ChapterChapter 11

IIntroduction to EIAntroduction to EIA

1.1 Emergence of EIA

EIA is one of the successful policy innovations of the 20 th Century for environmental conservation. It is a formal process in many countries and is currently practiced in more than 100 countries. EIA as a mandatory regulatory procedure originated in the early 1970s, with the implementation of the National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the USA. Much of the initial development was in a small number of high-income countries, like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (1973-74). However, there were some developing countries as well, which introduced EIA relatively early - Columbia (1974), Philippines (1978).The EIA process really took off after the mid-1980s. In 1989, the World Bank adopted EIA for major development project, in which borrower country had to undertake the EIA under the Bank's supervision.

Table 1: Evolution and history of EIA

Period Development of EIAPre-1970 Project review based on the technical/engineering and economic analysis.

Limited consideration given to environmental consequences.Early/mid – 1970s EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US.

Basic principle: Guidelines, procedures including public participation requirement instituted. Standard methodologies for impact analysis developed (e.g. matrix, checklist and network). Canada, Australia and New Zealand became first countries to follow NEPA in 1973-1974.

Unlike Australia, which legislated EIA, Canada and New Zealand established administrative procedures.

Major public inquires help to shape the process development.Late 1970 and early 1980s More formalised guidance.

Other industrial and developing countries introduced formal EIA requirements (France, 1976; Philippines, 1977) began to use the process informally or experimentally ( Netherlands, 1978) or adopted elements, such as impact statements or reports, as part of development applications for planning permission (German states [lander], Ireland).

Use of EA by developing countries (Brazil, Philippines, China, Indonesia) Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA), risk analysis included in EA processes. Greater emphasis on ecological modelling, prediction and evaluation methods. Provision for public involvement. Coordination of EA with land use planning processes.

Mid 1980s to end of decade

In Europe, EC Directive on EIA establishes basic principle and procedural requirements for all member states.

Increasing efforts to address cumulative effects. World bank and other leading international aid agencies establish EA requirements. Spread of EIA process in Asia.

1990s Requirement to consider trans-boundary effects under Espoo convention. Increase use of GIS and other information technologies. Sustainability principal and global issues receive increased attention. India also adopted the EIA formally. Formulation of EA legislation by many developing countries. Rapid growth in EA training.

Source: International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental Assessment, final report, Environmental assessment in a changing world, Prepared by Barry Sadler, June 1996.

1.2 History of EIA in Nepal

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In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (1980–85), for the first time, recognized the need for EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated environment conservation related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 1985–1990). In order to enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed, thereby incorporating the elements of environmental factors right from the project formulation stage of the development plans and projects and to avoid or minimize adverse effects on the ecological systemIn Nepal, the government’s Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline of 1993 inspired the enactment of the Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) of 1997 to internalizing the environmental assessment system. The process institutionalized the EIA process in development proposals and enactment, which makes the integration of IEE and EIA legally binding to the prescribed projects. The projects, requiring EIA or IEE, are included in Schedules 1 and 2 of the EPR, 1997. Progresses were made in the Environmental protection issue during the 8th five year plan (1992–1997). The following developments in Environmental protection were achieved during that time:

Formulation of Environment Protection Act 1997 Establishment of Ministry of Environment Development of National Environmental Policies and Action Plan, EIA guidelines

developed Consideration of environmental concerns in hydropower projects Development of industrial, irrigation and agricultural policies that undertook environmental

concerns

Nepal's eighth five year plan, formulated after the participation in the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, was an important policy document. The plan realized the need of EIA integration into economic development projects, and emphasized the formulation and implementation of the projects and programmes with the inclusion of environmental protection measures. The plan has also emphasized the adoption of the integrated approach and the sustainability concept, while formulating the environmental legislation. Furthermore, the plan had established the environmental section under the concerned minis-tries, develop indicators, set-up standards and implement working procedures in order to minimize likely environ-mental impacts of the development activities. The plan has shown a strong commitment to prepare EIA guidelines for big development projects such as road, hydropower, irrigation, industry, housing, drinking water, sewerage etc., and implement projects and programmes only after EIA study. The eighth plan period (NPC, 1992 - 1997) has made a contribution that is remarkable and notable in institutionalizing the EIA system in Nepal’s development planning and administration. During this period, the government of Nepal adopted and implemented the National EIA Guidelines of 1993, GoN (1993).

During the plan period of the government, the Environment Protection Act, 1996 and the Environment Protection Rules, 1997 were enacted and enforced.

The ninth plan (NPC, 1997 - 2002) adopted a policy of participatory EIA system and it emphasizes on making necessary procedures for the involvement of local bodies, communities, private sector, non governmental organizations (NGOs) and government agencies, NPC (2002). The plan has also focused on the need for conducting EIA study in order to ensure biodiversity conservation while implementing development projects in remote areas, GoN (2002). The plan has realized the need for human resource development, research and studies, monitoring and evaluation, environmental auditing, and strengthening of the environmental resource centre and academic institutions in order to cater for skilled human resources in environmental management of the country.

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1.3 Definition & Types of EIAThe EIA is both “science” and “art”. EIA as a science or a planning tool deals with the methodologies and techniques for identifying, predicting and evaluating impacts associated with a particular project. EIA as art or procedure for decision-making or a management tool has to do with those mechanisms for ensuring an environmental analysis of such actions, complying with the policy and legal provisions, and influencing the decision-making process.

1.3.1 Some Definitions of EIA

Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) can be defined as the study to predict the effect of a proposed activity/project on the environment. Some of the definitions of EIA are mentioned below.

The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.”

Munn (1979) defines EIA as a need “to identify and predict the impact on the environment and on man’s health and well being of legislative proposals, policies, programs, projects and operational procedures and to interpret and communicate information about the impact”

 Wathern (1988) defines EIA as a process having the ultimate objective of providing the decision-makers with an indication of the likely consequences of their actions”

Canter (1996) defines EIA as “the physical-chemical, biological, cultural and socio-economic components of the total environment”

1.3.2 Types of EIA

(i) Strategic EIA (SEA)In order to address environmental issues at higher levels of decisions, EIA is being applied under the name of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). This is considered a second-generation EIA process, and it is believed that this process moves beyond the “impact fixation” of project-level EIA. Therefore, SEA is defined as “the formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental impacts of a policy, plan or programme and its alternatives (Hydropower Vs Thermal power in power sector)”. It is, in other words, the EIA of policies, plans and programmes, keeping in mind that the process of evaluating impacts, at a strategic level, is not exactly the same as that at a project level. Although policies, plans and programmes are generally described as “strategic”, they are not identical, and many of them require different variations of SEA. A policy is generally defined, as an inspiration and guidance for action, a plan as a set of coordinated and timed objectives for the implementation of the policy, and a programme as a set of projects in a particular area. Policies, plans and programmes (PPPs) may be sectoral (e.g., transport, Hydropower), or spatial (e.g., national, local). In theory, PPPs are tiered; a policy provides a framework for establishment of plans, plans provide frameworks for programmes, and programmes lead to projects.

Use of SEA:Following are uses of SEA.

(i) It facilitates in the selection of project alternatives.(ii) It makes project specific EIA cheaper and quicker.(iii) Impacts of several projects (cumulative impacts of multi-sectoral developments) within

a defined geographical area and in a certain period of time can be assessed.

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(ii) Project level EIA

EIA study undertaken at individual project level is called as project level EIA. Example includes EIA of water supply projects, Road projects, Housing projects, Hydropower projects, Sewerage projects etc.

(iii) Legislative EIA

Any EIA study undertaken for a bill or legislative proposal to parliament that would result in significant impacts on the environment is referred to as legislative EIA. E.g., Water Resources Act, Hydropower Policy, Tourism Development Policy.

(iv) Supplemental EIA

This type of EIA is undertaken if new components of the project are added in a already EIA completed project. Such EIA is needed if substantial changes relevant to the environmental concerns are made to a proposed action.

1.3.3 Major functions of EIA

The major functions of EIA are: Identify potential environmental impacts; Examine the significance of environmental impacts; Assess whether or not the impact can be mitigated; Recommend preventive and corrective measures; Assist decision makers to determine whether the particular development/project should

go ahead; and Provide information to decision-makers and other interested parties about

environmental implications.

1.3.4 Costs and benefits of EIA

Although there are costs associated with undertaking EIA, experience has shown that the potential savings over the life of a project can repay the investment many times over. The savings can be economic (e.g. identification of least cost alternative) as well as environmental (e.g. impact reduction, maintaining other resource use opportunities). Scope of study, schedule and budget for EIA study is interrelated. Maintaining the scope of work will also maintain the budget. Cost associated with EIA study ranges from 0.01% to 0.66% of the project cost. It also depends upon the impact identification and prediction methods adopted.

Benefits

The benefits of EIA can be direct, such as the improved design or location of a project, or indirect, such as better quality EIA work or raised environmental awareness of the personnel involved in the project. In general the benefits of EIA include:

Better environmental planning and design of a proposal. Carrying out an EIA entails an analysis of alternatives in the design and location of projects. This can result in the selection of an improved technology, which lowers waste outputs or an environmentally optimum location for a project. A well-designed project can minimise risks and impacts on the environment and people, and thereby avoid associated costs of remedial treatment or compensation for damage.

