Electoral Participation and Civic Education in Latin America Irma Méndez de Hoyos Irma Méndez de HoyosFLACSO-México

Electoral Participation and Electoral Participation and Civic Education in Latin Civic Education in Latin

AmericaAmerica

Irma Méndez de HoyosIrma Méndez de Hoyos

FLACSO-MéxicoFLACSO-México

ObjectivesObjectives

To present the main trends for electoral To present the main trends for electoral participation in the world, and point out the axes participation in the world, and point out the axes of current debate.of current debate.

To describe factors associated with the variation To describe factors associated with the variation of electoral turnout.of electoral turnout.

To describe fundamental elements of voter To describe fundamental elements of voter education and alternative activities to promote education and alternative activities to promote electoral participation.electoral participation.

To describe the fundamental elements of civic To describe the fundamental elements of civic education.education.

ContentContent

Democracy and elections: dilemmas in Democracy and elections: dilemmas in Latin America (LA)Latin America (LA)

Evolution of voter turnoutEvolution of voter turnout

Factors associated with the variation of Factors associated with the variation of voter turnoutvoter turnout

Voter education and civic educationVoter education and civic education

Challenges for Latin AmericaChallenges for Latin America

Democracy and elections: dilemmas Democracy and elections: dilemmas in Latin Americain Latin America

Competitive elections: distinctive Competitive elections: distinctive characteristic of democracy and source of characteristic of democracy and source of legitimacy for the political system. legitimacy for the political system. The third wave of democratization in LA The third wave of democratization in LA means competitive elections.means competitive elections.Two decades of competitive elections in Two decades of competitive elections in LA have not translated into more efficient, LA have not translated into more efficient, more responsible governments more responsible governments (governability and/or democratic (governability and/or democratic governance). governance).


Competitive elections is not equivalent to Competitive elections is not equivalent to democratic governability / governancedemocratic governability / governance

Could this weaken the role of elections? Could this weaken the role of elections?

Support for democracy? Support for democracy?

Electoral participation? Electoral participation?


GovernanceGovernance A re-conceptualization of the relationship A re-conceptualization of the relationship

between government and society. The between government and society. The axis of this new relationship points out to axis of this new relationship points out to the direct participation of citizens in solving the direct participation of citizens in solving public problems, and an exchange of public problems, and an exchange of resources between government, society resources between government, society and the market.and the market.


Some common governance elements Some common governance elements (Stoker, (Stoker,

1998; Rhodes, 2000; Pierre, 2000; Porras, 2007):1998; Rhodes, 2000; Pierre, 2000; Porras, 2007):

Blurred borders between the public and Blurred borders between the public and private spheres,private spheres,

Direct participation of citizens in resolving Direct participation of citizens in resolving public problems, public problems,

Fragmentation of power axes: multiplicity and Fragmentation of power axes: multiplicity and competence of governance areas and agents. competence of governance areas and agents.


Governance questionsGovernance questions: : a) the ability of government to solve public a) the ability of government to solve public problems on its ownproblems on its own

b) centralized decision-makingb) centralized decision-making

c) limited spaces for citizen participationc) limited spaces for citizen participation

d) role and importance of elections, parties d) role and importance of elections, parties and other representative institutionsand other representative institutions

e) the monopoly of these institutions in the e) the monopoly of these institutions in the government processgovernment process


Governance:Governance: What used to be indisputable roles of What used to be indisputable roles of

government are considered now as government are considered now as common problems, which can be solved common problems, which can be solved by other political institutions and other by other political institutions and other actors. actors.

To what extent does this reduce the To what extent does this reduce the importance and meaning of elections? importance and meaning of elections?

Voter turnoutVoter turnout

In spite of their differences, all theories of In spite of their differences, all theories of democracy consider voter turnout as one democracy consider voter turnout as one of its main components.of its main components.

The vote: constitutes the most extended The vote: constitutes the most extended form of political participation, but it is just form of political participation, but it is just one dimension of political participation. one dimension of political participation.


Growing concern for the decrease in Growing concern for the decrease in electoral participation in the last 10 years electoral participation in the last 10 years in the world. in the world.

It has been decreasing slowly but It has been decreasing slowly but consistently in recent years.consistently in recent years.

In 1961-1975: average 77.1%; 1976-1990 In 1961-1975: average 77.1%; 1976-1990 74.8%; 1990-2006: 69.7%; since 2006: 74.8%; 1990-2006: 69.7%; since 2006: less than 69% less than 69%



The decrease in voter turnout is also a The decrease in voter turnout is also a trend in LA, but not a generalized pattern. trend in LA, but not a generalized pattern.

