Employment ... ? yes, but qualityemployment with fair working conditions ... !By Jan de Veen, POLDEV, ILO, Geneva

Irrigation, forestry and environmental protectionIrrigation, forestry and environmental protectionIrrigation, forestry and environmental protectionIrrigation, forestry and environmental protectionIrrigation, forestry and environmental protectionin Nepalin Nepalin Nepalin Nepalin NepalBy Mr. Lokollo, ILO, Kathmandu, Nepal

Community participation and gendersensitivity

The project at a glanceAfter six years implementation in Ne-pal, the efforts of promoting popularparticipation in irrigation developmentseems to bear fruit. The final evalua-tion of the project has been positive andkeen interest has been engendered atcentral level.

The entry point for the DhaulagiriIrrigation Development Project (DIDP)in 1989 was to secure sufficient andreliable irrigation water to small scalefarmers in the mountains of Nepal, in

order to increase food production, andthereby contribute to the alleviation ofpoverty.

Sufficient irrigation water has in-creased food production in most imple-mented sub-projects by about 20-30%,either due to increased yields or tochanges in the cropping pattern, e.g.from two to three crops per year. Theimplementation strategy has been a de-mand-driven, employment intensiveand popular participation approach.

During the 1970s and the first half ofthe 1980s, in promoting the use of la-bour-based approaches for infrastruc-ture construction and maintenance, theILO worked directly with governmentagencies in some 30 developing coun-tries. During the latter half of the 1980sa significant shift took place towardsincreased involvement of the privatesector, particularly in the implemen-tation of civil works. Many countriesinitiated contractor developmentprojects, while at the same time estab-lishing an agency capacity to manageand monitor the contract work.

Small local contractors proved verysuccessful in carrying out labour-basedirrigation and rural roadworks for sev-eral reasons. First, the intensive useof locally available resources requiredrelatively limited capital investmentsin heavy equipment, (raising capitaland particularly foreign exchange is abig problem for small contractors). In-stead, it drew heavily upon the contrac-

contents

Editorial ................................................ 2

The work of ASIST ............................... 2

Soil conservation .................................. 3

Environmental impact assessment ...... 4

Women & rural transport .................... 5

What is child labour? ........................... 9

New publications ................................ 10

Book reviews ....................................... 11

EIP news ............................................ 13

Diary of forthcoming events .............. 14

Training news .................................... 15

Urban news ........................................ 16

News from Asia ................................... 17

Project news ........................................ 19

Labour standards; Environmental issues; Gender issues

Continued on page 7

Continued on page 8

tors’ knowledge of local people and con-ditions (a mostly unexploited strengthof local contractors). Second, develop-

ment programmes aimed to establisha reasonable working environment, e.g.

Even small improvements make a big difference

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ADVISORY SUPPORT INFORMATION SERVICES AND TRAINING FOR LABOUR-BASED PROGRAMMES

A programme executed by the Development Policies Department (POLDEV) of the ILO Bulletin No.8 January 1999

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editorial

The Employment-Intensive Pro-gramme (EIP) is a large scale techni-cal co-operation programme promotingthe use of local resource based technol-ogies in infrastructure works in devel-oping countries, and strengtheningtheir capacity to apply such technolo-gies.

ASIST currently comprises two re-gional support programmes in Africaand Asia working within the frame-work of the EIP. Their objective is toincrease the use of cost-effective labour-based methods with fair working con-ditions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia andthe Pacific, and thereby promote em-

ployment and income generation in therural and urban areas.

Advisory SupportASIST provides comprehensive policy,planning and technical advice. ASISTadvises on project and programme de-sign, co-ordination, monitoring, andreview of both urban and rural labour-based programmes, and rural traveland transport programmes.

Information ServicesASIST actively gathers, synthesisesand disseminates relevant publishedand unpublished information on andrelated to rural and urban labour-based

technology and rural travel and trans-port. ASIST provides a Technical En-quiry Service to respond to specific re-quests for information. ASIST main-tains a database of contact persons andinstitutions involved in the promotionand development of labour-based tech-nology and rural travel and transport.

TrainingASIST provides support to nationaltraining institutions and universitiesin the development and provision oftraining in labour-based technologyand rural travel and transport. Thisinvolves support in the development ofcurricula, training programmes andmaterial, as well as training techniquesand methodology. ASIST also facili-tates annual international trainingcourses for engineers, senior techni-cians and trainers in collaboration withthe Ministry of Public Works and Hous-ing, Kisii Training Centre, in Kenya.

ASIST HarareTerje Tessem: Programme DirectorJane Tournée: Senior Technical AdviserFatemeh Ali-Nejadfard: Senior RuralTransport AdviserGamelihle Sibanda: Technical AdviserTomas Stenström: Technical AdviserIda Chimedza: Information OfficerPO Box 210, Harare, ZimbabweTel: +263-4-748344/7; Fax: +263-4-759427Email: asist@ilo.org

ASIST NairobiDavid Mason: Senior Technical AdviserWilma van Esch: Urban Technical AdviserJan Fransen: Training/UrbanCoordinatorSam Orwa: Training OfficerAngela Kabiru-Kangethe: InformationCoordinatorAnnabel Chite: Information OfficerAnne Obara: Administration OfficerPO Box 60598, Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254-2-572555/572580Fax: +254-2-566234,Email: iloasist@arcc.or.ke

ASIST-Asia PacificMike Shone: Chief Technical AdviserJan Sakko: Associate ExpertPO Box 2-349, Rajdamnern,Bangkok 10200, ThailandTel: +66-2-288-2303; Fax: +66-2-267-1735Email: asist-ap@ilo.orgWebsite: http://iloasist.csir.co.za

The work of ASIST

ISSN: 1020-0606The ASIST Bulletin is published by the In-ternational Labour Organisation AdvisorySupport, Information Services and Train-ing (ILO/ASIST) Programme.

Editorial team Annabel Chite, AngelaKabiru-Kangethe and David Mason. Lay-out and illustrations by Dan Amayo.

All articles and drawings can been repro-duced without permission, but the sourceshould be quoted as ILO/ASIST. Photo-graphs carrying no copyright mark © maybe obtained on application from thepublishers.

This bulletin is intended for use as an infor-mation source and is not an official documentof the International Labour Organisation.Opinions expressed in signed articles arethose of the authors and do not necessarilyreflect the views of the ILO or of ASIST. Theeditors reserve the right to make changes toall articles before publication. The designa-tions employed in the ASIST Bulletin, whichare in conformity with the United Nationspractice, and the presentation of materialtherein do not imply the expression of anyopinion whatsoever on the part of the Inter-national Labour Office concerning the legalstatus of any country, area or territory, or ofits authorities, or concerning the delimitationof its frontiers.

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editor ia l

This Bulletin shows examples of guid-ance available and practical interven-tions to be undertaken to better ad-dress issues related to casual labour,gender and the environment. Likepeople in other professions, engineersand planners want to show that theyare competent. Professional work, interms of labour-based infrastructureworks, is not limited to the propertechnical designs and construction of,for instance, a road to a village or adrain in an urban settlement.

Labour-based works means labourfeatures as an important component.When engaging people, the interna-tional and national rules and regula-tions are not the only vital elements.If good labour policies and practicesare established, important benefitscan accrue to the employers from pro-ductivity increases.

Gender equality should come as anatural part of good labour practices.Furthermore, when it comes to thechoice of interventions, be it in infra-structure, transport means, or loca-tion of services, a good gender balance

must be achieved. This, however, hasnot been evident. Gender imbalanceshave sidelined women in the decisionmaking process on interventions andinvestments.

Environmental issues have been inthe forefront of discussion in recentyears. Pressure groups and politicianshave managed to change the attitudeof many technocrats. Evidence fromthe field shows, however, that there isstill a lot to learn in terms of practicalmeasures in infrastructure develop-ment and maintenance.

The Bulletin covers a large numberof issues. However, the examples andreferences to appropriate materialshould encourage us to address theseissues in a more professional manner,and this will reflect on our image asengineers and planners. It will alsogreatly benefit our clients and benefi-ciaries. They will be fairly treated, andwill get better and more cost-effectiveinterventions and investments thatbenefit a wider part of the population.This is being professional!

Terje Tessem, Programme Director

We regret to announce that our dearestcolleague Monica Dombo, Administra-tive Assistant, passed away on 9 January1999. She will be greatly missed for herserious, efficient, hard work andremarkable contribution to ASIST. Herpersonal engagement in the well-beingof all staff and visitors was appreciatedby everybody, and her positive, helpful,generous and cheerful disposition willbe remembered for a long time to come.

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Fear of high costs for soil conservationalong roads has been a major obstacledelaying inclusion of these environmen-tal aspects in rural road programmes.

Experience from the Kenyan MinorRoads Soil Conservation Pilot Project,which was implemented 1990-1992 bythe Ministry of Public Works (MoPW)in collaboration with the Ministry ofAgriculture (MoA), showed that lowcost technology could be effective. Thelimited data available indicate that in-vestment in soil conservation wouldpossibly be justified by future reducedcosts for road maintenance.

Conflict between roadbuilders and farmers result

in inadequate road drainage

Soil erosion caused by road drainagehas been recognised as a serious prob-lem in parts of Kenya, particularly inintensively cultivated areas in hilly ter-rain, and in semi-arid areas with poorvegetative ground cover. Studiesshowed that in some areas up to 90%of culvert out-falls cause gully erosion.

This situation has caused conflictsbetween the Roads Department andfarmers making it almost impossibleto upgrade and maintain a road to setstandards, unless farmers are satisfiedthat measures are taken to limit soilerosion damage.

Drainage systems discharging wa-ter onto farmland, that are installedwithout farmers’ acceptance, are oftendeliberately blocked by them.

Apart from looking at the road andthe road reserve, the Pilot Projectlooked into off-road soil conservationin the catchment above the road (up-per catchment) and below the road(lower catchment), and into the con-struction and stabilising of drainageout-falls for safe discharge of water.

Benefits from off-road soilconservation

Soil conservation is promoted as partof the Ministry of Agriculture landmanagement programmes, with exten-sion packages offering sufficient yieldincrease to be implemented withoutgovernment subsidies.

Farmers adopting soil conservationmeasures realise that they can nowcontrol the water and make productiveuse of it. This change in farmers’ atti-tudes towards viewing water as afriend instead of their enemy is a mostimportant achievement.

Within the Pilot Project, the MoAgave priority to critical catchmentsabove and below the road. The RoadsDepartment consulted land ownersduring the planning of road drainage.As a result of shown commitment to-wards limiting eventual damages fromwater discharge, no single farmer re-fused to have water channelled over hisor her land. Five years later, no cul-verts and drains along the pilot projectroads have been blocked by farmersand there is generally very little ero-sion damage.

Expected level of benefitsi) Reduced cost for periodic maintenanceAlthough we have no country widestudies indicating actual levels of re-duced costs for periodic maintenance,there are indications that this benefitalone could financially justify the rela-tively marginal additional cost foroff-road soil conservation. Studies areurgently needed to find the level of ex-pected savings.

Over an eight-year period, we findthat the total cost of road maintenance,(including the initial investment in soilconservation), would be 69% of the costfor the alternative without soil conser-vation.ii) Repairs as compared to preventionThe following example illustrates thecost difference between prevention andrepairs.

Road E 560 runs between Nyeri andMurang’a Districts. Four kilometreswere constructed with soil conservationmeasures, and four without.

In 1997, five years after construc-tion, there was still no soil erosion dam-age on the section with soil conserva-tion despite no maintenance work be-ing carried out.

Three years after construction, mostof the culverts (twelve) along the sec-tion without soil conservation have de-veloped gullies, gradually eating awaythe road (culvert rings are already fall-ing one by one into the gullies). The costof repairs is estimated to be 2.7 timeshigher than the cost of prevention.

