Empowerment & Org Change

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International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality ManagementEmpowerment and organizational change

Margaret Erstad

Ar tic le information:To cite this document:Margaret Erstad, (1997),"Empowerment and organizational change", International Journal of Contemporary HospitalityManagement, Vol. 9 Iss 7 pp. 325 - 333Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596119710190976

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Linda Honold, (1997),"A review of the literature on employee empowerment", Empowerment in Organizations, Vol. 5 Iss 4

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Conrad Lashley, (1999),"Employee empowerment in services: a framework for analysis", Personnel Review, Vol. 28 Iss 3 pp.169-191 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00483489910264570

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International J ournal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement9/ 7 [1997] 325–333

©MCB University Press[ISSN 0959-6119]

Empowerment and organizational change

Margaret ErstadResearch Manager (Europe) Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Trends

Among the many fashionablemanagement terms, empow-

erment refers to a changestrategy with the objective of improving both the individ-

ual’s and the organization’sability to act. Reviews the

various themes of empower-ment with particular refer-ence to articles published

between 1994-1996 in the journal Empowerment in

Organizations. The mainthemes are: creating anempowerment culture;

empowerment as a manage-ment strategy; training anddevelopment for empowered

employees; empowered teamsand implementation tech-

niques and empowerment andorganizational change in thehospitality industry

Introduction

Empowerment is a topic that appears fre-

quently in human resource, business, and

management literature but more

infrequently in the hospitali ty and touri sm

li terature. This article aims to review thevarious themes of empowerment primarily i n

the speciali zed publication,Empower ment in

Organ izat ions , dur ing 1994-1996 in order to

expose empowerment theories and practices

of potential value to the hospitali ty and

tourism industri es. The empowerment litera-

ture is divided into key themes which are

subsequently summarized separately by

subject in table form. The themes are then

linked in a diagram in order to construct a

larger image of empowerment as a change

strategy. The article concludes with a discus-

sion of the implications that empowerment

research has for the hospitali ty industry.

Defining empowerment

Empowerment has been described as a means

to enable employees to make decisions

(Bowen and Lawler, 1992) and as a personal

phenomenon where individuals take respon-

sibil ity for their own actions (Pastor, 1996).

The first definition relates to how manage-

ment faci li tates and implements the empow-

erment culture, whi le the second emphasizes

the importance of the individual in the truly

successful appli cation of empowerment.

Wing (1996) uses the term personal empower-

ment in relation to business consultants and

views it as a strong self-analytical tool which

allows them to understand and address their

personal biases, differences of opinions, and

experi ences with clients in order to be suc-

cessful in change efforts. Whatever the defini -

tion of empowerment used, the end goal is to

develop the performance and potential of the

individual as well as that of the organization

(Long, 1996).

Lashley (1996) defines empowerment in

relation to an organization’s purpose forusing the strategy. I s empowerment deployed

to achieve greater employee commitment, to

gain i nformation from employees and

improve the bottom-line, or to increase

responsiveness to customers? Whi le the pur-

suit of one objective does not automatically

exclude the others, organizations may focus

on a specific empowerment aim at the

expense of potential gains from seeking other

empowerment goals.

Creating an empowerment culture

Why the concern for empowerment? Nixon

(1994) sees empowerment arising from exter-

nal and internal challenges for organizations.

External challenges have resulted as a result

of higher levels of competition, changes in the

composition of the workforce, and higher

expectations from customers. Internal chal-

lenges relate to employee retention, motiva-

tion, and development.

According to Beach (1996), empowerment

remains with the indivi dual and cannot beimposed from above. How then can an envi-

ronment conducive to empowerment be cre-

ated? Organizations wishing to instil l a cul-

ture of empowerment must find a way of

establishing systems and processes that do

not restrict employees. By concentrating on

what behaviour is considered optimal for the

employees and what they do well, manage-

ment can adapt, develop and change the orga-

nizational structure to produce the sought

after behaviour: employees dedicated to

learning, growing, and developing; employ-

ees who are self-managed; leadership not only

existing at the top; a high level of trust

between management and employees as well

as among employees; employee participation

in decision making; a high level of vertical

and horizontal communication; and employ-

ees able to deal with conflict management

and resolution effectively and efficiently.

