Encyclopedia of

TOXICOLOGYTHIRD EDITION

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

PHILIP WEXLER

US National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, USA

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

MOHAMMAD ABDOLLAHI

Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran

ANN DE PEYSTER

San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA

SHAYNE C. GAD

Gad Consulting Services, Cary, NC, USA

HELMUT GREIM

Technical University of Munich, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany

STACEY HARPER

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA

VIRGINIA C. MOSER

US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA

SIDHARTHA RAY

Manchester University College of Pharmacy, Fort Wayne, IN, USA

JOSE TARAZONA

European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), Helsinki, Finland

TIMOTHY J. WIEGAND

University of Rochester Medical Center and Strong Memorial Hospital. Rochester, NY, USA

VOLUME 1

ELSEVIER

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford

Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

CONTENTS

Foreword bcuii

Preface ixix

Preface to The Second Edition Ixxiii

Preface to The First Edition Ixxv

Editor-in-Chief Ixxvii

Associate Editors Ixxix

List of Contributors Ixxxiii

How to Use The Encyclopedia cix

Acknowledgments cxi

Dedication cxiii

VOLUME 1

A

ABERRATIONS OF CHROMOSOMES see Chromosome Aberrations

Absorption 1

S A Saghir

Academy of Toxicological Sciences 7

S S Devi and H M Mehendale

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) 8

/ Chilakapati and H M Mehendale

Accutane 10

S C Gad and } H Fain

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors 14

H A Spiller

Acenaphthene 17

S J Klein

Acephate 20

S Karanth

v

vi Contents

Acetaldehyde 22

T R Van Vleet and B K Philip

Acetamide 24

G L Kennedy

Acetaminophen 26

K Shankar and H M Mehendale

Acetamiprid 30

D R Wallace

Acetic Acid 33

S D Pravasi

Acetone 36

M P Kalapos

Acetonitrile 40

H Robles

Acetophenone 43

N V Soucy

Acetylaminofluorene 46

/ Syed

Acetylcholine 49

A Suryanarayanan

ACEIYLCHOLINSTERASE see Cholinesterase Inhibition

Acetylene 51

S Mostafalou and H Bahadar

Acetylsalicylic Acid 54

R Gorodetsky

Acids 56

A Saeid and K Chojnacka

Acifluorfen, Sodium Salt 59

Y R Rodriguez

Acrolein 63

D Pamies and E Vilanova

Acrylamide 69

G Karimi and M Rashedinia

ACRYLATES see Acrylic Acid; Ethyl Acrylate; Methyl Acrylate

Acrylic Acid 74

D Brown

Acrylonitrile 76

W E Achanzar and R S Mangipudy

Acute Health Exposure Guidelines 79

S B DuTeaux

ACUTE TOXICITY see Toxicity, Acute

AdiponitrileG L Kennedy

Advances in Physiologically Based Modeling Coupled with In Vitro—In Vivo ExtrapolationofADMET: Assessing the Impact of Genetic Variability in Hepatic TransportersS Ho, A S Darwich, M Jamei, and A Rostami—Hodjegan

Adverse Outcome Pathways: Development and Use in ToxicologyC Willett

Aerosols

WE Achanzar and R S Mangipudy

A-esterase

L G Sultatos

Aflatoxin

M A Tirmenstein and R Mangipudy

AIR POLLUTION see Pollution, Air in Encyclopedia of Toxicology

Alachlor

M A Tirmenstein and R Mangipudy

Alar

K D Chadwick and R S Mangipudy

Albuterol

S £ Gad

AlchemyP G Maxwell-Stuart

Alcoholic Beverages and Health Effects

K Shankar and H M Mehendale

ALCOHOLISM see Alcoholic Beverages and Health Effects

ALCOHOLS see Alcoholic Beverages and Health Effects; Allyl Alcohol; Benzyl Alcohol; Ethanol