Comparing the present net value ofexpenditure with and without soil con-servation shows that waiting for re-pairs to be carried out three years af-ter the road is constructed would costtwo times as much as prevention wouldhave cost initially. n

Investment in soilconservation along roads:Was money well spent?

3

Construction of artificial waterway to convey water safely to a disposalpoint

environmental issues

By Arne Eriksson, Agrisystems, Nairobi, Kenya (acted as a project adviser)

Experience from the minor roads pilot soil conservation projectin Kenya

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Environmental Impact Assessment, orEIA, is the process of identifying andpredicting environmental and socialimpacts that may result from any de-velopment or intervention. During theprocess, the causes of these impacts aredetermined, and thereafter solutionsare developed to check, avoid or pre-vent both existing and anticipated im-pacts. Impacts may affect, or resultfrom, the physical environment (forexample, soils or hydrology), the natu-ral environment (e.g. forests or wet-lands), the human environment (e.g.public health, settlement) or productionsystems such as agricultural activitiesor livestock keeping.

When engineers come across theterm EIA, their first reaction may belack of comprehension, suspicion oreven aversion. These reactions stemfrom the fact that EIA is still a rela-tively new notion in roadworks activi-ties in developing countries, and fewengineers or people involved in the roadsector actually understand what it is.Most frequently EIA is regarded as ahindrance to road projects.

A road project involves a number ofstages: planning, feasibility, design,construction, operation and mainte-nance. All the steps in the EIA processcan be undertaken during these stag-es. The basic steps of an EIA are de-scribed below, in relation to when inthe project cycle they should be carriedout.

Conceptualising, or identification of,the road project in terms of national orlocal development priorities is the firststage in a road project cycle. At thisstage screening, which is the first stepin an EIA, is done. The objective ofscreening is to determine the extentand detail to which an environmentalassessment is necessary. For example,improvement works to an existing mainroad may only require limited or par-tial analysis. But if the road passesthrough a protected area (such as a na-tional park) or if a new road alignmentis necessary, then a much more de-tailed study is required.

Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) as acomponent of the roadproject cycleBy Arundhati Inamdar-Willetts, Environmental Consultant, Nairobi

The environmental impact as-sessment study itself involves anumber of steps.

If a detailed EIA is required, then ascoping exercise is carried out to as-certain the main issues of concern thatthe EIA study should focus on. Scop-ing allows for the planning of the EIAstudy and forms its terms of reference.Scoping should be done during the pre-

feasibility stage. This step is omittedfor a partial EIA.

A baseline study is then undertak-en to establish the social and environ-mental setting that may be affected bythe road project.

Field surveys are conducted, positiveand negative impacts and their caus-es are investigated and analysed,and appropriate solutions or mitiga-tion measures are developed. Theanalysis also addresses means for en-hancing positive impacts. Theseactivities should form part of the fea-sibility study and preliminary design.Both mitigation and enhancementmeasures are presented in an environ-mental mitigation plan, which indi-cates the schedule for implementationof these measures, who is responsiblefor mitigation and enhancement, andassociated costs. Mitigation plansshould be included in the detailed de-sign.

The findings and recommendationsof the EIA study are contained in an

EIA AND THE TYPICAL ROAD PROJECT CYCLE

ROAD PROJECT PLANNING CYCLE EIA PROCESS

PROJECTCONCEPTUALISING OR

IDENTIFICATION

PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

FEASIBILITY STUDY

DETAILED DESIGN

PROJECT APPRAISAL

PROJECT APPROVAL

CONTRACT DOCUMENTS

CONTRACT TENDERING

TRAFFIC OPERATIONSAND ROAD

MAINTENANCE

EVALUATION /REVIEWAND TECHNICAL AUDIT

SCREENING

SCOPING ANDPREPARATION OF TOR

ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT STUDY (EIS)

ENVIRONMENTALSPECIFICATIONS IN

CONTRACT DOCUMENTS

APPROVAL OF EIS ANDDECISION ON PROJECT

PREPARATION OF EISREPORT

REVIEW OF EIS

MITIGATION PLANS

IMPLEMENTATION OFMITIGATION MEASURES

ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING

MONITORING OFMITIGATION MEASURES

EVALUATION ANDENVIRONMENTAL

AUDITING

CONSTRUCTION ANDSUPERVISION

FINAL REPORT ANDENGINEERING

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environmental impact statement.The statement should be a componentof the Final Report and EngineeringDrawings. In addition, environmentalspecifications should be included in theContract Documents.

Recommended mitigation and en-hancement measures are then imple-mented during the construction phase.

Monitoring of mitigation and en-hancement measures is carried outduring construction, during operation(including the defects liability period)and during road maintenance. Usingthe baseline survey as a benchmark,monitoring ensures that mitigationmeasures are being implemented in anenvironmentally and socially friendlymanner, and that these measuresthemselves do not give rise to undesir-able impacts. It also enables the iden-tification of impacts that were not pre-dicted by the EIA study, so that actioncan be taken to prevent or mitigatethese unforeseen impacts.

An evaluation is carried out to as-sess whether the proposed mitigationand enhancement measures have beensuccessful. If they have not been sat-isfactory, then the reasons for this mustbe determined and alternative mitiga-tion measures must be developed.Evaluation also allows trends in envi-ronmental improvement or regressionto be established, on the basis of infor-mation gathered during monitoring.Evaluations can be done as part of roadproject or sector reviews.

Technical audits are often carriedout for road projects or programmes.Environmental audits can be incor-porated into these audits. Their pur-pose is to compare actual and predict-ed impacts, and to assess the accuracyof the findings and recommendationsof the EIA study.

The figure on page four compares thetypical stages of a road project cyclewith those in an EIA, and thus illus-trates how an EIA can be integratedinto planning, design, construction, op-eration and maintenance.

In conclusion, it is important to em-phasise that in carrying out an EIA,no new concepts are introduced. Rath-er, EIA allows for the integration ofenvironmental management into exist-ing stages of a normal road project cy-cle. By doing this, reactive environ-mental assessments (i.e. situationswhere EIAs are done after the designstage or during construction, whenproblems become apparent) are avoid-ed, and consequently road projects willbecome environmentally and sociallyacceptable. Moreover, EIA will be seenas a tool for enhancing the planningand implementation of road projects.n

Reducing the transportburden: Women and ruraltransportBy Doris Chingozho, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), Harare

In Sub-Saharan Africa, rural people,particularly women, bear the brunt ofmeeting the arduous transport de-mands of their day-to-day tasks. Thesituation in Zimbabwe confirms this.

Fundamentally, the rural transportissue in Zimbabwe and Sub-SaharanAfrica is largely ignored or given mar-ginal consideration in the transportpolicies of rural development. SinceZimbabwe’s independence in 1980, a lotof effort has been put into processes fordeveloping and improving health, edu-cation and the economy at large, butnot much has been done to improverural transport networks which are theconduits thatshould facili-tate develop-ment. Takinginto accountthat Zimba-bwe is anagro-based economy with 75% of itspopulation in rural areas, improvingrural access using low cost meansshould be a key tenet of development.The problem that stalled this develop-ment was that, soon after independ-ence, the highly centralised system ofgovernment inhibited the realisation ofrural opportunities and demands.

Much emphasis was placed on im-proving urban roads’ carrying capacityto cater for the increasing urban popu-lation. As a result, even in 1998, thereis not yet a comprehensive rural trans-port policy. The 1997 landmark RuralTransport Study (RTS), by the Minis-try of Transport and Energy (MoTE),with the technical support of the ILO,is the only point of reference available.However, this is now changing with thedevolvement of central governmentfunctions to local governing authoritiessuch as the Rural District Councils(RDCs). Successful implementation ofthe recommendations in the RTS willalso improve the situation. Yet anoth-er problem is that financing and main-taining road development is a capital-intensive venture that needs substan-tial resources. External aid has beenvery useful, but the government lacksthe capacity to sustain the require-ments.

Whilst current statistics on pavedroads in Zimbabwe are impressive,even on a regional scale, the situationin the rural areas is different. Accessto rural areas is constrained by poor,winding roads that at times are im-passable during the rainy season. Thishas various implications for the ruralpeople. Firstly, it scares away publictransport like buses. There are delaysin transporting their goods and servic-es. The nature and size of business op-erations are also constrained. Small-scale dairy and horticultural farmersfor instance have to throw away milkand vegetable produce due to transport

p r o b l e m s .Where trans-port is avail-able for hire,hiring feesare exorbi-tant. As a re-

sult, farmers either transport co-oper-atively or individually, but at uneco-nomically high costs, which are in somecases not recoverable. This reduces de-velopment, increasing the levels of mar-ginalisation.

How poor transport affectswomen’s lives

Women in the rural areas face tre-mendous transport problems in meet-ing the requirements of their daily du-ties. The RTS indicates that womenand girls do most of the traditionallyfemale prescribed roles. In addition,they also do male tasks since men areabsent most of the time. The majorityof travelling and transport in the ruralareas is done by women on foot carry-ing head-loads. This applies to collect-ing firewood, collecting water, going tothe grinding mill and commercial cen-tres. The RTS indicates that 95% of wa-ter collection is carried out by girls andwomen, entailing an average of fourtrips on foot daily carrying a 25 litrebucket for two to three hours. The ru-ral population depends on firewood asfuel. This implies more travelling andcarrying demands and the burden onwomen increases.

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The majority of travelling and transportin the rural areas is done by women on

foot carrying head-loads.

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On average, 85% to 90% of firewoodtrips are carried out by women and thefrequency depends on family size andconsumption, distance to firewoodsource, and the use of an IntermediateMeans of Transport (IMT). The situa-tion for grinding mills is much thesame. ITDG has been instrumental insupporting the development and use ofIMTs in Zimbabwe to mitigate theseproblems. These include a number ofinterventions such as wheelbarrows,sack barrows, water barrows, watercarts, push and scotch carts, carryingdevices for animals, etc. Bicycles arealso another useful IMT, but largelyowned and used by men.

IT Zimbabwe and the ILO have de-scribed these IMTs in two publicationson Low-cost transport devices. One is aUser’s Guide and the other a Manufac-turer’s Guide. The books are availablefrom ASIST. Through the use of IMTsby those who have access to them, wom-en can now save time for other social,economic and in some cases politicaloriented activities, thus enhancingtheir empowerment capacity. They cannow engage in income-generatingprojects such as sewing and gardening,increasing their incomes.

Impact of transportinterventions

The gender impacts of IMTs have beensubstantial enough to warrant furtherefforts in this direction. Women in ar-eas where IMTs have been disseminat-ed are positive about the impact of thetransport devices, although access anddegree of benefits is not always equal.Statistics from Chiota in MashonalandEast Province of Zimbabwe show thatonly one household was found withIMTs. Therefore, the statistics fromChiota show that, out of the 27 sur-veyed households, 18 (66.5%) said thatthe technology is not gender sensitiveand only nine (33.5%) were positive.These views differ from those who havebeen exposed to IMTs. The evidencefrom Chiviand Nyangais that thecarts are lightto lift andeasy to use,and the don-keys are easy to harness. This does notcause physical strain on the women andtraction stress on the draft animals.The water carrier is also gender sensi-tive and can be easily used by womenand even small children. The water cartcan also be converted into a wheelbar-

row by removing the drums, and canbe reinforced to act as a ripper as wellas making it a lot more convenient forwomen’s varied and demanding tasks.The wheelbarrow has a neutral genderimage, i.e. it is not perceived as an ex-clusively ‘male’ or ‘female’ vehicle, un-like a bicycle which in design and usetends to be seen as transport for men.The most popular feature of IMTs isthe ‘split rim’ concept on the carts.Women said that it is very easy to re-move a punctured tyre, thus negatingthe need to wait for men’s assistance.