To bring all this about, a shift in manage-

ment thinking and management strategy are

necessary. Col li ns (1996a) looks at histori cal

debates on democracy to gain insight on how

a radical change to organizational culture for

empowerment can be developed. He looks at

reasons why people fail to participate in ademocratic system and attributes this to

either a lack of education and knowledge for

groups to be able to participate or a failure to

see the connection between participation and


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Margaret ErstadEmpowerment andorganizational change

International Journal of Contemporary HospitalityManagement9/ 73 [1997] 325–333

poli tical decisions. From this historical

analysi s, there appear to be two essential

ingredients for a successful i mplementation

of empowerment in organizations: educationand participation in the decision-making

process, particularly for decisions influenc-

ing the individual’s sphere of influence.

Parry (cited by Collins, 1996a) delves deeper

into parti cipation theory and outlines three

ways of viewing it:

1 how participation takes place (direct or

indirect);

2 to what degree participation occurs (inten-

sity and frequency); and

3 the quality of participation (and resulting

impact or change).

Traditionally, and even today, collective bar-gaining has been the strongest form of

employee parti cipation. Could empowerment

change this?

An empowered organizational culture

relies on the involvement of everyone, includ-

ing both management and employees, to

bri ng about i ts success. Simmons (1995) i llus-

trates the overlapping or disappearance of

boundaries between formal and informal

leadership to that of an inclusive organiza-

tion where there are “leaders of leaders”.

Empowerment may take the form of so-

called empowered subcultures of low andmid-level managers cut off from the top eche-

lons of an organization (Logan et al ., 1996).

The commitment and participation of top

management, the strategy and policy makers

of an organization, are necessary for a truly

comprehensive culture of empowerment to

exist. Empowering employees does not mean

disempowering managers but rather permits

time and energy to be used more efficiently

and productively by all players.

Why should empowerment be taken

seriously as a management strategy or

organizational philosophy? Empowerment

offers the potential for guaranteeing

employee performance through a higher level

of self-control (Coll ins, 1996b). In an organiza-tion such as Mazda, where there is an

extremely thorough selection process to

establish the prospective employee’s fit with

the organization, the worker selected has

demonstrated a wi ll ingness to commit to the

organization and subsequently becomes an

active member of an empowered system of

processes geared to stimulate and encourage

his or her participation.

Empowerment as a management

strategyA five-point empowerment strategy is

descri bed by Nixon (1994) in order to develop

an organization where people can work as

individuals and also in teams towards com-

mon goals. The strategy consists of :

1 establishing a vision;

2 priori tizing and acting only where most

impact is possible;

3 developing strong relationships with col-

leagues;

4 expanding networks;

5 using internal and external support

groups. To create a synergy of outcomes, people

should be channelled to work together on

workshops and projects directly connected

with organizational issues affecting them.

Once the skills to work together on projects

have been learned, the same process can be

fur ther embedded in the organization by

cascading the workshops throughout the

organization.

Cook (1994) summarizes essential stages in

the empowerment process in a diagram that

includes the vision, values, management role

as facil itator, teamwork, training support andprocess improvement which are all reviewed

and monitored at the end of the process.

For L ong (1996), achieving an empower-

ment objective for a company is closely linked

to three important concepts: an annual strate-

gic plan, annual personal performance-

related appraisals, and training and develop-

ment. Höpfl (1994) concurs in the need for

goal setting with employee parti cipation i n

determining individual and organizational

objectives, courses of action, problem solving,

and company policy.

A programme at Ashworth Hospital used

competence development through the accred-itation of work-based learning with a support

structure based on action learning sets as the

foundation of the empowerment project

(Newton and Wilk inson, 1994). Project

Monitor and review

Create a vision

Agree communication values

Improve processes TrainDevolve responsibility Create teams

Source: Cook (1994)

Figure 1

The empowerment process


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International J ournal of Contemporary HospitalityManagement9/ 73 [1997] 325–333

MORALE used Mentorship, Ownership,

Responsibi li ty, Accountabili ty, and Learning

in order to achieve Empowerment.

Although empowerment was not the termused initially to describe the changes under-

taken at a publishing enterprise (Gore et al .,

1994) to deal wi th internal and external chal-

lenges, it is a very appropri ate way of describ-

ing the resulting package of strategies. Orga-

nizational change was brought about by con-

centrating on: management action learning

(10 per cent of payroll is now dedicated to

above-the-line training investment); systems

development; mentoring and coaching; and

structural change including profit-related

pay. The end result has been an organization

where employees have grown and developedtheir response to change.