Aldicarb

V C Moser

ALDOSTERONE see Corticosteroids

Aldrin

M Honeycutt and S Shirley

AlgaeK D Hambright, R M Zamor, J D Easton, and B Allison

Alkalies

V Lawana

Alkyl Halides

S Kulkarni

ALLERGENICS TESTING see Toxicity Testing, Sensitization

Allyl AlcoholS P Sawant, H S Parihar, and H M Mehendale

AllylamineNVSouq>

viii Contents

Allyl Formate 152

S P Sawant and H M Mehendale

Alpha Blockers 154

S M Miller and K L Cumpston

Aluminosilicate Fibers 156

L D Maxim and M J Utell

Aluminum 161

SCGad

Aluminum Phosphide 164

M Abdollahi and O Mehrpour

AMANTIN, a- see Mushrooms, Cyclopeptide

Amdro 167

/ R Bloomquist

American Academy of Clinical Toxicology 170

L D Beilke

American Association of Poison Control Centers 172

D Can

American Board of Toxicology 173

S S Devi and H M Mehendale

American College of Medical Toxicology 174

PM Wax and T J Wiegand

American College of Toxicology 176

RCGuy

ACGIH® (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) 178

D L Dahbtrom and A B Bloomhuff

American Industrial Hygiene Association 180

D Hicks

Americium 182

I Maldtovd and V Beckovd

Ames Test 187

RCGuy

Aminobiphenyl, 4- 189

H Robles

Aminoglycosides 191

T G Towne

Aminopyridine, 4- (4-AP) 194

R C Gupta

Amiodarone 197

/M Marraffa

Amitraz 200

V C Moser

Amitrole 203

R Sellamuthu

Contents ix

AM1TROPTYLINE see Tricyclic Antidepressants

Ammonia 206

R J Parod

Ammonium Nitrate 209

PS Rao

AMOBARBITAL see Barbiturates

Amphetamines 212

E M Pallasch and M Wahl

Amyl Nitrite 217

A Kubic and M Wahl

Anabolic Steroids 220

S P Sawant, H S Parihar, and H M Mehendale

Analytical Toxicology 223

SCGad

Ancient Warfare and Toxicology 226

A Mayor

Androgens 230

PS Rao

Anesthetics 234

F Liu, C Wang, and T A Patterson

Aneuploidy 238

D A Eastmond

ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS see Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)Inhibitors

Aniline 240

SCGad

Animal Models 243

S C Gad

Animals, Poisonous and Venomous 246

T Dodd-Butera and M Broderick

ANIMAL TESTING ALTERNATIVES see Toxicity Testing, Alternatives

Animal Venoms in Medicine 252

Z Takacs and S Nathan

ANTAGONISM see Chemical Interactions

Anthracene 260

PS Rao

Anthrax 262

K Shankar and H M Mehendale

Anticholinergics 264

/ P Gray and S D Ray

Antidotes 267

S Shadnia and L S Nelson

x Contents

Antimony 274

SCGad

Antimony Trioxide 277

S C Gad

Anxiolytics 280

D Fuentes, S D Ray, and C P Holstege

Apoptosis 287

DA Brown, N Yang, and S D Ray

AQUATIC ECOTOXICOLOGY see Aquatic Ecotoxicology

AQUATIC TOXICITY TESTING see Toxicity Testing, Aquatic

Aramite 295

S Goel and D Agarwal

Aristolochic Acids 298

S A Jordan and S Perwaiz

Arsenical Vomiting Agents 302

R Jabbour, H Salem, B Ballantyne, and S A Katz

Arsenic 308

R W Kapp, Jr.