What matters mostWhilst the issue of gender sensitivetechnology has received popular sup-port, new findings indicate that it isnot just the orientation of the technol-ogy that is important but its access atlow cost that matters most. There hasbeen no other significant issue raisedbesides making the technology lighter,and improving roads that are mostly

used by women.Women in Chio-ta have beenforced to partakein heavy dutiesthat are tradi-tionally for men.

This complex set-up can be explainedfrom two angles. Firstly, from a sam-ple of 27 rural households surveyed,40.7% are largely female managed and29.6% are female headed with only25.9% being male headed. Women domost of the heavy work in the fields.

Secondly, they said they have little re-sources available, and therefore domore work to increase their little mon-etary base as much as possible. This isdue to increasingly harsh economicmarginalisation, partly as a result ofthe Economic Structural AdjustmentProgramme (ESAP).

Whilst women acknowledged thatsome wheelbarrows are lighter, theycomplained that they break easily andcannot withstand the everyday worktypical of the rural areas. The fact thatpunctured ox-cart tyres are difficult toreplace is a general complaint, butwomen can do it if they are properlytaught how to. The major problem isthat they lack money to pay for the re-pairs; thus it can stay for months with-out repair. Surveys from Nyanga didnot show any complaints on gender buton fundamental mechanical designs,such as smaller capacity and shortheight. While a gender analysis is im-portant, research should concentrateon designing low cost technology thatis appropriate to the harsh rural con-ditions. For women, it is not the na-ture of the technology that mattersmost, but its availability at low cost.

Therefore rural transport problemsas highlighted above are phenomenal.The mainstreaming of rural transportpolicy in Zimbabwe’s development ob-jectives has the potential to reduce thisburden. The policy should also take intoaccount complex and dynamic relation-ships within rural communities. n

For women it is not the nature of thetechnology that matters most, but its

availability at low cost.

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Woman with donkey carrying water drums, Eastern Cape

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From single to multi-sectorapproach

From the outset, the DIDP was a sin-gle sector project under the Depart-ment of Irrigation. While irrigationremained the key intervention, addi-tional activities such as agricultural ex-tension, income generation, environ-mental protection, community forest-ry, mini hydro power, etc. have beenimplemented by DIDP or jointly withother relevant agencies.

Women are gettingrecognised

Realising the importance of women inthe agricultural process, the DIDP hasgiven special attention to the organi-sation of women as a constant sourceof information. Formation and train-ing of Women Saving Groups (WSGs)has proved to be a successful means ofimproving living standards, and ofmaking families self-reliant and lessvulnerable.

WSGs have been introduced to andtrained in summer, winter and off-sea-sonal vegetable production. Irrigation,and improved techniques and varieties,have ensured additional incomes andbetter nutrition for families, earningthe women recognition and respectfrom the men. WSGs in Myagifi Dis-trict have on their own initiativeformed a district women group. Oneof their priorities is to establish a co-operative vegetable seed centre in thedistrict.

Participatory approachSufficiency of water is regarded as oneof the core issues to increase food pro-duction. In order to sustain implement-ed irrigation infrastructure, popularparticipation has been perceived notonly as involving farmers in construc-tion and rehabilitation of irrigationschemes, but principally as a means todevelop institutional, financial and ad-ministrative units which a communityneeds to operate and maintain an irri-gation scheme. Farmers and commit-tee members have received relevanttraining in order to develop and im-prove local skills.

Involvement of NGOsA tripartite setup between the DistrictIrrigation Office (DIO), DIDP, andNGOs has been tried out with a fairamount of success. NGOs have worked

at grass-root level as community organ-isers, giving training in income gener-ating activities and environmental pro-tection. In co-operation with the DIOs,NGOs have been responsible for localinstitutional building.

An innovative approachWith its status as a pilot project, theDIDP has the flexibility and the obli-gation to experiment with new imple-mentation strategies.

One innovation is the ‘piecework sys-tem’. The piecework system allows thebreakage of construction work intopieces and the tendering of it to con-struction groups within the communi-ty. Work beyond the capacity of theconstruction group is invited by tenderfor lowest level contractors.

The piecework system allows to alarger extent than earlier for the bene-ficiaries to participate in constructionwork and to secure ownership of irri-gation infrastructures. Piecework isfurthermore gender neutral as work ispaid per piece no matter the gender,cast, etc.

‘Minimum Assistance’ projects areanother DIDP innovation. For smallschemes or schemes requiring onlyminor inputs, minimum assistance be-comes a promising alternative. Con-struction materials are delivered at thenearest road head, and skills traininggiven. Construction work and trans-port remain the responsibility of thebeneficiaries. This approach has shownto be very promising and of great sat-isfaction to the beneficiaries.

DIDP in key figuresü 67 sub-projects implementedü 6000 households involvedü 2,585 ha land irrigatedü Cost per ha: from US$1,030 to 77ü 350,000 paid workdays generatedü 70% of direct construction cost

spent on labourü 67 Farmer’s Irrigation Associa-

tions (FIA) and Water UsersManagement Committees(WUMCs) formed

ü 90 Women Saving Groups formedü ILO Technical Assistance to His

Majesty’s Government of Nepalü Multi-bilateral DANIDA funding:

US$ 3.7 millionü Additional support from UNDP,

British VSO, Danish Associationfor International Co-operation(MS), WFP, UNICEF and HMGNepal

ü 3000 women trainedü 300 farmers and officials trainedü Considerable amount of training,

e.g. agricultural extension,income generating activities,construction skills, environmetalprotection, water management,leadership training,accounting, etc. n

Continued from page 1

For more information contact:ILO/DIDP

PO Box 8971 KathmanduTel: +977-1-414550/413619Fax: +977-1-419424/523991

gender issues

Women using improved irrigation techniques

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by introducing administrative systemsthat allow timely and regular paymentfor construction. Third, technical andbusiness management training wasprovided, enabling the contractors toperform efficiently both in terms ofmanaging labour-based sites and inrunning their businesses.

However, the use of labour-basedmethods through the private sector ispotentially more risky than a situationwhere a government agency directlyexecutes the work. In the latter case,the agency concerned will normallyautomatically apply the labour regula-tions related to the workers employedby it. But, when contractors are in-volved, temptations exist to increaseprofit margins by underpaying work-ers or in other ways to reduce costs bylowering working conditions. Fortu-nately, many local contractors consid-er good working conditions essential fortheir relations with their workers andthe long-term prospects of their enter-prise. Most are, therefore, keen to knowand apply the relevant labour regula-tions, to treat their workers fairly andto pay them regularly and on time.

It remains essential nevertheless inlabour-based infrastructure works togive the right priority to labour issuesand to introduce regulations to avoidworker exploitation and improve uponworker’s productivity. The best guar-antee for large-scale and successful la-bour-based programmes — whether ex-ecuted by the private or the public sec-tor — is a motivated and fairly treatedworkforce!

So, what are the most important is-sues to consider? As a first considera-tion, child labour and forced labourshould be avoided through the appli-cation of the related labour legislationin the country concerned. In respect offorced labour it must be ensured that‘voluntary’ contributions are truly vol-untary, in other words that the work-ers concerned work for their own ben-efit and are not forced in any way.

Then, workers should get a fairwage, at least equal to minimum wag-es or to applicable collectively bar-gained wage levels where these exist.Where these do not exist or where theyare clearly irrelevant to the labour-based sector, an attempt should bemade to negotiate an agreement withthe social partners involved. The wagelevel for unskilled agricultural labouror the closest comparable regulatedwage for similar work could be used asa starting point for such negotiations,leading to a collective agreement. Thereare also clear guidelines on the use of

payment in kind (food or other) or par-tial payment (incentives for communi-ty initiatives) for works of this nature.1

It is equally important — both for theemployer and the workers, although fordifferent reasons — that wages are paidregularly and on time.

Furthermore, there is the issue ofensuring a minimum level of social pro-tection. Although it will be verydifficult to arrange for social securityschemes in this sector, an essentialminimum is some form of insurancecoverage for work-related injuries, com-plemented by measures to avoid acci-dents on worksites. Where contractsare concerned, the related costs shouldbe borne by the responsible contractor,who in turn should be in a position topass on these costs to the client througha specific item in the contract.

Equal treatment of male and femaleworkers is another issue to be takenseriously. Men and women should getequal pay for comparable tasks, as wellas equal access to employment andhigher level supervisory and manage-ment jobs.

Finally, the basic minimum work-ing conditions on sites should be de-fined and enforced. Minimum meas-ures would include the availability ofclean drinking water, first aid facili-ties, and protective clothing for danger-ous work such as rock-breaking.

Of course, all this costs money, andmay be difficult to enforce on many anddispersed worksites, particularly whenthe private sector is involved. Useshould therefore be made of the ten-dering and contract system for thispurpose. Simple contract documentsshould be introduced with appropriateclauses on the treatment of workers,dealing with the issues discussedabove. The client — for civil works inmost cases a government agency —

should define the items of particularconcern in the tender documents andbe prepared to accept the additionalcosts involved as specified in the con-tractors’ bid. Similarly, the agency hasthe obligation to make timely and reg-ular payments for certified work there-by enabling the contractor to pay theworkers timely and regularly.

The development of such a ‘fair’working environment will take timeand effort, but is indispensable for la-bour-based programmes to last, and forlocal labour-based contracting firms tohave a long term future. The involve-ment of representatives of government,employers and workers in defining ap-propriate standards, conditions andregulations is important. For this rea-son the employment-intensive infra-structure projects supported by the ILOstrongly encourage the formation ofcontractors’ and workers’ associations,and the start of a dialogue between thesocial partners concerning the labourissues referred to in this article. TheLabour Policies and Practices Guidementioned in the footnote presents thecurrent experience on how these issuesmay be dealt with in the project envi-ronment. It also gives guidance andadvice to government ministries re-sponsible for civil works, labour andemployment and to workers’ and em-ployers’ organisations2 on how to jointlymake progress in this field. n

1See Annex 3 of Employment-IntensiveInfrastructure Programmes: Labour policies andpractices, D. Tajgman and J. de Veen, ILO,Geneva, 1998.

2Upon request to ILO/ASIST or theDevelopment Policies Department of the ILO inGeneva, reasonable numbers of copies of thisGuide will be made available free of charge to ILOconstituents and labour-based practitioners.

Continued from page 1

Mechanisms for enforcing labour clauses

quality employment

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In all regions of the world, the discus-sion of what constitutes child labour iscomplicated by the perception and cul-tural traditions of different countries.What is appropriate work for childrento carry out as part of becoming pro-ductive members of families and socie-ties? Looking at what constitutes childlabour in international standards clari-fies that some work by children is al-lowed. Work which subjects childrento exploitation and abuse is prohibited.This prohibited work is child labour.

Causes of childlabour

Poverty is the most important reasonwhy children work. Poor householdsneed the money which their childrencan earn, and children commonly con-tribute around 20-25 per cent of farm-ing income. Since by definition poorhouseholds spend the bulk of their in-come on food, it is clear that the in-come provided by working children iscritical to their survival. Other factorsthat impact on child labour includelarge household size, single parenthouseholds, lack of universal educationleading to a low level of formal educa-tion, lack of other alternatives toschooling, lack of skills, and culturalacceptance of child work as part of thesocialising process.

Hazardous work

The extent of injuries and illnesses toworking children is cause for great con-cern. A large number of working chil-dren are significantly affected by vari-ous hazards.

Factors which contribute to makingwork particularly hazardous are as fol-lows.

Age of the child It is critical to thehealth and development of the childthat young children be prohibited fromall forms of work. The youth and ten-derness of children make them moresusceptible to various work-related in-juries and illnesses than adults whoperform the same kind of work. Forvery young children the situation ismore serious; the younger the child, themore vulnerable he or she is to physi-cal, chemical and other hazards, likedangerous/hazardous machines, at thework-place, and to the economic exploi-tation of his or her labour.