With the background of an empowered

organizational culture and management

strategy, tools and techniques are needed by

both management and employees if unreal-

ized potential and individual entrepreneur-

ship are to be created. The articles under the

next topic heading describe some of the pro-

grammes and methods used to provide higher

levels of participation and empowered

employees.

Training and development f orempowered employees andemployee participation

J ones et al . (1996) stress the need to shi ft away

from controll ing to enabling in order for

employees to contribute more. This requires

new management ski lls to maximize

employee potential. These ski ll s relate to co-

ordination, facili tation, commitment and

trust, communication, knowing more

precisely what your people can and cannot

do, and promoting learning and employee

ownership of what they do. Identification

with organizational values, competencebuilding, employee self esteem, delegation,

and coaching are fundamental quali ties for

employee participation (Potter, 1994).

A three-stage traini ng structure for man-

agers which begins at the bottom is advocated

by Ni cholls (1995). In the first stage, an analy-

sis is made of current capabili ties and

employees are helped to work to their full

potential. Next, managers need to use coach-

ing techniques to get employees to work

beyond their present capabili ties. Third, the

commitment of the employees is obtained

through the sharing of visions and values.When the last stage has been completed, then

full empowerment has been achieved.

When the training needs of the organizaion

as a whole have been attended to, it may be

necessary to identi fy any special areas or

disadvantaged groups that would benefit

from further preparation. Equal opportunity

exists by law at the recrui tment level, yet

once selected, employees from recognized

disadvantaged sectors may require special

efforts to allow them to parti cipate at the

same level as other employees (Echiejile,

1994).

Kappelman and Richards (1996) advocateallowing employees to parti cipate early on in

change programmes. Their study was under-

taken in bank branches duri ng the implemen-

tation of a data system. Some employees were

able to decide the dates when they would

undergo training, and data from this group

were compared to employees who were not

able to decide on the dates. The empowered

employees from the first group were 88 per

cent more motivated, 146 per cent more satis-

fied with their training, and 99 per cent more

satisfied with the change process.

The suggestion method of employee partici-pation was used at Nissan where employees

were expected to submit a pre-determined

number of suggestions each month

(Rodrigues, 1994). Employee participation

was developed at Br itish Gas through the

implementation of an employee suggestion

programme designed to allow employees to

recognize problems and possible soluti ons

(Lloyd, 1996). Over a three year period,

Br itish Gas received more than 11,000 sugges-

tions of which approximately 10 per cent were

implemented for an added value to the orga-

nization of £10 mil li on. In order to obtain

employee input, the organization must pro-vide an atmosphere which encourages and

rewards employee participation. Essential

in thi s process is the need for managers to

stimulate, communicate, and encourage

Figure 2

The second stage of empowerment – as a coaching enabler

Personal capability

Potential

Current

Current capabilityof achieving fullpotential

Current Enhanced

Stretching beyond

Coaching

Enabler

ENABL

ER

Source: Nicholls (1995)


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employees to participate in the flatter organi-

zation.

The Briti sh Gas suggestion process relies

on a closely defined structure to ensure suc-

cessful implementation of the empowerment

concept. At the time of submitting a sugges-

tion, all employees are offered a scratch card

with a maximum prize value of £5. This

incentive was developed as a way to get peo-

ple to participate. Each suggestion is given

careful consideration with the maximumtime between suggestion submission and a

management decision regarding the added

value of the suggestion limited to 72 hours.

Those suggestions adding value and in line

with business objectives receive an award of

10 per cent of the added value minus any costs

accrued during the first year i t is

implemented. When awards are implemented

for the business uni t as a whole, the maxi-

mum is increased a further 10 per cent or up

to a maximum of £2,500. Cr itical to the suc-

cess of the evaluation and suggestion stages

of the programme is the fact that these have

become items on which managers are mea-

sured in their performance appraisals. Eachyear an award presentation attended by top

management and line managers is held

where the best award receives a trip to the

value of £5,000.

