CHAPTER FOUR:

• LIGHTING FIXTURES

• ELECTRIC MOTORS

• LIGHT BULBS

• WIRE AND CABLE

• CORDS

• WIRING DEVICES

• BATTERIES

• TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES

ELECTRICALSupplies

44Copyright © 1992, 1995, 2004 National Retail Hardware Association

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

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■ The consumer trend in the elec-trical category is shifting towardhigher-end products that havemodel variety and energy-savingfeatures. Energy-efficient lightingproducts are finally beginning tocatch on with consumers, long after the 1992 passage of the NationalEnergy Policy Act, which required lighting manufacturers to replaceoutdated lamps with brighter, more energy-efficient models.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association, using moneyfrom manufacturers, has boosted demand by conducting a nation-al promotional campaign to inform consumers about the benefitsof energy efficiency.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) further helped mattersin 1997 by creating its Energy Star® label, which manufacturers mayvoluntarily display on energy-efficient lighting fixtures if they meetprogram guidelines. Fixtures carrying this label can trim the cost oflighting high-use areas, such as bathrooms and kitchens, by 50 per-cent to 60 percent. In addition, bulbs and lamps for these fixtures lastthree times longer than incandescent bulbs.

Another key trend in the category is increased demand for low-voltage outdoor lighting. Motion-sensor lights are popular withconsumers concerned about home security.

Many consumers are scared of electrical projects, and for validreasons. Retailers should remind consumers of the dangers posedby household electrical systems. For example, tell consumers toshut off electrical power at the fuse or circuit breaker box beforebeginning any wiring project. And make sure they consult localbuilding codes before embarking on an electrical project.

ELECTRICALSupplies

LIGHTING FIXTURES

■ INTERIOR LIGHTINGInterior lighting must satisfy two require-

ments: function and design. A customer

replacing an existing fixture will be con-

cerned mainly with the design, whereas a

person remodeling or adding a room may be

concerned with both function and design.

Along with design and function, many cus-

tomers are becoming more concerned about

conserving energy. Lighting takes only 12

percent to 15 percent of the electricity used

in a home. Customers are finding ways to

reduce this expense by using more efficient

lighting and advanced lighting controls.

Task lighting gives localized light for specif-

ic activities such as reading, writing, sewing

and food preparation. The light should cover

the entire task area and be located so shadows

are reduced to a minimum. Under-cabinet

lighting is a popular form of task lighting in

kitchens or under shelves.

General or ambient lighting provides

comfortable background brightness in a

room. Light reflected from walls and ceilings

or from large sources overhead reduces light-

ing contrasts and contributes to the comfort

of the environment.

Accent or specialty lighting cre-

ates a mood and adds interest to a

room. This kind of lighting is pri-

marily for decorative effects and

should be used in conjunction

with task and general lighting.

Track lights, a system of movable

lights wired to a metal track, make

a great accent lighting choice for

living rooms, bedrooms and din-

ing rooms. Track lighting is avail-

able in many colors, sizes and

shapes, is easy to install and flexi-

ble since the lights can be moved

around and repositioned.

Recessed can lighting and sur-face-mounted fixtures are one way

to provide ambient lighting.

Increased amounts of light are

achieved using additional fixtures.

This should be strictly observed

because of the heat produced. Maximum

wattage limitations are indicated on all fix-

tures and should be followed. Recessed light-

ing is good for rooms with low ceilings and

can be used to supplement existing light in

kitchens and bathrooms.

No-glare lighting is also available in over-

head fixtures, undercabinet lights and desk

lamps. No-glare lighting fixtures are

designed with a louver that cuts off high-

angle light to provide glare-free, true-color

lighting. No-glare lighting works well to pre-

vent eye fatigue in home offices where com-

puters are used. For more information, click

(Installing Wall or Ceiling Fixtures)The following guidelines suggest lighting

standards for various rooms.

Living AreasPermanent lighting fixtures are not a

major consideration here because so many

homes depend on table or floor lamps. Wall

lighting (fluorescent tubes shielded by a cor-

nice or valance) and recessed down lights

are frequently used permanent fixtures.

Track lighting is also applicable.

Place light sources at various heights with-

in the room to add visual interest. Use

translucent shades on table lamps to con-

tribute to the ambient light level. Use a

halogen, floor-mounted directional fixture

under a large plant to create an artistic pat-

tern on the ceiling.

A room larger than 225 sq. ft. will require

separately controlled wall lights along two

walls or multiple ceiling fixtures rather than

a single light source.

BedroomsBedrooms under 150 sq. ft. use a total of

120 to 200 watts in a ceiling fixture, 4' to 9'

of wall lighting or one 150-watt recessed fix-

ture. Over 150 sq. ft. use 120 to 200 watts in

a ceiling fixture, 12' to 16' of wall lighting,

or five to eight 20- to 75-watt reflector bulbs.

For closets, use a 40- to 60-watt fixture

and 60 to 100 watts in walk-in closets. These

should be ceiling mounted at least 18" from

clothing or stored items, or use a 20-watt

fluorescent above the door header.

BathroomsOverall lighting should consist of at least

one recessed 75-watt unit for each curtained

tub or shower area. If the lavatory counter is

wider than 3', overhead fluorescent tubes

should be installed along the entire length

of the counter in a soffit extending at least

18" from the wall. Smaller lavatory areas

need 20-watt fluorescent tubes mounted on

either side of the mirror and cen-

tered 60" from the floor.

A ceiling fixture over the lavato-

ry mirror can provide extra light.

KitchensEvery 50 sq. ft. of floor space

needs about 150 watts of incan-

descent or 50 watts of fluorescent

light from a ceiling fixture.

Additional fixtures should be

installed over sinks, work areas,

etc. A 20-watt fluorescent tube,

mounted under cabinets above

the countertop, is considered ade-

quate for every 3' of counter space

to be lighted. Light the sink area

using recessed halogen or fluores-

cent valance lighting. Fluorescent

strip lights can be concealed

above cabinets to provide soft,

indirect illumination. Suspend

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GENERAL LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS

Here are a few general guidelines to help consumers begin their planning.The light sources, lighting fixtures and construction of the home, as well asthe materials and colors of the furnishings, will affect the lighting plan.

INCANDESCENT BULBS

14, 15 watts—Use in multiple-socket hallway fixtures, small decorativewall and table lamps, recessed aisle or step lights.

40, 55, 60 watts—Wall fixtures and sconces, multiple-socket ceilingfixtures and floor or table lamps, pole and tree lamps, recessed showerlights, single- and multiple-socket bathroom mirror fixtures.

70, 75, 95, 100 watts—Ceiling, wall and pendant fixtures.

150, 200 watts—Single-socket ceiling fixtures; floor, table and desklamps where three-way flexibility is not desired.

170, 250 watts—Portable table, floor and desk lamps with single-setting sockets.

THREE-WAY BULBS

30, 70, 100 watts—Portable dresser, table and hanging wall lamps.

50, 100, 150 watts—Floor, desk, table, double-dresser portable lamps.

100, 200, 300 watts—Large floor lamps with mogul (large) sockets.

decorative pendant lighting with compact

fluorescent globes over the table or island

for visual interest and energy savings.

Dining AreasA single ceiling fixture or hanging lamp

with at least 150 watts of incandescent light-

ing will usually suffice for an average dining

area. However, layering with light from a

variety of sources will provide flexibility for

creating different moods. The best choice is

to install a dimmer switch to control light

levels. Chandeliers with open sockets should

contain decorative bulbs. When using down

lighting over the dining room table, be care-

ful not to create dark shadows that might be

unbecoming to guests. Halogen directional

bulbs can be used in adjustable accent lights

to highlight plants, artwork or special fur-

nishings. In addition, china cabinets can be

lighted from within with small halogen or

miniature fluorescent bulbs.

Recreation AreasRelatively even lighting throughout the

room can be accomplished with one

recessed incandescent box, with a 100-watt

bulb for every 40 sq. ft. The number of fix-

tures can be reduced by using fluorescent

tubes, which produce as much as four times

the light of incandescents.

HallwaysUse ceiling-mounted fixtures with 75 to

100 watts for every 10' of hall or one

recessed fixture with 75 to 100 watts for

every 8'. Locate fixtures near closets or pow-

der rooms. For halls that need light all day,

recommend fluorescent fixtures; this saves

energy and reduces bulb replacement. Wall

sconces can add a warm, welcoming touch

to a foyer. Place wall or ceiling-mounted

lights and switches at the top and bottom of

stairs for safety.

Laundry AreasCenter a diffusing fixture with 60 to 80

watts of fluorescent or 120 to 150 watts of

incandescent light over appliances.

■ OUTDOOR LIGHTINGOutdoor lighting primarily serves a securi-

ty function. There are four basic types of

outdoor lighting: area, motion, landscapeand entrance/exit lighting.

There are a wide variety of systems for

outdoor lighting, including: high–intensity

discharge (HID) systems for mercury, metal

halide and high–pressure sodium light

sources; incandescent and tungsten halogen

fixtures; low-voltage lighting systems; and

incandescent or halogen PAR spotlights and

floodlights.

HID lighting provides considerably greater

illumination than other lighting commonly

available. Its cost is also higher, although

operating costs for lumens output is general-

ly less. Lumens are the measurement of light

output. Locate fixtures at both ends of the

house for better spread of light over the

entire yard. Many outdoor lighting units are

equipped with a photoelectric cell to turn

the fixture on at sunset and off at sunrise.

Timers are also available for outdoor units.

Fixtures to be used outdoors must seal

moisture and dust from wiring and switches.

Photocells provide automatic activation

from dusk to dawn.

Brass, aluminum, copper and baked-finish

metals as well as non-metallic products will

withstand extremes of outdoor exposure best

and offer long product life.

Outdoor lighting options have expanded

with the advent of low-voltage lighting. A

low-voltage system of six fixtures, for exam-

ple, usually uses less electricity than a 60-

watt bulb. It makes maximum use of elec-

tricity by splitting the light source.

A power pack is the heart of the low-

voltage system and should be located out-

doors by installing a weatherproof outlet

cover to keep snow and rain out. Because

of the low voltage, users will not receive

an electric shock even if they touch the

bare wires or cut a buried cable with a

garden tool. Consequently, these systems

are harmless to children and pets and do

not require cables to be buried. Power

packs typically range from 88-watt capaci-

ty up to 900-watt capacity.

To determine which transformer you will

need, add up the wattage of all the lamps

you plan to use—otherwise known as the

total nominal wattage (TNW). The total load

wattage of the lamps should not be less than

half of the transformer’s TNW or volt-

amperes (VA) rating, nor should it exceed

the transformer’s maximum capacity. If the

TNW is too high, divide the electrical load

between two transformers, or use a more

powerful one.

The first fixture should be installed at

least 1' above the ground and at least 10'

from the power pack. Low-voltage cable

transmits the electricity through a weather-

resistant, self-sealing stranded copper wire

between 12-gauge and 18-gauge. On runs

over 150' or when 10 or more lamps are con-

nected to one line, consider using heavier

cable (12- or 14-gauge), which reduces volt-

age drop and produces greater efficiency

from the lamps. A cable connector is used to

quickly join separate cable lengths or to split

cables going different directions.

The low-voltage lamp can be one of sever-

al types. Bayonet base lamps feature a cop-

per base that twists into the fixture socket,

while the wedge base lamp plugs into the

socket. Halogen lamps provide the most

energy efficiency. Remote photo control

automatically turns lights on at dark and off

during daylight hours. For more informa-

tion, click (Installing OutdoorWiring/Lighting).

Area LightingSpot and floodlights, along with tradi-

tional yard and security lighting, are used as

decorative lighting for landscaping, architec-

ture or holiday decorations. Colored lenses

can enhance different features; a green lens,

for example, will brighten foliage while

detracting from reddish objects.

Weatherproof sockets are essential here

because the fixture is often mounted near

the ground and pointed upward, exposing

the socket opening to rain and dirt. Most

outdoor lighting fixtures should be installed

only when the ground is completely dry,

although low-voltage systems can often be

installed anytime. Always consult the manu-

facturer’s instructions.