Sex of the child Almost everywhere girlswork longer hours than boys. This isespecially true for girls who work out-side their homes since they are oftenexpected to help with the houseworkas well. The greater burden placed ongirls may explain their generally lowerrate of school attendance and comple-tion.

Hours worked The number of hoursthat children work is also criticallyimportant. Fatigue is a major cause ofaccidents and can impair intellectualdevelopment.

Physical and psychological strain of theactivity, and the dangerous and toxicagents and substances to which they areexposed Injuries include punctures,broken or complete loss of body parts,burns and skin diseases, eye and hear-ing impairment, respiratory andgastro-intestinal illnesses, and feverand headaches caused by excessiveheat in the fields or in factories.

Sectors where children arefound to work

Mining and constructionMining and constructionMining and constructionMining and constructionMining and constructionAlthough the number of children work-ing in mining and construction is rela-tively small, the occurrence of injuriesand illnesses is significantly high inboth sectors. These are by far the twoworst sectors for working children,particularly for working girls; morethan one girl in every three (35%) andone boy out of four (26%) are affectedby injuries and illnesses if they workin the construction sector; and if theywork in mining, where they are exposedto dangerous/hazardous machines, theincidence is one in every five girls (21%)and a little more than one out of sixboys (16%).

Commercial agriculture sectorCommercial agriculture sectorCommercial agriculture sectorCommercial agriculture sectorCommercial agriculture sectorAgriculture, in which most workingchildren are found, is considered byoccupational health and safety expertsto be among the most dangerous occu-pations. Climatic exposure, work thatis too heavy for young bodies, snakebites, cuts from sharpened tools, andtoxic chemicals represent additionalhazards.

Informal sectorInformal sectorInformal sectorInformal sectorInformal sectorChildren who work in garages are ex-posed to paint, asbestos, battery acidand lead batteries, as well as to petro-leum products. They are exposed torisks from welding and grinding, worklong hours crouched, standing, leaningor lying down. In tanneries, childrenhandle skins placed in water and irri-tating and toxic substances such as cal-cium carbonate, lime, arsenic and am-monium acid. They breathe nauseat-ing air all day long. Street hawkerstrek many kilometres every day carry-ing along their goods as street vendors.

What is child labour?

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Child labourers working in a mine

child labour

By Mary Mbeo-Manyasi, International Programme for Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC),Nairobi

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Domestic service sectorDomestic service sectorDomestic service sectorDomestic service sectorDomestic service sectorThe children who work in this sectorare mainly girls. They routinely workvery long hours, under pressure, andalmost in total isolation from familyand friends. They are subjected tophysical and sexual abuse. They arethe first to rise and last to go to bed,permanently working, with no time togo to school, to go out, or to play. Thiscombination of factors is known to rep-resent a profound risk to the psycho-social health and development of chil-dren, particularly the youngest.

Commercial seCommercial seCommercial seCommercial seCommercial sexxxxxChildren, especially girls, are increas-ingly found in prostitution, which notonly threatens their physical safetyand health, but seriously damagestheir emotional development.

Proposed actions

Commitments to eliminating extremeforms of child labour should be imple-mented through time-bound pro-grammes of action. These programmesshould aim at the immediate suppres-sion of extreme forms of child labourand give special attention to those chil-dren who are subject to even greaterexploitation and abuse because of theirspecial vulnerability. Thus, in partic-ular, work by the very young shouldbe prohibited and special protectiongiven to girls. Along with removingchildren from intolerable situations,action against hazardous child labourrequires a strong rehabilitation com-ponent to ensure permanent removalfrom hazardous work.

Efforts must also be placed on pre-ventive measures if long lasting resultsare to be achieved.

The political will must be exercisedto commit the resources necessaryto ensure a future for all childrenwhich is free from the scourge of childlabour. n

For further information on child labourcontact Mary Mbeo-Manyasi, NationalProgramme Coordinator, IPEC,PO Box 40153, Nairobi, Kenya,Tel: +254-2-576729, Fax: +254-2-566509,Email: ipec_kenya@africaonline.co.ke

Municipal solid wastemanagement involving micro-and small enterprises: Guide-lines for municipal mangersHans Christiaan Haan, Adrian Coadand Inge Lardinois. WASTE, GTZ, ILO,SKAT, 1998, 154pp. ISBN 92-9049-365-8.US$20.00

This book is for managers, engineersand administrators who have someresponsibility for munic-ipal solid waste manage-ment, and who are look-ing for ways to improve theservice or economise. It cov-ers the “Why?” and “How?”of involving new entrepre-neurs and small community-based groups in the collectionof solid wastes (garbage) fromstreets, homes and businesses.The book is primarily concernedwith situations found in middleand lower-income countries, anddraws extensively on experiencesin Latin America, Southeast Asiaand Africa.

Urban employmentguidelines: Employment-intensive participatoryinfrastructure investmentLiu Jinchang. ILO 1998, 67pp.ISBN 92-2-110944-5. Free on application.

These guidelines have been developedto assist the social partners, local au-thorities and informal sector organisa-tions with a view to improving produc-tivity and working conditions in the ur-ban informal economy. This documentis based on both research and policyworks, and the lessons learned from theILO’s country-level technical co-oper-ation activities. The guidelines repre-sent a determination to build on thestrengths of the ILO’s decades-long

experi-ence in the fields of the

urban informal sector and em-ployment-intensive investment pro-grammes. It takes these experiences astep further, both integrating andadapting them to the context of an ur-banising world.

The labour-basedtechnology source book: Acatalogue of keypublications. Fourth(revised) editionASIST Information Service.January, 1999, 56pp.Free on application.

Labour-based technology (LBT) isnow well established as a viable option

NewPublications

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child labour

EEEEEMPLOMPLOMPLOMPLOMPLOYMENTYMENTYMENTYMENTYMENT-I-I-I-I-INTENSIVENTENSIVENTENSIVENTENSIVENTENSIVE

IIIIINFRASTRUCTURENFRASTRUCTURENFRASTRUCTURENFRASTRUCTURENFRASTRUCTURE P P P P PROGRAMMESROGRAMMESROGRAMMESROGRAMMESROGRAMMES:::::LLLLLABOURABOURABOURABOURABOUR POLICIESPOLICIESPOLICIESPOLICIESPOLICIES ANDANDANDANDAND PRACTICESPRACTICESPRACTICESPRACTICESPRACTICES

GUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDE

The Employment-Intensive Programme (EIP)of the ILO has put together a guide on how todeal with labour issues in the context of

employment-intensive infrastructure programmes,and on how to ensure these programmes conform tothe relevant ILO standards. The guide is called“Employment-Intensive Infrastructure Programmes:Labour policies and practices” and is targeted at thoseinvolved with the design and implementation ofurban and rural infrastructure projects.

Most countries which adopt labour-based policieshave committed themselves to one (or more) of thefollowing pertinent international labour standards.The guide advises on how these can be better imple-mented. The following are some of the most important labour standards

which should be respected.

The international labourThe international labourThe international labourThe international labourThe international labour

standards relevant tostandards relevant tostandards relevant tostandards relevant tostandards relevant to

employment-intensive worksemployment-intensive worksemployment-intensive worksemployment-intensive worksemployment-intensive works

This centrefold is aimed at providing you with aquick overview of what you can expect to findin the guide.

All appropriate precautions shall be taken to ensure that

all workplaces are safe. The risk of injury to the safety

and health of workers shall be minimised.Safety and health in construction convention,1988 (No. 167)

Wages shall be paid in cash money. Where wages are paid

partially in form of allowances in kind, such allowance

should be appropriate for the personal use and benefit of

the workers, and fair value shall be attributed to such

allowances.Protection of wages convention, 1949 (No. 95)

Minimum wages shall be established and enforced for

groups of wage earners. Minimum wage fixingconvention, 1970 (No. 131)

No person under the age of 15 shall be employed orwork. No person under the age of 18 shall beemployed or work in hazardous circumstances.Minimum age convention, 1973 (No. 138)

Workers and employers shall have the right to establish

and join organisations of their own choosing, without

prior authorisation. These organisations shall beindependent and voluntary in character, and shall be free

from all interference, coercion or repression.Rural workers’ organisation convention, 1975 (No.141);

Freedom of association and protection of the right toorganise convention, 1948 (No. 87); Right to organise

and collective bargaining convention, 1949 (No. 98)

Work or service shall not be exacted from any personunder the menance of any penalty. Nor shall it beexacted under circumstances where the person has not

offered himself or herself voluntarily.Forced labour convention, 1930 (No. 29)

Men and women shall receive equal pay forwork of equal value.Equal remuneration convention, 1951 (No. 100)

Equality

Freedom from forced labour

Freedom of association

Minimum age

Minimum wages

Protection of wages

Safety and health

General guidelines onGeneral guidelines onGeneral guidelines onGeneral guidelines onGeneral guidelines onlabour policies andlabour policies andlabour policies andlabour policies andlabour policies and

practicespracticespracticespracticespractices

In employment-intensive infrastructure

programmes the effective management of large

numbers of workers is one of the major

challenges facing employers, contractors, consultants

and supervisors. The guide highlights key issues for

consideration and gives advice on how to tackle the

following specific management tasks.

4. Remuneration in kind4. Remuneration in kind4. Remuneration in kind4. Remuneration in kind4. Remuneration in kind

1. Recruitment1. Recruitment1. Recruitment1. Recruitment1. Recruitment

2. Wage setting2. Wage setting2. Wage setting2. Wage setting2. Wage setting 5. Protection of wage payment5. Protection of wage payment5. Protection of wage payment5. Protection of wage payment5. Protection of wage payment

3. Basis of remuneration3. Basis of remuneration3. Basis of remuneration3. Basis of remuneration3. Basis of remuneration

How to set appropriate remuneration for unskilledlabourers.

How to set a basis of remuneration that (i) preventsabuse, and (ii) optimises productivity.

How to determine whether remuneration in kind isan appropriate form of wage payment.

How to ensure that workers get the full remunera-tion to which they are entitled in a timely and regularmanner. How to ensure they can freely spend it.

How to engage a sufficient number of workers forlabour-based activities, avoiding forced labour andensuring equality of opportunity.

9. Management and supervisory9. Management and supervisory9. Management and supervisory9. Management and supervisory9. Management and supervisoryt r a i n i n gt r a i n i n gt r a i n i n gt r a i n i n gt r a i n i n g

8. Motivation and discipline8. Motivation and discipline8. Motivation and discipline8. Motivation and discipline8. Motivation and discipline

7. Other labour regulations not7. Other labour regulations not7. Other labour regulations not7. Other labour regulations not7. Other labour regulations notdealing with wagesdealing with wagesdealing with wagesdealing with wagesdealing with wages

6. Attendance6. Attendance6. Attendance6. Attendance6. Attendance 10. Safety and health10. Safety and health10. Safety and health10. Safety and health10. Safety and health

11. Social security and insurance11. Social security and insurance11. Social security and insurance11. Social security and insurance11. Social security and insurance

12. Duration and termination of12. Duration and termination of12. Duration and termination of12. Duration and termination of12. Duration and termination ofe m p l o y m e n te m p l o y m e n te m p l o y m e n te m p l o y m e n te m p l o y m e n t

13. Rights of association13. Rights of association13. Rights of association13. Rights of association13. Rights of association

How to set up effective mechanisms for maintainingan appropriate level of attendance.

How to take proper account of other existing labourregulations when implementing labour-basedprogrammes.

How to maintain worker motivation. How todiscipline workers.

How to develop supervisory skills to optimise theorganisation, management and motivaton of un-skilled workers.