Table I

Creating an empowerment culture and management strategy

Aut hors Focus Sub-t hemeBeach (199 6) Relates the experience of one organization Practical examples of changes

in establishing an empowerment culture through through focusing on employeenon-traditional management performance and commitment are given

Collins (199 6a) Links the concept of empowerment to The lack of more frequent debate on

participation and democracy to show the empowerment in management literaturecomplexity of theory and debate in this field is also reflected in the absence of

discussion on empowerment within

businesses

Collins (199 6b) Views empowerment as a part of a greater Management control and governancewhole, that is a part of management control are reviewed by using the examples of systems Nissan and Mazda

Cook (1994) Reflects on the impact of empowerment on Training and teamwork support areorganizational culture when employees are important components of anable to influence their work empowered culture

Gore, Toledano and Looks at an empowered leadership strategy How use of action learning as aWills (1994) for MCB publishing to include management action management strategy can facilitate

learning; systems development; mentoring and change

coaching; and structured change

Höpfl (1994) Considers the relationship between management Gaps may often spring up betweendevelopment and self-development for empowered management objectives and everydaymanagement practices

Logan et al. Reflects on the subject of empowerment as Empowerment seen not only from a(1996) members of the Editorial Advisory Board of professional role but also from a

Empowerment in Organizations personal one

Long (1996 ) Follows a case study over four years primarily Empowerment requires top to bottomin health-care companies involvement with employee appraisals

an intricate part of the process

Newton and Examines an empowerment project for 80 Organizational change is only possibleWIlkinson (1994) first-line and middle managers at a hospital in with the firm commitment and

the UK to enable them to take ownership of their dedication of management jobs and ultimately improve the hospital’s

performance

Nixon (1994) Sees empowerment as a function of leadership Difficulties associated withand organizational culture and tries to apply empowerment and learning are

practical strategies for achieving this state discussed in order to revise existingprogrammes and processes

Simmons (1995 ) Calls for a partnership between workers and Employee motivation is not only

management as a means of encouraging workers materialistic but non-material strategiesto give their energy and commitment can be effective motivational tools


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Legislative and policy changes forced one

local authori ty to look at how the organiza-

tion was functioning and take action geared

to customer needs. All staff participated in

key activities: the formulation of a statement

of purpose, a communication charter, and

performance appraisal wi th the outcome

being a high level of energized creativi ty and

innovation throughout the organization.

Seminars and questionnai res were used tolaunch the empowerment programme with

input from employees on what areas they felt

the organization was actually hi ndering their

work. Quick win situations were created with

an award system, communications working

group, and organizaional learning. To ensure

managers were responsive to their employ-

ees, performance reviews of managers

included employee development, 360 degree

appraisal, and managers’ achievements

through delegation and the use of man-man-

agement skills.

Employee parti cipation may happen in the

form of employees taking part in decisionsand making their own individual contribu-

tion, employees working together with man-

agement, or employees collaborating with co-

workers in project or work groups (Nykodym

et al ., 1994). The next section reviews the

li terature on empowerment in the context of

empowerment implementation with the pur-

pose of gaining knowledge of ways to put

empowerment theory into practice effectively

in general and more specifically through the

use of teams.

Empowerment implementationtechniques and empowering teams

The term “catalytic empowerment” is used

by Dickmeyer and Will iams (1995) to refer to

techniques applied to unprofitable companies

in order to make them profitable. When the

empowerment process is set in motion, a

chain reaction occurs drawing employees,

suppliers, customers, and stakeholders into

the transformation.

One method of putting empowerment into

practice is by creating self-managed project

or product work groups (Marguil ies and

Kleiner, 1995). These teams have the ability tomake decisions regarding the project and

input information impacting on organiza-

tional strategy. Bui lt into the empowerment

of teams is a reward system recognizing the

Table I I

Empowerment in training and development and employee participation

Aut hors Focus Sub-t hemeDavis and Empowerment used as a tool to transform the The learning organization and staffStocking (1996 ) culture of a typical local authority bureaucracy development

Echiejile (199 4) Gives examples of empowerment programmes Special programmes viewed not as awhere the needs of disadvantaged employees burden for organizations but a win-win

are considered opportunity

Jones et al . (1996) Looks at how to get the most out of people and Information technology is not asee people as the key to organizational change substitute for human qualities andand success capabilities

Kappelman Examines how a small degree of empowerment in Empowerment becomes a wayand Richards a change programme positively affected the individuals can exert control in a change(1996) success of the programme situation

Lloyd (1996 ) The flatter organizational structure at British Gas Organizaional culture and a participativerequired new suggestion systems in order for environmentemployees to participate and influence change

Nicholls (1995) Interprets empowerment as a state or frame of The broadening of an individual’s work

mind requiring training and not something merely challenges employees and enhancespassed on from one person to the next personal development