Arsine 313

D Pakulska and S Czerczak

Arts, Crafts, Theater, and Entertainment 317

M Rossol

ARTS AND TOXICOLOGY see Toxicology in the Arts, Culture, and Imagination

Asbestos 323

M Lotti and L Bergamo

Asia Pacific Association of Medical Toxicology (APAMT) 327

WA Temple and J A Haines

Aspartame 330

RCGuy

ASPRIRIN see Acetylsalicylic Acid

Astemizole 332

A Shafiee and M Khoobi

Atrazine 336

J Liu

Atropine 339

A L Scott

AVIAN ECOTOXICOLOGY see Avian Ecotoxicology

Avermectin 342

G M Vent

Azamethiphos 345

/ R Richardson

AzathioprineS Espin and A J Garcia-Femdndez

Azinphos-MethylS Karanth

B

Bacillus cereus

H S Parihar

Bacillus thuringiensis

L Lagadic and T Caquet

British Anti-Lewisite (BAL)S P Sawant, H S Parihar, and H M Mehendale

Barbiturates

F Nobay and N M Acquisto

Barium

SCGad

BASES see Alkalies

Batrachotoxin

/ P Dumbacher

BCNU (Bischloroethyl Nitrosourea)E Curfman, M Jiang, and M G Soni

BEE see Hymenoptera

BEHAVIORAL TOXICITY TESTING see Toxicity Testing, Behavioral

Behavioral ToxicologyD A Cory-Slechta

Belladonna Alkaloids

P A Prusakov

Benchmark Dose

M A Rezvanfar

Benfluralin

Y R Rodriguez

BenomylM A Pearson and G W Miller

Benz [a ] anthracene

/ P Gray and G J Hall

Benzene

C Barton

BENZENEDICARBOXYLIC ACID, 1-2 see Phosphate Ester Flame Retardants

Benzidine

CVRao

xii Contents

BENZINE see Petroleum Ether

Benzo(a)pyrene 423

/ P Gray

Benzyl Alcohol 429

G B Corcoran and S D Ray

Benzyl Benzoate 433

M A Pearson and G W Miller

Beryllium 435

SCGad

Beta-Blockers 438

V Dissanayake and M Wahl

Beta-Propiolactone 442

A de Peyster

Bhopal Accident: Release of MIC 446

P Limaye

Bifenthrin 449

NKRiar

Biguanides 452

CVRao

Bioaccumulation 456

K Chojnacka and M Mikulewicz

Biocides 461

I Michalak and K Chojnacka

Biocompatibility 464

SEGad

Biofuels 469

L G Roberts and T } Patterson

Environmental Biomarkers 476

A L Miracle

Biomarkers, Human Health 479

PCS Coelho and } P Teixeira

Biomonitoring 483

C Costa and } P Teixeira

Bioremediation 485

M Megharaj, K Venkateswarlu, and R Naidu

Biotransformation/Metabolism 490

/ L Rourke and C J Sinai

Bio Warfare and Terrorism: Toxins and Other Mid-Spectrum Agents 503

M Balali-Mood, M Moshiri, and L Etemad

Bis (2-Methoxyethyl) Ether 509

S C Gad

BIS-CHLOROMETHYL ESTHER see Chloromethyl Ether, Bis-

Bismuth

S C Gad

Bisphenol A

/ E Goodman and M K Peterson

BLACK WIDOW SPIDER see Spiders

Bleach

K Hahn and } A Weber

Blister Agents/VesicantsR E Jabbour, H Salem, and F R Sidell

Blood

Ad Moreno and T} Wiegand

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE see Algae

Boric Acid

P Lank and M Wahl

Boron

S Betharia

Botulinum Toxin

Y L Leung and S A Burr

Brodifacoum

H A Spiller

Bromacil and Its Lithium Salt

T L Serex, M Battalora, K E Brugger, F X Huang, and A C Barefoot

Bromadiolone

S Ramasahayam

Bromethalin

A } Garda-Femdndez and IM Navas

Bromine

D Brown

Bromobenzene

M A Bryant

Bromoform

Ad A Bryant

Bromotrichloromethane

Al C Korrapati

BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER see Spiders

Busulfan

M Janes

Butadiene, 1,3-

R ] Parod

Butane

M A Kamrin

xiv Contents

Butter Yellow 573

K N Thakore

Button Batteries 575

T Litovitz

Butyl Acrylate 578

R J Parod

Butylated Hydroxyanisole 581

KN Thakore

Butylated Hydroxytoluene 583

K N Thakore

Butyl Ether 585

H Robles

Butyl Nitrite 587

KN Thakore

Butylamines 589

/ M McKee

Butyraldehyde 595

S } Klein

Butyric Acid 597

G Karimi and M Vahabzadeh

Butyronitrile 602

CPope

Butyrophenones 604

/ Chilakapati and H M Mehendale

BZ (3-Quinuclidinyl Benzilate): Psychotomimetic Agent 609

R E Jabbour and H Salem

Cadmium 613

SCGad

Caffeine 617

C P Holstege and E Holstege

Calcium Channel Blockers 621

SCGad

Calomel 625

KN Thakore

Camphor 627

H L Rivera and F Barrueto

CANCER see Carcinogenesis

Cancer Chemotherapeutic Agents 630

G L Finch and L A Burns-Naas

Cancer Potency Factor 642

F F Farris and S D Ray

Candidate List of Substances ofVery High Concern (SVHC), REACHM ] Ramos-Peralonso