Ensuring compliance with environmental standards. Compliance with environmental standards reduces damage to the environment and disruption to communities. It also avoids the likelihood of penalties, fines and loss of trust and credibility.

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Savings in capital and operating costs. EIA can avoid the undue costs of unanticipated impacts. These can escalate if environmental problems have not been considered from the start of proposal design and require rectification later. An “anticipate and avoid” approach is much cheaper than react and “cure”. Generally, changes which must be made late in the project cycle are the most expensive.

Reduced time and costs of approvals of development applications. If all environmental concerns have been taken into account properly before submission for project approval, then it is unlikely that delays will occur as a result of decision-makers asking for additional information or alterations to mitigation measures. Increased project acceptance by the public.

1.4 Project Types, impacts and their types

1.4.1 Project Types

EIA generally applies to projects, which require construction (e.g., infrastructure, or manufacturing projects). There are two types of projects: Point and Band type.Point refers to power stations, bridges etc., and Band refers to linear projects such as roads, electrical transmitting lines, etc.

1.4.2 Types of Environmental Impacts

Any economic development project, whether it is a simple and small or a large and complex it has some environmental implications. The environmental implications may be beneficial or adverse, but the main objective of impact identification is to specify areas that are likely to be affected by the implementation of a project. Environmental impact, by definition, implies an alternation of environmental conditions or creation of a new set of adverse or beneficial environmental consequences caused by the action under consideration.

In many cases, the terms “impact” and “effect” are used synonymously. However, the term “impact” is an outcome of two preceding events. We can take an example of air pollutant deposited on the leaves of crops which slow down the photosynthesis process (change) and reduces crop yield (effect), affecting the farmers economically (adverse impact). Effect is used to mean a change in a parameter state (a change in noise level from 40 dB to 55 dB at a residential area during the day). Impact is the predicted consequence of this change in terms of human response (partial hearing loss of people, causing stress and anger).

(a) Based on nature of impact

Direct and Indirect Impacts

A direct impact is a change (physical, chemical or biological) to the environment because of the activity (e.g., building a road, constructing an irrigation canal, establishing a waste-water system). Impacts which have immediate effect on the receptors are called direct or first order impacts. For example, noise from construction activities, loss of forest area. Direct impacts are those occur through direct interaction of an activity with an environmental, social, or economic component. For example, a discharge of industrial effluent into a river may lead to a decline in water quality. Direct impacts on one environmental component may lead to indirect impacts on other components.

Impacts which have indirect effect on the receptors as a result of previous/preceding activities are called indirect impacts. For example, the decline in water quality in the river may lead to a secondary indirect impact on fish in the river. In turn, the impact on the fish population may lead to reduced harvests of fish with corresponding reductions in fishing incomes.

Indirect impacts may include growth-inducing impacts and other effects related to induced changes to the pattern of land use, population density or growth rate, and related effects on air and water and other natural systems including ecosystems.

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Reversible and Irreversible Impacts

An impact is reversible, if after a certain period of time, the pre-development situation can be recreated (either through natural processes or with human assistance). Depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water is a reversible impact.

An impact is irreversible when the pre-development situation cannot be recreated. Destruction of archeological sites is an irreversible impact.

Beneficial or positive impact is a beneficial environmental outcome and considered to be desirable, such as increased biodiversity, or better health as a result of a cleaned water supply, economic growth.An adverse or negative impact is an adverse environmental outcome, such as a contaminated water table from sewage systems, erosion from poorly planned infrastructure activities, or decimation of existing vegetation through the introduction of livestock. Such outcomes can sometimes be irreversible and have a chain of impact on poverty such as poor health or a reduction in livelihood potential.

Primary and Secondary Impacts

Impacts associated directly to project (proposed action) are called primary impacts. It includes impacts related to construction and operation of the facilities and land use changes.Secondary impacts are indirect or induced changes likely to be stimulated or induced by the proposed action. For example, removal of vegetation (primary impact) induces excessive soil erosion (secondary impact) which in turn reduces the DO content and finally affects aquatic life.

Cumulative Impacts

Impacts that result from the incremental impact of the proposed action on a common resource when added to other impacts from past, present, and reasonably foreseen future actions are called cumulative impacts.

Ancillary ImpactsThese are ancillary industrial development and service facilities attracted by the project. These type of impacts are indirectly attributed to the implementation of the original project.

Local/Regional/National/Global Impacts

Extent category – site‐specific, local, regional, national, transboundary Extent may range from its origin to different places depending upon the type and nature of the project.Site specific (SS) ‐ confined to project areaLocal (L) – extent of impact is local Regional (R) ‐ impact may extend to watershed levelNational (N) – Resources are affected at the national levelTransboundary (T) – Some of the impacts may influence countries across the border Short Term (ST) impacts are those impacts as lasting less than three years, Medium Term (MT) as lasting for 3-20 years and Long Term (LT) impacts last for more than 20 years

Duration category – Temporary and PermanentImpacts occurring during pre‐construction stage related to land acquisition and compensation or the development of auxiliary works such as storage facility for construction materials are temporary.An impact that lasts from construction to operation stages are referred as Permanent.

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Typology of environmental impactsCategory of Impacts Types of Impacts

type biophysical, social, health or economic

nature direct or indirect, cumulative, etc. magnitude or severity high, moderate, low

extent local, regional, transboundary or global

timing immediate/long term duration temporary/permanent uncertainty low likelihood/high probability reversibility reversible/irreversible significance* unimportant/important

*Impact significance is not necessarily related to the impact magnitude. Sometimes very small impacts, such as the disturbance of the nest of a pair of endangered birds, may be significant. When determining the significance of the potential impacts of a proposal, all of the above factors should be taken into consideration.

(b) Based on receiving environment

i. Biological and Physio-chemical Impacts

Impacts in this category relate to effects on biological resources such as vegetation, wildlife, crops, and aquatic life.

Impacts affecting soil and land forms, or creation of a propensity for soil erosion, floods and sedimentation, would be considered as physical impacts.

Chemical impacts relate to project activities that cause a chemical change in air/water/soil quality. Smoke emitted from a brick factory, for example, may change the amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) content of ambient air, while untreated effluent discharged directly into a river by a paper factory may change the chemical characteristics of the river.

The biological component covers all elements, including different forms plant life, structures, functions and their interaction with other components of an ecosystem. Another component of a biological system is the animal life, which ranges from microscopic protozoans to large animals such as elephants occupying different niches in trophic-dynamic systems.

ii. Social Impact

A study of socio-economic impacts would examine project action that alters the existing social and economical condition of communities within or around the project location. Socio-economic impacts may prove either adverse or beneficial. For example, an expanded irrigation facility designed to enhance agricultural production would be beneficial; while the project might also result in water-logging that could produce a salinity problem with is adverse consequences.

Social impacts can be subdivided into the following:

demographic impacts - such as displacement and relocation effects; and changes in population characteristics,

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socio-economic impacts - including income and income multiplier effects, employment rates and patterns, prices of local goods and services, and taxation effects,

cultural impacts - traditional patterns of life and work, family structures and authority, religious and tribal factors, archaeological features, social networks and community cohesion,

institutional impacts - including demands on the government and social service, NGOs housing, schools, criminal justice, health, welfare and recreation, and

gender impacts - the implications of development projects on the roles of women in society, income-generating opportunities, access to resources, employment opportunities and equity.

iii. Cultural Impacts

Project impacts on cultural heritage should be considered. Areas of study should include historic sites, religious shrines or areas, or traditional practices that may be affected.

Cultural resources refer to archaeological, historical, religious, cultural and aesthetic values. Cultural resources are part of the resource base, it is therefore important that the development options, under consideration are screened for potential impact on cultural properties. In the process of conducting EIA, it is essential; to check; whether or not the area contains UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which now number over 300 sites recognised as having outstanding universal value.

A project that involves a large-scale modification or disturbance of land and is located in an area where there are cultural resources requires an intensive survey by qualified archaeologists. On the basis of findings of intensive survey the decision-makers have to decide, whether or not the project should go ahead or whether to adopt project alternatives or devise mitigation measures to be adopted, along with institutional training and monitoring requirements, etc.

If in the project site, there are some buried materials of archaeological/ historical value, discovered within three meters under the earth's surface, they are called "Archaeological Chance Finds", and the construction contractor should comply with the following rules and national archaeological laws:

notify relevant departments of such findings, request a site inspection, completely halt work until inspection results are received, and decide whether or not to proceed with further work.

If sacred religious shrines needed to be relocated from the project area, the first step is to determine whether the shrines are of national or local significance. This has to be confirmed by consulting a national heritage register. If it is a national treasure, then the concerned departments, NGOs and local people should agree on whether relocation is possible. However, such an intervention should be scientifically sound, locally acceptable and nationally agreeable. If the shrine to be relocated is only of local significance, the local people, community leaders, NGOs and others should reach in consensus and local people should be involved in the process of relocation.

iv. Economic Impact

The focus in economic impact assessment is the estimation of the change in economic variable caused by:

project construction and operation

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workforce requirement and the income earned by workers, materials and other inputs for the project, and capital investment.