Well lights are designed to be buried,

and they cast light upward to create spe-

cial effects—for example, highlighting

landscaping.

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Motion LightingMotion sensors are popular accessories

to low-voltage outdoor lighting. They

attach to a power pack and mount on

walls or fences 6’ to 8' above the ground.

By detecting heat and motion up to 40'

away, they can cover 600 sq. ft. of proper-

ty to guard against intrusion.

Motion sensors are used with incandes-

cent, halogen and fluorescent bulbs.

When used in combination with a switch,

the user can manually switch on the

motion detector light.

Indoor motion sensors are also available

that automatically turn on a light when

someone enters a room.

Landscape LightingLandscape lighting is designed to accent

or light steps and pathways. It also serves a

decorative function and is relatively easy to

install. Advise customers not to hook up

landscape lighting with extension cords,

which are for temporary use only.

Mushroom lights, named for their sloped

shades, are commonly used along pathways

or in gardens. The bulb ranges from 5 watts

to 60 watts, and light is reflected downward

to give a soft illumination to the immediate

area near the fixture. Opaque, tiered lens

attachments shield light from the eyes and

direct it downward.

Bollard lights are cylindrical in shape,

with the faceted lens being part of that

cylinder. The lens diffuses light in a 360°

pattern to create a soft glow. Lens shields

can limit lighting to a 180° range.

Globe lights have spherical lenses, so they

cast light in all directions, providing subtle

illumination that can cover a large area

without glare. They are often used around

outdoor living areas.

Deck lights are designed to fit under

steps, benches and railings. They can be

mounted in many other ways as well.

Many other kinds of fixtures are also

made to be recessed into steps or planters

to directly illuminate pathways.

What follows are some common lighting

techniques used in landscape lighting.

Down lighting—shines light down from

large trees or eaves onto surfaces below

the light source to create safer passage-

ways at night. Down lighting is used to

outline driveways and walkways, mark

garden paths and flowerbeds, and to

accent patios and decks.

Uplighting—places fixtures in the ground

and directs light upward to create a dramatic

focal point that accentuates the detail in a

trellis or archway, illuminates fountains and

statuary or highlights small trees and shrubs.

Front lighting—positions light sources in

front of an object to highlight important

features and details.

Back lighting—illuminates objects or

plants from the back to highlight architec-

tural features and eliminates darkened areas

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WHERE TO USE BULBS

SPECIAL-PURPOSE BULBS

TYPE AND WATTAGE WHERE TO USE

Reflector Bulbs (2-1/2" dia.) Pole and tree lamps. Track lighting and recessed downlights(cans).

Reflector Floods (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans).

Reflector Spots (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans).

Reflector Floods (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans).

Reflector Spots (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans).

Floodlight Bulbs (4-3/4" dia.) Exposed weatherproof sockets under eaves, on garages,porches and other outdoor locations. Bullet-shaped outdoorfloodlight fixtures.

Bug Lights (yellow coating) In fixtures on patios, porches and entrances to houses.

Post Light Bulbs For post lights and coach lanterns.

Plant Lights Special color bulb finish enhances plant appearance, helps growth.

Rough Service Workshop, utility area, garage. Usually used on “troublelight” extension cord.

High-Intensity Bulbs Replacement bulbs for high-intensity portable lamps, theyprovide supplementary lighting for sewing, manicuring,hobby work and other close-up tasks.

Night Lights Use in plug-in fixtures in bedrooms, bathrooms and hallways.

Garage Door Opener Bulb Built to take shock and vibration.

Appliance Bulbs For ovens, refrigerators, freezers, microwaves, saunas andrange hoods.

Showcase Tubular Bulbs Approximately 6” long, frosted and clear. Use for picturelights, piano lights, aquariums, range hoods. Regular (medi-um) base.

Always check the fixture for required diameter and wattage limitations before recommending any ofthese bulbs. In general, floods are used for wide area lighting, spots are used for accent lighting.

FLUORESCENT BULBS

TYPE AND WATTAGE WHERE TO USE

Cool White Use for work areas only.

Warm White Good for living areas. Will harmonize with incandescent light-ing. Not for use where color discrimination is important.

Soft White The recommended fluorescent for living areas, baths,kitchens. Good color rendering. Harmonizes with incandes-cent lighting.

Different wattage tubes are different lengths. It is important to purchase the right length tube to fitthe desired fixture. Fluorescent tubes come in a variety of “white” colors. Use these guidelines to selectthe correct “white” tube for your use.

SOURCE: GE LIGHTING

behind large bushes and around doors and

windows for security purposes.

Area lighting—uses a floodlight or anoth-

er source of wide light to illuminate large

areas for evening entertaining.

Safety lighting—provides light for certain

areas, such as paths or steps, so people can

navigate safely.

Also available are landscape boulders that

blend naturally into the environment and

glow from within, casting illumination for

pathways. The faux boulders contain low-

voltage lamps and UL-listed components

that are easy to wire, can be installed on

their own system or added to an existing

low-voltage system.

Entrance/Exit LightingLight each entrance to illuminate the door

and to identify callers clearly. Recommend

wall lanterns, 25 watts to 60 watts, on each

side of the front door, centered 66" above

standing level.

For secondary entrances, recommend a

single fixture on the latch side of the

door. Lanterns with concealed downlights

light up wall-mounted house numbers as

well as the lock.

Suspended or over-door lanterns should

allow the light to flow downward. Wall-

mounted lanterns above doors should

accommodate 75 watts to 100 watts;

lanterns suspended from a ceiling 100

watts to 150 watts. With shallow, close-to-

ceiling fixtures for a porch, recommend

60 watts to 100 watts.

Exit or emergency signs are used to

identify exit areas in commercial build-

ings. Internally lighted models are the

most common.

LIGHT BULBS

There are three main types of light bulbs:

incandescent, fluorescent and high-intensitydischarge (HID). Generally, the higher the

wattage, the greater the light output.

Bulb FinishesOriginally, only clear glass was used to

make incandescent bulbs, which left the

bright filament exposed and resulted in a

harsh, glaring light. To remedy this, special

finishes are used to reduce the glare by dif-

fusing the light.

Clear glass is still used in applications

where accurate light control is desired and

in decorative lighting.

A frosted finish used to be the most com-

mon. Light loss averages less than 0.5 per-

cent due to the frosted finish.

Today, light diffusion is usually accom-

plished by applying a coating of fine powder

to the inside surface of the bulb. This coat-

ing provides a softer, more even distribution

of light and reduces glare. Inside-coated

bulbs are made in colors as well as white. A

variety of colors are available in outside-

coated bulbs which can be either transparent

or translucent.

Bulbs can be made to direct the light by

applying a reflecting material to the inside

surface of the bulb, or in the case of R, PAR

and sealed beam, light can also be directed

by beveled cuts on the surface of the bulb.

General Classes of Light BulbsBulbs come in a variety of shapes, sizes

and designs, each with a different purpose.

Bulb shapes have letter codes that corre-

spond to a general guideline. For example,

"C" refers to cone-shaped bulbs and "T" to

tubular bulbs.

General service is the Type A (arbitrary)

bulb used for lower-wattage bulbs from

about 15 watts to 200 watts. This type is

normally used for home lighting.

Vibration service is used on machinery or

where continuous vibration could cause

early failure of the filament. These bulbs

have lower lighting efficiency.

Rough service bulbs withstand shocks and

bumps. The relatively long filament is securely

mounted with many supports but has a lower

efficiency than general and vibration service

bulbs. They are used in workshops and

garages and with trouble lights.

Appliance bulbs are for ovens, refrigerators,

freezers, microwave ovens and range hoods.

Special coated bulbs are covered with a

Teflon™ or silicon protective material to

prevent shattering and to resist breakage

upon contact with water. They are recom-

mended for use in trouble lights and out-

door fixtures.

Decorative bulbs with clear or coated flame-

shaped glass, smooth B-type glass, C-line glass

with bent tip bulbs and globe-shaped bulbs

are useful in chandeliers and wall bracket fix-

tures where fashion is important.

Reflector® bulbs are usually made of “soft”

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CHECKLIST FOR OSHA STANDARDS

OSHA (Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration) standards affect the physicalfacilities of retail stores, but some of the rulesmake good safety sense for customers whoare embarking on do-it-yourself electricalprojects. Following are 10 OSHA rules thatcan be adapted as safety tips for consumers.

1. Be sure all electrical installations arein accordance with the NationalElectrical Code.

2. All live parts of electrical equipmentoperating at 50V or more must beguarded against accidental contact.

3. Protect all equipment against over-current.

4. Overcurrent devices in damp andwet locations must be of the typeapproved for this use.

5. Fuses and circuit breakers must belocated and shielded to preventburns or injuries.

6. All fixed electrical equipment mustbe grounded.

7. All electrical equipment—air con-ditioners, sump pumps, portabletools, others—must be effectivelygrounded.

8. All boxes and fittings in wet locationsmust be waterproof.

9. All electrical outlet boxes must bedurably and legibly marked with themanufacturer’s name and/or trade-mark. They must be rigidly andsecurely fastened to the surface towhich they are mounted. All outletboxes must have a cover.

10. Flexible cords must be in a continu-ous length when used-withoutsplices. They cannot be worn,frayed or taped. They must be con-nected so that tension will not betransmitted to joints or terminalscrews. Flexible cords cannot beused where fixed wiring is required.

glass for indoor service as a directional light

source with a built-in reflector. These are

available as spot or floodlights.

Projector (PAR) bulbs are made of hard

heat-resistant glass molded into a reflector

and lens that are sealed together. Most are

weather-resistant.

Elliptical reflector bulbs are shaped differ-

ently than the parabolic reflector bulbs,

bringing light to a focus a couple of inches

in front of the bulb. Less light is wasted in

deep-baffle fixtures, and glare is reduced in

downlight fixtures.

Light Bulb BasesLight bulbs come with a variety of bases

for use in different fixtures. The following

are the most commonly used base types:

Candelabra is a screw base used for spe-

cialty chandeliers and decorative lighting. It

is the smallest base for 120V lamps.

Intermediate is a screw base with applica-

tions similar to the candelabra bulb.

Medium is a screw base, standard on most

general-service bulbs of 300 watts and under.

It has a high degree of interchangeability in

bulb applications.

Mogul bases are used for larger, heavy-

duty bulbs rated at 300 watts and higher.

Skirted screw base is used on bulbs where

the neck is too large to fit into the desired

size base or where additional space between

filament and bulb terminals is desired.

Three-contact bases are used for three-

way bulbs that contain two separate fila-

ments in one bulb. They are similar to other

screw bases, but use an extra ring contact to

light wattage filaments separately or in com-

bination for three light levels.

Bayonet bases are used on specialty lamps

such as vacuum cleaners, sewing machines

and low-voltage bulbs. It provides a more

secure contact by using two small protrud-

ing pins on the sides of the base that fit into

slots in the socket.

Medium bi-post base is used for higher-

current bulbs.

■ INCANDESCENT BULBSIncandescent bulbs produce light by pass-

ing current through a thin coil of wire called

a filament. As the wire heats, it becomes

white hot and emits visible light.

Incandescent bulbs come in two types:

vacuum filled and halogen gas filled.

They are mainly used for general and task

lighting around the house.

Incandescent bulbs offer many advan-

tages: a concentrated light source that is easy

to direct; instant lighting; a wide assortment

of sizes, shapes and colors; easy mainte-

nance; and low initial cost.

Moreover, incandescent lighting is flexi-

ble, particularly since light levels (propor-

tional to wattage) for a given bulb-holder

can be changed simply by using the desired

wattage bulb. However, users should be care-

ful not to exceed bulb wattage recommenda-

tions for a fixture. Underwriters Laboratories

(UL) tags on fixtures designate the maxi-

mum allowable wattage. A mercury or fluo-

rescent system is typically limited to a single

bulb size.

An incandescent bulb can operate on

either direct current (DC) or alternating cur-

rent (AC). Wattage indicates the amount of

electric power used by a bulb to produce

light. Roughly speaking, the higher the

wattage, the greater the light output. Some

bulbs, however, produce more light output

per watt than others do.