Cannabinoids

/ Chilakapati and F F Farris

CANNABIS see Cannabinoids; Marijuana

CaptafolP Raman

CaptanX Song

Carbamate Pesticides

R C Gupta

CarbamazepineJCYLo

CarbarylS E Koshlukova and N R Reed

Carbofuran

X Song

Carbon Dioxide

S Goel and D Agarwal

Carbon Disulfide

M Abdollahi and A Hosseini

Carbon Monoxide

C M Stork

Carbon Tetrabromide

KN Thakore

Carbon Tetrachloride

E del Rio, L Rojo, and E Vilanova

Carbonyl Sulfide

M P Miguez-Santiydn and F Soler-Rodriguez

CarboxylesterasesB Yan

Carcinogen Classification Schemes

M A Kamrin

Carcinogen—DNA Adduct Formation and DNA RepairA Weston and M C Poirier

CarcinogenesisM C Botelho, ] P Teixeira, and P A Oliveira

CARCINOGENICITY TOXICITY TESTING see Toxicity Testing, Carcinogenesis

Cardiovascular SystemP A Stapleton, T L Knuckles, V C Minarchick, G Gautam, and T R Nurkiewicz

Catecholamines

S Othumpangat

xvi Contents

CCA-Treated Wood 751

C Barton

Cell Cycle 753

N Yang and A M Sheridan

Cell Phones 759

S Saeidnia and M Abdollahi

Cell Proliferation 761

N Yang, S D Ray, and K Krafts

Centipedes 766

H H Lin and T] Wiegand

Cephalosporins 768

SCGad

CERCLA; Revised as the Superfund Amendments Reauthorization Act (SARA) 771

R W Kapp, Jr.

Cerium 773

SCGad

Cesium 776

S C Gad and T Pham

CHANNEL BLOCKERS see Calcium Channel Blockers

Charcoal 779

M Abdollahi and A Hosseini

Chemicals Alternatives Assessments 782

Ad H Whittaker

Chemical Hazard Communication and Safety Data Sheets 787

M J Ramos-Peralonso

Chemical Interactions 793

CPope

CHEMICAL MIXTURES, TOXICOLOGY AND RISK ASSESSMENT see Mixtures,

Toxicology and Risk Assessment

Chemical Safety Assessment 795

European Chemicals Agency

Chemical Safety Assessment and Reporting Tool (Chesar), REACH 797

M J Ramos-Peralonso

Chemicals in Consumer Products 801

L Molander

Chemicals of Environmental Concern 805

M M Schultz

Chemical-Specific Adjustment Factor (CSAF) 810

M A Rezvanfar

Chemical Warfare 814

S A Burr

Contents xvii

CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS see Anthrax; Arsenical Vomiting Agents; BIO WARFARE AND

TERRORISM: Toxins and Other Mid-Spectrum Agents; Blister Agents/Vesicants; Botulinum Toxin;

3-QUINUCLIDINYL BENZILATE (BZ): Psychotomimetic Agent; Chlorine

Chemical Warfare Delivery Systems 817

S A Burr

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS see Cancer Chemotherapeutic Agents