It is essential to estimate the size of labour force, skilled manpower requirement and the duration of their involvement. Requirement of manpower varies at different stages of project implementation; for example, the need for labour peaks at the mid point of construction and then declines gradually. An estimation of capital expenditure on local materials, and services is also required for economic evaluation.

A thorough analysis of the labour force and the local economy requires information on:

the categories of labour available, the categories of labour that are highly demanded and employed, not employed and

partly employed, estimation of unemployed labour; proportion of female looking for employment, and the number and type of employment likely to be generated by project implementation.

Social effects are the outcomes of economic impacts, and this is particularly true for the project in which immigration of workers from outside is dominant. This does not happen always; however, it happens when the labour market in the local area is insufficient. Migrant labour forces can take up any type of employment and create social problems.

1.5 The EIA Process and Project cycle

1.5.1 Stages in EIA Process

The environment impact assessment consists of eight steps with each step equally important in determining the overall performance of the project. The eight steps of the EIA process is briefly presented below:

Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.

Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further investigated. This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.

Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental and social impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.

Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse environmental consequences of development activities.

Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision making body and other interested parties.

Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides information necessary for the decision-making.

Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.

Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks whether the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.

Each stage of the EIA process has been described in detail subsequently. The overview of the EIA process is represented in figure 1.1.

The process starts with the screening stage, which determines whether or not a proposal should be subjected to a full EIA or whether additional inquiry is needed to determine this. Many agencies categorize projects at this stage to reflect the significance of potential impacts or risks that it might present.

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The identification of issues and impacts that are likely to be important as well as the terms of reference (TOR) for EIA in consultation with key stakeholders are done at the scoping stage. To achieve a transparent and democratic decision-making process, scoping meeting should always include the concerned public, civil society groups and NGOs.

Scoping determines whether the project proponent should prepare an IEE or EIA, and the significant issues to be analyzed in depth in the IEE/EIA. In case an EIA is deemed needed for a project, reasonable alternatives should be at the scoping phase. Hence, a set the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the IEE/EIA will be prepared.

Terms of Reference is a list of guidelines to assess the impact and prepare the EIA for each and every project. It (i) describes the impacts that should be addressed, (ii) provides a work plan, (iii) directs the EIA to comply with existing laws, regulations, policies, and administrative processes, and (iv) provides a time frame and describe the specifics actions needed.The next stage of the EIA process is the examination of alternatives that are based on preferred or most economically, environmentally and socially sound option for achieving project objectives.

The impact analysis stage identifies and predicts the likely environmental, social and other effects of a proposed project. It also evaluates its scale and significance, taking into accounts both technical information and stakeholder views. Impact mitigation and management determines the measures necessary to avoid, minimize or offset significant adverse impacts and, (where appropriate) incorporate these into a management plan or management system.

The next stage is the preparation of EIA report. Documents ought to clearly and impartially report the impacts of the proposed project, recommended measures for mitigation, the significance of residual effects, and the concerns of communities affected and other interested parties.

Information dissemination and public consultation is the next phase. This means make the EIA results available in a timely manner and in location(s), format(s) and language(s) that allow relevant stakeholders to form an opinion and comment on the proposed course of action. The document will be open for mandatory public commenting period during this stage. Oral public hearings will also be held during this stage.

The EIA review is the final stage. The appropriate authorities determine whether the report provides a satisfactory assessment of the proposed development activity and contains the information required for decision making.Project Approving Authorities normally appoint a Technical Evaluation Committees (TEC) to provide expert review report at this stage.

The decision will be given immediately after the review stage. If the project is approved it will be notified to the public through national newspapers.

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Figure 1.1: Generalized process flow sheet of the EIA process

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1.5.2 EIA Process and Project cycle

EIA reports are prepared to fulfill the administrative procedural requirement and made available to the decision makers and other interested parties. The production of EIA reports is important and they must be of high quality and it should not be taken as a “product” only. The report should assist decision makers in taking decision about the projects. To meet its objectives, EIA has to be “proactive” – it should be initiated in the beginning of the project cycle and continue throughout the life of a project. The main “linkages” between EIA and the typical project cycle are presented below.

Figure 1.2: EIA Process and Project Cycle

A. Project Concept/Identification

At the initial stage of the project planning, information on the detailed project designs will not be available, but the basic nature of the project will be known (for example, whether it is to be a coal, oil or nuclear power station; a highway or a dam/reservoir) power output, and an area of land which is likely to be inundated and the site or sites where the project is being proposed to be implemented. At this stage, the project may be subject to "screening" to decide whether a full and comprehensive EIA report must be prepared.

If screening recommends that an EIA report is required, then the initial study will begin. At this early stage quick environmental overview/reconnaissance or preliminary EIA can indicate whether any of the alternatives proposed are environmental "disastrous". These can be eliminated from further consideration, and new alternatives can be identified. Major benefits of a "quick and dirty" overview are as follows:

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identification of "viable" alternatives (from an environmental viewpoint), and provision of an early indication of likely significant impacts for further EIA work.

B. Pre-feasibility Stage

A series of investigation takes place during this stage, they are:

existing basic and additional information from the field are collected; and technical, economic and cost benefit assessments are carried out.

The main EIA activities, at this stage, are identification of issues/impacts for investigation and, formulation of the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA. The term used for this activity is "scoping".

C. Feasibility Stage

This stage provides a basis for the approval of a project. Various tasks carried out are:

a) Technical feasibility: includes consideration of alternatives, preliminary design and specification, materials, cost estimation for construction, operation and maintenance.

b) Financial feasibility: includes analysis of direct cost of project.c) Economic feasibility: Includes cost and benefit analysis of the project.d) Institutional sustainability: includes need assessment of involvement of personnel,

training, strengthening and capacity building of the agency which will operate and own the project.

EIA comprises:

Identification, prediction and assessment of anticipated impacts; Evaluation of significant impacts and alternatives; Recommendation of mitigation measures and estimated cost; Preparation of monitoring and auditing plan and cost associated with them; and Preparation of EMP/EMAP.

EIA study should be carried out:

during feasibility stage in conjunction with economic, technical and design work, preliminary EIA works such as scoping and preparation of TOR should be carried out

during project pre-feasibility stage, if EIA is carried out late in project cycle as an "add on", the process of EIA becomes

cumbersome, time consuming and expensive to incorporate the EIA recommendations in the project construction.

D. Project Appraisal and Decision

During the project appraisal, a decision is made by the proponent or by the government, and in some case by the lending agencies, as to whether the project is viable. At this stage, EIA results will be put into consideration with feasibility study. An application for authorisation(s) has to be made by the project proponent to a local/central government agency. This decision is the final and determines whether a project is to be implemented. The EIA report also plays an important role in this decision making process.

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E. Detail Engineering Design Phase

Activities carried out at this stage include:

final engineering design; preparation of drawings; preparation of specifications; detail cost estimate; and preparation of contract packages (tender documents).

At this stage, in the project cycle, the EIA report will act as a "reference" guide to the implementation and use of mitigation strategies and monitoring schemes. Thus, the usefulness of an EIA report does not end with the "official" authorisation to proceed. It may form a basis for management plan to assist project implementation and management practice. For example, EIA report recommendations can form a part of contract tender documents. Design work needs to adapt to the EIA report recommendation. Cost consideration for each and every activity of environmental consideration as estimated by Environmental Management Plan (EMP) must be integrated in engineering cost estimate. All the conditions and actions related to environmental aspects should be clearly mentioned in contract package.

F. Project Implementation Phase

Prior to the project construction, a guiding document called Project Implementation Plan (PIP) should be prepared which includes;

arrangements for consultants, contractors, finance, reporting, monitoring and evaluation for the the construction of project;

The EMP should be prepared which basically deals with all the environmental actions to be undertaken in the process of project construction, operation and maintenance, specific mitigation measures for anticipated impacts, and monitoring schemes.

G. Construction and Operation Phase

During the construction phase, the EMP proposed by the EIA report should be implemented. During the construction and operation of project, monitoring of EMP implementation should be carried out.

Lastly, after the project is completed, an "audit" can be made to determine how close the EIA's predictions were to the actual impacts of the project. This forms a valuable records for others conducting EIAs on similar projects in the future. The environmental auditing is to be carried out after two (2) years of operation of project.

Linkage between EIA and Project Cycle

Project Phase EIA ActivitiesProject concept/identification phase Screening to determine the level of environmental

assessment neededPre-feasibility phase Scoping and TOR preparation

Identification of issues Impact investigation

Feasibility (economic, technical and preliminary design work) phase

EIA activities carried out: Alternative analysis Impact prediction Impact evaluation Mitigation measures and monitoring

program

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EMP preparationProject appraisal and Decision phase Project viability and authorization made based on

EIA and technical and economic feasibility Design phase

Detail survey Detail engineering design Tender document preparation

Incorporation of EIA recommendation Design work needs to adapt to the EIA

result. (possible conflict between design team and EIA team)

Project implementation phase Construction Operation

Implementation of mitigation measures and monitoring scheme/plan

Post construction phase Environmental auditing

Chapter 215

Screening and IEE

2.1 Introduction

Many projects are considered by the government for implementation every year. EIA needs only to be applied for those actions which may significantly affect the environment. It is therefore important to establish mechanisms for identifying projects requiring EIA. This process of selection is referred to as screening.