How to ensure workers’ safety and health at work

How to establish types and levels of social securitybenefits to which workers are entitled

How to establish methods for terminating theemployment of workers, both for disciplinary reasonsand normally, that is, at the end of the project.

How to respect, protect and promote workers’,employers’ and communities’ rights of association.

PIECEWORK

RecommendaRecommendaRecommendaRecommendaRecommendations totions totions totions totions tokey actorskey actorskey actorskey actorskey actors

Finally, the guide gives recommendations to the following key actors on how to promote good labour policiesand practices and how to put them into effect.

How ministries responsible for civil works can:

How ministries of labour and employment can:

Recommendations to workers and workers’ organisations on:Recommendations to workers and workers’ organisations on:Recommendations to workers and workers’ organisations on:Recommendations to workers and workers’ organisations on:Recommendations to workers and workers’ organisations on:

Recommendations to employers and employers’ organisations on:Recommendations to employers and employers’ organisations on:Recommendations to employers and employers’ organisations on:Recommendations to employers and employers’ organisations on:Recommendations to employers and employers’ organisations on:

Recommendations to government ministries on:Recommendations to government ministries on:Recommendations to government ministries on:Recommendations to government ministries on:Recommendations to government ministries on:

The guide is available from ASIST, PO Box 60598, Nairobi, Kenya, PO Box 210, Harare, Zimbabwe or from the ILO,POLDEV, 4 route des Morillons, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland

.

ü influence policies and practices of ministries of civil works towards employmentcreation with fair working conditions

ü enforce labour regulations applied to the labour-based sectorü encourage workers of labour-based civil works projects to organise

themselvesü encourage labour-based employers to respect applicable labour

laws and provide fair working conditions on site

ü promote small local contractorsü enforce labour clauses

ü how workers’ organisations can organise workers in the labour-basedinfrastructure sector

ü how to develop an understanding of labour-based technologies andincentive systems among workers’ representatives, so that thebenefits of such systems are understood and abuses prevented

ü

ü the benefits of labour-based contractorsorganising themselves into business groupingswith links to a relevant employers’organisation

ü how employers can ensure that labour-basedworkers are productive but not exploited

how to develop a strategy to prevent exploitation of workers

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Productivity norms forlabour-based construction:Technical Brief No. 2.David Stiedl, Ulf Brudefors, Mike Shone.ILO/ASIST, 1998, 41pp. US$4.10

This guideline is targeted at profession-al staff, either engineers or technicians,who have experience in road construc-tion and maintenance activities andsome exposure to the concepts and ap-plication of labour-based technology.

The first section deals with defini-tions, in which the various activitiesrelating to construction are clearly de-fined. The second section summarisesthe productivity norms that have beenreported from many projects in Africaand Asia. The third section gives guid-ance on the factors that can affect pro-ductivity and how productivity can beimproved. It also gives advice on pro-cedures for the setting, measuring andmonitoring of activities so that projectspecific norms can be refined. n

for building infrastructure in countrieswith low wages and high unemploy-ment. This source book seeks to put to-gether a selective list of the key publi-cations that have been found useful byour partners over the years. The publi-cations cover all aspects of labour-based technology for infrastructure de-velopment and rural travel and trans-port from first steps to detailed imple-mentation. The source book does notintend to provide an exhaustive list ofall that is available on labour-basedtechnology but focuses primarily onthose sectors that the ASIST pro-gramme has actively beeni n v o l v e d in.

BookReviews

A Guide to integrated ruralaccessibility planning inTanzania: Gender integratedversionPeter Njenga, Ophilia Mascarenhas andMhina Edmonds. ILO, Swiss Agency forDevelopment and Cooperation, March1997, 74pp. Free on application.

Reviewed by Tatenda Mbara, SeniorLecturer, University of Zimbabwe.

This book deals with the subject of in-tegrated rural accessibility planning(IRAP), with clarity, simplicity andpragmatism, thus making the guidea good reference for both the lay per-son and the practitioner.

The title of the book is rather de-ceptive. On reading it, one gets the

impression that the subject matter ad-dresses only Tanzania.However, the

concepts canbe applied inother countries as well to addressIRAP issues.

The authors have ably married theIRAP concept with relevant examplesfrom Tanzania.

The guide has an excellent executivesummary. The introductory sectionwhich sets the scene is followed by acomprehensive section on IRAP steps.

Gender poverty andemployment: Turning

capabilities intoentitlementsAmelita King Dejardin and AzitaBerar Awad. ILO, 70pp. ISBN 92-2-109963-6

Reviewed by Vivien Walden,Independent Health Adviser,and by Jane Tournée, SeniorTechnical Adviser,ILO/ASIST.

This 70 page publication isadvertised as “a practicaland didactic guide for pol-icy and programme devel-opment, which should beof interest to a wide au-dience.” It is intended to“reinforce further therenewed global com-

mitment for employment pro-motion, poverty eradication and gen-der equality.”

The publication highlights the posi-tion of women in developing countries,that despite economic progress, thepoor are becoming poorer: the numberof rural women living below the pover-ty line is actually increasing. In Sub-Saharan Africa, over 30% of ruralhouseholds are headed by women,while in selected countries such as Bot-

The IRAP steps are explained in a lu-cid manner. The last three sections cov-er institutional arrangements, resourceissues, and monitoring and evaluationrespectively.

One feature which has been dealtwith throughout the book is the needto incorporate gender issues in acces-sibility planning. The guide emphasis-es the need for a bottom up approachby involving communities at everystage of the planning cycle and in theidentification of priority needs. Theguide puts it succinctly, “interventionsshould be affordable, adaptable to lo-cal conditions and use available re-sources acceptable to users and sus-tainable.” Other important aspects dis-cussed in this book include the needfor a holistic approach involving all keystakeholders in action plans, and thetwo elements of monitoring pertainingto progress of the process and progressagainst defined targets.

The guide is undoubtedly an impor-tant contribution to the understandingof IRAP, and should be a valuablesource of reference to any individual ororganisation with an interest in ruraldevelopment.

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swana, over 45% of households are fe-male headed. Despite these figures,women are still considered to be sec-ondary income earners: they continueto face unequal access to “productiveresources and services.”

The publication further points outthat poverty is more than a problem ofincome and consumption, that it is alsoa question of powerlessness. The sec-ond part of the brochure, “Breaking outof Poverty” looks at ways of improvingthe situation of women. The areas cov-ered are land rights and access; educa-tion and training; financial resourceswith a focus on credit; employmentopportunities; social protection andempowerment through organisation.Each section contains illustrated exam-ples from different countries and clearGuides for Action.

Under the section on ExpandingWage Opportunities, the participationof women in Employment IntensiveProgrammes (EIPs) is examined. Un-fortunately, despite ILO’s nearly 40years of experience working with lineministries in Africa, nearly all the ex-amples are cited from Special PublicWorks type programmes and Social De-velopment Funds, and are focused

mainly in SouthAmerica. Sudan and Botswana do re-ceive a mention with Botswana beingthe closest example of the type of la-bour-based programme being imple-mented in the majority of cases in Sub-Saharan African countries.

This minor criticism apart, the illus-trated examples, and the Guides forAction, reinforce the need to addressthe issues of: setting payment levels;use of self-help; recruitment methods;diversifying of women’s jobs; conditions

at the work site; which we see beingraised by gender studies at the projectand programme levels.

Given the trend towards greater useof the private sector within labour-based programmes, and the need to en-sure that the Guides for Action forwomen’s access to employment oppor-tunities are safeguarded (i.e. throughcontractual obligations on the part ofthe contractor and appropriate moni-toring by the client’s representative),we would recommend this publicationto all implementers of labour-basedworks.

Self-help for roadconstruction: When itapplies, how it can beencouraged and supportedExperience in Flores, East Indonesia andother countries

Peter Winkelmann. INTERCOOPER-TION, Swiss Agency for Development andCooperation, (expected date of publica-tion: April, 1999)

Reviewed by Jan de Veen, POLDEV,Geneva

Based on field experience in EasternIndonesia and a number of other coun-tries, this study looks into various as-pects of self-help initiatives in road con-struction: preconditions, supportingmeasures, sustainability, costs, andpotential.

It describes and discusses the re-sults obtained through the provisionof minimum training and technicalsupport to communities’ tradition-al self-help efforts in building vil-lage roads and motorable tracks.Country level examples from Ne-pal, Ghana, Tanzania and Lesot-ho present interesting experi-ence, confirming and comple-

menting observations made in Indone-sia, putting the Flores case in a widerperspective.

Some principal conclusions are thatif self-help initiatives are to be success-ful, road access has to be a priorityneed for the village concerned; thatcommunities are able and willing toprovide self-help labour; that there areestablished self-help traditions; thatthere is a high degree of social homo-geneity and support from local leaders;and finally that there are technicallyand socially feasible opportunities forroad projects.

Other important factors include thata basic transport system (network ofmain roads and vehicles) is in place,that self-help efforts are supported bygovernment attitudes and policies andthat external agencies leave ownershipof projects to the communities con-cerned.

In terms of sustainability, the studyconcludes that local access roads, builtunder self-help schemes and consideredimportant for the local economy, standa good chance of being maintained bythe villagers, as long as they feel thatresponsibility will not be taken over byan external agency. Communities willnot discard technology and skills whichproved useful to them. Once they haveexperienced the advantages of correctroad surveying and construction, thereis little likelihood that they will returnto earlier, incorrect methods.

Important questions to be posed be-fore promoting self-help schemes forroad projects include: Is the self-helpgenuine or top-down enforcement by alocal elite or government? Can the com-munity afford the investment of self-help labour? Is there sufficient percep-tion of the economic benefits of theplanned project? Are there alternativesto self-help labour? Are there alterna-tives to roads?

If conditions are judged to be favour-able, supporting measures should beconsidered, e.g. training of project staffadapted to the village situation, par-ticipatory road planning, surveying,design and construction of ultra-low-cost structures.

Also, villages in the vicinity of aproject should be offered supportingmeasures such as: inclusion of villagerepresentatives in project-internaltraining; provision of technical advice;checking and correcting planned align-ments; and provision or lending of toolsif necessary.

This publication is recommendedreading for all those likely to be in-volved with self-help road projects. n

ASIST BibliographicDatabase

The electronic database calledASISTDOC is available on request forUS$25.00 for a one year subscription

with quarterly updates. It comes inPC format on two 3.5in diskettes,together with the User’s Guide.

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The ILO Governing Body, in its No-vember session, discussed a paper de-scribing how employment intensiveapproaches in infrastructure invest-ment programmes contribute to pro-ductive employment generation in de-veloping countries. This discussion isimportant in that it was the first timethat the Employment Intensive Pro-gramme, as it has developed withinthe ILO, was formally scrutinisedand mandated by the ILO’s highestguiding council, which comprises 28government members, 14 worker and14 employer members. Concurrent-ly with the Governing Body paper theGeneva EIP Unit is also preparing anew general brochure on the pro-gramme, as well as a 50 page illus-trated information paper. All thesedocuments will be available by theend of April.

PublicationsFollowing a testing period of twoyears and the receipt of commentsfrom participating universities, theuniversity Undergraduate, Postgrad-uate and Orientation course materi-als — prepared by the InternationalInstitute for Infrastructural, Hydrau-lic and Environmental Engineering(IHE) Delft, in close collaborationwith the ILO — are now being repro-duced in their final version.

A second edition of the recentlypublished ILO publication Employ-ment-Intensive Infrastructure Pro-grammes, Labour Policies and Pro-cedures was printed in October andwill be widely distributed to usersupon request.