Standard household bulbs have an aver-

age life of 750 to 1,000 hours, which can

be lengthened or shortened by the treat-

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

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1. Single-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base

2. Candelabra Incandescent Base

3. Double-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base

4. Intermediate Incandescent Base

5. Medium Incandescent Base

6. Medium Skirted Incandescent Base

7. Three-Contact Medium Incandescent Base

8. Mogul Incandescent Base

9. Three-Contact Mogul Incandescent Base

10. Circline Florescent Base

11. Medium Bi-Pin Fluorescent Base

12. Four-Pin Fluorescent Base

13. Recessed D.C. Fluorescent Base

14. Two-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base

15. Four-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base

6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5

9 10 11

12 13 14 15

LIGHT BULB BASES

COMPARING LAMP EFFICIENCIES

SupportWires

ExhaustTube

Base

Fuse

Heat DeflectingDisc

Button

Lead-inWires

Stem Press

FillingGlass

GLASS BULB

Filament

LAMP TYPE LUMENS PER WATT

Incandescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Halogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Mercury Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Fluorescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

Metal Halide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

High Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . .140

Low Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . .200

ment they receive. For example, a 120V

bulb operating on a 125V circuit may pro-

duce more light but won’t last as long as

one on a 120V circuit.

Long-life bulbs, which may last up to

twice as long as ordinary bulbs, have heavier

filaments that do not burn out as quickly.

However, these bulbs do not produce as

much light as standard bulbs.

Manufacturers disclose average light out-

put (in lumens) and average bulb life (in

hours) on package labeling.

The filament vaporizes as a result of cur-

rent flowing through it, and generally, the

bulb “burns out.” Three-way bulbs lose two

light levels when one filament burns out

because two filaments are used in the bulb

separately for two of the levels and together

for the third.

Bulb designations denote size and shape.

The figure following the bulb shape letter

designation is the bulb’s maximum diameter

in eighths of an inch. Thus, A-19 would

mean an A-shaped bulb with a diameter of

19 x 1/8", or 2-3/8".

Most standard bulb envelopes are made of

lime glass, but bulbs that must withstand

greater heat are made of harder, heat-resist-

ant glass. Hard-glass envelopes are used in

many high-wattage bulbs and in bulbs rec-

ommended for outdoor use where there is

danger of thermal shock from condensation.

Incandescent bulbs turn black as they

near the end of their lifetimes. Customers

should consider replacing darkened bulbs, as

they use the same amount of electricity to

produce less light.

■ HALOGEN BULBSHalogen bulbs are technologically

advanced incandescent bulbs used in resi-

dential and commercial applications. As

with incandescent bulbs, light is produced

by passing current through a coiled tungsten

wire, but the tungsten wire is enclosed in a

small quartz or high-temperature glass tube,

which is then filled with gases, including a

halogen gas.

The advantages of tungsten halogen bulbs

compared with standard incandescent bulbs

include less loss of light over lamp life;

smaller physical size for better directional

light control; whiter, brighter light; more

light per watt; and longer life. Like incandes-

cents, halogen lights have the advantage of

instant-on light. They are easy to use with

dimmers for energy savings.

Typical halogen lamps last 2,000 to 4,000

hours compared to 750 to 1,000 hours for

incandescent lamps. Wattage levels for home

use run from 5 watts to 500 watts.

Halogen bulbs are more energy-efficient

than standard incandescent bulbs. They gen-

erate up to 30 percent more light for the

same electricity. In addition, because their

bulbs blacken much less than incandescents,

they stay brighter as they age.

Halogen bulbs are available for accent and

task lighting and for general lighting appli-

cations. Since their brilliant, white light reg-

isters true colors, they are excellent for dis-

plays. Shading is important because of halo-

gen’s intense brightness. They are available

in A-type equivalent bulbs, PAR spotlights

and floodlights in a variety of sizes, as well

as low-voltage spotlights and floodlights.

Advise customers not to touch the glass

on halogen bulbs.

■ FLUORESCENT BULBS The two main types of fluorescent bulbs

are tubular and compact fluorescent.Fluorescent bulbs are used in commercial,

institutional, industrial and residential light-

ing. The popularity of the fluorescent bulb is

due to its high efficiency in producing light,

resulting in low lighting energy costs.

Fluorescent bulbs produce up to 105 lumens

per watt, compared with a 100-watt, type A

incandescent, which produces around 18

lumens per watt.

A fluorescent also has long lamp life,

relatively low brightness and low heat

content and glare compared with incan-

descent lamps. Fluorescents work well for

area lighting, especially in kitchen, bath

and task areas.

In a fluorescent bulb, current flows

through an atmosphere of inert gas and

mercury vapor, producing ultraviolet ener-

gy that is invisible to the human eye. A

phosphor coating on the inside of the

tube transforms the ultraviolet energy

into visible light.

Fluorescent bulbs can vary from straight

tubes 6" to 96" long to U-shaped tubes and

circular tubes. Wattages for home use range

from 4 to 75 watts.

Tubes also come in a variety of diameters.

Several common types are available in

reduced-wattage versions that consume 15

percent to 20 percent less energy.

The most common tube is the 1-1/2" used

in most bulbs from 15" to 96" long. The

smallest diameter is 1/2", used in low-

wattage twin tube designs. The largest is 2-

1/8" used for some high-wattage, non-resi-

dential installations.

Fluorescent bulbs are available in many

shades of white, as well as colors determined

by the type of phosphor used in the bulb.

These colors are indicated by the color ren-

dering index number printed on the bulb.

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

8

COMPACT FLUORESCENT SHAPES

INCANDESCENT SHAPES

“A” Type Flame

PAR-30Reflector(indoor)

R-40 Reflector

Tubular Bulge Tube(LT-10)

Screw BaseLamp

Screw BaseBulb

PAR-30Reflector(outdoor)

LIGHT BULB SHAPES

HID SHAPES

Screw BaseCircular Tube

EBT

The higher the number, the more accurate

the color produced. Soft white fluorescent

bulbs are recommended for living areas,

baths and kitchens since they offer good

color rendering. Warm white bulbs, 3000K

and lower, emphasize reds and yellows and

are good for living areas, although not in

areas where color discrimination is impor-

tant. Cool white bulbs, 4000K and higher,

emphasize blues and greens and are used for

work areas.

There are a few important limits to the

use of fluorescent lamps. Because they use a

ballast, they can be dimmed only with spe-

cial equipment that is relatively expensive.

Standard household fluorescents are also

sensitive to temperature and therefore work

best indoors. High-output fluorescents are

for outdoor use and commercial application.

Ballasts have sound ratings— “A” is the

quietest; “C” is the loudest. If a customer is

complaining about the noise made by fluo-

rescent bulbs, suggest replacing the ballast.

The main objection to fluorescents in the

past has been their unflattering color. New,

color-corrected tubes overcome this draw-

back with recent developments in phosphor

technology. Premium types use rare-earth

phosphors to offer superior color that blends

beautifully with incandescents.

Electrical connections to the bulbs are

made to the bases at each end. The most

common is the two-pin base, designated

miniature bi-pin for small diameter bulbs,

medium bi-pin for average-size bulbs and

the mogul bi-pin for industrial bulbs. Single-

pin bases are used for instant-start bulbs,

and recessed double-contact bases are used

on rapid–start bulbs longer than 48".

Ballast OperationBecause fluorescent lamps are arc dis-

charge devices, they require special auxiliary

equipment to provide reliable starting and

to assure proper electrical operation. The

principle function of the ballast is to hold

operating current within proper limits and

to provide enough voltage to start the lamp.

Initially, all fluorescent lamps used a

“starter” or time-delay switch, which

allowed the electrodes to heat up prior to

the lamp starting. The starter is a small sil-

ver-colored cylinder found mostly in older

fluorescent lamps. When the lamp in an

older fluorescent begins to flicker, both the

tube and the starter should be replaced.

Starterless operation is achieved with

instant-start and rapid-start ballast designs.

Instant-start ballasts provide sufficient volt-

age to start fluorescent lamps without pre-

heating and are commonly used with single-

pin lamps and some special lamp types.

Rapid-start ballasts heat the cathodes con-

tinuously from a low-voltage transformer

within the ballast. This is the most common

type of ballast in use today for 40-watt

lamps and for all lamps that use recessed

double-contact bases.

Reduced-wattage lamps operate on most

existing ballasts, which can reduce wattage

14 to 20 percent. In addition, new ballasts

developed to minimize the wattage con-

sumed by the ballast itself further reduce

electrical consumption.

Compact FluorescentsCompact fluorescent bulbs offer different

style and performance from standard fluo-

rescent bulbs. Their color nearly equals Soft

White incandescents, and they offer superior

energy efficiency and long life.

The new compacts can be used in many

household fixtures. Circular units are

already familiar in ceiling fixtures and

artists’ lamps; new applications are wall

sconces, table lamps, lanterns, desk lights

and outdoor fixtures. Compact fluores-

cents feature sizes and shapes to match

most incandescent bulbs including one

that resembles a standard household bulb.

They can be as small as 4.5" long, and

some are the same size as their incandes-

cent counterparts. Not all fixtures

designed for incandescents may have

enough room inside the shade or glass for

the bulb.

Compact fluorescents cannot be

dimmed. Their life will be maximized if

they are used in locations where a light

stays on for hours at a time.

Compact fluorescent lamps typically last

7,000 to 10,000 hours, which is nine to 13

times longer than comparable incandescent

lamps. Energy efficiency can go up to 105

lumens per watt. Wattages for home use

range from 7 to 27 watts.

Reflector-shaped compact fluorescents can

replace standard R30 and R40 shaped incan-

descent reflector bulbs. Globe-shaped com-

pact fluorescents can replace standard G25

bath and vanity globes or G30 decorative

globes that are used in pendants. Decorator

or flame-shaped bulbs can replace similar

incandescent bulbs in chandeliers, sconces

and outdoor fixtures. Stick-shaped compact

fluorescents can replace standard Type “A”

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

9

GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL STANDARDS

UL—Underwriters Laboratories Inc. is a not-for-profit independent testing laboratory.Manufacturers submit products to UL for testing. “UL-listed” means that the merchandise meetsminimum safety standards and is suitable and safe if used for the purpose for which it wasintended by the manufacturer.

ANSI—American National Standards Institute is a non-profit organization that coordinates thevoluntary development of national standards by industry, establishes national consensus stan-dards and represents United States’ interests in international technical standardization. Its stan-dards are developed and used voluntarily, becoming mandatory only when adopted by govern-ment bodies, such as the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

NEMA—National Electrical Manufacturers Association writes performance standards for prod-ucts. These standards are formed by committees that reach a consensus on individual matters. Atypical committee consists of manufacturers, industries that will use the product, UnderwritersLaboratories and other standard-setting groups. Consumer organizations are also on the com-mittee where matters that apply to them are considered.

NEC—National Electrical Code is based on safe, functional wiring methods and is updated everythree years. Many cities and states require that wiring conform to NEC specifications. Local andstate codes and ordinances also supplement the NEC.

CSA—Canadian Standards Association is an independent, not-for-profit Canadian organizationthat is similar to UL of the United States.

bulbs in portable lamps, while twist-shaped

compact fluorescents can replace standard

Type “A” bulbs in virtually any application.

There are also household-shaped compact

fluorescents that make ideal replacements

where the bulbs are visible in the fixture.

When choosing a compact fluorescent

bulb to replace an incandescent bulb,

compare the lumen output of the two

bulbs. For maximum energy efficiency,

select a bulb with the highest lumens and

lowest wattage combination. For example,

replace a 100-watt incandescent house-

hold lamp that produces 1,600 lumens

with a 25-watt compact fluorescent lamp

that also produces 1,600 lumens.

■ HIGH-INTENSITYDISCHARGE LIGHTING

High-intensity discharge (HID) bulbs pro-

duce light in a manner often described as

“lightning in a bottle.” As in fluorescent

bulbs, current flows through a conducting

gas and ballasts are required to start the

bulb and to control its operation. Unlike

fluorescent, most of the light comes from

the arc itself rather than through the

work of the phosphor.