Chernobyl 822

R K Chesser and B E Rodgers

Children's Environmental Health 830

P } E Quintana

Chloral Hydrate 833

M Troendle and B K Wills

Chlorambucil 835

N Gupta and J R Salvatore

Chloramphenicol 837

M Abdollahi and S Mostafalou

Chlordane 841

S E Koshlukova and N R Reed

Chlordecone 846

S Biswas and B Ghosh

Chlordimeform 849

L G Costa

Chlorfenvinphos 851

S E Koshlukova and N R Reed

Chlorination Byproducts 855

S S Anand, B K Philip, and H M Mehendale

Chlorine 860

A Suryanarayanan

Chlorine Dioxide 864

V M Gomez-Lopez

Chloroacetic Acid 867

M Abdollahi and S Karami-Mohajeri

Chlorobenzene 870

S D Pravasi

Chlorobenzilate 874

D M Janz

Chlorodibenzofurans (CDFs) 876

R D Kimbrough

Chloroethane 880

S Milanez

Chlorofluorocarbons

W T Tsai

883

xviii Contents

Chloroform 885

/ Estevez and E Vilanova

Chloromethane 891

S Milanez

Chloromethyl Ether, Bis- 894

C VRao

Chlorophenols 896

M Badanthadka and HM Mehendale

Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 900

S Karanth

Chloropicrin 903

P Raman

Chloroprene 907

H E Hurst

Chloropropionitrile, 2- 911

M Abdollahi and S Karami-Mohajeri

Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine 913

M Qozi and F L Cantrell

Silicon Tetrachloride 916

S Lopez, J Bergueiro, and J Fidalgo

Chlorothalonil 919

P Raman

Chlorpheniramine 923

E J Hall and G / Hall

Chlorpromazine 925

R D Beckett

Chlorpyrifos 930

S E Koshlukova and N R Reed

Chlorsulfuron 935

M Battalora, M D McCoole, and C M Hirata

Chlorzoxazone 938

K N Thakore and H M Mehendale

Choline 940

V J Drake and G Angelo

Cholinesterase Inhibition 942

B W Wilson

CHOLINESTERASES see Cholinesterase Inhibition

Chromium 952

SCGad

Chromosome Aberrations 955

R J Preston

CHRONIC TOXICITY see Toxicity, Chronic and Subchronic

ChryseneS Biswas and B Ghosh

CiguatoxinM A Darracq

CiprofloxacinT Dodd-Butera and M Broderick

Circadian Clock Effects/ChronotoxicologyC B Spainhour

Cisplatin

T G Towne and A Murray

Clean Air Act (CAA), US

R W Kapp, Jr.

Clean Water Act (CWA), US

R W Kapp, Jr.

Clinical ChemistryS C Gad

Clofibrate

S Betharia

Clostridium perfringensB A McClane

CN Gas

H Salem, S A Katz, M Feasel, and B Ballantyne

Coal Tar

L Roberts

Cobalt

S C Gad

Cocaine

M Siegrist and T J Wiegand

Coke Oven Emissions

F F Farris

Colchicine

H A Spiller

Combustion ToxicologySCGad

Comet Assay

Solange Costa and Joao Paulo Teixeira

Common Mechanism ofToxicity in Pesticides

B E Mileson

Coniine

M Badanthadka and H M Mehendale

Consumer Product Safety CommissionM A Babich

xx Contents

Contract Research Organizations 1030

C B Spainhour

Copper 1034

SCGad

COPRINE see Mushrooms, Coprine

Corrosives 1037

M M Purcell and f M Marraffa

Corticosteroids 1038

B Spoelhof and S D Ray

CORTICOSTERONE see Corticosteroids

CORTISONE see Corticosteroids

Cosmetics and Personal Care Products 1043

A Manayi and S Saeidnia

Cotinine 1050

/ P Gray and G } Hall

Coumarins 1052

A Garrard

CRAFTS MATERIALS see Arts, Crafts, Theater, and Entertainment

Creosote (Coal Tar Creosote and Wood Creosote) 1055

/ E Kester

Cresols 1061

M Badanthadka and H M Mehendale

Criminal Enforcement of Environmental Laws 1066

C M Perales

Cromolyn 1070

F L Cantrell

Crotonaldehyde 1072

A Suryanarayanan

CRUDE OIL see Oil, Crude

CS 1076

H Salem, S A Katz, M Feasel, and B Ballantyne

CULTURE AND TOXICOLOGY see Toxicology in the Arts, Culture, and Imagination

Cumene 1082

S Nikfar and A F Behboudi

Cumulative (Combined Exposures) Risk Assessment 1086

A Emami, M Rajabi, and B Meek

Curare (D-Tubocurarine) 1088

S A Burr and Y L Leung

Cuyahoga River 1090

N R Webber and K L Mumy

Cyanamide 1091

P Kempegowda

CyanideS A Burr and Y L Leung

Cyanogen Chloride

M Abdollahi and A Hosseini

CyclodienesS E Koshlukova and N R Reed

CycloheximideV Lawana, M C Korrapati, and H M Mehendale

CyclohexaneSEGad

CyclohexeneS Mostafalou and H Bahadar

CYCLOPEPTIDE see Mushrooms, Cyclopeptide

CyclophosphamideC M Stork and S M Schreffler

CyclosporineT Dodd-Butera and M Broderick

CyfluthrinS Karanth

CypermethrinS A Burr

Cysteine, N-Acetyl-LS R Clough

Cytochrome P450K Shankar and H M Mehendale

D

2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid)K D Chadwick and R S Mangipudy

Dacarbazine

A Murray

DalaponD R Wallace

Danthron

N Yang

DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)S A Burr

Decane

S R Clough

DEET (Diethyltoluamide)M E Hilbum

DEF (Butyl Phosphorotrithioate)P Raman

xxii Contents

Deferoxamine 1154

S J Miller and B W Morgan

Delaney Clause 1157

RCGuy

Deltamethrin

S A Burr

1158