Screening is the first step of EIA process and assists in determining whether a development proposal requires an environmental assessment (EA) or not. If required what level of assessment should be carried out to assess the possible impacts of the proposed action on the environment.

2.2 Objectives of Screening

Screening of development proposals during the early stages of project planning accomplishes the following:

i. Saves money;ii. Saves time (i.e., avoids unnecessary delays);iii. Immediately identifies environmental issues of major concern; and iv. Establishes whether an EIA study needs to be conducted.

2.3 Screening Procedure/Criteria

The National EIA Guidelines, 1993 uses lists of projects, thresholds and sensitive areas as criteria to assist screening. All development projects can be divided into three broad categories:

Projects requiring IEE; Projects requiring EIA; and Projects for which it is not clear whether an EIA or IEE is needed.

Screening is an exercise to distinguish the actions/projects which will have potential impacts on the environment based on knowledge and experience. The exercise may be performed in several ways.

The following criteria may be used to know the level of EA of the proposal:

Size and nature of the project such as large, medium, small or infrastructure or service sector projects;

Location of the project such as in protected areas, heritage sites, dense settlements, prime farm land, and/or environmentally sensitive areas;

Regulatory provisions, i.e., inclusion of projects requiring EA in laws, if any;

Estimation on possible impacts of projects and comparison with the thresholds set; and

Analysis on the potential impacts based on readily available data.Based on above mentioned detail, screening criteria can be grouped under following three categories:

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Figure 2.1: Screening Defined

1. Threshold Criteria

This method of screening establishes the thresholds for key features of a project, or an environmental parameter which exceeded the thresholds, would require an EIA. Such thresholds can range from environmental factors such as the size of agricultural land used for a development project, location, cost, outputs, infrastructure demands, and national standards for air, water and noise.

Capital investment or project cost may also be used as financial threshold. This threshold is an indicator of whether a project may be characterized by the following elements, occupation of large land area or involving high valued land and dislocation of large number of people, large project size requiring costly machinery or processing plant. The application of financial threshold criteria sometimes becomes misleading since small scale project with low financial investment may have significant environmental impacts. Alternatively, projects exceeding the financial threshold may not produce any significant impacts. Therefore, relying solely upon financial threshold may result in incorrect decisions. It is therefore recommended that such thresholds criteria be utilised in conjunction with other screening criteria.

2. Project Type Criteria

To further assist in the initial screening decision, development projects can be divided into three broad categories.

Projects/proposals listed in Schedule 1 of EPR 1997 should undergo IEE process;

Projects/proposals listed in Schedule 2 of EPR 1997 requires full scale EIA process;

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Proposals not listed in Schedule 1 but operation of any plan, project or programme of any development project, physical activities or change in land use with a cost of NRs. 50 million to 250 million require IEE; and

Proposals not listed in Schedule 2 but operation of any plan, project or programme of any development project, physical activities or change in land use with a cost of more than NRs. 250 million require EIA.

3. Sensitive Area Criteria

Proposals for projects which are proposed to be located within or near environmentally sensitive areas are required to have an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report prepared unless exempted by the Act. These areas include the following categories:

Areas of unique historic, cultural, archaeological or geological interest and wetlands;

Ecologically fragile areas;

National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and protected areas;

Wilderness areas containing rare or endangered species of animals or plants and their habitat;

Semi-arid, alpine or tundra areas;

Flood-prone and other hazard zones;

Residential, school and hospital areas; and

Areas with major source of public water supply

2.4 IEE (Introduction)

Projects, in which the requirement for an EIA needs to be ascertained, should be subjected to an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE). IEE is carried out to determine whether potentially adverse environmental effects are significant or whether mitigation measures can be adopted to reduce or eliminate these adverse effects. IEE requires more in-depth analysis than applied in the screening procedure. Consequently, an IEE involves more time and resources. IEE also requires expert advice and technical input from environmental specialists so that potential environmental problems can be clearly defined. When an IEE is able to provide a definite solution to environmental problems, an EIA is not necessary.

To prepare an IEE, it is necessary to initially make a checklist that briefly describes the project activities to be implemented and natural resources to be affected.

Typical activities such as siting of the project, resource demand, waste production and regulation, policies and guidelines are required to be included in IEE process. For any particular project only a few of these may be significant and therefore the first step is to narrow the list of activities likely to be produce significant effects on the environment. The interaction matrix shown (Box 6) illustrates the process of identifying significant impacts. The horizontal column in the matrix describes the proposed project activities, and the vertical column lists the environmental parameters that might be affected. The response of each environmental parameter to each project action is represented by an interaction cell and should be checked by a rating number ranging from 1 to 3, 1 represent no significant impact, 2 moderate impact and 3 major impact.

2.5 Methods for IEE

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After a project has been screened and found to have potentially significant environmental impacts, an IEE is undertaken to determine the probable environmental impacts associated with the project and ascertain whether a full-scale EIA is required. The IEE is usually conducted with a limited budget, and is based on existing information and the professional judgment of people who are knowledgeable about impacts from similar projects. The three primary objectives of the IEE are to:

1. identify the nature and severity of specific, significant environmental issues associated with the project;

2. identify easily implementable mitigative or offsetting measures for the significant environmental issues. If the IEE shows there are no significant environmental issues which need further study, then the IEE serves as the final EIA Report; and

3. develop the TOR for the full-scale EIA study should more detailed assessment be needed, or any special topic reports which may be required instead of, or in addition to, the full-scale EIA.

The IEE process involves identifying potentially significant environmental issues, and resolving those issues which are easily mitigated. Conducting an IEE ensures a focused TOR for a full-scale EIA because it identifies the issues requiring resolution and provides background information on them. The objectives of the IEE may be met without extensive financial and human resources, thereby increasing efficiency. The most crucial requirements for IEE execution are excellent judgment and appropriate experience, since evaluations and decisions are based on limited information. Competent EIA practitioners need to be involved in the IEE phase because the decisions made at this stage affect the composition and scope of the EIA performed on a project. A poor IEE report could result in failure to recognize significant environmental impacts, but a good report can result in efficient resolution of significant environmental issues.2.6 Process for Initial Environmental Examination Study

Projects for which the necessity for an EIA cannot be easily ascertained are subjected to an

IEE. An IEE is carried out to determine if significant environmental effects are likely to occur

and require a detailed study for mitigation measures. A detailed IEE study can then be carried

out to propose such measures. The IEE requires:

• Adequate in-depth analysis

• Adequate technical input of environmental specialists

• Adequate resources and time

If an application of IEE provides a solution for potential problems, there is no need for

conducting a full-scale EIA.

An IEE for development projects should be carried out at an early stage of project

planning. As determined by EPR and its first 1999 amendment, the IEE should be carried

out for projects listed under schedule 1.

Projects mentioned in Schedule (1) of EPR must undergo an IEE process. However, in

the case that some problems cannot be solved at the IEE stage, there is also a provision

that the IEE may recommend for the application of EIA. This has been explicitly

mentioned in Rule (6) of EPR.

The legal process for undertaking IEE has been described in Rules (3) and (5), Sub-Rule

(2) of Rule (7), Rule (10), and Sub-Rule (1) of Rule (11) of EPR applicable to Hydropower

Projects, and is as follows:

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1. The proponent must carry out an IEE for the designated project as specified in Schedule

(1) of EPR.

2. The project proponent should prepare a TOR based on the format given in Schedule (3)

of EPR, to be submitted to concerned department and ministry for approval.3. In the process of preparing the IEE report, the proponent should affix the notice in

concerned VDCs/Municipalities/DDCs, Schools, hospitals, and health posts, as well

as publishes the notice in a national daily newspaper. This notice must request

the concerned institutions and individuals to offer their written opinions and

suggestions within 15 days pertaining to the possible impacts on the local

environment from the implementation of the project. The proponent should

prepare a deed of public enquiry (Muchulka) of that action. Opinions and suggestions

recorded in response to the notice shall be included in the IEE report prepared as per

Rule (7), and the format mentioned in Schedule (5) should be followed. The reports

should include the recommendation letters of the concerned VDCs and

municipalities.

4. Upon submission of IEE report with all necessary documents, as required by the prevailing laws, the concerned agency after reviewing and examining the reports can approve the project within 21 days of submission; if it is found that implementation of the project will have no adverse impacts on the environment.

5. If the IEE recommends the undertaking of an EIA for the selected project, the

proponent must carry out a full-scale EIA.

2.7 TOR for IEE

The scoping process has been removed from IEE in the first amendment of EPR (1999).

Thus, TOR for IEE also represents the scoping process to some extent, and TOR should

be presented here for the purpose of reference. The proponent should develop a TOR to

be submitted to authorized department and concerned ministry for approval.