The highest-efficiency light sources (the

most light per watt) are members of HID

families. The four basic HID types are

mercury vapor, metal halide, high-pres-

sure sodium and low-pressure sodium.

HID bulbs are primarily used for area

and security lighting. They feature a lifes-

pan of 20,000 to 24,000 hours. They come

in a variety of shapes and in medium and

mogul bases.

Mercury vapor lighting is used for exte-

rior area and security lighting, such as

dusk-to-dawn residential lighting.

Mercury vapor lamps provide twice the

light output per watt as incandescent

lamps. Along with the higher output, they

also have a longer lamp life, in some cases

up to 30 times as long. They are also more

expensive than incandescent or fluores-

cent. Mercury vapor bulbs produce a

bluish white color.

Self-ballasted mercury lamps can be

used with a ballast in incandescent fix-

tures and are available for 120V systems

in the lower wattages (up to 250 watts)

and for 240V systems in both lower and

higher wattages. These lamps deliver

slightly more light output per watt as the

incandescent lamps but have the long life

of mercury lamps.

Lighting systems that provide three to

six times the light output per watt of

incandescent lamps can replace incandes-

cent, mercury and self-ballasted mercury

systems. These metal halide and

high–pressure sodium (HPS) lamps require

specific ballasts, but offer major energy

savings to users.

The metal halide lamps feature medium

efficiency, with 50 to 110 lumens per

watt. They provide good color characteris-

tics (similar to cool white fluorescent

lamps) along with higher light output.

The high-pressure sodium lamps pro-

vide even higher light output per watt

than metal halide (50 to 150 lumens per

watt), with a golden yellow light.

Residential applications include security

and landscape lighting.

Low-pressure sodium bulbs feature the

highest efficiency, with 100 to 180 lumens per

watt. They produce an orange light.

When replacing HID bulbs, it is neces-

sary to use the exact bulb.

Energy-Saving BulbsCompact fluorescent bulbs can be

screwed into a standard incandescent

base. In addition to energy savings, their

main advantage is longevity. The lamps

give as much or more light as an incan-

descent bulb, with about 1/4 the wattage.

The bulb’s life is approximately 7,000 to

10,000 hours.

Energy-saving incandescent bulbs general-

ly provide nearly the same amount of light

output as conventional 60- and 100-watt

bulbs but use fewer watts.

Energy-saving PAR spot and floodlights

combine a special reflector design with

lower wattage to provide almost the same

amount of useful light, using considerably

less electrical energy.

Lighting takes approximately 12 percent

to 15 percent of the electricity used in a

home. However, the following will help cus-

tomers economize on the lighting portion of

an electricity bill:

o Turn off lights when you do not need

them.

o Use dimmers, when desirable.

o Use photoelectric cells or timers to turn

outdoor lights on and off automatically.

o Use reflector bulbs, especially for task and

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

10

SELLING TIPS FOR ELECTRICAL PROJECTS

You can further both your sales and your “know-how” image by making sure the customer has every-thing needed for the job. Here is a checklist of items to go over in the store.

CABLE—Are they buying enough to reach the distance of the circuit? Allow at least 10 percentexcess to accommodate bends. Also, make sure the wire will handle the amount of amperage itwill be expected to draw. Explain that lower resistance wire, while more expensive initially, willsave money by reducing power loss or blown fuses and will increase safety.

BOXES—Go over the proposed circuit with the customer. They will need a box for every outlet,fixture, splice or other break in the cable.

WIRE CONNECTORS—At least two of these are required at every cable splice. Most light fixturesare pre-wired and must be spliced onto the circuit cable. Sockets and switches do not requireconnectors since cable is usually mounted directly to the device.

INSULATED STAPLES—These will be needed to mount the cable to the studs. Make sure theyare the right size for the type of cable being used.

INSULATED TAPE—Necessary for wrapping splices or taping any electrical wires.

TOOLS—Wire cutters, strippers stapler and screwdrivers are all part of the electrician's toolbox.

WALL PLATES—Does the customer have the right number and configuration of wall plates tomatch the fixtures being installed?

LIGHT BULBS—Most lighting fixtures are sold without bulbs. Does the customer have the prop-er size and number for the fixtures being purchased?

Two-Conductor CableTwo-conductor cable has one black wire

and one white wire. The black wire is always

the “hot” wire and must be fused. The white

is always neutral and must never be fused.

When current bridges the gap from the

110V hot wire to the neutral, it results in a

110V input to the appliance.

Three-Conductor CableThree-conductor cable contains a red

wire in addition to black and white. The

black and red wires are “hot,” carrying

110V each, and both must be fused. The

white remains neutral.

Bridging either 110V wire to the neutral

wire produces 110V. Bridging both 110V

wires results in 220V. This three-wire circuit

is increasingly common in home wiring; it

accommodates major 220V appliances, such

as ranges and air conditioners.

Grounding WiresBoth two- and three-conductor cables can

carry grounding wires, which provide a path

of least resistance from the frame or case of

an appliance to the ground to guard against

electric shocks.

The electric motor in a refrigerator, for

instance, might develop a current leak to the

frame of the appliance. A person touching

the refrigerator could create a path for the

current to pass to the ground. Consequently,

he would receive a shock.

A grounding wire, attached to the frame

of the refrigerator and directly to the

ground, would provide a lower resistance

path than the person. The electricity could

then pass safely to the ground.

The National Electrical Code (NEC) was

changed in 1996 to require a separate

ground wire for certain appliances to ground

their frames. If your customers are wiring for

120/240V or 120/208V ranges, wall-mount-

ed ovens, counter-mounted stoves or clothes

dryers, they need the separate ground wire.

Thermostat CablesThermostat cables are used in low-voltage

control, alarm and communication systems.

Most common types are braided, twisted

and plastic-jacketed types.

All three use solid copper conductors and

are twisted and insulated with plastic.

Twisted cable, which has no outer braid,

is used in doorbells, burglar alarms, intercom

telephones and public address systems.

Braided cable is covered with cotton

braid and is used primarily in thermostat

controls and other low-voltage, remote

control circuits.

Plastic-jacketed cable is also used in simi-

lar low-voltage applications.

Although thermostat cable is low voltage,

it carries a UL-listing for being flame-retar-

dant since it is installed in the wall. Wiring

used in security alarm and smoke detection

systems must be UL-listed.

TV Wire and AccessoriesTelevision lead-in wire connects the

receiving set to the antenna. Good quality

300-ohm wire is used for both VHF and

UHF receivers.

A TV set coupler is a loss-producing device

for connecting two or more TV receivers to

the same antenna. The loss introduced into

the circuit is small, but can be critical in

“fringe area” reception. In such areas, cus-

tomers should be told of this small loss and

to expect a slight reduction in signal

strength at the receiver.

A lightning arrestor mounts on the out-

side of the house as close to the TV receiver

as possible to protect the receiver against

lightning damage. The lead-in wire is

attached to proper contacts and the ground

rod to ground connector. Lightning will

jump the gap inside the arrestor and flow

into the earth if the circuit is properly

installed.

Home NetworkingMultiple computers in the home, satellite

dishes, cable TV, sophisticated audio systems

and home theaters have given rise to the

desire for home networks.

The heart of these systems is the network-ing hub. Usually thought of in conjunction

with computers, the home network hub dif-

fers in that it provides central control of

computers, peripherals, phones, TVs and

audio components. This is the unit where

most of the wiring from different locations

comes together to meet.

Most home networks use coaxial,

Category 3 and Category 5 cable. Coaxial

cable is used for TVs, VCRs and satellite

equipment. Category 3 cable is used for

telephones while Category 5 is used for

telephone, fax and computer systems.

Some cables combine different functions

into one cable.

“Structured” wiring refers to a bundle of

cables that runs from the networking hub to

meet a home’s future information-carrying

needs. This wire bundle may consist of some

combination of Category 5 cables, fiber-

optic lines, Category 3 cables and coaxial

lines. New home construction and renova-

tion jobs should try to accommodate wiring

in this fashion to meet the bandwidth needs

of digital transmissions.

Jacks are used to terminate the cable.

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

12

USE COMMON SENSE TO AVOID ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

Stress to your customers that they use common sense when working with electricity. Beforeproceeding with any electrical work, make sure the main disconnect on the service entrancepanel is at the “off” position or pull the main fuses if the panel is the cartridge fuse type.

When working on individual receptacles or light switches, turn off the circuit breaker for the cir-cuit being worked on, and test with a test light before handling bare wires.

Other tips:

• Never stand on wet or damp floors when working at the service entrance on any electricaldevice. Wear rubber gloves and stand on a rubber mat for added safety.

• To avoid overloaded circuits, never use a fuse which has a higher amperage rating than therating on the wire for the circuit.

• Never run more appliances from one receptacle than the amperage rating for that outlet.

• Never use a penny or tinfoil in a service panel instead of a fuse.

There are different jacks for telephones,

computers, satellite, audio and video equip-

ment. Many of these jacks and cable connec-

tors require special tools for installation.

Patch cords are used to connect different

computer and audio/video devices with one

another or with a central networking device

such as a hub.

Binding posts are used to connect bare

speaker wire, while F-Connectors are used

with coaxial cable.

Home Wiring TestersNew tools and testers are making the job

of installing and maintaining household

wiring and home networks easier and safer.

Non-contact voltage testers allow you

to see if a line is carrying current without

touching the line. Features include audi-

ble and visual alarms, battery-checking

circuitry and a size that is small enough

to fit into a pocket.

Circuit analyzers and receptacle testersare designed to determine if circuits are

wired properly. They plug into any grounded

electrical receptacle and test receptacle

wiring and grounding in standard and GFCI

outlets. A convenient chart and lights tell

you if the circuit is wired properly, if the

wiring is reversed, the ground is not working

or if there is an open line.

A ground fault receptacle tester and ana-lyzer performs the same functions for GFCI

receptacles plus it also tests the ground fault

feature. Similar tools are available for tele-

phone and computer lines.

Circuit trackers easily locate circuits with-

out turning off breakers or fuses. They fea-

ture a transmitter that is plugged into a live

outlet. A receiver is used at the service panel

to identify the circuit into which the trans-

mitter is plugged. Some models incorporate

a visual and an audio indicator. Adapter kits

allow you to identify light switches and light

bulb sockets.

An in-wall pipe and wire detectorlocates metal objects and live unshielded

conductors behind drywall, paneling and

plaster walls.

■ CORDSElectrical cords provide a path for current

to travel from a fixed outlet to an appliance.

The type of cord needed for a given job

is determined by the amperage drawn by

the appliance, whether the appliance is

grounded and the degree of physical pro-

tection required.

Extension CordsExtension cords are for temporary power

only. Make sure the customer uses the right

size for the application. Outdoor and

indoor/household types are available, as well

as commercial cords with heavier gauges,

higher amp ratings and extra flexibility.

Indoor extension cords come in two-

wire and three-wire cords in lengths from

6' to 15' with 6' and 9' being the most

popular lengths. White and brown are the

basic colors.

Outdoor extension cords are used for out-

door power tools and exterior lighting. They

come in 16/3, 14/3 and 12/3 wire, and the

most common lengths are from 25' to 100'.

Heavy-duty extension cords should be used

with high-wattage appliances. Be sure to

match the construction of the cable to the

job. SJT round cord is better able to with-

stand the constant flexing of use with power

tools than SPT2.

Any UL-listed cord will carry a UL label

near the female end. Many companies are

now using an alternative method of label-

ing allowed by UL, which permits the UL

markings to be molded into the cord

ends. This ensures a permanent marking

that cannot be provided with a label. It is

important to check for this UL insignia,

whether it is a label or a permanent mark-

ing. Non-listed cords can be similar in

appearance to listed ones.

To be UL-listed for outdoor use, three-wireround cords must have connector and cap

molded to the cord and a lip on the end of

the connector to prevent misuse. Beginning

in 1998, UL-listed outdoor cords began

appearing with the “SJTW” marking on the

cord, not “SJTW-A” as was previously used.

For a period of time, either marking will be

acceptable for outdoor use.