Nykodym et al. Employee participation through empowerment Some of the potential negatives with(1994) can take many forms and employ many empowerment strategies are illustrated

management techniques

Pott er (1994) Describes how empowerment has changed the Empowerment and employee partici-role and activities of managers and defines a pation linked to the mission statement

ten-point action plan

Rodrigues (1994 ) Raises the difficulties involved in empowerment Empowerment requires ongoing trainingprogrammes in order to bring about organizational and development

effectiveness


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contribution of the team as a unit. Worki ngon a group project develops bounds between

team members and employee motivation

rises through greater job satisfaction and self

actuali zation. Organizational communica-

tion also benefits since group projects stimu-

late lateral exchanges as opposed to vertical

communication. Self-management does

require certain conditions to function prop-

erly. These are a level of task differentiation,

the degree to which the group has control

over its project, and the level of empower-

ment in the decision-making process.

Pence (1996) has designed a self-diagnosticquestionnaire to determine an organization’s

commitment to teams. The 15 questions cover

pertinent issues and the company’s relation-

ship with teams including top management

commitment, recrui tment, managementappraisals, training, standards, rewards and

recognition, communication, policies and

procedures, and facili ties. For Brower (1995),

empowerment consists of four A’s which must

be aided by suitable information, support

from within the organization, and several

types and levels of leadership to be successful

(Fi gure 3).

In a survey of 600 companies in diverse

sectors covering 12 employee characteristics

of quali ty, empowerment was ranked as very

important by 53 per cent of respondents

(J olton cited in Logan, 1995). Responses forthe 12 dimensions ranged from 43 per cent for

development to 76 per cent for customer ori -

entation. For Cleary (1995), empowerment is

also closely linked with quali ty improvements.

Table III

Empowerment implementation techniques and empowering teams

Aut hors Focus Sub-t hemeBorn and Rewarding employees for empowered behaviour The character of the job often determinesMolleman (1996) is complex in traditional pay systems thus the degree of empowerment possible

requiring more flexible systems of reward

Brower (1995) Delves into the issue of empowerment in teams In order to achieve empowerment, basic

and develops a model of empowerment development tools are required

de Burgundy (199 6) Critiques the use of management consultancies Management techniques used byand advocates organizations use their own workers consultants are reviewedto understand how the organization functions

Cleary (1995 ) Exposes empowerment as a way to improve The process of empowerment bringsquality by using the plan-do-study-act theory of about unknown and unknowable benefitsDeming for the organization

Dickmeyer and Discuss the term catalytic empowerment where Performance measurement is necessaryWilliams (1995) consultants turn around unsuccessful companies to test the success of empowerment

Harley (1995 ) Cites the need for balancing operational and human Organizational authority, if used properly,issues for empowerment and describes eight key can unleash hidden human potential

principles to accomplish this

Logan (1995 ) Includes empowerment in the larger framework Human quality is often neglected in theof actions driving quality within an organization drive for superior technological quality

Marguilies and Describes empowerment in terms of how work Empowerment seen as a package ofKleiner (1995 ) groups are designed and highlights the concept behavioural and support attributes

of self management for these groups

Miller (1996) Advocates the use of humour as a way to Positive feedback and stroking can do

stimulate empowered cultures much to raise employees’ self-esteem

Morley (1995) Theorizes about the use of empowerment in Empowerment can be misused as athe public sector manipulative technique by management.

Pearson and Assess the implementation of empowerment in Empowerment viewed as it is cascadedChatterjee (1996) a study of its introduction in an organization and throughout the organization

presents a model for implementation

Pence and Gives a practical example of an empowerment Article is concluded with a short reviewLunderman ( 1995 ) programme with impacting employee participation and critique of the programme that was

at lower management levels implemented

Pence (1996 ) Uses a technique of self-assessment to measure Support systems are fundamental to thean organization’s commitment to empowered success of empowered teams

teams


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Empowering employees who possess first-

hand knowledge of their work can take place

by using quali ty guru Edward Deming’s plan-

do-study-act cycle. Cleary demonstrates howresponse time was reduced for support calls

to a software and training organization as a

result of a team of employees’ analysis of the

process and actions to improve it.

Miller (1996) sees humour as a powerful

empowerment tool to stimulate the communi-

cation and creativity processes as well as

relieving stress. Empowered organizations

should also be fun environments for manage-

ment and employees.