If the proposed project falls within Schedule (1) of EPR, the TOR is required to provide

specific guidelines for IEE study.

TOR preparation assists in:

Systematizing the working procedure

Delineating the specific activities to be implemented

Fitting the IEE study into the context of existing polices, rules and administrative

procedures

Accomplishing the work within a specified time frame

Giving emphasis to the most important elements for study

Providing technical guidance in delineating the specific environmental aspects for

study

2.8 Difference between IEE and EIAIEE EIA

Generally conducted for small scale project

Scoping not required IEE to be approved by Concerned

Body within 21 days

Generally conducted for large scale projects

Scoping required EIA to be reviewed by Concerned

Body and approved by MoSTE within

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EMP not required Environmental auditing not required 15-days public notice to be published

in national daily newspaper and notice to be affixed in the project area after the preparation of the draft IEE report

Deals with generally known and easily predictable impacts

Public input at different stages of report preparation

May recommend for further assessment

60 days and by the latest within 90 days upon its receipt

EMP required Environmental auditing required Public hearing is mandatory after the

preparation of draft EIA report Also deals with unknown impacts Public inputs also during the approval

process In general does not recommend for

further assessment

Chapter 3Scoping and Preparation of Terms of Reference (ToR)

3.1Objectives of Scoping

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Scoping is a process to determine what should be the coverage or scope of the EIA study for a project proposal as having potentially significant environmental impacts. It also helps in developing and selecting alternatives to the proposed action and in identifying the issues to be considered in an EIA. The primary output of scoping is the terms of reference (TOR) required to conduct an EIA and to prepare the EIA report.

Scoping is a critical, early step in the preparation of an EIA. The scoping process identifies the issues that are likely to be of most importance during the EIA and eliminates those that are of little concern. Scoping ensures that EIA studies are focused on the significant effects and time and money are not wasted on unnecessary investigations.

The purpose of scoping is to identify:

the important issues to be considered in an EIA; the appropriate time and space boundaries of the EIA study; the information necessary for decision-making; and the significant effects and factors to be studied in detail.

In addition, the scoping process can be used to help define the feasible alternatives to a proposed action. Not all EIA systems make provision for the generation or review of alternatives during scoping. These may follow, instead, from the issues that are identified as important.

Scoping provides the foundations for an effective and efficient EIA process. When systematically carried out, scoping highlights the issues that matter and results in Terms of Reference for an EIA that provide clear direction to the proponent on what is required. This increases the likelihood of an adequately prepared EIA report. The scoping process itself can vary in scope, complexity and time taken. A comprehensive approach to scoping may be needed for large-scale proposals, which have a range of impacts that are potentially significant.

Key objectives of scoping are to:

identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA study; collect issues and concerns of the stakeholders and/or affected communities; enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the

alternatives and on impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis; determine the assessment methods to be used; prioritize issues and concerns for EIA study; provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the issues to be assessed, facilitate early agreement on contentious issues establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study

The elements of scoping differ to some degree with the EIA requirements established by different countries and international agencies. A comprehensive scoping process will include all or a combination of the following functions:

identify the range of community and scientific concerns about a proposed project or action;

evaluate these concerns to identify the significant issues (and to eliminate those issues which are not important); and

organize and prioritise these issues to focus the information that is critical for decision making, and that will be studied in detail in the next phase of EIA.

3.2Scoping Process

The steps involved in scoping process are described in details below:

(a) Making a plan for public Involvement

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A public involvement or communication plan is one of the most important internal planning tools for those conducting a scoping exercise. The major purpose of scoping at an early stage of project planning is to clearly define all the communities and agencies which should be allowed to influence decisions relating to the proposal. The plan should identify whom to talk to, as well as when and how to undertake the communication exercise. Consent must be obtained from the authorities and government agencies concerned. The project proponent, relevant experts, local people affected, as well as special interest groups should be considered for inclusion in the list of persons to be covered by the communication plan. Methods for involving affected interests and for collecting information include:

securing written submissions from relevant government agencies and the public, holding community meetings and public hearings, conducting preliminary field study/observation of sites, and conducting workshops/seminars and establishing an intersectoral task force.

(b) Assembling relevant existing Information

At this stage, information should be collected on the nature of the project, including preparation of a preliminary list of potential environmental impacts and practical alternatives, accompanied by maps, drawings and other aids for a fuller understanding of the project proposal. This key information will help in formulating appropriate mitigation measures and will form the basis of further discussion.

(c) Distribution of Information to affected persons

The information collected in step (b) should be processed and assembled into an information package and distributed to appropriate individuals and organizations for comment. Government departments and concerned local and regional officials should be contacted. For major projects, it is always advisable to issue a general public notice inviting public comment and to hold public meetings at the project site as well as at the central level to facilitate consultation and interaction.The project proponents should be responsible for obtaining and making information available to the parties concerned. In cases, where the individuals affected by the proposed project should be identified, information should be sent directly to local community groups.For larger projects, however, where the number of affected persons is not known, the information should be disseminated through the media or by sending the information package to the location within the area, where interested individuals may visit. The village communities concerned should be actively involved and made responsible for the collection of all written or verbal reactions to the project proposal from the local people.

(d) Identifying major Issues of public concern

All the concerns and issues raised by affected interests, should be compiled into a comprehensive list. Each contribution should be categorised and no issue or concern should be ignored or rejected in the compilation of the list.

(e) Evaluating the significance of Issues on the basis of available Information

Once the issues have been identified and grouped, their scientific validity needs to be carefully evaluated. If certain questions of a technical nature remain unresolved, a discussion panel or workshop can be organized at an appropriate venue to resolve the problem.

(f) Establishing priorities for environmental assessment23

Although grouping of the issues is undertaken in step (d), a more detailed exercise should be conducted at this stage. Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided or issues which have no relevance to the proposed project should be dropped. The key issues remaining should be arranged in order of priority.

(g) Developing a strategy for addressing priority issues

Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided -- such as suggesting feasible alternatives or mitigation measures that can be implemented at an early stage -- should be removed from the list. For those issues which need further information in order to be resolved, a terms of reference (TOR) should be prepared in order to define guidelines for further study. The extent of information required for a detailed EIA depends upon the type, level, and magnitude of the project concerned.

3.3Approaches to scoping A systematic and transparent approach should be taken to sifting and paring down the concerns, issues and impacts. This can be undertaken in three steps:

1. Compile a long list of concerns from the information available and the inputs of stakeholders. No attempt should be made at this stage to exclude or pre-judge concerns.

2. Derive a short list of key issues and problem areas based on their potential significance and likely importance for decision-making on the proposal. This phase involves evaluating the issues against selected criteria; for example, differentiating serious risks or threats from effects that can be mitigated

3. Classify and order the key issues into impact categories by reference to policy objectives and scientific concepts, such as emission levels that may exceed health or environmental standards. Such a synthesis or aggregation provides a coherent framework for drafting the Terms of Reference for the EIA study.

The table below contains an indicative list of activities to be carried out when scoping in accordance with this approach. The list begins with getting ready by preparing a profile of the scope under key headings and using this as a basis for informal consultations with key stakeholders. Once this round of discussion has occurred, the three steps described above take place with iterations between them. Finally, the Terms of Reference are established, with provision for adjustment and feedback as and when necessary during the EIA process.

In practice, the first phase of scoping opening out the list of concerns and issues is much easier to achieve than the next two. With few exceptions, most EIA systems experience difficulties in narrowing down and focusing on the issues that matter. This imposes certain limitations when preparing Terms of Reference, with potential knock on effects on the next stage of work on the EIA study. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the proponent or competent authority to bring the scoping process to a conclusion.

Indicative list of scoping activitiesActivity Items

(As stated these steps are only indicative, and should be tailored to meet the requirements of the particular situation.) Getting ready 1. Prepare a preliminary or outline scope with headings such as:

objectives and description of the proposal the policy context and environmental setting data and information sources, constraints etc. alternatives to the proposal concerns, issues and effects identified to date

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Indicative list of scoping activitiesActivity Items

provision for public involvement

timetable for scoping, EIA and decision making 2. Develop the outline scope by informal consultation and by assembling available information, identifying information gaps, etc. 3. Make the provisional scope and supporting information available to the public. 

Undertaking scoping

4. Draw up a long list of the range of issues and concerns.  5. Evaluate their relative importance and significance to derive a short list of key issues.  6. Organise the key issues into the impact categories to be studied. 

Completion and continuity

7. Amend the outline scope to progressively incorporate the information from each stage. 8. Establish the Terms of Reference for the EIA, including information requirements, study guidelines, methodology and protocols for revising work. 9. Monitor progress against the ToR, making adjustments as needed and provide feedback to stakeholders and the public.

Depending upon the EIA system, responsibility for scoping may lie with the proponent, with the competent authority, or with the EIA agency or an independent body set up for the purpose. In many cases, some form of guidance will be given on the conduct of scoping, the procedures to be followed and the methods that can be used to undertake the consultative and technical components of this activity.