Participation has decreased in some Participation has decreased in some countries –Argentina, Colombia, Costa countries –Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela- whereas Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela- whereas it has increased in other countries –it has increased in other countries –Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru, Dominican Republic.Dominican Republic.

Participación electoral en elecciones de Presidente

1997-2007

Año electoral

2005-20072002-20041999-20011997 a 1998

%

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

Argentina

Bolivia

Brasil

Chile

Colombia

Costa Rica

Ecuador

El Salvador

Guatemala

Participación Electoral en elecciones de Presidente

1997-2007

Año electoral

2005-20072002-20041999-20011997 a 1998

%

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

Honduras

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

Rep. Dom.

Uruguay

Venezuela

Participación electoral en Elecciones de Diputados

1997-2007

Año de Elecciones

2005-20072002-20041999-20011997 a 1998

%

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Argentina

Bolivia

Brasil

Chile

Colombia

Costa Rica

Ecuador

El Salvador

Guatemala

Participacion electoral elecciones de diputados

1997-2007

Año electoral

2005-20072002-20041999-20011997 a 1998

%

100

80

60

40

20

Honduras

Mexico

Nicaragua

Panama

Paraguay

Peru

Rep. Dom.

Uruguay

Venezuela


Voter turnout is a unique source of legitimacy for Voter turnout is a unique source of legitimacy for the democratic system.the democratic system.

Participating in elections: Participating in elections: Is the primary basis for public influence in Is the primary basis for public influence in representative democracy, representative democracy,

Constitutes a form of collective decision-making,Constitutes a form of collective decision-making,

Generates a link of responsibilities and accountability Generates a link of responsibilities and accountability for elected politicians.for elected politicians.


The decrease in voter turnoutThe decrease in voter turnout weakens the primary link between weakens the primary link between citizens and government, citizens and government,

on a large scale, it can erode the on a large scale, it can erode the legitimacy of the democratic system.legitimacy of the democratic system.


In his book In his book Voter Turnout. A Global ReportVoter Turnout. A Global Report Dieter Nohlen points out that: Dieter Nohlen points out that: The main problems are not national or The main problems are not national or

regional differences in the percentages of regional differences in the percentages of voter turnout, but the political meaning of voter turnout, but the political meaning of elections and the political participation of elections and the political participation of citizens in new democracies.citizens in new democracies.


What is the political importance of What is the political importance of elections and citizen participation in an era elections and citizen participation in an era characterized by power fragmentation, characterized by power fragmentation, multiplication of decision-making centers multiplication of decision-making centers and a dynamic, complex and and a dynamic, complex and heterogeneous society?heterogeneous society?

Factors associated with voter turnoutFactors associated with voter turnout

Multiple factors could explain changes in Multiple factors could explain changes in electoral turnout: electoral turnout:

Electoral system factors Electoral system factors :: Type of electoral systemType of electoral system Type of electoral registry (individual or State Type of electoral registry (individual or State

responsibility)responsibility) Compulsory voteCompulsory vote Election Day: one or several daysElection Day: one or several days Election Day: working or resting dayElection Day: working or resting day Availability of alternative procedures to voteAvailability of alternative procedures to vote Access to polling stationsAccess to polling stations Use of technologiesUse of technologies


Party system factors:Party system factors: Party system structure (number of parties)Party system structure (number of parties) Party competition and competitivityParty competition and competitivity Institutionalization of party systemInstitutionalization of party system Legitimacy of party systemLegitimacy of party system Legitimacy of electionsLegitimacy of elections


Social and economic aspects:Social and economic aspects: AgeAge EducationEducation IncomeIncome OccupationOccupation


Attitude factors:Attitude factors:

Political interestPolitical interest Availability of informationAvailability of information Political efficacyPolitical efficacy Social networksSocial networks SocializationSocialization


Contextual factors:Contextual factors: Perceptions of political contest effectivenessPerceptions of political contest effectiveness Competitivity and importance of the electoral eventCompetitivity and importance of the electoral event Nature of party systemNature of party system Campaign spendingCampaign spending Voting traditions in different communitiesVoting traditions in different communities Strategic voteStrategic vote Time between electionsTime between elections WeatherWeather Nature of elections (concurrent or not)Nature of elections (concurrent or not)

Facrtors associated with voter turnoutFacrtors associated with voter turnout

Which factors are the most important?Which factors are the most important?