Grounding cords are available in both

heavyweight and heavy-duty construction

differing from standard cords, because they

have three conductors instead of two and

are equipped with a three-prong grounding

plug and connector.

An assortment of specialty extension

cords includes:

Step-saver cords—have built-in pendant

switches to control appliances and lamps

across the room.

Wind-up reels—keep tangled, foot-catch-

ing cords off the floor.

In recommending a proper extension cord,

pass along these buying and safety tips:

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

13

TYPES OF CABLE AND CORD

Non-Metallic Sheath Cable

Armored Cable

Type SPT Cord

Type S and SJ Cord

Type HPD Cord

AMPERAGE RATINGS FOR CORD

AWG WIRE # MINIMUM AMPERAGE

0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

14

CORD, WIRE AND INSULATION

DESIGNATOR TYPE OF INSULATION GENERAL USE

WIRE

R Rubber All-purpose building wire, 600V, 60°C.

RH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 75°C.

RW Rubber Same as R with moisture resistance.

RHH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 90°C.

RHW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat and moisture resistance to 75°C wet or dry.

RH/RW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R but 75°C dry and 60°C wet.

T Thermoplastic vinyl All-purpose building wire, 60°C.

THW Thermoplastic vinyl Same capacity as RHW.

TW Thermoplastic vinyl Same as RW.

WP Cotton braid Weatherproof for suspended outdoor use.

NONMETALLIC CABLE

NM Paper overlaid with cotton For dry use only, 60°C. Braid or plastic

NMC Plastic or neoprene coating Wet or dry use, 60°C. Only cable approved for barns.

USE Rubber & neoprene Underground service entrance. Fusing or additional covering not required.

UF Thermoplastic Underground feeder and branch cable. Can be buried but must be fused.

ARMORED CABLE

ACT Armored cable on plastic Branch circuits and feeders. Insulated wires.

ACU Armored cable on rubber Same as ACT. Insulated wires.

CORDS

C Rubber & cotton braid Lamps and portable appliances in dry areas, 300V and 600V, 60°C.

HPN Neoprene Same as HPD with moisture resistance.

SP-1 Rubber Lightweight for lamps, clocks, etc., 300V.

SP-2 Rubber Same as SP-1 with heavier construction for more general use, 300V.

SP-3 Rubber Heavier construction than SP-2 for use with refrigerators, air conditioners, etc., 300V.

SPT-1, SPT-2, SPT-3 Thermoplastic Correspond to SP-1, SP-2 and SP-3.

S Rubber and jute twine Heavy duty for power tools, battery chargers, etc., 600V.

SJ Rubber and jute twine Same as S but only 300V.

SJO Rubber and jute twine Same as SJ but oil resistant, 300V.

AWG 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Actual Size

Maximum amperage 125 95 70 55 40 30 25 18 13 10

Actual size of copper wires and maximum amperage allowed in permanent installation.

o Advise customers to follow manufacturer

recommendations for outdoor use and to

not use a household extension cord out-

doors.

o Damaged or worn extension cords should

be replaced, not repaired. Replace older

cords that are non-polarized and don’t

have safety closures.

o Know the length of cord needed and elec-

trical load it can carry. Cord should reach

easily from wall outlet to appliance. Never

put two short cords together to obtain

needed length.

o Only use an extension cord that has been

tested by a nationally recognized testing

laboratory such as UL, CSA or ITS.

o Keep cords out of the reach of children

and out of high-traffic areas where people

might trip over them.

o Never remove the third prong or cut

down the blade of a plug to fit a non-

polarized receptacle.

o Do not cover cords with carpet, furniture

or appliances.

o Cord should be permanently bonded

to the plug and the connector to

ensure a good connection and no

exposed wiring.

Appliance CordsAppliance cords combine cord and con-

nector. The difference between cord sets can

be in type of connector and/or cord used.

Free-end attachment cord sets without

connectors are used in re-wiring direct

attachment irons, toasters and similar small

appliances. They have pre-tinned ends to

speed up wiring.

Range and Dryer CordsRange and dryer cords are free-end types,

commonly called “pigtails,” attached direct-

ly to the appliance. Free ends are fitted with

cable terminals that connect to screw termi-

nals of the appliance to assure positive con-

nections. A metal clamp attached to the

cable serves as a strain relief at the point

where the cable enters an appliance and a

cord protector.

Heavy-duty attachment plugs for

ranges and dryers are much larger than

standard attachment plugs. Most are “L”

shaped with a power cord feeding out

the side of the plug.

Sizes range from 30 amps for dryers and

small ranges to 50 amps for larger ranges.

The different amperage attachment plugs are

not interchangeable because of a difference

in their configuration.

A recent change in the National

Electrical Code requires new range and

dryer receptacle installations to be 3-pole,

4-wire grounding receptacles. The neutral

(grounded circuit conductor) can no

longer be used to ground the frames of

electrical ranges and dryers.

Heating TapesThe primary function of heating tape is

to protect pipes from freezing. Today

there are heating tapes to warm the soil

for growing plants as well as tapes for pre-

venting water damage caused by snow

and ice buildup. They are all designed for

quick and easy installation.

Tapes are automatic, constant-heat or self-

regulating. A thermostat controls an auto-

matic tape. Constant-heat tape must be

manually turned on and off as the tempera-

ture changes. A self-regulating tape is made

of semi-conductive plastic that adjusts to

outside temperatures.

Other CordsPlastic parallel cord can be sold off the roll

for use with lamps, radios and other small

appliances. Plastic bell wire is used for bells,

buzzers, chimes, toy electric trains and other

similar systems and hook-ups.

■ WIRING DEVICESWires and cable form circuits to carry

electricity through a building. Wiring

devices described here are used to control

current flow and provide access points so

electricity can be used to power appli-

ances and lights.

SwitchesA switch controls power to lights and

devices by turning off the hot side of the cir-

cuit. Selection depends on design and load

capacity. For more information, click

(Installing or Replacing ElectricSwitches).

Conventional SwitchesA conventional switch makes or breaks

contact when a mechanically connected

tumbler or toggle bridges or breaks the line

contacts in the switch.

A single-pole switch is simplest and most

frequently used in the home, controlling

current on one circuit from one point. It fea-

tures two terminal screws.

Double-pole switches have four termi-

nal screws.

A three-way switch controls one circuit

from two separate points, such as a garage

light that can be turned on or off from the

house or the garage.

Four-way switches are used in connection

with three-way switches to control one cir-

cuit from three or more points.

Single-pole and three-way switches are

available with lighted handles that glow in

the dark.

Dimmer SwitchesDimmer switches control the amount of

current in a lighting circuit, allowing the

user to control the degree of light from off

to full capacity.

Some dimmers control the amount of

voltage going to the lamp, increasing or

reducing the amount of light given off.

Other dimmers control a portion of each

alternating current cycle applied to the

lamp. This means a solid state dimmer turns

the light off and on approximately 120

times per second. The on-off rate has no

noticeable effect on the life of the bulb or

on the eyes of persons in the room.

One undesirable side effect of this on-off

cycle is interference on AM radios. Some

dimmers have radio/TV filters and printed

circuitry. There are table lamp dimmers and

dimmers that wire parallel into the lamp

cord. In addition, use of a dimmer will cause

some light bulbs to “hum.” The sound is cre-

ated from the turning on and off of the A.C.

sine wave. The rapid switching causes the

tungsten filament to resonate. Filament hum

is typical with inexpensive lamps that are

commonly installed in new construction.

The hum can be greatly reduced by upgrad-

ing to a lamp with a heavier filament.

It is also normal for a dimmer to get warm

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

15

during operation, which is why dimmers are

built with a heat sink. If the load is not over

the wattage rating of the dimmer and is a

proper load for which the dimmer is

designed to control, the dimmer does not

need to be replaced.

There are several styles of wall dimmer

switches available. The most popular include

a push on-off/dial-to-dim type, a rotary full-

range type, a slide type and a toggle type

that offers full-range control but uses toggle

motion instead of a dial.

Dimmers also come in single-pole or

three-way construction. If two, three-way

switches are involved, only one of them can

be a dimmer. Otherwise, the setting will not

work, although some toggle dimmers allow

two three-way switches to be used.

An air gap switch is built into all dim-

mers as a safety feature to ensure that

power can be removed to the output—this

is a UL requirement.

Specialty SwitchesRocker switch—used in place of a stan-

dard wall switch, it is activated with a push-

button mechanism. Useful near a doorway

or area where hands might be full or for

appearance and for range hood and appli-

ances.

Delayed-action switch—circuit remains

active for a few minutes after switch is

thrown. Useful in garage or breezeway,

allowing individual to get into the house

before light goes out.

Programmable memory switch—set to go

on and off at specific times for security or

safety purposes.

Photoelectric switch—operates by light

striking cell. Usually used on yard lights.

Daylight turns circuit off; it goes back on at

dusk. Circuit usually has a delay device to

prevent passing headlights from turning

light off.

Motion switch—turns the light on as you

enter the room. Used for both convenience

and security. Can be used to replace existing

wall switches.

Illuminated switch—is available in two

types. One has a small light that is on when

the switch is off so it can be easily found;

these are usually used at entrances to rooms

and in hallways. Pilot light switches are on

when the light is off and usually used for

out-of-sight lights such as those in the base-

ment, garage and attic.

Outdoor switch—enables electrical power

to be used for outside applications. They fea-

ture a turning lever inside a weatherproof

box cover with a toggle switch.

A second type of tamper-resistant outlet

utilizes an overlapping shutter system

that limits improper access to its ener-

gized contacts.

Voice-activated switch—offers a hands-

free approach to illuminating dark areas

quickly and safely. Voice-activated switch-

es incorporate the latest technology in

speech recognition to enable homeowners

to control the brightness of the lights.

Used in place of any standard wall switch,

they can be programmed with any com-

mand or language.

Silent switch—provides the same operation

as many of the other switches with little or

no noise. Silent switches are either mechani-

cal or solid state. The mechanical switch is

almost identical to the regular switch except

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

16

Single PoleSwitch

Two SwitchesGroundingOutlet

Double Outlet

OUTLETS AND SOCKETS

Keyless CeilingLampholder

Pull ChainSocket

Pull Chain CeilingLampholder

3-waySocket

Push-ThroughSocket

WeatherproofPigtail Socket

Duplex receptacle 2-pole, 3-wire

grounding

Cord switch

OFF

LOOP HOLE

STRIP #14W

IREST

RIP

#12 WIRE

STRIP #14WIR

ESTRIP#12 WIRE

LOOP HOLE

Single-polegrounding switch

Three-way lighted toggle grounding

switch

TOP

STR

IP#1

2 WIRE

STRIP #14W

IRE

2 single-pole switches 3 single-pole switches

Weather protective cover for

single receptacle

TOP

Single-pole AC quiet switch

Three-way AC quiet switch

KEYKEY

STRIP#14

WIR

E STRIP#12

WIRE

6A 125V AC, 3A 25 0V AC, 3A 125VT

SWITCHES

for an extra bumper to reduce the noise. Prior

to 1991, silent switches contained mercury

and used no springs or mechanical devices.

This resulted in smooth, silent operation and

long life. Due to health concerns they were

removed from the market.

ReceptaclesThe wall receptacle, or outlet, taps the cir-

cuit to provide electrical power at a given

location. The slots in the outlet are designed

to match the plug blades of the appliance or

extension cord. Building codes specify num-

ber and spacing of outlets.

Receptacles come in flush- and surface-

mounted designs. Flush-mounted (recessed)

is the style most commonly used for perma-

nent installations.

Configuration of a receptacle refers to the

arrangement of slots or openings on the face

of the outlet. These arrangements vary

according to voltage and current rating of

the receptacle.

The most common configuration is three-

wire grounded. The most common outlets

used in homes are standard 15-amp, 125V,

three-wire designs. All outlets must be

grounded (three prongs).

A single- or double-wipe contact refers to

the area of the inserted prong on which con-

tact is made. In the case of a double wipe

contact, contact is made on both sides of

each blade.

All outlets should have a faceplate to help

prevent exposure to “live” wiring.