A custom-tailored scoping process will include an overview or profile of the proposal, the environment and community that is likely to be affected, the possible alternatives, the range of potential impacts, and the ways these may be mitigated or managed. In addition, the following should be addressed:

geographical area(s) and the time-frame(s) for impact analysis; the policy and institutional frameworks under which the EIA will be conducted; existing information sources, gaps and constraints on methodology; the scheduling of the EIA study, and the allocation of resources and responsibilities;

and the relationship to the decision-making process including modification of design and

selection of alternatives as well as final approval of the proposal.

A proposed plan for public involvement in the EIA process (including the scoping phase) should be prepared. Early consideration should be given to the means of informing and involving the people who are likely to be directly affected by or interested in a proposal. A first step is to draw up a list of participants who should be involved in scoping. Both the overall approach to scoping and the mechanisms for consultation need to take into account local values, traditions and culture.

3.4Scoping methods

The following public involvement methods are used in the conduct of scoping:

notification/invitation for public comment and written submissions; consultation with the various stakeholders; public and community meetings; and issues workshops and facilitated discussion.

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Although scoping is a distinct, early process within EIA, the significant effects continue to be re-interpreted throughout an EIA study, the decision-making process and project implementation and monitoring. Unforeseen issues that require further consideration may arise in any of these phases. The work undertaken for an EIA study on a particular issue (the impact of toxic effluent on aquatic species and human health, for example) may uncover further questions, some of which may become contentious. In some cases, earlier guidance may need to be revisited, for example relating to data collection and analysis or the criteria used to interpret the significance of effects. Ultimately there are no right answers to these questions, just a succession of judgements that try to balance the available resources for the study (both time and money) with the legitimate concerns of the participants.

By involving the public, scoping process helps to build confidence in the EIA process. Often, the scoping process is the first major point of contact with the stakeholders who are affected by or interested in the proposal and the alternatives. It provides an important opportunity to inform them about the proposal and the EIA process, to understand their concerns and to set out the role and contribution of public involvement in decision-making. Experience indicates that where scoping responds to stakeholder and public inputs, even though it cannot always accommodate them, there is likely to be increased acceptance of the EIA and decision making processes.

3.5Terms of Reference and its main components

Terms of reference (ToR) are normally prepared following the screening stage and after a decision for a partial or full project EIA and therefore are usually the product of scoping. However, there are no hard and fast rules for preparation of ToR. Importantly, ToR for an EIA study must be finalised before a proponent solicits proposals to carry out the work. Once the ToR have been compiled, they should be submitted to the review agency for approval. This is usually done by the proponent in collaboration with the team responsible for the initial scoping. ToR is important because they:

provide formal guidance for practitioners on the range of issues that must be addressed in the EIA process;

clarify to the proponent "what is expected of them"; provide the proponent with a basis for project analysis; provide the reviewing agency with a tool for compliance; and, establish the framework for the review process by providing ‘benchmarks’ against which

the EIA process (as a whole) and the EIS (in particular) can be evaluated.

ToR may be prepared by the developer, an agency and/or consultant requested by the developer, or the developer in consultation with a donor (in case of a donor funded project, e.g. the World Bank). Responsibility for ensuring that the ToR for an EIA study are technically adequate, i.e. they are systematic, clear and tailored to the specific context of the project, rests with the EIA agency.

Terms of Reference for a full EIA can refer to some or all of the following items:

purpose and application of the Terms of Reference; statement of need for and objectives of the proposal; project background and description; study area or impact zone(s) (e.g. the affected environment and community); applicable policy and institutional considerations; EIA requirements and decision-making particulars; provisions for public involvement; alternatives to be examined; the impacts and issues to be studied; the studies to be carried out (e.g. approach, time & space boundaries); the requirements for mitigation and monitoring; the information and data to be included in the EIA report; the timeframe for completion of the EIA process; and

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the means for making changes to the ToR if necessary.

Chapter 4Establishing the Environmental baseline

4.1Introduction

Baseline information is important reference point for conducting EIA. The term "baseline" refers to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings proposed project area. Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources when there exists a facility of database, or the acquisition of new information through field samplings. The

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task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however, a majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping.Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:

to provide a description of the status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant concentrations) against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of importance, and

to provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated

It is often forgotten why the baseline information is collected, where to incorporate them and what level of understanding is required. Sometimes, it becomes too superficial, while in other cases it goes deeper, and it the end much of the investment on time and money are being wasted.Collection of baseline data should be designed to satisfy information requirements and should be relevant to EIA analysis. Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts contained in the TOR should be collected.

4.2The Environmental setting

The description of environmental setting includes the characteristics of the area in which the proposed action would occur. Project area is defined as the area within which all effects, impacts, features and potential compensation efforts would occur. The levels of details of the description of the study area should be sufficient to convey to readers or reviewers the precise nature of the natural and human resources, potentially affected by the proposed action and its alternatives.

The following are the major environmental parameters of the proposed project area for which the existing baseline information required to be assessed.

Physical Environment – topography, geology and geo-dynamics, soil types and productivity, surface and groundwater condition, land use pattern of the direct impact area and immediate influence area, watershed condition, source-based air and water quality, pollution and noise levels etc.

Biological Environment – Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, type of flora and fauna with their species composition, status and habitat (both terrestrial & aquatic), environmentally sensitive areas such as wetlands, prime agricultural land, protected areas and/or other areas as defined by the regulatory framework, areas having protected, endemic, endangered and rare species, diversity in ecosystem and species levels, stock of timber and firewood in the areas to be cleared for project construction and operation etc.

Socio-economic Environment – Population and demography, development needs and potentials, infrastructure facilities (road, transportation, irrigation, electricity, and telecommunication etc.), and social service facilities (drinking water, school and health), economic activities such as agriculture, livestock, trade, business etc., different category of land and property to be affected, possible land and property acquisition, if any, etc.

Cultural Environment – location and condition of archaeological, historical and religious sites, cultural and religious practices etc.

The levels of detail description of the environmental setting will vary with the nature of the proposed action and affected resources. When an action (and its anticipated effects) is a ‘point’ and essentially confined to a particular piece of property then it is generally appropriate to describe all natural and man-made features of the property and the vicinity (Corridor of Impact). This approach would be appropriate for the IEE/EIA of a moderate size industrial/commercial facility or for a residential development. When an action is a ‘band type’ such as a transmission line, pipeline or canal, roads, the discussion of existing environment may necessarily be less detailed and in certain categories only.

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Collection of baseline data should be designed to satisfy information requirements and should be relevant to EIA analysis. Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts contained in the TOR should be collected. Intensive and focussed efforts to collect baseline data must be directed by the requirements of the TOR.

4.3Data Sources

Published, unpublished and/or official decisions and records, measurement, observation and local people are the sources of information. They can be grouped into two types of sources.

1. Secondary Sources – When there exists a facility of database, this type of source can be used to collect baseline information. This type of source include published and unpublished documents such as project document, village/district profile, topographical maps, aerial photographs, other maps such as geological maps, forests and vegetation maps, operational forest management plans, soil maps, air and water quality data of monitoring stations, if available, climatological record, hospital data, economic survey, internet etc.

2. Primary Sources – This type of source involves the acquisition of new data/information through field samplings/surveys etc. It includes field data, laboratory analysis, sampling and analysis of air and water quality, soil, noise level, tree and shrubs measurement, plant counting, estimation of wild animals, population dynamics, socio-economic survey, listing and functioning of infrastructure and social service facilities, economic conditions of the project affected families, listing of cultural resources including archaeological and historical sites, cultural practices, photographs and audio-video cassettes etc. Some of them could be collected through focus group discussion (FGD), meetings with VDC and DDC and other district level and central level institutions with participation of possible project affected families (PAFs), women, disadvantaged group of people, etc.

4.4Methods of data collection

Baseline data related to various components of environment (physical, chemical, biological, socio-economic and cultural) could be generated by employing following methods.

(a) General MethodsFollowing general methods are used for baseline information collection.

Literature Review: Necessary and relevant information could be collected through the review of published and unpublished documents, reports such as project reports, feasibility reports etc.

Map Interpretation: Available maps particularly the maps related to physiography, land utilization, land use, vegetation, soil, and geology could be interpreted to collect site-specific information. These maps also provide information on settlement pattern, resource rich areas, cultivated lands, barren lands, hazard prone areas, environmentally sensitive areas, forests etc.

Checklists: Various types of checklists could be used to collect and verify necessary information. Depending upon the nature of information required, descriptive checklist, i.e., list of environmental parameters with guidelines on measurement could also be used. Sometimes scaling checklist, i.e., subjective scaling of parameter values using symbol or letter to indicate positive or negative impact are also used. In the scaling checklist, the following symbols can be used over the environmental parameters considered. They are:

++ = Very positive + = Positive 0 = Neutral - = Negative _ = Very negative

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Matrices: A two dimensional checklist can be used to collect people’s perception over the possible impacts of the project activities on the environment. In the matrix, environmental parameters and project activities should be listed on X and Y-axis respectively.

Questionnaire: Questionnaires are generally used to collect socio-economic and cultural information.