New guidelines entitled Employ-ment-Intensive Infrastructure Pro-grammes: Capacity Building for Con-tracting in the Construction Sectorwill be printed in February and dis-tributed in March. These guidelines

describe how large-scale labour-basedinfrastructure programmes, carried outby contract, should be developed, draw-ing on best practices of projects of thisnature from countries in Africa, Asiaand Latin-America. They discuss as-pects essential to their lasting success,including: (i) an environment enablingthe effective training and participationof small local contractors and consult-ants; (ii) methods of ensuring the time-ly and regular payment of workers andfor works; (iii) appropriate and trans-parent contract systems and proce-dures; (iv) targeted technical and busi-ness management training for contrac-tors and consultants; (v) definition, in-troduction and enforcement of relevantlabour regulations; and (vi) provisionto local contractors of access to works,credit, materials, tools and light equip-ment.

StaffingOn the staffing side Steve Miller hasleft Geneva to take up a challengingassignment in New York, assistingwith the ILO preparation for the newWorld Social Summit, scheduled totake place in the year 2000. We wishhim all the best with his new assign-ment.

Gerhard Feistauer was transferredfrom Bangkok to join the Geneva EIPunit in October last year. A decisionon his replacement in Bangkok is ex-pected to be made in the second quar-ter of 1999.

Inter-regional projects

AfricaAs agreed in Kampala in October 1997,the African university network coordi-nators have submitted a proposal for afollow-up initiative to the current Sidafunded inter-regional projects dealingwith capacity building for employment-intensive infrastructure works and ru-ral transport. This proposal has beenintegrated into a new project document,prepared by POLDEV for submission

EIP newsBy Jan de Veen, ILO/POLDEV, Geneva

to Sida. An Asian component hasbeen integrated (see below).

AsiaThe Asian Institute of Technology(AIT) in Bangkok organised a work-shop reviewing the progress made byparticipating Asian learning institu-tions on the integration into theircourses of materials dealing with la-bour-based civil works and ruraltransport planning. The workshopwas held in the beginning of Decem-ber ‘98 in Bangkok and has producedas one of its outputs an Asian follow-up to the current inter-regionalprojects referred to above.

Latin AmericaIn Latin America, the EIP inter-re-gional project dealing with ruraltransport sponsored a two day Re-gional Seminar, organised by the In-ternational Forum for Rural Trans-port and Development (IFRTD). Theseminar took place in September inPuno, Peru. Its principal objectivewas to put rural transport in the lime-light as an important theme to bedeveloped in Latin America. Severalcase studies, based on national ex-periences, from different Latin Amer-ican countries, were presented anddiscussed. The proceedings and thecase studies are available from theIFRTD Secretariat in London.

Also in Latin America, the EIPexpert in the ILO office in Peru or-ganised a Regional Meeting in Lima,which took place on 24 and 25 No-vember 1998. This was attended byrepresentatives from funding agen-cies, Government officials, practition-ers and ILO officials. The meeting hasprovided an opportunity for people in-volved in employment-intensiveprojects (e.g. those projects related toroad rehabilitation and mainte-nance), to exchange experiences anddiscuss key issues about the sustain-ability of such projects. n

The next regional seminar will be heldin Lusaka, Zambia, from 3-7 May, 1999.The theme of the seminar will be con-tractor development in employment in-tensive works, and will address con-tracting issues in the construction andmaintenance of rural and urban infra-structure, and rural in transport.

announcement!

Participation fee rates: participantsUS$ 425, presenters US$ 250, Zambianresidents US$ 150. The fee includes: par-ticipation in all sessions, a field visit, semi-nar papers, proceedings, lunches, morn-ing and afternoon refreshments, transport,reception and a farewell dinner.

For more information contact:Daniel Mulonga,PO Box 30198 Lusaka, Zambia,Tel: +260-1-245746/247185,Fax: +260-1-247264/244004.Email: rts@zamnet.zm

announcement!announcement!Seventh regional seminar for labour-based practitionersSeventh regional seminar for labour-based practitionersSeventh regional seminar for labour-based practitionersSeventh regional seminar for labour-based practitionersSeventh regional seminar for labour-based practitioners

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Conferences, seminars andworkshops 1999

7th International Conference onLow Volume Roads, 23-27 May1999, Louisiana State University,Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.Contact: G.P. Jayaprakash, Trans-portation Research Roads, NationalResearch Council, 2101 ConstitutionAvenue NW Washington DC, 20418,USA. Tel: +202-334-2952, Fax: +202-334-2003. E-mail: gjayapra@nas.edu

Training courses 1999

Transport Research Laboratory roadstraining courses

• Management of AppropriateTechnology in the Road Sector forDeveloping Countries, 21-25 June,UK. Fee: pounds sterling 3200includes accommodation, meals,notes, transport, social activities andcertificate.• Roads and Transport inDeveloping Countries and Emerg-ing Nations, 28 June - 9 July, UK.Fee: pounds sterling 3200 includesaccommodation, meals, notes, trans-port, social activities and certificate.Transport Research Laboratory,International Development Unit,Crowthorne, Berkshire, RGU45 6AU,UK. Contact: Linda Parsley,Fax: +44-1344-770356. Email:international_enquiries@trl.co.uk

ESAMI courses• Transport Planning: A Gen-der Approach, 15-26 March,Mbabane, Swaziland. Contact:Resident Representative, PO Box4234, Mbabane, Swaziland.Tel: +268-48494, Fax: +268-48495• Mainstreaming Gender inDevelopment Planning andProject Management, 9 August -3 September, Mombasa, Kenya.Contact: The Resident Representa-tive, ESAMI, PO Box 56628, Nairobi,Kenya. Tel: +254-11-441513, 441061,Fax: +254-11-442231• Executive Skills Programmefor Women in Technical Fields(Engineering etc.), 6-17 Septem-ber, Lusaka, Zambia. Contact: TheResident Representative, ESAMI,PO Box 32132, Lusaka, Zambia.

Tel: +260-1-222937/225823,Fax: +260-1-222968• Management DevelopmentProgramme for Engineers andTechnical Officers, 15 March - 2April 1999, Windhoek, Namibia.Contact: The Resident RepresentativePO Box 1836, Windhoek 9000,Namibia. Fax: +61-249822• Management Programme forCommercialised and PrivatisedTransport Infrastructure andServices, 3-14 May 1999, Kampala,Uganda. Contact: Admissions Officer,ESAMI or Resident Representative,PO Box 824, Kampala, Uganda.Fax: +256-41-232168• Rural Transport Policy andPlanning, 19 June - 13 July 1999,Harare, Zimbabwe. Contact: Admis-sions Officer, ESAMI, Arusha,Tanzania or Resident Representative,PO Box 2627, Harare, Zimbabwe.Fax: +263-4-706439

For the above ESAMI courses con-tact: The Admissions Officer, ESAMIHqs., PO Box 3030 Arusha, Tanzania.Tel:+255-57-838318, Fax: +255-57-8285/8386. Email:ESAMI_Arusha@mariegn.apc.org

Institute for Housing and UrbanDevelopment Studies urban courses

• Strategies to Reduce UrbanPoverty at the Local Level,13 January - 14 April, Rotterdam,Netherlands.• Municipal EnvironmentalPolicies and Local Agenda,13 January - 14 April,Rotterdam, Netherlands.• Urban Management andPlanning, 28 April - 8 July,Rotterdam, Netherlands.

For the above courses contact: ThePublic Relations Officer, Institute forHousing and Urban DevelopmentStudies. Tel: +31-10-402-1564,Fax: +31-10-404-5671.Email: ihs@ihs.nl

Courses conducted uponrequest

• Infrastructure in Low-IncomeUrban Communities; and WaterSupply and Sanitation for LowIncome Communities. DistanceLearning with WEDC (PostgraduateDiploma Programme). Each diplomacourse consists of a five month

Diary of forthcoming events

Network of AfricanUniversities forLabour-based RoadEngineeringThe information network continues to beactive in producing newsletters. It isbeing coordinated by Dr. S.I.K. Ampaduof the University of Science andTechnology, Kumasi, Ghana. The nextnewsletter will be circulated early in1999.For more information contact:The Network Coordinator, CivilEngineering Dept., School ofEngineering, University of Science andTechnology, Kumasi, GhanaTEL/FAX: +233-51-60226Email: Ampadu@IGHmail.com

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CONTACTSdatabase of CVs

ASIST maintains a database of CVs ofpractitioners and others involved in

labour-based technology. Registrationwith ASIST facilitates networking and

recruitment for long and short term jobopportunities.

If your are interested in being registeredin this database, please send your CV to

the Administrative Officer, ASIST,PO Box 60598, Nairobi, Kenya

module. WEDC, LoughboroughUniversity. Fee: pounds sterling 775for each module. Contact: Mr. Shaw,Fax: +44-1509-211079.Email: r.j.shaw@lboro.ac.uk• Urban management andplanning, urban local leadership,gender issues, localising Agenda21. UNCHS Training and CapacityBuilding Section organises nationalseminars for target groups ondemand. Contact UNCHS PO Box30030 Nairobi, Kenya. Tel: +254-2-621234, Fax: +254-2-624266/7• Strategies for change - Man-aging NGOs; Capacity Building:Management for DevelopmentSpecialists. Cranfield University,Cranfield, UK. Contact: Jane ClarkeTel: +44-1234-751122,Fax: +44-1234-752559.Email: j.clarke@cranfield.ac.uk• Community DevelopmentTraining Project: Training forcommunity organisers. SAMED-Kenya. Seven day courses andtraining on demand. Fee approx.US$ 600, includes full board andtraining materials. Contact: TheDirector, PO Box 16700, Nairobi,Kenya. Tel: +254-2-766927,Fax: +254-2-760901.Email: SAMED@form-net.com

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Labour-based technology in

university trainingBy Sam Orwa, ILO/ASIST, Nairobi

ILO/ASIST, in its endeavour to intro-duce labour-based technology in univer-sity training, sponsored a two dayworkshop on 18-19 August 1998 at theJomo Kenyatta University of Technol-ogy. The aim of the workshop was tocreate awareness of labour-based tech-nology among the university lecturers.Practitioners of labour-based technol-ogy gave presentations while field ex-cursions were organised to give partic-ipants a comprehensive overview of theapplication of labour-based technologyin urban and rural settings. At the endof the workshop an action plan and re-search themes in labour-based technol-ogy were formulated.

The workshop was attended by stafffrom Jomo Kenyatta University of Ag-riculture and Technology, representa-tives from Kenya Polytechnic, Minis-try of Public Works and Housing, Min-istry of Local Authorities, Japan In-ternational Corporation Agency, Nai-robi City Council, Ministry of Labour,Construction Project Consultants andConsulting Engineers.

The Jomo Kenyatta Senate has nowapproved a Master of Science course tobe launched in the year 1999/2000 atthe university. This programme has aunit on labour-based construction tech-nology in Highway Construction Engi-neering under the elective category inthe first year of study. During the sec-ond year of study, students may optto do a thesis on labour-based technol-ogy in Highway Engineering. n

Access is an important factor in ru-ral development since it facilitates theinvolvement of the rural communityin improving their social and econom-ic status.

Many institutions today are en-gaged in research studies with theaim of contributing to the effective-ness of methodologies applied in im-proving the living standard of the ru-ral society. It is in this regard thatthe Federal Institute of Technologyin Switzerland sent two undergradu-ates, Astrid Brunner and DanielaSchwarz, to Kenya to study the ‘Ru-ral Accessibility Planning’ methodol-ogy. The research was part of the stu-dents’ course programme and took aperiod of two months. The researchwas organised and sponsored by theSwiss Agency for Development andCooperation (SDC). ILO/ASIST andthe Kenya Institute of Highways andBuilding Technology gave support tothe research team during the exer-cise.

The study was supervised by Mr.George K. Simba, a lecturer from

Rural accessibility planningresearch study in OloshoOibor

Jomo Kenyatta University of Technol-ogy.

