsis 81essay 71-73exclamation mark 79
if-clause 51,-52main 46, 5L-52subordinate 46time 54
colon 78, 83comma 74-77,83comparison
of adjectives 17-1gof adverbs 22irregular 22regular 22
complex object 17
negative sentences 11, 3643nouns 13-16
collective 15ccimmon 15compound 14countable 6, 13, lS. 16individual 15irregular 14
full stop 74,83
imperative mood 57italics 82, 84
F olossnRy oF TERMS/TERMINU ZoDyNELls 1os
proper 15regular 13uncountable 6,15-1.6
numerals 24-25cardinal 24ordinal 24
paragraph 6210concluding 72introductory 7L
plural 6, 11, L3-15prepositions 26-30
of method 29of place 27-29of time 26-27
pronouns tl-12,47demonstrative 1.Lindefinite I1,1,6personal LLpossessive LLreflexive 1Lrclative 12
questions 36-43,50general 50special 50
question mark 79
reported speech 46-50request/command/order 50
slash 8Lsingle/double quotation 81, 84square brackets 82statements 50
tenses 34-43future 3+-35,37,39, 41,, 43future in the past 34-35, 37,39, 4L, 43past 34-36, 38,40,42present 34-36, 38, 40, 42
time words 47topic 62, 69,73topic sentence 6243, 69, 73transitions 6448,104
verbals 55-57gerund 56infinitive 55
verbs 33-58auxiliary 33irregular 33, 58-61main 33modal/defective 33, 47regular 33reporting 48special 33
voiceactive 3444, 51, 53, 55-56passive 34-35,45,5L 53, 55-56
wish-sentences 53word order
in reported speech 50of adjectives 19of adverbs 22-23
semicolon 78-79,83sequence of tenses 46,49singular 6,11,13-1,5support 62,73
106 ryF clossARy oF TERMS/TERMINU Zooynerrs
R E F E R E N C E SL i t e r a t f r r a
Andersen S., Pryor B. Speech Fundamentals: A Contemporary Approacft. NeedhamHeights, MA: Ginn Press. 1992
Azar B. S., Azar D. A. Understanding and Using English Grammar. Englewood Cliffs,New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents. 1990
Bieliniene J. Iikalbos menas. V., 2000Dictionary of Abbreviations. New York: Random House. 1996Evans Y. Round-Up (5). English Grammar Practice. Harlow: Longman. 2001Gear J., Gear R. Cambidge Preparation for the TOEFL Tbst. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2000Gordon E. M., Krylova I. P. A Grammar of Present-Day English. Moscow: Moscow
Vys5aja Skola. 1980Hedge T. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1998Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. 1995Karnegis D. Kaip iisiugdyti pasitikejimq savimi ir vieia kalba paveikti Zmones.V.,1992KoZeniauskien€ R. Retorika. V., 1999Kroll B. (ed.) Second Language Witing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1997Naucklnaite Z.Iikalbos molcymas. K., 1998Pasternak-Winiarska J. Gramatyka jgzyka angielskiego w tabelach. Warszawa:
Tiigraf s. c. 1998Pikver Ann. Grammar Is Easy. K.: Sviesa. 2000Porter P. A., Grant M. Communicating Effectively in English. Boston:
Heinle & Heinle Publishers. 1992Public Speaking. The Essential University Course Outline. Boca Raton, Fl.:
BarCharts, Inc. 1995SliZiene N., Valeckiene A. Lietuviq kalbos raiyba ir slqryba. V.: Mokslas. 1989Sudzilovsky G. A. Language Laugh-In Moscow: Moscow Vys5aja Skola. 1984Tbacher's Handbook of Advanced Writing. Ed. Mare-Anne Laane. Thllinn: Thllinn
Technical University. 1999Tiask R. L. The Penguin Guide to Punctuation. London: Penguin Books. 1997Warriner E. English Grammar and Composition. Chicago: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Publishers. 1986Wite Right. Essential English Writing Skills. Kai5iadorys. 1999
REFERENCES/LITERATORA 1 07
Virginiia Thomaitd, Ingrida ZindziuviendANGLU rGLBA VISTEMSRedaktord Odeta VenckieniVir5elis Donato GendvilosVir5elyje panaudota iliustracija iS photo DiscIrid. Nr. 1,5077. UZsak. Nr. 578.Akcine bendrov6 leidykla ,,Sviesa.., Vytauto pr.25,3000 Kiunas.El. p. [email protected] puslapis: http:/Avww.sviesa.ltttpausdtno AB sDaustuv6 ,,,A,u5ra.,, \ttauto pr.8,3fi)0 Kaunas.El. p. [email protected] puslapis: http:/Apww.ausra.ltSutartind kaina
Ihomaitd, Virgin[iaTir71. Anglq kalba visiems/Virginija Tuomaite, Ingrida ZindZiuviend. - Kaunas:
Sviesa, 2002. - L07 p.Vir3. tik angl. - Bibliogr., p. 107. - Zodyn., p. 105-106.ISBN 5-430-03388-XKnyga skiriama viduriniq mokyklq ir gimnazijq mokiniams, aukltqjr; mokyklq studentams bei visiems,
norintiems pakartoti ar i3mokti ne tik anglq kalbos gramatik4, bet ir kitas temas. Knyga suskirstyta iketuris skyrius: gramatika, ra5ymas, skyryba, mo$rmas kalb€ti. Kielwienoje dalyje remiamasi skaitytojqgimtosios kalbos filologine patirtimi, aiSkinami anglg ir lietuviq kalbq skirtumai, akcentuojami anglqkalbos ypatumai.
Knyga naudinga rengiantis laikyti anglq kalbos brandos egzaminq, TOEFL egzaminq, stojant iauk5t4sias mokyklas.
UDK 802.6