There are three basic ways to terminate

wiring in wall receptacles. First is the con-

ventional binding-screw method where

wires are stripped, looped and placed under

binding screws and then secured by tighten-

ing down screws.

Second is the pressure-lock method,

which eliminates binding screws. In this

method, connection is made by inserting a

stripped conductor, which pushes the con-

ductor into and against the terminal chan-

nel for a strong connection. Release slots

permit easy removal of conductors.

A third method involves clamp-type ter-

minals. Stripped wire is inserted into an

open clamp beneath a screw that is then

turned down to lock connection.

Some receptacles have small “pilot” or

guide lights. Appliance receptacles consist of

one vertical slot and two slanted slots and

are designed to be surface-mounted.

Specialty receptacles include twist lock,

childproof, surge suppressor, isolated ground

and RV.

Any flush-mounted receptacle may be

installed outdoors if covered by a protective

plate. These weatherproof covers have

hinged or threaded caps that cover the out-

let face. A self-sealing gasket fits between

the plates and the wall surface to add fur-

ther protection.

Safety outlets have spring-loaded caps to

prevent children from inserting objects into

them. To insert an attachment plug, its

prongs must be placed into the slots of the

protective cap, then turned 90 degrees or

until the slots of the outlet are exposed.

When the plug is withdrawn, the cover

automatically returns to its original protec-

tive position. A slight variation of this uses

an overlapping shutter system.

A second type of safety outlet utilizes a

cam to make an internal electrical con-

nection only when both blades are prop-

erly inserted.

Ground Fault CircuitInterrupters

Even with proper wiring and fusing or cir-

cuit breaking equipment, danger exists from

ground faults, which are the most common

cause of electrical shock.

Ground fault occurs when a person comes

into contact with a live

electrical wire. This can

happen by touching an

exposed wire, or by operat-

ing a faulty appliance or

power tool. Worn insula-

tion, hidden damage or

faulty connections can

make the metal housing of an appliance a

hot electrical conductor. Technically, this

happens when a wire develops a small leak

that will flow to the ground through any

path, including a human body. This can

cause serious shock, even death. Ground

faults can also cause electrical fires.

This hazard is so serious that the National

Electrical Code requires all new homes to be

equipped with ground fault circuit inter-

rupters (GFCI) in bathroom, kitchen, work-

room, outdoor, basement and crawl space,

garage and swimming pool receptacles. It is

a good idea to suggest that homeowners

install such a device in older homes. The

GFCI interrupts power quickly enough to

help prevent someone from receiving a

lethal dose of electricity.

GFCIs are available in receptacles, mod-

ules, breakers and extension cords.

Receptacles work for 15- or 20-amp circuits.

GFCIs should be tested monthly to ensure

they are working properly.

For convenience, a portable GFCI can

be plugged into any existing outlets,

either two-wire or three-wire, without

rewiring. Circuit breaker GFCIs can be

added in electrical panels to replace ordi-

nary circuit breakers. They should be

installed by a qualified electrician.

Surge SuppressorsWith increasing use of home computers

and other sensitive electronic home enter-

tainment equipment, there is a growing

need for protection from voltage surges,

often called spikes or transients. Surge pro-

tection is also needed because of the sheer

number of

potentially

destructive

spikes and

surges that occur in the home every day.

Surges can cause equipment to malfunction

and in severe cases cause catastrophic dam-

age or fire.

A surge is a transient increase of current,

voltage or power on an electrical system.

The larger, more destructive surges, generally

caused by lighting, can reach thousands of

volts. Surges can also come from utility

transformer switching, air conditioner opera-

tion, inductive and power switching, distant

lightning strikes and static discharges. They

put extreme stress on solid-state compo-

nents. Unchecked, such surges can quickly

destroy wiring, appliances, telephones and

other electrical devices.

Transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)

help protect sensitive electronic equipment.

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

17

1

51

2

3

4

2

3

51

2

3

4

Surge protector power strip

Ground fault circuit interrupter

Surge protectors limit surge voltages by

discharging surge currents to ground.

Proper grounding is the strongest prereq-

uisite for proper surge protection.

The key component in almost all surge

protectors is metal oxide varisters (MOVs).

Under normal conditions, MOVs offer

high resistance to currents, preventing

normal currents from discharging to the

ground. Under surge conditions—typically

115 percent or more of a normal cur-

rent—the MOV’s resistance drops within

nanoseconds, creating a path with far less

resistance than the facility’s wiring for the

current to flow to the ground.

Basically, there are two types of sup-

pressors. One—also known as a surge

strip—is similar to a grounding adapter,

and the appliance plugs into it at the wall

outlet. Surge strips are not capable of sup-

pressing a powerful surge. The other type,

designed primarily to prevent lightning

damage, is mounted at the service panel

and protects the home where the electric,

telephone and cable lines enter. The

Institute of Electronics and Electrical

Engineers recommend whole-house surge

suppression as the most effective way to

protect against damage in the home.

Some of these suppressors also feature

filters that reduce or eliminate line noise

distortion that is picked up on radios, tel-

evisions and tape recorders. These filters

also help guard against accidental data

loss in home computers triggered by

spikes or line noise.

A whole-house surge protector mount-

ed at the service panel also protects sec-

ondary distribution wiring and electrical

appliances such as ovens, air condition-

ers, dishwashers and refrigerators from

most sudden power surges. To

increase the protection of elec-

tronic equipment, it is also rec-

ommended that a plug-in surge

suppressor be installed at the

point of use to supplement a sec-

ondary surge arrester.

Surge protectors are rated in

Joules and clamping voltages.

Once surge protection has been

provided at the maximum levels,

the unit must be replaced. Look for audi-

ble or visual indicators.

When selling surge protection devices,

stress the low cost of these products com-

pared to the high cost of repairing or

replacing branch wiring and electrical

appliances and equipment. However, a

surge protector will not protect against a

direct lightning strike.

Transfer SwitchesTransfer switches have become more

popular for new construction and after-

market installations due to weather

storms or accidental power outages.

Transfer switches are wired up to specific

load center circuits that will be utilized

when there is an emergency power out-

age. A portable generator is then plugged

into it and the switch transfers generator

power through the home’s existing electri-

cal circuits. There is no backfeed when

power is restored. Transfer switches elimi-

nate unnecessary extension cords and are

easy to install. Available in choice of

watts and number of circuits, plus option-

al accessories.

LampholdersLampholders are devices with a screw

base that hold light bulbs. Some have

switches to turn them on and off.

Lampholder sockets come in two basic

styles: single and multiple holders. The

most popular styles are twin light,

adapter, keyless, pull-chain tap socket,

push switch and turnkey.

A socket has three principal parts: shell,

cap and interior. The cap has three basic

styles: pendant, nozzle and side outlet. A

pendant is used with a suspended socket;

a cord enters through the top. Side outlet

fits cords coming through the side. Nozzle

caps are used on table lamps where cord

feeds through the bottom.

The shell is the body of the socket. It can

be brass, brass-finished, nickel-finished alu-

minum or plastic. Shell liner, interior and

cap may be disassembled for wiring.

Other sockets include pigtail weather-

proof, which comes with two short leads

for splicing into a power source.

Similar to the pigtail is the pin type,

but tightening down the top and forcing

contact pins into wire makes contact.

The most common size sold is medium

base (such as on 60- and 100-watt bulbs).

Other principal sizes are large-base mogul,

used on three-way floor lamps; and inter-

mediate, which is used on outdoor

Christmas tree bulbs, candelabra and

some night lights.

Appliance and HeaterConnectors

Connectors are used to connect older

style, heat-generating, small household

appliances with heat-resistant neoprene-

type HPN cords.

The connectors are molded of strong,

heat-resistant materials and come in a vari-

ety of styles, such as switchless, armored (or

heavily protected), side outlet and monop-

ull. All have spring cord protectors.

There are two standard sizes: 11/16"

and the miniature 1/2". Standard 11/16"

connectors generally fit on irons and

toasters. The 1/2" connectors are for cof-

feemakers, corn poppers, some electric

skillets and other similar appliances.

Bulb Life ExtendersExtenders have different

designs. One screws into a reg-

ular socket like a socket

adapter; the other is a small

disc placed in the base of the

socket before the bulb is insert-

ed. Bulbs last up to 30 times

longer than in standard sock-

ets; extenders should be recom-

mended for use where the bulb

burns continuously.

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

18

Lampholder with pull cord

Keyless lampholderFluorescent lampholder

LAMP HOLDERS

Boxes, Fittings and ConduitAccording to the National Electrical

Code, every break or termination in an

electric cable must be enclosed in an

appropriate box. This rule applies to

switches and fixture connections as well

as to splices and junctions.

Wall boxes, ceiling boxes (junctionboxes) and weatherproof (outdoor) boxesare the main types of electrical boxes.

The three types of boxes are switch and

outlet, ceiling and utility boxes. Some are

made of galvanized steel with knockouts

to bring cable into the box. Non-metallic

(plastic) boxes are also available. Clamps

are included in some boxes to hold cables

in place.

Switch boxes are 2" x 3" in size and can be

used to house receptacles (outlets) as well as

wall switches. Switch boxes are designed so

that two or more may be fastened together

to form a larger box. The side walls must be

removed where the boxes join.

Octagonal ceiling boxes are used primarily

in ceilings to hold overhead light fixtures

and splices.

Utility boxes are used for the same pur-

pose as switch boxes, but their rounded cor-

ners make them suitable for surface wiring.

All boxes require covers. Box covers can

be made of metal or plastic and come in sev-

eral different shapes. The box covers may be

solid or feature knockouts for receptacles.

Electrical fittings are used to couple, con-

nect, fasten or ground conduit or cable.

Refer to local codes for requirements.

Cable is sometimes held in place by straps

or staples that are designed to handle differ-

ent sizes and is terminated by the use of

cable connectors. A number of other fittings

are available for service entrance installa-

tions, for grounding purposes or for haz-

ardous locations. Fittings can be installed

easily with a screwdriver, hammer or pliers.

Conduit is a raceway in which wires are

installed and protected. Types of conduit

include metal, non-metallic and flex. Each

conduit and size requires its own family

of fittings.

Metal conduit can be electrical metallic

tube (EMT); intermediate metallic conduit

(IMC); rigid or surface raceway.

Non-metallic conduit can be surface race-

way or polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Flex conduit types include flexible

(steel and aluminum); electrical non-

metallic tube (ENT); and liquid tight

(metallic and non-metallic).

Conduit can be held in place by a variety

of straps and hangers that are designed to fit

a specific size diameter. The diameter of rigid

and EMT conduit differs, so the correct strap

or hanger must be specified. Lengths of con-

duit are joined together by couplings (either

rigid or EMT) and terminated by connectors.

Couplings and connectors generally are

either a set-screw type, threaded for rigid

conduit or rain-tight compression type for

damp locations.

PVC, EMT with rain tight fittings, liquid

tight, rigid and IMC conduit can be used

outdoors. For underground applications,

only PVC and rigid conduit can be used.

Surface Wiring DevicesSurface wiring switches, receptacles, lamp-

holders, etc., are installed entirely on the

surface of the wall as opposed to a normal

flush-mounted installation.

The device includes a box, cover and elec-

trical device in one unit. The unit is molded

of an attractive and sturdy plastic insulating

material, which makes it suitable for use in

the home as well as in barns, garages and

basements.

On-the-wall wiring systems created for

do-it-yourselfers allow the consumer to

run electrical wires to the point of use in

the home without breaking into the wall

or ceiling.

These systems have adapters that alter

existing outlet boxes, so consumers can tap

wires off them and snap together vinyl

channels that carry the wires to the new

outlet or switch. The channels hide unsight-

ly wiring and can be painted to blend into

any decor. Quick and easy installation and

economy are its major advantages.

Fuses and Circuit BreakersA fuse or circuit breaker box, commonly

called a main service entrance panel or load

center, is located between incoming power

lines and house wiring. It divides the main

power line into branch circuits. Load center

applications vary, depending on local codes.