To enhance the quality of learningthrough exchange of views the twoSwiss participants were accompaniedby two Kenyan university students,namely Laban M. Miano, formerly ofJomo Kenyatta University of Agricul-ture and Technology, and Katie H. Sim-ba from Daystar University.

The objective of the study was toidentify the access needs of rural com-munities in a location known as ‘OloshoOibor’ in the Rift Valley province inKenya. The choice of one of the Sub-Saharan African countries as a centreof study was intended to give the stu-dents a practical experience in an en-vironment where the problem of acces-sibility exists.

A report on the research study isavailable from ASIST: Astrid Brunner,Daniela Schwarz and Laban Miano,Rural accessibility planning in OloshoOibor, Rift Valley province, Kenya,1998, 52pp. Ref. No. 08576. n

By Sam Orwa, ILO/ASIST, Nairobi and George Simba, JKUAT, Nairobi

What can be done to help prepare tech-nical personnel for the challenge ofworking in unplanned low income set-tlements? What does it take for con-sultants, contractors, and municipalstaff to feel comfortable working inpartnership with local communities tofind practical and lasting solutions tothe often interrelated problems of roadaccess, drainage, water supply, sani-tation and solid waste management?

Following a series of pilot projectsin which labour-based and communi-ty managed approaches have been ap-plied in the urban context, ILO/ASISTand Scott Wilson have recently con-ducted a study of the related trainingneeds of engineers, technicians andforemen. Based on workshops andmeetings conducted in Tanzania andKenya, pilot training courses are pro-posed for 1999.

In general, technical staff aretrained to avoid risk. They prefer to ad-dress technical issues in isolation fromtheir social, legal, and political context.Yet, many of the hard decisions to bemade require a combination of techni-cal skills and non-technical judgement.To what extent can and should appli-cable standards be adjusted to workwithin a highly congested environ-ment? If the ‘textbook’ engineering so-lution is not possible, are there alter-native solutions that will suffice? Howcan cost effective and timely engineer-ing results be achieved without under-mining the need to nurture a genuinesense of participation within the com-munity?

The proposed training for engineerswill seek to broaden their outlook be-yond the narrow technical base, pro-viding practical training in communi-cating with non-technical stakeholders

Training on urban upgrading and experts. Practical engineeringskills will also be reinforced, with aview to building confidence to the pointthat flexibility and innovation becomepossible.

The emphasis for formen will be onmore practical techniques for imple-mentation. Topics here will include theapplication of labour-based technologyin the urban setting, and the use ofcommunity contracting. The techni-cians course will combine the contentof both the engineers and the formenscourses. n

For more information, contact JanFransen, ILO/ASIST, Nairobi, orHamish Goldie-Scot, Scott Wilson,Basingstoke, U.K.

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Project formulation to upgrade alow-income settlement in Nairobi

Kenya

By Jan Fransen, ILO/ASIST, Nairobi

TanzaniaTwo studies have been commis-sioned by ILO/ASIST for the Han-na Nassif project in Dar es Salaamon contracting in an urban commu-nity managed, labour-based project.One study, conducted by Dr. SohailKhan (WEDC, Loughborough Uni-versity) is specific on the perform-ance of the existing community con-tracts and procedures. The draftreport contains an improved stand-ard community contract for HannaNassif and suggestions for furtherdevelopment of the community con-tractors. The other study, conduct-ed by John Clifton, looks at the in-volvement of private labour-basedcontractors in the Hanna Nassifunplanned settlement upgrading,and appropriate contract documen-tation and procedures. nStorm water drain and access road in an unplanned settlement constructed

through community contracts, Hanna Nassif.

Dandora was constructed as a low-in-come site-and-service scheme in thelate 1970s. The scheme was plannedto house about 100,000 people, select-ed from low-income people living inNairobi. The settlement was thorough-ly planned, with paved roads, footpathsand bicycle lanes, a sewerage system,and other public facilities.

By 1997, the transport infrastruc-ture, sewerage system and other pub-lic infrastructure in Dandora was inserious disrepair. With the assistanceof the local NGO, Welfare AdvisoryCommittee (WAC), the community de-cided to take action. They started someemergency work and contacted ILO/ASIST to set up a project to help themto improve their living and working en-vironment. In October 1998 a projectformulation mission took place, fund-ed by UNDP and executed by RoughtonInternational, Norconsult, ILO/ASISTand WAC.

The community and city councilwere fully involved in the project for-mulation. The project will aim to setup partnerships between the city coun-cil, the NGO, WAC, community organ-isations and the private sector to con-

struct and maintain public infrastruc-ture. n

By Wilma van Esch, ILO/ASIST,Nairobi

Illegal structures and houses havemushroomed in Dandora. As a result,public land has been encroached uponand the ever-increasing number ofinhabitants has far overstretched allpublic services. The project aims to in-volve the community in the planning ofinfrastructure repair in Dandora.

Food for workguide

By Wilma Van Esch, ILO/ASIST,Nairobi

A draft guide for moving from Foodfor Work (FFW) to Food for Assetsand Sustainable Employment(FASE) has been prepared for WFPand ILO by David Tajgman. Thisguide aims to bring topics togetherwhich are relevant for food for workand to provide enough detail toinform the reader of the importantpoints and pitfalls in the planning,design, implementation, monitoringand evaluation of food for work. Aconsultant, Eng. D.W. Jennings,together with ILO/ASISTrepresentatives Wilma Van Eschand Jane Tournée , attended thefinal editing workshop of theguidelines in Lusaka from 7-11September 1998 where trainingproposals for the change weremade. The proposals include anumber of orientation workshops tobe held in the Southern Africaregion. In September 1998, aworkshop was conducted to discussthe guide. WFP Maputo has startedtraining workshops on FFW/FASEtopics. n

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Since its inaugural regional workshopin May 1998, the ASIST-Asia Pacificproject has been focusing on analysingtechnical support requirements for theAsian countries most affected by theAsian Financial Crisis; and on sup-porting ongoing programmes in Nepal,Cambodia, Lao PDR and the Philip-pines.

Still in its Preparatory AssistancePhase, funded by DANIDA, ASIST-Asia Pacific is currently being support-ed by the Regional Office for Asia andthe Pacific (ROAP), ILO Geneva in aspecial Donor Appeal for its full phaseand for new technical project propos-als for Thailand, the Philippines andIndonesia.

Already established in ASIST-AsiaPacific is a new library of country spe-cific documents relating to develop-ment planning and development engi-neering set up by ASIST-Asia PacificAdministrative Assistant, Ms Prayoon-sri Likhitdechasakdi. This library iscurrently being inventoried for integra-tion with the ASIST Document Cen-tres in Nairobi and Harare, which con-tinue to provide important informationservices to the Asia-Pacific Region.

ASIST-Asia Pacific is very fortunateto have recently obtained the servicesof Associate Expert Jan Sakko, previ-ously attached to the East Asia Multi-disciplinary Advisory Team (ILO/EAS-MAT).

ASIST-Asia Pacific now has a teamof four: Jan Sakko, Prayoonsri Likhit-dechasakdi (Pru), Theeranutch P.(Nutch) Project Secretary, and theCTA, Mike Shone.

Comments on the special character-istics of the Asian Employment Inten-sive Programmes have described therecent and very rapid creation of bothemergency and mainstream nationallabour-intensive and labour-based pro-grammes in Thailand, Indonesia andthe Philippines as ‘mega EmploymentIntensive Programmes’. The scale anddiversity of these programmes alreadyunderway and planned is on a scaleonly previously seen in China, Indiaand Bangladesh. Millions (not thou-sands) are to be employed in these ma-jor programmes as unemploymentnumbers grow and poverty levelsincrease. Many of these programmesare lacking in adequate planning, tech-nical quality control and cost effective-ness and the various governments arenow approaching us to assist them to

put them on the right track.ASIST-Asia Pacific faces a huge

technical challenge to adequately re-spond to these needs and will be de-pending very much on the services ofthe best available local and internation-al development planning and develop-ment engineering consultants.

Close working relations are beingestablished with the major financialinstitutions in the region and it is veryencouraging that, wherever practical,labour-based work methods are nowbeing prescribed in infrastructure de-velopment programmes.

ASIST Asia-Pacific NewsBy Mike Shone, ASIST-AP, Thailand

In view of the effective and unique pres-ence of the ILO in the rural infrastruc-ture sub-sector in Nepal and its previ-ous involvement with the Asian Devel-opment Bank (ADB), the ILO was in-vited by the ADB as the only organisa-tion to submit a technical and a finan-cial proposal for the required technicalservices to assist the Government ofNepal in facilitating its ongoing insti-tutional reforms in the agriculture sec-tor in line with the Agriculture Perspec-tive Plan.

The ILO will provide assistance forthe enhancement of sustainable infra-structure development in the rural areaand conduct training programmes andawareness campaigns at the centraland local levels to promote labour-based and environmentally safe tech-nologies for infrastructure developmentand maintenance in the rural areas.

The ILO Chief Technical Adviser forthis 15 month assignment,Hewafonsekage Fonseka, has experi-ence in Nepal and Sri Lanka and hasalready produced ILO/ADB/Govern-ment reports on the following:• Project Review of the Rural Infra-structure Development Project, June1998• The Approach for the Developmentof Agricultural and Rural Roads (Amanual for the preparation of districttransport master plans and the imple-mentation of rural roads sub-projects),July 1998• Technical Specification for Agricul-tural and Rural Roads, February 1998• Work Norms for Agricultural and Ru-ral Roads, February 1998• Proposed Social and EnvironmentalMonitoring and Evaluation System forAgricultural and Rural Roads.

Copies of these reports are availableat cost from ASIST Nairobi or ASISTBangkok.

ThailandThailandThailandThailandThailand

The impact of the economic crisis onemployment is most severe in Thailand,and being felt right across the private

NepalNepalNepalNepalNepal

Banaue rice terraces in thePhilippines, maintained by labour-intensive methods, inspected byASIST-AP, August 1998

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Urban labour-based equipment supported contract road works inspected by ASIST-AP, Jakarta, September 1998

and public sectors. In an effort to alle-viate the devastating impact of the eco-nomic crisis, the Royal Thai Govern-ment has entered into several agree-ments with international financial in-stitutions, such as the IMF, the WorldBank and the Asian DevelopmentBank. Some of the agreements haveresulted in Social Investment Pro-grammes which focus on building so-cial capital, creating productive em-ployment, and making appropriate in-vestments, particularly in the morevulnerable sectors of the economy. Theprogrammes are implemented by ThaiGovernment departments and agen-cies.

Among other crisis responses, PrimeMinister Chuan Leek Pai’s Cabinet hasgiven renewed attention to employ-ment-intensive work methods; theywere adopted as an official priority ingovernment policies in December 1997.The ILO, with worldwide expertise andexperience in Employment-IntensiveProgrammes, has been giving advice totechnical line ministries, helping themto reassess their plans for investmentin infrastructure sectors. Enabling thegovernment to create hundreds of thou-sands of additional jobs, and empha-sising the large employment potentialamong the poor, the ILO advocates agradual shift from equipment-basedconstruction methods to more appro-priate and permanent use of labour-based technologies in government in-vestment programmes. The currenteconomic and political climate is morereceptive to the adoption of such ap-proaches than in the recent past. How-

ever, more effort is needed to persuadethe government and the social partnersto implement employment-intensiveapproaches systematically, and on anational scale.

Since the beginning of this yearASIST-AP has been raising awarenessabout the achievable quality and cost-efficiency of labour-based methodswithin two departments of the Minis-try of Interior: the Public Works De-partment (where the ILO has had aworking relationship for the past 20years) and in the Department forAccelerated Rural Development. Thelatter is now to adopt a policy to applylabour-based techniques where appro-priate and cost-effective, while main-taining the desired quality outputs andtechnical standards. A special ILO la-bour-based technology training pro-gramme for engineers, supervisors andrepresentatives from the line minis-tries is currently under preparation atthe request of the government.