There is no consensus on the most relevant factors. In European There is no consensus on the most relevant factors. In European

studies institutional factors are enhanced. In LA contextual and studies institutional factors are enhanced. In LA contextual and

institutional factors prevail.institutional factors prevail.

Some studies point out that the character of elections is the most Some studies point out that the character of elections is the most

important thing as a result of the combination of several elements in important thing as a result of the combination of several elements in

each election.each election.

Others use analytical approaches to explain the vote:Others use analytical approaches to explain the vote:


As the expression of As the expression of a a group behaviorgroup behavior influenced by the social, influenced by the social,

demographic, regional or economic characteristics shared by members of a demographic, regional or economic characteristics shared by members of a

given community, given community,

As an As an eminently individual act,eminently individual act, motivated by personal and subjective motivated by personal and subjective

perceptions and orientations, perceptions and orientations,

As an As an individual act responding to particular contextual situationsindividual act responding to particular contextual situations, and in , and in

reaction to a certain reaction to a certain triggertrigger..

As an individual instrumental rather than a rational act: a retrospective As an individual instrumental rather than a rational act: a retrospective

vote issued in response to or according to government performance,vote issued in response to or according to government performance,

As an act expressing the voter’s concern about issues or themes placed As an act expressing the voter’s concern about issues or themes placed

at the center of the political debate in electoral circumstances: at the center of the political debate in electoral circumstances: issue issue

votingvoting..


Some available data on factors associated Some available data on factors associated

with the variation of electoral turnout in LA with the variation of electoral turnout in LA

show the following:show the following:


FactorsFactors

ELECTORAL TURNOUTELECTORAL TURNOUT

GENERAL 1997-1998 1999-2001 2002-2004 2005-2007 N

ContextualContextual

Civil Freedoms- FH .423(**) 0.378 .610(*) 0.456 0.488 54

Political Rights- FH .378(**) 0.024 0.414 0.461 .567(*) 54

ElectoralElectoral

Type of electoral system 0.256 0.547(*) 0.348 -0.006 0.206 51

Party systemParty system

Competitivity Rate 0.122 0.352 0.275 -0.127 -0.283 45

Number of parties 0.127 -0.028 0.456 0.049 0.28 53

Legitimacy of party system 0.22 .591(*) 0.074 0.421 -0.384 51

Indispensable political parties 0.258 .557(*) 0.186 0.339 -0.208 51

Trust in political parties 0.103 0.481 -0.12 0.327 -0.501 51

Legitimacy of Elections 0.047 -0.182 0.474 0.43 -0.5 52

Transparent elections 0.046 -0.191 0.26 0.389 -0.32 52

The vote is a real choice 0.025 -0.065 .657(*) 0.413 -.531(*) 52

Institutionalization rate of political party system 0.056 0.217 0.103 0.045 -0.2 54

*The correlation is significant on level 0,05 (bilateral).

** The correlation is significant on level 0,01 (bilateral).

ASPECTSASPECTSVOTER TURNOUTVOTER TURNOUT

GENERAL 1997-1998 1999-2001 2002-2004 2005-2007 N

Social and economicSocial and economic

Education (Literacy) 0.174 -0.195 .741(**) 0.086 0.169 54

Income -0.035 -0.082 0.061 -0.144 0.049 53

AttitudeAttitude

Democracy is better .287(*) 0.292 0.479 0.509 -0.147 52

Satisfaction with democracy 0.063 0.255 -0.135 0.325 -0.325 52

Trust in municipality 0.066 n/d 0.838 0.512 0.151 16

Trust in government 0.036 0.673 n/d 0.272 -0.141 34

Interest in politics 0.112 0.068 -0.274 0.476 -0.206 33

Political situation (good) -0.359 0.257 -0.077 -0.207 -0.729 21

Self-identification left 0.151 0.013 -0.281 0.351 0.435 52

Self-identification center 0.054 0.275 -0.313 0.262 0.339 52

Self-identification right -.288(*) -0.23 0.112 -0.473 -0.513 52

Party identification -0.28 -0.358 n/d -0.247 n/d 19

Voting- changes anything 0.27 0.224 n/d .792(*) -0.214 25

Voting-changes nothing -0.169 -0.21 n/d -.824(*) 0.315 25

Talks about politics with friends 0.025 -0.524 n/d 0.391 0.298 33

Turns to an authority 0.416 n/d 0.428 n/d 0.272 27

Turns to a political party 0.253 n/d -0.867 n/d 0.137 27

Turns to a government officer 0.263 n/d -0.411 n/d 0.028 27

Turns to a Deputy 0.431 n/d -0.17 n/d 0.386 27

Turns to mass media 0.322 n/d -0.181 n/d 0.15 27

Turns to NGO 0.432 n/d 0.421 n/d 0.252 27*The correlation is significant on level 0,05 (bilateral).