The inherent difficulties of traditional pay

and reward systems to recognize and incorpo-

rate empowerment has led Born and Molle-man (1996) to conclude that more flexible pay

systems would be needed to deal appropri-

ately wi th rewarding individual and/ or team

empowered performance. Figure 4 i llustrates

the elements of empowerment, beginning

with the concept of a change strategy and

ending with results.

Empowerment and the hospit alit yindustry

Lashley (1996) wr ites of the gap between man-

agement’s intention in using empowermentstrategies and employees’ experiences wi th

empowerment in the hospital ity sector. If

employees interpret empowerment as added

responsibi li ty and an increased workload

without a corresponding reward, whether

monetary or nonmonetary, they are unlikely

to respond positively to i t. Empowerment

should be a matter of choice and not obliga-

tion. A five-dimensional model of empower-

ment for hospitality operations was devel-

oped by Lashley and McGoldrick (1994, p. 31)

to include: “the task dimension, the task

allocation dimension, the power dimension,the commitment dimension and the cultural

dimension”.

The work of Huanget al . (1996) looked at

how different cultures react to poor hotel

service. They found that in the case of Ameri -

can customers with complaints, these cus-

tomers sought out higher-level management

to address their problem. Empowerment may

therefore need to take into account the cus-

tomer’s attitude towards empowered employ-

ees and some form of educating the

customers might be required to inform them

as to what the empowered employees are

entitled to do and what issues these employ-ees can address. At Radisson Hotels in Swe-

den, a brochure entitled “No Excuses” is

found in each room which sets out 12 attrib-

utes of the room that must be in perfect

working order or repaired within one hour. If

the problem is not resolved, the customer will

be moved to a new room. I f there is no other

room available, the customer wi ll be not be

charged for the room. The customers and the

employees know exactly what the conditi ons

of the guarantee programme are and can act

accordingly.

Maxwell’s (1997) case study of

empowerment at the Glasgow Marriott,

which used an employee questionnaire, dis-

covered that employees had a positive

approach to empowerment although advan-tages and disadvantages were also clearly

stated. Advantages for the employees included

higher levels of job satisfaction, better cus-

tomer servi ce, more rapid decision making,

and personal development. Some of the

deficits employees found in empowerment

related to communication difficulties, unclear

work practices, higher levels of pressure on

staff, and increased competition among

employees. Equally important was the need to

support the early stages of the empowerment

process with training to clarify the extent and

implications of i ts use.In the service sector, and more specifically

the hotel industry, empowerment i s often

seen as a way to gain competitive advantage

with the consumer. However, the true poten-

tial of empowerment is broader. Dickmeyer

and Willi ams’ (1995) article on turning

around unprofitable companies demonstrates

the impact of empowerment and change on

six performance measures: employee

turnover (a decline with empowerment),

increase in sales per employee, a higher profit

margin, lower material cost as percentage of

sales, lower labour cost as a percentage of sales in two out of four cases, and higher net

profit dollars. Empowerment can thus be

li nked to soft measures of performance

exposed by Brander-Brown and McDonnell

Figure 3

Building blocks of team empowerment

Information

Leadership

Support

AblenessAccountability

Authority Alignment


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(1995) wi th the use of the balanced score-card

concept in the hotel sector.

Conclusions

Empowerment has been explored in the con-

text of articles from a journal specializing in

thi s area. The concept can be approached

from many angles, and organizations want-

ing to embrace thi s approach to business

must be ful ly aware of its complexity.

Empowerment is not something which can

be passed over from management to employ-

ees as a pen i s handed from one person to

another. It is a complex process which

requires a clear vision, a learning environ-ment both for management and employees,

and parti cipation and implementation tools

and techniques in order to be successful.

Whi le the hospitali ty industry has been

quick to latch on to the potential of empower-

ment for a sector so reliant on human capital,

many lessons can be learned from research

and experi ence in other business sectors in

order to achieve a truly entrepreneurial

culture throughout all levels of the organiza-

tion.

ReferencesBeach, A .J . (1996), “Empowerment to the people:

creating an atmosphere for growth”,

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Figure 4

Empowerment and organizational change

Empowerment as achange strategy

Managementbehaviour

Managementstrategies and

empowerment objectives

Implementationtechniques

Training anddeveolpment

Employeeentrepreneurship

Employee participation as individuals and

in teams

Rewards and recognition for individual,team and organisational results

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13. Randal Ford. 2006. Organizational learning, change and power: toward a practice‐theory framework. The Learning Organization 13:5, 495-524. [ Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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