(b) Resource-based Methods

Depending upon the natural resources available in the area and the nature of information require, the following methods could be used to collect necessary baseline information.

Physical: The latitude and longitude of the project area could be fixed in the topographic map. The altitude should be recorded with altimeter or it could be known from the topo map. A site-specific map of the project area could be developed taking into account the land uses. The topographical variation, landslides and potential sites, settlements, water bodies, cultivated areas, sensitive sites etc could be located in that map. The soil characteristics could be determined by colour chart. The soil sample could be collected by augur or other methods and analyzed in the laboratory to ascertain the soil composition and properties. Similarly, air and water samples could be taken from the representative areas and analyzed by standard methods. The background noise level could be measured through audiometer.

Biological: If the project is planned to be implemented in the forests and/or passes through the forest area, the directly affected area should be inventoried to know the stock of forests, species composition and possible loss of forest area.

Socio-economic: Socio-economic information could be generated through pre-structured or open questionnaires, household survey, Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques. Qualitative information could also be generated through interview and noting, cassette recording etc. Household level of detail information could be collected through questionnaires. Adequate attention should be given to generate data related to project affected families. Information on income and expenditure, agriculture production etc could be obtained through questionnaires while record of schools and health posts provide information on available education and health facilities.

4.5Survey Equipment and Materials

Various types of equipment and materials could be used to generate field level information. Some of them are mentioned below:

Equipments – Global Positioning System (GPS) meter, altimeter, soil auger, sound meter, low/high volume sampler, camera, binocular, cassette recorder, measuring tape, plant press etc.

Maps – Physiographic/toposheets, district/village maps, land use and land capability maps, geological maps, vegetation/forest maps, trekking maps, aerial photos, other photos etc.

Keys – Reference kays for the identification of plants and animals in the field. Test Kits – Water quality test kits, specimen bottles, preservatives etc. Logistics – Full set of adequate questionnaires, torchlight, extra battery and

film rolls, medicines, insect repellent, reference letter (to the institutions for necessary assistance/cooperation) etc.

4.6Importance of baseline data

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There are four decision making points in the sequence of EIA implementation. The nature and the extent of baseline information required at each of the decision points are quite different. The following example of a hydroelectric development project, in relation to likely to impact on fish population will illustrate the four critical decision points and the requirement of baseline information, at each stage. A series of potential sites for generating hydropower has been identified at different stretches of the Modi River in Nepal: The most promising site, where preliminary investigation has suggested a possibility of 30 MW of hydropower generation.

(a) Decision on the Project ApprovalTor tor Ham (Sahar fish) a delicious long-distance migratory fish, is available in plenty in the entire stretch of the Modi River. This species of fish has been reported to migrate upstream for breeding in summer and downstream for feeding in the winter time. Most of the fishermen living on the river side adopt traditional technology to catch the fish and sell their harvest to the local market. One of the major environmental concerns of damming of the river is to impose an obstruction to the upstream and downstream migration of the fish which in turn would like to create a number of issues.

report from fishermen of the area indicated that the population of fish has declined recently due to the excessive fishing,

the obstruction likely to be created by damming would further reduces population and may destroy fish spawning area,

the Sahar fish (Tor tor sp) is considered to be most delicious hills stream fish, liked by the local people

The fish resource comes under the jurisdiction of Department of Fish and Fishery of the government; the current legislation does not account for the regulation of river fish resources in Nepal. However, in absence of such, regulatory mechanism, it would be highly relevant to consult the local fishermen and the local government about their consensus to proceed with the project, that are likely to produce adverse effect for fish resources of the area. For justification of the issues, it is necessary to have sufficient information on the following parameters:

data on current abundance of fish fish migratory pattern spawning characteristic, localities the current rate of fish exploitation, and the economic

If information on above parameters is available, the second aspect is to design mitigation measures such as:

carryout feasibility study in order to establish a fish hatchery to replace the possible loss of fish production,

examine the feasibility for installing a fish ladder in order to facilitate the fish migration, and

explore the possibility of opening-up the potential habitat and spawning ground by removing the obstacle in tributary river.

On the basis of availability of above justifications the project should be approved by the authority.

(b) Decision on the Location of Project

If the project is approved for implementation, then the second decision would be to find out an appropriate location for the construction of a dam. Engineering feasibility might have proposed several sites for dam construction, and on the basis of technical and economical consideration, the best site might have been identified. However, from the point of view of the environment, particularly, in the case of fish resources, a more detailed and focused baseline study should have to be conducted at each alternative sites proposed, mainly on: a) site for damming, which would be likely to have less effect on fish spawning grounds;b) site which would be likely to create more area for spawning; and c) site which would be likely to impose minimum obstruction for fish migration.

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(c) Decision on the Project Design

At this stage decisions and recommendations should be incorporated into the project design. Primarily the following aspects have to be considered:

the hydrological regime of the river should be well understood, a coordinated mechanism in the project design is necessary for maintaining the regular

water flow downstream, and the design has to incorporate all recommended mitigation measures, and also a fish

ladder to be included in the design, if necessary. All considerations at the design stage should be backed by baseline information, and whether or not all measures recommended in previous decisions have been taken into consideration in project design.

(d) Decision on the Operation of ProjectConsideration at this stage of project, establishes monitoring and operational feedback system to ensure that the design features built into the project are properly implemented. A number of study should be made at this stage. For example survival rate at of juvenile fish above the dam should be compared with that in unaffected parts of the river to assess whether newly developed habitat is being used to the extent predicted; and the relationship between fish production in the river, and commercial catches.

Chapter 5Impact Identification, Prediction and Evaluation

Techniques

5.1 Methods of impact identification

In the history of EIA, an enormous variety of methods have been devised to help undertake EIAs and prepare EIA reports. These EIA methods are structured, formal frameworks which allow impact data to be identified, manipulated and presented. Some methods are suited to one of these tasks, whereas other methods can be used for all of them.

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These methods are tools used to assist EIA implementation, not rigid formula to be used exactly as described here. They can be modified, adapted, extended or simplified to meet the needs of a particular EIA.

These methods can be divided into two categories and used for:a) Identifying impacts; andb) Presenting the results of the EIA in the EIA report.

The most common formal methods used for impact identification are:

I. Ad hoc methodII. ChecklistsIII. MatricesIV. NetworksV. Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS) andVI. Expert systems

(i) Ad Hoc Method

Ad hoc methods are not really methods as they do not structure the problem so it is more amenable to systematic analysis. A good example of an ad hoc method is a team of experts assembled for a short time to conduct an Environmental Assessment. Each expert's conclusions are based on a unique combination of experience, training and intuition. These conclusions are assembled into a report. Sometimes this is the only required or possible approach. In other instances, when more scientific methods are available, it is not sufficient to rely on ad hoc methods.The information is stated in simple terms that are readily understood by the lay person. No information about the cause-effect relationship between project actions and environmental components is provided. The actual impacts on specific environmental components likely to be affected by the project or those that may require further investigation are not identified. The method merely presents the pertinent information without resorting to any relative weighting of importance. This method is used for IEE and not used for comprehensive EIA.This method is very easy to use, but does have a few drawbacks (Lohani and Kan, 1983):

it may not encompass all the relevant impacts; because the criteria used to evaluate impacts are not comparable, the relative weights of various impacts cannot be compared;

it is inherently inefficient as it requires sizeable effort to identify and assemble an appropriate panel of experts for each assessment; and

it provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas of possible impacts.

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Project Activities

Standard Legislative

Requirements

Team of Specialists

Possible Impacts

(ii) Checklists

As one of the first EIA methods, checklists are still in use, though, in many different forms. Usually, checklists consist of environmental factors, which may be affected by project activities. Checklists can range from simple lists of items to more complex variations, which incorporate guidance on the scaling and weighting of impacts. Checklist technique is used for identifying the project impacts. Such lists usually cover all possible impacts of the project. In the earlier days of EIAs, simple checklists containing only the environmental indices were extensively used.Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of project. Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential impact is overlooked. They are a more formalized version of ad hoc approaches in that specific areas of impact are listed and instructions are supplied for impact identification and evaluation. There are four general types of checklists:

a. Simple Checklist: It provides a list of environmental parameters with no guidelines on how they are to be measured and interpreted.

b. Questionnaire Checklist: This method includes a set of questions to be answered.

c. Descriptive Checklist: It includes an identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure data on particular parameters.

d. Scaling Checklist: It is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional information on subjective scaling of the parameters.

e. Scaling Weighting Checklist: I t is similar to a scaling checklist, with additional information for the subjective evaluation of each parameter with respect to all the other parameters.

Varying levels of information and expertise are required to prepare checklists. Simple checklists may require only a generalized knowledge of the environmental parameters likely to be affected, and access to an information base. Alternatively, simple checklist methods can be used to summarize the results of an EIA. Scaling weighted checklists are likely to require more expertise to prepare.

a) Simple checklist: These checklists contain only a list of environmental factors and are very simple to use. The simple checklist focuses attention only on those factors, which have to be considered for EIA analysis. Their use ensures that a particular factor is not omitted from analysis. In essence, these checklists act as a memory aide. However, they do not give any guidance on how impacts should be assessed, and they do not advise the type of predictive technique to be used and the type of data required.