** The correlation is significant on level 0,01 (bilateral).


For most people, explaining voter turnout For most people, explaining voter turnout

is a riddle related to psychology.is a riddle related to psychology.


Decrease in voter turnout: efforts to revert Decrease in voter turnout: efforts to revert or at least stabilize this trend have or at least stabilize this trend have multiplied.multiplied.

Players involved in tasks related with voter Players involved in tasks related with voter education are divided into traditional and education are divided into traditional and non-traditional categories.non-traditional categories.


Traditional players: Traditional players: Governmental agencies, Governmental agencies,

Electoral management bodies (EMBs), Electoral management bodies (EMBs),

Political parties, Political parties,

NGOs, NGOs,

Community organizations, Community organizations,

Schools, Schools,

Promotion groups, Promotion groups,

Young political groups. Young political groups.


Non-traditional players: Non-traditional players: Corporations, Corporations,

Labor unions, Labor unions,

Informal education centers, Informal education centers,

Non-profit community groups,Non-profit community groups,

Service organizations focusing on young Service organizations focusing on young people, people,

Religious groups, Religious groups,

Mass media organizations.Mass media organizations.

Voter education and civic Voter education and civic educationeducation

Political party participation: controversial. Political party participation: controversial.

Consolidated democracies: single Consolidated democracies: single responsibility.responsibility.

Recent literature: voter education as non- Recent literature: voter education as non- partisan activity, preferring participation of partisan activity, preferring participation of non-neutral agents, especially in emerging non-neutral agents, especially in emerging or transition democracies.or transition democracies.


Two considerations: Two considerations: Individuals and groups learn about elections Individuals and groups learn about elections and democracy through their interactions with and democracy through their interactions with government and political experiences. government and political experiences.

Parties can be an effective and low-cost route Parties can be an effective and low-cost route to offer information to voters.to offer information to voters.

Parties, sympathizers and members are Parties, sympathizers and members are potential educators.potential educators.


It is important to ensure that parties have It is important to ensure that parties have precise information and therefore provide precise information and therefore provide positive lessons to citizens.positive lessons to citizens.

Citizens can support voter education by Citizens can support voter education by surveying the behavior of political parties.surveying the behavior of political parties.


Purpose of voter educationPurpose of voter education::Support the electoral administration in its task Support the electoral administration in its task to guarantee a free, fair, efficient, cost-to guarantee a free, fair, efficient, cost-effective and transparent election.effective and transparent election.

Promote knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors Promote knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors stimulating and consolidating democracy .stimulating and consolidating democracy .


During an election, voter education must During an election, voter education must ensure:ensure:

Effective organization, Effective organization,

Citizen participation to support parties or Citizen participation to support parties or causes, causes,

Appropiate behaviors in peaceful elections,Appropiate behaviors in peaceful elections,

Acceptance of results, and Acceptance of results, and

Tolerance to competition and opposition.Tolerance to competition and opposition.


Voter education:Voter education:Voter education programs are very costly, Voter education programs are very costly, therefore it is recommended to look for therefore it is recommended to look for alliances with other players.alliances with other players.

6 basic approaches group activities to 6 basic approaches group activities to promote voter turnoutpromote voter turnout


6 basic approaches:6 basic approaches:Information campaigns (how to vote)Information campaigns (how to vote)

Advertising campaigns (what to vote for)Advertising campaigns (what to vote for)

Grassroots movementsGrassroots movements

Mock elections in schools and other Mock elections in schools and other educational programs with special purposeseducational programs with special purposes

EntertainmentEntertainment

Induction mechanismsInduction mechanisms


Comparative experiences: voter education Comparative experiences: voter education and democracy-building activities require and democracy-building activities require long-term efforts.long-term efforts.

This means: creating or improving local This means: creating or improving local capacity and working for complementary capacity and working for complementary efforts and regional support.efforts and regional support.