With the teamwork of ASIST andEASMAT specialists, the ILO is pro-viding advice to the Social Fund Office(SOFO) which is responsible for theimplementation of a US$120 millionsocial investment fund from the WorldBank. SOFO screens and approveswell-designed project proposals fromcommunities that apply for a sub-fund.SOFO focuses on projects that gener-ate employment, contribute to localeconomic development, and improvethe capacity of communities to organ-ise and coordinate with public and pri-vate partners. The ILO assists SOFOin strengthening its senior and middle

management to supervise an estimat-ed 5000 projects throughout the coun-try. Special ILO expertise, such asStart and Improve Your Business,Women and Enterprise Development,and Labour-based Technology in Infra-structure courses are integrated intothe management training programme.As investments in infrastructure makeup more than 50 per cent of the com-munity projects, ASIST-AP again pro-motes labour-based technology and lo-cal planning techniques as the desiredimplementation method. In December1998, the Bangkok-based Asian Insti-tute of Technology hosted a regionalworkshop for Asian universities and ed-ucational institutions on developingcurricula and networking in labour-based technology. This seminar was or-ganised to promote labour-based tech-niques and appropriate investmentplanning on a national scale andthroughout the Asia Pacific region. Theworkshop received technical and finan-cial support from POLDEV, the centreof ILO’s EIP programme in Geneva,with ASIST-AP as a focal point in Bang-kok. The widespread economic crisis inAsia, its impact on employment andsocial life, and as it seems, the revivalof employment-intensive programmesin government social investment plans,gave the workshop a special focus. Theco-operation under the ILO Universi-ties Programme, with the much wideradoption of labour-based technical cur-ricula materials in the Asia Pacific re-gion and an increasing number of uni-versities participating in the workshop,has entered into a new stage. n

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It is the intention of the Roads Depart-ment to re-orient the Roads Depart-ment Training School (RDTS) to be-come the main training institution forthe road sector in Zambia. In order tocope with the inherent demands, RDTShas to develop the required capacityboth in terms of infrastructure andtraining competence.

Phase one involves construction offour classrooms, double storey admin-istration block, a kitchen and diningroom, ablution block, recreation centreand mechanical and carpentry work-shops. Structures planned under phasetwo include 120 person capacity library,materials laboratory, conference centreand extension of the laundry.

Parallel to the infrastructural rede-velopment works taking place, a com-prehensive Training Needs Assessment(TNA) is being conducted by Interna-tional Training Services on behalf of theRoads Department, with a view to pro-viding the basis for the future rolesRDTS will play in the road sector. TheTNA study started in August 1998 andwill be completed in February 1999.

The re-orientation of the RDTS ispoised to respond to greater challeng-es such as addressing the objectives ofthe Road Sector Investment Programmeand the Public Service Reform Pro-gramme, initiated and launched byGRZ to introduce private sector par-ticipation in public sector responsibili-ties. Among other things the reformaims to address is: rehabilitation of theroad network, strengthening of thetechnical and managerial capacity ofthe road authorities, and creating newjobs in the roads sector by contractingout most of the roadworks (30,000 newjobs in the road sector). These reformsentail personnel in the road authoritiesand contractors acquiring new skillsand knowledge, in particular those re-lated to contract management. The pri-vate sector, especially the local smallscale enterprises, has to be developedin every respect to cope with the shiftto private sector execution of the road-works.

The above scenario clearly illus-trates that there will be increased de-

mand for training of managerial andtechnical staff, both in the private sec-tor and in the public sector. Thus, train-ing programmes have to be developedwhich will respond to the real needs ofthe road sector.

Traditionally, the RDTS has beenoffering training to the technical andsupervisory civil service staff of theRoads Department. This trend has to

be reversed. Courses planned to be in-troduced in line with the outcome ofthe TNA are:• Certificate (2 years), diploma (3

years) courses in basic highway en-gineering

• Labour-based road maintenanceand rehabilitation courses

• Short courses and in-servicecourses

• Plant and machine course to be con-ducted in liaison with other insti-tutions

It is planned that labour-basedmethods be incorporated into the ba-sic highway engineering courses.Alongside that, contractor training forsmall scale contractors and contract su-pervisors shall be conducted independ-ently of basic highway engineering.However, the labour-based methodsmodule in the basic highway engineer-ing curriculum will form the rudimentsof the certificate and diploma courses.In this regard, students will have anoption of either taking the full courseor curtailing the course by taking la-bour-based methods only. Studentswho take the option of labour-basedmethods will be awarded a Labour-based Roadworks Certificate.

One of the major limiting factors isthe enrolment of a large number oftrainees in various courses offered byRDTS. The re-orientation will respondto the problem by increasing the capac-ity of the accommodation facilities

which will make it possible to enrol alarger number of trainees. More signif-icantly, and parallel to the increase inthe intake, the RDTS will be placed ina wider development context of runningmore courses, both for the private andpublic sectors.

Furthermore, being cognisant of gen-der balance, it is anticipated that agreater number of female participantsshall be facilitated by the inclusion ofa female dormitory. This will certainlyenable more women to participate inthe courses than before.

More recently, the RDTS has beencontracted by a consulting firm, repre-senting the Netherlands Embassy onbehalf of seven District Councils in theWestern Province of Zambia, to trainrehabilitation and maintenance con-tractors and contract supervisors in la-bour-based rehabilitation and mainte-

nance of feed-er roads. Theproject will besupported bythe Nether-lands Embas-sy. The soilconditions in

the province are sandy, which wouldrequire special construction tech-niques. To this end, a feasibility studyin the Western Province was undertak-en in the beginning of November in allthe Districts where works are plannedto take place. The purpose of the studyis to look at the availability of labour,the hydrology, the socio-economic ben-efits, to conduct an environmental im-pact assessment, and most important-ly to look at the most appropriate tech-nology to be applied considering the soilconditions in the areas (similar to Ka-lahari sands).

The hallmark of 1999 will not onlybe marked by the opening of the rede-veloped Roads Department TrainingSchool, but will also be graced by Zam-bia hosting the 7th Regional Seminarfor Labour-based Practitioners. Theseminar is planned to be held from3-7 May 1999.

The re-orientation of the RDTS is in-deed a big shot in the arm and will beable to revitalise the Training Schoolin a great way. n

Re-orientation of RoadsDepartment TrainingSchool, Lusaka, ZambiaBy Chali Nondo, RDTS, Zambia

The re-orientation of the RDTS is indeed a big shot inthe arm and will be able to revitalise the Training School

in a great way

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For more information contact:Charles Mushota

PO Box 30918Lusaka, Zambia

Tel: +260-1-245746/247185Fax: +260-1-253404

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lletin

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99

Bulletin No. 7 in July gave the back-ground to this project and the ILO’swork on labour-based methods in SouthAfrica.

The very first task for this UNDP-financed project was to re-visit its orig-inal design (dating back to September1996) in the light of current prioritiesof the National Public Works Pro-gramme Branch of the Department ofPublic Works. In addition, a variety ofmemoranda and other papers havebeen required, including inputs to thePresidential Job Summit which tookplace on 30 October 1998. On 3 June1998, Colin Relf and David Everatt ofthe national Community Agency forSocial Enquiry (with which the ILO col-laborated in two evaluations of theCommunity-Based Public Works Pro-gramme for the Department in 1996and 1997) were invited to make a pres-entation of the main findings to theCabinet Sub-Committee for EconomicAffairs. A summary of the findings ofthe CASE/ILO evaluations prepared byColin Relf was used by the HonourableMinister of Public Works, Jeff Radebe,at the public launch of the 1997 evalu-ation in Cape Town on 8 September1998. The opening sentence of the 1997

evaluation — “South Africa has proba-bly one of the best public works pro-grammes anywhere” — appears to havecaptured considerable interest.

The project is also pushing forwardon a number of different fronts in pur-suit of its approved workplan in closeco-operation with the Directorate forReorientation within the Department,including:• A Macro and Socio-Economic Analy-sis of the Public Authority Construc-tion Sector (including an assessmentof multiplier effects and the impact ofprojected expenditure)• The preparation of tender docum-ents for the procurement of M & E serv-ices focusing on the Emerging Contrac-tor Development Programme and theStrategic Projects Initiative• Research into the site-level manu-facture of construction materials (to en-hance value-added in constructionamong beneficiary communities)• The design of a tracer study of thosetrained by us in seeking employmentafter the completion of their projects• Research into the economic valuethat can be assigned to incremental em-ployment in construction through theuse of labour-based techniques• Preparations for a study tour in early1999 for departmental staff to gain in-sight into and share experience withpublic works programmes in othercountries. n

South AfricaTechnical co-operationBy Colin Relf, IT Transport, UK

This project ended in June 1998. Itwas financed by DANIDA usingdirect financing modalities. Itsobjective was to stimulate economicactivity and enhance rural livingconditions by improving andmaintaining selected gravel andearth roads using labour-basedmethods.

This was a transition project(from MRP to Roads 2000). Thefocus during transition is on roadswith higher traffic densities, use ofnetwork planning, and the intro-duction of spot improvements.

Labour-based methods were akey feature of the project; casualwages were around 70% of runningcosts. Equipment support com-prised agricultural tractors andspecially-built trailers with a balland socket towing hitch. This latterhas functioned considerably betterthan the traditional pin-eye towinghitch (see ASIST Technical BriefNo. 1). GoK funding was contribut-ed both for works and salaries(DANIDA 394m Ksh, GoK 56mKsh). Training was carried out atKisii Training Centre. Projectoutputs were produced largely asplanned. Some 55 roads have beenspot or partially improved, varyingfrom 38% to 48% of the road length,and 109 roads (1059km) are nowunder routine maintenance. Amaintenance organisation and amaintenance system based onlengthmen are in place.

The GoK has now requestedDANIDA’s financial and technicalassistance for full implementationof the Roads 2000 strategy in CoastProvince. A draft project documenthas been prepared with a DANIDAcontribution of 82m Danish Kronerand a GoK input of 500m Ksh overfive years.

Reduced project operationsduring the period July to December1998 are being financed by a secondbridging project of 5m DKK whilethe Roads 2000 Coast projectagreement is being finalised.

Minor RoadsProgramme CoastProvince 1994-98

Kenya

Edited from a report byArne Engdahl, DANIDA, Mombasa

UgandaSupport to labour-based policy promotioninitiativesBy Mr. John Ssekatawa, Labour-based Policy Promotion Committee (LAPPCOM), Kampala

This is an ILO/DANIDA multilateralassistance aimed at supplementinggovernment’s efforts against abjectpoverty among an estimated 20% of thepopulation, partly caused by the exist-ing high level of under and unemploy-ment. The project’s strategy builds onfour inter-linked components namely:• Formulating labour-based policy• Translating policy into practicethrough guidelines, and training of cad-res at district level• Enhancing the general knowledgeof decision makers and the generalpublic with a view to addressing themany misconceptions against labour-based approaches• Stimulating academic research andtraining in labour-based aproachesamong tertiary training institutions.

The project is implemented underthe auspices of the Ministry of Finance,Planning and Economic Developmentwith support from line ministries andagencies with an interest in employ-ment creation. The accomplishmentsto date are:• A survey on the practices and cap-acity to implement labour-based works• A position paper on labour-basedemployment creation in Uganda• Circulation of labour-based techni-cal manuals for testing in the districts• Technical studies: Cost-benefit com-parative study on labour-based versusequipment-based approaches and con-straints to labour-based approaches

A process is also underway to solic-it labour-based policy inputs from con-cerned agencies. n

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