Fuses and circuit breakers are safety

devices that break an electrical circuit

when it is overloaded. The fuse or circuit

breaker is sized to protect the branch cir-

cuit wiring between the breaker and the

outlet and does not protect anything

plugged into the outlet.

Circuit breakers come in three main types:

single, double and thin.

You can generally tell if a fuse is blown

by looking at it. If the fuse is blackened,

that indicates a short circuit has occurred;

if the metal is melted, then an overload

has occurred.

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

19

WET LOCATION ONLYWHEN COVER CLOSED

Weather protective cover forduplex receptacle

3-hole outlet box4-hole outlet box 5-hole outlet box

BOXES AND COVERS

Switch Box

Utility Box Cover

BOXES AND ACCESSORIES

Octagon Box

Utility Box

There are several types of fuses. Plug fusesare available in 5- to 30-amp sizes and are

the most commonly used fuse.

Another fuse is the Type S, which pro-

vides a minimum time delay for the starting

of small household motors. Type S fuses pre-

vent anyone from replacing a lower-rated

fuse with a higher one. It consists of two

parts: the fuse and the adapter, which has a

different diameter for each fuse ampere rat-

ing. Once an adapter of a particular size has

been inserted into the fuse socket, it cannot

be removed and only the same rating fuses

can be used in that socket.

Cartridge fuses are used in high-current

applications, such as the main service box

and in clamp- or bar-type fuse boxes that

serve electric ranges, water heaters, clothes

dryers and air conditioners. Round cartridge

fuses have ratings to 60 amps; greater capaci-

ty (to 600 amps) requires a cartridge fuse

with knife-edge contacts.

A screw-in breaker can replace a fuse.

When a circuit malfunctions, a button on

this device pops out; it must be pushed in

to reset.

A circuit breaker contains a bi-metal strip

that breaks the circuit when current exceeds

a predetermined rating. A broken circuit is

indicated by the breaker’s switch being in

the mid-point position. This is commonly

referred to as a “tripped” breaker.

After the overload has been corrected, reset

the circuit breaker by switching it to the “off”

position and then to the “on” position.

Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters Existing circuit breaker technology does

not protect against an occurrence known as

an arc fault. Arc faults are believed to cause a

significant percentage of the more than

43,000 electrical home fires, 330 deaths and

1,800 injuries annually.

An arc fault can occur when insulation

around cords, wires or cables is damaged or

deteriorates. In many cases, arc faults are the

results of aging wire. Arc faults can flare at

temperatures in excess of 10,000°F, igniting

surrounding combustible material.

In many cases, conventional circuit break-

ers do not respond quickly enough to arc

fault situations. By the time a circuit breaker

responds, a fire may have begun to smolder.

An arc-fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) is

a device that recognizes the unique char-

acteristics of many types of arcing faults

and acts instantly to interrupt the circuit.

In some devices, the arc-fault circuit inter-

rupter is integrated into state-of-the-art

circuit breaker design.

In 1999, the National Electrical Code

mandated that arc-fault interrupters be

installed on all 15- and 20-amp circuits in

bedroom outlets in new home construc-

tion starting in 2002. Some states mandat-

ed the change earlier.

Now available is a combination

AFCI/GFCI circuit breaker that is certified

by Underwriter’s Laboratories. The breaker

protects against electrical fires and dan-

gerous electrical shock hazards, enhancing

electrical safety in the home. It also sim-

plifies the installation process for electri-

cal contractors since there is no need to

wire two separate devices.

Wall PlatesWall plates include all plates used to fin-

ish or cover switches, receptacles or combi-

nation devices. Standard plastic wall platesare constructed with durable, smooth sur-

faces. Builders in new homes often install

inexpensive ones. There are also designer

and decorator plates, switches and recepta-

cles with smooth plastic faces in contempo-

rary colors.

Chrome-plated wall plates are made of

steel and brightly finished for lasting appear-

ance and durability.

Decorative wall plates come in many

styles and materials such as ceramic, alu-

minum, brass, wrought iron, stainless steel,

copper, wood and die-cast metals. Die-cast

products include switch and receptacle

plates made in finishes and designs to match

other functional hardware items such as

door handles, cabinetware and bath fixtures.

TimersTimers turn on lights and appliances at

specified intervals and times, making them a

useful security product. They are available

for outdoor or indoor applications and can

be electronic or mechanical. Spring-wound

timers for bath fans and spas have a manual

on-off switch.

Doorbell EquipmentIf not battery operated, doorbells require

AC step-down transformers to reduce house-

hold voltage to the proper operating voltage.

Standard doorbells operate at 10V or 16V.

Some doorbells may require other voltages,

depending on the design. Step-down trans-

formers should be UL-listed. The doorbells

themselves are safe, low-voltage devices that

do not require UL inspection.

Single or multiple-stranded bell wire is

used between the doorbell, the transformer

and the push buttons.

Push buttons are easily installed and

replaced. Bulb life for lighted push buttons is

approximately three to five years, and

replacement bulbs are available. Push but-

tons are available in lighted or unlighted,

recessed or surface-mounted styles.

Non-electric chimes are also available.

Wireless doorbells are all on the same fre-

quency, although some offer adjustable fre-

quencies. For more information, click

(Installing Doorbells).

Plugs, Adapters and TapsPlugs connect devices to the power sup-

ply through a receptacle. The typical plug

includes two blades or prongs, a molded

plastic body holding the two blades apart

and a blade/cord connection within the

plug body. When inserted into an outlet,

the blades become energized. Electricity

flows through the blades, through the

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

20

Toggle Switch Plate

Weatherproof Outlet Plate

WALL PLATES

Combination Wall Plate

Double Outlet Plate

blade/cord connection and through the

cord, thus energizing the appliance.

Plugs come in polarized and non-polar-

ized varieties. Polarization helps reduce

the potential for shock. With polarized

plugs, one blade is wider than the other.

Three-conductor plugs are automatically

polarized because they can only be insert-

ed one way. Two-prong plugs do not have

a grounding pin.

Older homes may not have polarized

receptacle outlets. If not, the receptacles

will not accept polarized plugs. A quali-

fied electrician should replace the old

receptacles and put in wiring consistent

with polarization.

Choose the plug based on the gauge of

wire on the appliance or tool. Male plugshave prongs while female connectorshave slots.

There are plugs for different applica-

tions, such as exterior, interior and

marine. A twist lock prevents accidental

disconnection.

Attachment plugs fit on the ends of

cords of portable appliances and permit

them to be connected to wall receptacles

or extension cords. Plugs and connectors

are used to build extension cords or for

replacement on extension cords.

The arrangements of slots and blades

on connectors, receptacles and plugs must

match the configuration of the devices

with which they will be used. The number

of slots or prongs on these devices must

be the same as the number of wires in

associated cords.

Socket adapters screw into the socket,

while taps plug into the outlet.

Adapters are generally used for tempo-

rary application to provide two outlets

where a light socket is in use.

Taps are used to increase the number of

attachment plugs that can be used on a

single receptacle face.

Caution must be exercised when tap-

ping additional attachment plugs into the

same line. If the power rating of the cir-

cuit is exceeded, fuses will blow (if the cir-

cuit is properly fused).

Multiple taps plug into existing outlets

and can accommodate four to six plugs.

Some come with built-in surge protectors.

Other types of taps are table and cube.

Plug-in strips feature multiple outlets

placed at regular intervals. If used in a

workshop, it should have grounded out-

lets and be attached to a grounded circuit.

Quick-Clamp DevicesQuick-clamp devices do away with

screw terminals and the necessity of strip-

ping wire. If a plug needs replacing, insert

the cord into the clamping mechanism as

shown on the instructions. The clamp

forces the cord into the proper position

and onto sharp contact points that pierce

the insulation and make contact with the

conductors.

Clamp devices include both attachment

plugs and cord connectors of various

styles. They are used with portable lamps

and small appliances. They cannot be

used on kitchen or large appliances

because of their low amperage rating.

Wire Nuts/ConnectorsInsulated wire nuts or connectors are

used to connect wire ends that have been

twisted together inside a lighting fixture

or box. The size of the wire nut or con-

nector must correspond to the size wire

being used. Connectors are used to con-

nect heat-generating, small household

appliances with heat-resistant neoprene-

type HPN cords.

The connectors are molded of strong,

heat-resistant materials and come in a

variety of styles, such as switchless,

armored (or heavily protected), side outlet

and monopull. All have spring cord pro-

tectors. An offset wing design on some

models provides increased torque with

reduced wear on fingers. A hex head

enables nut driver and automated use.

There are two standard sizes: 11/16"

and the miniature 1/2". Standard 11/16"

connectors generally fit on irons and

toasters. The 1/2" connectors are for cof-

fee makers, corn poppers, some electric

skillets and other similar appliances.

TELEPHONES ANDACCESSORIES

■ TELEPHONES Consumers look at telephone purchases

much the same way as they look at other

home electronics purchases. They want a

quality product sold by a reputable retail-

er. Service backup is important because

telephone owners are responsible for their

own repairs, just as they are for any other

kind of equipment they own. If the tele-

phone breaks, they take it back to the

store that sold it.

Telephones contain microprocessors

and other electronic parts. New and more

sophisticated features are being added.

As telephones become more complicat-

ed, they require more sales attention.

Consumers need to be shown how to use

the additional features. If they will be

installing, replacing or rewiring, they may

need instruction in these areas, too. To

stock the telephones and accessories most

needed in your market, study the demo-

graphics of the area. Cordless phones may

work well in suburban and rural homes,

but are sometimes subject to interference

in urban areas.

Affluent areas may be a good market for

accessories such as telephone-answering

devices, while low-cost compact electronic

“disposable” phones may appeal more to

a middle-class market.

Beyond the basics, consumers can buy cord-

less phones, automatic redialing phones and

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

21

Straight plug Grounding adapter

6-outlet tap C t N 44023-outlet tap

PLUGS AND TAPS

combination clock-radio phones.

Here are important points to keep in mind

when selling phones and accessories.

Telephone companies require con-

sumers to report their ringer equivalency

number (REN). This REN is published on

the instruction sheet or phone unit hous-

ing. Standard AT&T phones have REN rat-

ings of one. Compact, low-cost models may

have as low as .7 REN or as high as 1.3 REN.

If the REN on one line exceeds 4.0, the

phones will not ring.

There are two basic types of phones:

pushbutton tone and dial pulse. The dial-

pulse phone looks like a pushbutton tone,

but its pushbuttons technically dial the

phone. It doesn't process a call as fast as

the pushbutton tone.

Dial pulse gives the convenience of the

pushbutton-tone type of dialing without

higher monthly costs. It should be noted

too that pushbutton-tone phones are

required to access long-distance services.

Consumers should also be aware that

installing a pushbutton-tone phone

means they must also be receiving this

type of service from the phone company.

Cordless telephone systems incorporate

a base station connected to the telephone

line and a wireless handset. The distance

a cordless phone will work away from the

base station varies. It may be as little as

50' or phones with antennas may work as

far away as 1,000'.

Elevating the base station and placing it

away from other reception barriers can

improve cordless phone performance. One

word of warning: In most cordless

phones, ringers are located in the ear-

piece. The ring registers nearly 130 deci-

bels, and if the phone is picked up and

the switch not turned from “standby” to

“talk” position, a phone ring could dam-

age hearing.

Cordless phones are powered by

rechargeable nickel-cadmium or nickel-

metal hydride batteries. The length of

time required to recharge and the length

of time between rechargings will vary.

Therefore, it is necessary to read the

instructions with the individual product

to see how long to charge and how sensi-

tive the battery is to frequent rechargings.

Some nickel-cadmium batteries will

“remember” how much time elapsed

between chargings and if they are

recharged too often, will shorten the

length of time they hold a charge.

Eventually the batteries will have to be

replaced, but most phones will take sever-

al hundred chargings.

■ ACCESSORIES Accessories are available in either “mod-

ular” or “conventional” designs.

Installation of a conventional system

requires no more than a screwdriver.

Accessories are used in conjunction with

standard telephones, using standard four-

prong plug configuration, spade-tipped

wires or hard wiring.