The success of civic education and voter The success of civic education and voter education initiatives depend on the education initiatives depend on the establishment of sustainable democratic establishment of sustainable democratic institutions:institutions:

Political parties, Political parties, Legislative assemblies, Legislative assemblies, Impartial electoral authorities able to conduct periodic Impartial electoral authorities able to conduct periodic elections, andelections, andAn Effective State. An Effective State.

In this environment, citizens are able to exercise In this environment, citizens are able to exercise their rights and can be educated about their their rights and can be educated about their roles and responsibilities, such as participating roles and responsibilities, such as participating in elections.in elections.


The result of these activities has been The result of these activities has been difficult to assess.difficult to assess.

Good practices:Good practices: Foster evaluation strategies that permit Foster evaluation strategies that permit consideration of program effectiveness and consideration of program effectiveness and impact.impact.

Foster the systematization of data that allows Foster the systematization of data that allows conducting studies on the factors affecting conducting studies on the factors affecting voter turnout. voter turnout.


Assess the balance between human and Assess the balance between human and financial resources, and implement base and financial resources, and implement base and advertising campaigns.advertising campaigns.

Foster the participation of schools in activities Foster the participation of schools in activities related to voting during election periods.related to voting during election periods.


Voter education: only a limited component Voter education: only a limited component of civic education.of civic education.

Civic education: includes the task of Civic education: includes the task of educating citizens to be responsible for educating citizens to be responsible for their duties in a democratic state, and to their duties in a democratic state, and to exercise their rights as free human beings.exercise their rights as free human beings.

Characterized as a liberating and Characterized as a liberating and empowering process. empowering process.


Purpose: Purpose:

Promote full participation of citizens in Promote full participation of citizens in the political life of a community and a the political life of a community and a country committed to the fundamental country committed to the fundamental values and principles of democracy.values and principles of democracy.


There is consensus on the content of civic There is consensus on the content of civic education, which must comprise the following education, which must comprise the following topics:topics: The meaning of democracyThe meaning of democracy The role, responsibility, and rights of citizensThe role, responsibility, and rights of citizens Good governanceGood governance Democratic principles and proceduresDemocratic principles and procedures Democratic institutions and lawsDemocratic institutions and laws


LA: civic education became a way to revalue LA: civic education became a way to revalue elections and to contribute to the democratic elections and to contribute to the democratic transition of the 80s.transition of the 80s.

For many years non-governmental organizations For many years non-governmental organizations were the main promoters of civic education.were the main promoters of civic education.


One of the trends is to equate One of the trends is to equate citizenship with the right to vote, and citizenship with the right to vote, and therefore the objective of civic therefore the objective of civic education is the participation of education is the participation of citizens in electoral processes.citizens in electoral processes.


However, according to evidence, voter turnout is However, according to evidence, voter turnout is influenced by multiple factors. Civic education influenced by multiple factors. Civic education and voter education constitute only one of them.and voter education constitute only one of them.

Nohlen: The essential precondition to Nohlen: The essential precondition to consolidate new democracies is to raise the consolidate new democracies is to raise the level and quality of citizen participation and to level and quality of citizen participation and to make institutional reforms in order to improve make institutional reforms in order to improve their political efficiency.their political efficiency.

ConclusionsConclusions

Governance is a reconsideration of Governance is a reconsideration of relations between government (public relations between government (public bodies in general) and society (Kooiman, bodies in general) and society (Kooiman, 1993; 2003; Rhodes, 2000; Aguilar, 2006).1993; 2003; Rhodes, 2000; Aguilar, 2006).

Society –non-governmental organizations Society –non-governmental organizations and networks- will play a central role in the and networks- will play a central role in the new paradigm of government. new paradigm of government.

ConclusionsConclusions

As a paradigm proposing the strategic As a paradigm proposing the strategic collaboration of public bodies and private collaboration of public bodies and private and social players in complex issues of and social players in complex issues of public interest, governance can contribute public interest, governance can contribute to:to:

Enlarging spaces for citizen participationEnlarging spaces for citizen participationImproving efficiency of some electoral tasks, Improving efficiency of some electoral tasks, such as voter education and civic educationsuch as voter education and civic educationStrengthening trust and certainty in electoral Strengthening trust and certainty in electoral management bodies. management bodies.

Documents

Electoral Participation and Civic Education in Latin America Irma Méndez de Hoyos Irma Méndez de HoyosFLACSO-México