All wiring in the phone base, handset

and wall receptacle can be replaced by

matching the colored wires. But it is

important that store employees know

enough to help d-i-yers with wiring infor-

mation and connection procedures on the

models you stock.

Plugs and jacks provide the connection

for standard telephone and extension

cord hook-ups. They may also be attached

to existing cords, adding versatility to

existing phones.

No tools are needed for modular con-

nections; the system was designed to

allow “snap-fit” connection of miniature

plugs with mating hardware. The follow-

ing connections are available using the

snap-fit modular concept:

Coil cord—old cords can be removed by

depressing a clip and pulling the plug out of

the phone’s base and handset. The new cord

is then pushed into place until it locks.

Straight-line cords—plugs are clipped

into the base of the phone and the wall

receptacle.

Extension cords—cords are equipped

with modular plugs that snap into a wall

receptacle while a modular jack accepts

the line cord from the existing telephone.

Modular adapter—allows phones with

modular line cords to be plugged into a

four-pronged conventional plug that

matches the holes of conventional tele-

phone jacks.

Modular plug and conventional jack—

allows connection of conventional four-

pronged plug extended line cords to mod-

ular jacks so that conventional phones

can be plugged into modular connections.

Modular coupler—allows connection of

modular plug-ended cords to each other

to extend the phone system.

Duplex modular adapter—allows two

modular extensions to be run off one

modular unit. For instance, allows you to

connect a telephone and telephone-

answering device to the same phone line.

Retrofit modular adapter—allows con-

ventional telephones with spade-tipped

conductors to be connected to modular

jack assemblies without tools.

Surface wall-mount jack assembly—

allows conversion of conventional termi-

nal blocks to a modular jack.

Portable wall-mount jack assembly—

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

22

ENVIRONMENATL CONCERN ALERT

Many states are enacting legislation con-cerning dry-cell and rechargeable batteries.Current legislative topics include mercury inbatteries, batteries for cordless tools andappliances and battery recycling.

Mercury will have to be eliminated frombatteries. This will probably reduce the per-formance and increase the cost. Batteriesin cordless power tools and appliances willhave to be removable. And nickel-cadmiumbatteries will have to be recycled throughbattery retailers.

Be sure you know the laws regarding thesetopics in your area.

SPECIFICATIONS FORCYLINDRICAL BATTERIES

AA (Penlight) . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5AAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2**D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5

*Mercury cell**Nickel-cadmium cell

allows connection of modular plug-ended

line cords in any location to convert four-

hole jack to a modular design.

Flush wall-mount jack assembly—allows

flush-mounted connection of plug-ended

modular line cords for initial installation

or conversion from existing wall recepta-

cles. Can be connected in parallel when

more than one jack is required.

Wall-mount modular patio jack—weath-

erproof assembly accepts plug-end modu-

lar line cords.

■ ANSWERING DEVICES The kind of telephone answering

device you recommend will depend in

large part on the kind of use the cus-

tomer expects of it. Models vary by price

and optional features.

Basic digital units do not require a tape

recorder or tape to handle incoming mes-

sages. In most models, total answer time

is limited, but more sophisticated units

will allow for messages of varying lengths.

Features which differentiate models

include:

Leaving messages—some units permit

the user to leave a digital or tape-recorded

message.

Dictation—some units double as dictat-

ing machines with no time limit on

recording. A switch will stop and start the

answer tape.

Announce only—for messages that

require no response, such as announce-

ments of when the owner will return.

Ring-response adjustment—allows

machine to wait to answer call until

phone has rung up to 10 times. An advan-

tage since it eliminates connecting and

disconnecting unit each time owner

leaves and returns.

Remote pick-up—allows owner to pick

up messages from a distance by telephon-

ing the answering unit.

Extended recording—allows user to

record a complete two-way conversation

without being cut off after allotted mes-

sage time.

Monitor—allows user to listen, unde-

tected, to incoming messages as callers

leave them. Listener can pick up phone

and interrupt recording message, if

desired, or simply let it be recorded.

Some phone companies still require an

Authorized Protective Connection

Module, if the answering device could

produce excess voltage on the telephone

line. The APCM plugs directly into the

phone jack.

■ BATTERIESGeneral-purpose and heavy-duty battery

systems serve a variety of functions.

General-purpose batteries provide 1.5V to

510V. They have good shelf life but

decreased efficiency at high-current

drains. They drop voltage gradually with

use and operate poorly in low tempera-

tures. They are available in a variety of

shapes from small pen cells to huge emer-

gency lighting batteries. Their uses range

from camera flashbulbs to radios and

flashlights.

General-purpose and heavy-duty batter-

ies are designed for light moderate to

E L E C T R I C A L S U P P L I E S

23

GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

ALTERNATING CURRENT—Abbreviated “AC.” A current of electricity that alternates at a rate of60 hertz (cycles per second). It flows first in one direction, then in the other. Only at very low fre-quencies is this charge visible to the eye through the flickering of lamps.

AMPERE—Abbreviated “amp.” A measure of the flow of electrical current through a wire.

BALLAST—A form of transformer used in fluorescent lamp circuits to control current and keep itwithin specific operating limits.

CANDLEPOWER—A measure of the intensity of light produced by a source. One candlepowercorresponds approximately to the light produced in any one direction by an ordinary candle.

DIRECT CURRENT—Abbreviated “DC.” A flow of electric current continues in one direction aslong as the circuit is closed.

FOOTCANDLE—The unit used to measure how much total light is reaching a surface, such as awall or table. One footcandle is the amount of illumination falling on a one-square-foot surfacefrom a standard candle located 1 foot away.

FUSE—A replaceable safety device used to break the flow of current when a circuit becomesoverloaded.

GROUNDING—Connects the electrical system with the earth to prevent damage or shock.Ground wires are usually bare.

HOT WIRE—A power-carrying wire (usually in red or black) as distinguished from the “neutral”wire (usually white).

KILOWATT—1,000 watts. From “watt” and Greek word “kilo,” meaning 1,000.

KILOWATT HOURS—Abbreviated “kwh.” A 1,000-watt lamp burning one hour will use one kilo-watt hour of electricity. If the rate were 3 cents per kwh, the cost would be 3 cents per hour tooperate.

LAMP—Technical word meaning light bulb or tube—the part that shines until it burns out. Itcan also refer to a type of fixture, such as a desk lamp.

LUMEN—A unit that expresses the total quantity of light given off by a source regardless ofdirection. A lumen is defined as the amount of light falling on a surface of one square foot, everypoint of which is one foot away from a source of one candlepower.

NEUTRAL WIRE—A wire that runs from an appliance or device to make uninterrupted connec-tion back to the power source. The opposite of a “hot” wire that carries power from the electri-cal source to the appliance.

NOMINAL LAMP LIFE—A rated average bulb life that is obtained through closely controlledtests.

OHM—A unit of electrical resistance. (Electrical resistance is the opposition by a material to theflow of electrical current.)

TRANSFORMER—Steps up or steps down amount of alternating current available from circuit tothat required by the appliance.

VOLT—Amount of pressure needed to push electricity through a wire.

WATT—The unit of measurement of electrical power. Calculated by multiplying volts timesamperes. For instance, 746 watts equal one electrical horsepower.

heavy-current drain equipment. They, too,

are available in a variety of sizes and

shapes providing from 1.5V to 9V. They

have a good shelf life and maintain volt-

age better under load than general-purpose

batteries. They are used in flashlights, calcu-

lators, motor-driven toys, electronic games

and portable compact disc players.

Alkaline batteries are the longest-lasting

all-purpose batteries. They are designed

for high- and continuous-current drain

applications. Voltage ranges from 1.5V to

9V. The average cell holds 90 percent of

its energy for two to three years on the

shelf. Alkaline batteries are disposable and

operate well in low temperatures. Uses

include tape recorders, remote controls,

portable communications systems, radios,

television sets and shavers.

Lithium batteries are more expensive but

can hold their power for eight to 10 years,

unused. They are designed for cameras,

watches and other items that use a small

amount of current repeatedly over a long

period of time. They are available in 9V.

Heavy-duty batteries have a short life

compared to alkaline batteries and work

best for low-drain applications such as

remote controls and wall clocks.

Miniature zinc air batteries are designed

to provide power to miniature hearing aids.

They can be directly substituted for silver

oxide or mercuric oxide batteries in most

hearing aid applications. They are activated

by removing the covering from the air

access hole. They are available in common

hearing aid battery sizes.

Improved cell construction and advanced

use of titanium and lithium technology

have resulted in new premium batteries that

offer long-lasting performance for use in

high-drain devices.

Nearly 80 percent of all batteries sold

are in the AA and AAA sizes. Some batter-

ies come with a gauge-style tester so the

user knows how much power remains in

the battery.

Household batteries should be stored in

a dry place at room temperature. Make

sure not to mix battery types in the same

device and never mix new and old batter-

ies in the same device. Do not dispose of

any battery type in a large group since

they can come into contact with one

another. Always take precautions when

handling exposed battery chemicals.

Battery chemicals should not be placed

near the eyes or ingested by any means.

Mercury BatteriesMercury (and silver) batteries are used to

power hearing aids, electronic watches, cal-

culators and other electronic equipment

where small size and long life are critical.

They maintain a constant voltage for the

entire life cycle.

Concern over the environment has led

manufacturers to design mercury-free batter-

ies for household use.

Rechargeable BatteriesAlthough nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) bat-

teries are most commonly used in

rechargeable applications, other kinds are

available, including alkaline and lead-

acid. The major drawback to rechargeable

alkaline batteries is fewer recharging

cycles. Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) bat-

teries have emerged as a viable alternative

to Ni-Cd batteries since they outlast Ni-Cd

batteries by up to 40 percent.

Ni-MH cells are available in AA, AAA, C,

D and 9-volt sizes. Ni-MH batteries offer

superior performance for use with high-

drain applications such as flash cameras

(including digital) and camcorders.

Rechargeable batteries are not charged

before purchase and must be charged for

approximately eight to 12 hours before

using. Some rechargeable batteries are now

available with shorter charging times.

Rechargeable batteries will lose their charge

if not used for an extended period (30 to 60

days) and should be charged every month

for best performance. Some batteries can be

recharged 800 to 1,000 times and will last

up to four years.

They offer “overcharge” capability,

which means they can stay on house cur-

rent for long periods without damaging

the cell. Like mercury batteries, nickel-

cadmium cells maintain constant voltage

for their full life span.

Nickel-cadmium batteries are perma-

nently built into a number of cordless

tools and appliances. In addition to the

larger batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries

are available in D, C, AA, AAA and 9V

sizes with chargers.

Battery recharging systems include the

charger and charging module. The module

is available in four sizes to hold AA, C, D or

9V batteries. The charger should be used

only with batteries specifically designated as

rechargeable. These are sometimes known as

secondary batteries. Trying to charge non-

rechargeable batteries can cause leakage and

possible cell rupture.

Lead-acid batteries are built into tools.

These batteries, about the size of a D bat-

tery, won’t leak, don’t vent explosive gas or

corrosive fumes, offer lengthy shelf life and

cost about half as much as nickel-cadmium.

Life span is 200 to 500 cycles, but they will

lose power gradually with age and use.

A national program has been started to

recycle rechargeable batteries. Retailers can

participate at no cost. For more informa-

tion, contact the non-profit Rechargeable

Battery Recycling Corp. at (877) 723-1297 or

visit www.rbrc.org/diy.

Electric MotorsThere are two basic motors found most

frequently in household applications—split

phase and universal.

The split-phase motor is the simplest. It

contains no brushes or commutator and

comes in one-third or less horsepower. At

full speed, the split-phase motor is able to

develop as much power as any other type,

but it is not capable of starting heavy loads

such as pumps or compressors. It functions

best when maximum load is applied at full

speed, such as in sanders, grinders and light

power tools.

Universal motors do not run at a constant

speed but slow as the load increases in some

instances from 15,000 rpm without a load

to 500 rpm under heavy load.

For this reason the motor is unsuitable for

many jobs. It is used only where the load is

reasonably constant and predetermined, such

as in sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, fans,

etc. It is the only type of motor that can be

controlled by a rheostat.

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24