Table 5.1: Typical Project Checklist by Impact AreaPotential Impact Area Construction Phase Operation Phase

A. LAND TRANSFORMATION AND CONSTRUCTION

AdverseEffect

No Effect BeneficialEffect

AdverseEffect

No Effect BeneficialEffect

a. Compaction and settingb. Erosionc. Ground coverd. Stability (Slides)e. WasteB. WATER RESOURCESa. Qualityb. Drainagec. Ground and Surface Water

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C. AIR QUALITYa. Oxides (Sulphur, carbon, nitrogen)b. Particulate matterc. ChemicalsD. PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES a. Schoolsb. Policec. Water supply and Power systeme. Sewerage systemE. BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONSa. Wildlifeb. Trees, shrubsc. GrassesF. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMa. Safetyb. MovementG. COMMUNITY STRUCTURESa. Relocationb. Mobilityc. Servicesd. RecreationH. OTHER (List as appropriate)

b) Questionnaire checklist: This method includes a set of questions to be answered. The questions are listed under generic categories such as "terrestrial ecosystem" and "disease vectors". Those assessing impacts must attempt to answer the questions in all categories. There can be three answers, depending on how much is known about the particular impact under consideration. For example, if it were known that an impact was likely or unlikely, then the appropriate answer (Yes/No) would be marked. However, if insufficient evidence is available for a definite response, the "Unknown" category should be marked. This indicates that further work is needed to ascertain whether an impact is likely. The following table shows a small section of a questionnaire checklist.

Part of a Questionnaire Checklist

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a) Are there known disease problems in the Yes No Unknownproject area transmitted through vector species,such as mosquitoes, flies, snails, etc.?

b) Are these vector species associated with:

* aquatic habitats? Yes No Unknown

* forest habitats? Yes No Unknown

* agricultural habitats? Yes No Unknown

c) Will the project provide opportunities for vector Yes No UnknownControl through improved standards of living?

Estimated impact on disease vectors?highly adverse insignificant highly beneficial.

The following is an example of an EIA checklist based on rural and urban water supply and sanitation projects.

Table 5.2: Checklist for water supply project

Indicative list of scoping activities

Aspects of EIA Checklist Questions Yes NoAdditional

Data NeedsSources of Impacts

1. Require the acquisition or conversion of significant areas of land for reservoir/treatment works etc.?2. Result in significant quantities of eroded material, effluent or solid wastes?3. Require significant accommodation or service amenities to support the workforce during construction (eg > 100 manual workers)?

Receptors of Impacts

4. Flood or otherwise affect areas which support conservation worthy terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, flora or fauna (eg protected areas, wilderness areas, forest reserves, critical habitats, endangered species); or that contain sites of historical or cultural importance?5. Flood or otherwise affect areas which will affect the livelihoods of local people (eg require population resettlement; affect local industry, agriculture, livestock or fish stocks; reduce the availability of natural resource goods and services)?6. Involve siting sanitation treatment facilities close to human settlements (particularly where locations are susceptible to flooding)?

7. Affect sources of water extraction?

Environmental

Impacts

8. Cause a noticeable permanent or seasonal reduction in the volume of ground or surface water supply?9. Present a significant pollution risk through liquid or solid wastes to humans, sources of water extraction, conservation worthy aquatic ecosystems and species, or commercial fish stocks?10. Change the local hydrology of surface water-bodies (eg. streams, rivers, lakes) such that conservation-worthy or commercially significant fish stocks are affected?11. Increase the risk of diseases in areas of high population density (eg. onchocerciasis, filariasis, malaria, hepatitis, gastrointestinal diseases)?12. Induce secondary development, eg along access roads, or in the form of entrepreneurial services for construction and operational activities?

Mitigation Measures

13. Be likely to require mitigation measures that may result in the project being financially or socially unacceptable?

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c) Descriptive Checklist: It is an extension to simple checklist. It includes an identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure data on particular parameters. In this method, for each of the identified environmental factors, workable state of the art methods and techniques for impact identification, data collection, analysis, and evaluation are included. Simple and descriptive checklists can be used in IEE (scoping stage assessment).

d) Scaling Checklist: It is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional information on subjective scaling of the parameters. Impact of a project is rated on a scale of -5 to +5. Negative sign indicates adverse impact and positive sign indicates positive or beneficial impact.Table 5.3: Scaling Checklist for Environmental Impact Assessment

1. Environmental Parameter

2. Alternative Rating 3. Remarks

4. 1 5. 2 6. 3 7.

8. Ground water quality

9. 0 10. 0 11. 0 12. No effect

13. Air quality 14. -1 15. -2 16. -2 17. Little effect

18. Noise level 19. 0 20. 0 21. -1 22. Little, if any effect

23. Health 24. -3 25. -3 26. -2 27. Moderate effect

28. Education 29. +1 30. +1 31. +2 32. Little positive effect

33. Surface water quality

34. -2 35. -1 36. -1 37. Little effect

38. Biota 39. -1 40. 0 41. 0 42. Little effect

Table 5.4: Summary Rating of Scaling Checklist:

Rating Analysis Alternatives1 2 3

No. of plus rating 1 1 1No. of minus rating 4 3 4Algebraic sum of ratings

-6 -5 -4

Average of ratings -1.2 -1.25 -0.8Best option Alternative 3

e) Scaling weighting Checklist (SWC): It is similar to scaling checklist but additional information is provided as to the subjective evaluation of each parameter with respect to all the other parameters. Battelle Environmental Evaluation System (BEES) is a type of SWC. It can be used both for impact identification and impact evaluation. Following are the steps involved in this method:

1. Obtain baseline data on the identified factors and subsequently predict the changes in them due to project activity.

2. The predicted factors are then converted into environmental quality scale values using the appropriate functional curve. E.g.; Typical functional curve for DO

For drawing functional curve divide Environmental Quality (EQ) scale ranging from 0 to 1.

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EQ value is obtained from functional curve corresponding to the value measured on actual scale.

Table 5.5: Determination of Parameter Importance Value (PIU)Impact Area Ranking Weighting (W) PIU (100*W)Water quality 1 1/7 14Air quality 2 2/7 29Noise level 3 3/7 43Health 1 1/7 14Final Impact Score 7 1.0 100Overall Environmental Impact Evaluation SystemImpact Area PIU EQ EIU (PIU*EQ)Water quality 14 0.2 2.8Air quality 29 0.1 2.9Noise level 43 0 0Health 14 0.3 4.2Final Impact Score 8.9

(iii) MatricesThere are several types of matrices used in Impact Identification in EIA. The simple

matrix refers to a display of project actions or activities along one axis, with

appropriate environmental factors listed along the other axis of the matrix. When a

given action or activity is anticipated to cause a change in an environmental factor,

this is noted at the intersection point in the matrix and can be further described in

terms of magnitude and important considerations. Many variations of the interaction

matrix have been utilized in EIA. The following table is the illustration of simple

matrix.

a) Leopold Matrix (LM)

This method was developed by Leopold et al. (1971), and it has been used for the

identification of impacts. It involves the use of a matrix with 100 specified actions and 88

environmental items. In constructing the matrix, each action and its potentiality for

creating an impact on each environmental item must be considered. Where an impact is

anticipated, the matrix is marked with a diagonal line in the interaction box. The second

step in using the Leopold Matrix is to describe the interaction in terms of its magnitude (M)

in the upper section and importance (I) in the lower section of each box.

The magnitude of an interaction or impact is represented by numerical scale; it is

described by the assignment of a numerical value from one to ten. The value, ten

represents the largest magnitude and the value, one represents the lowest magnitude,

whereas values near five represent impacts of intermediate magnitude. Assignment of

a numerical value for the magnitude of an interaction is related to the extent of any

change (for example, if noise levels in a village were expected to increase by 20 dB(A),

this is a large increase at night and may score 8 or even 9). The scale of importance

also ranges from one to ten. The higher the value, the higher the importance; the lower

the value, the lower is the importance. Assignment of a numerical value for importance

is based on the subjective judgement of the multi-disciplinary team working on the EIA.

Plus (+) or minus (-) can be used to show whether an impact is beneficial or adverse.

b) Modified Graded Matrix (MGM)

Lohani and Thanh (1980) used another grading system in which relative weights are

assigned to each development activity. If the relative priority of development activity is

determined, the total value of a particular activity is the sum of the vertical column

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represented by that in the matrix, multiplied by the priority value. Finally, the total

value of all the interactions is the sum of all horizontal values in the matrix. This

method is particularly helpful in identifying major activities and in defining areas where

attention is mostly needed in the process of analysis.

c) Impact Summary Matrix (ISM)An impact summary matrix can clearly identify the potential impact areas, predict the

impact severity, specify the corresponding mitigation measures, and help in

identification of agencies responsible for implementing mitigation measures. This kind

of matrix is simple, covers all the aspects, and provides a complete overview of EIA

in summary form. Additionally, it provides an easy guide for decision-makers.

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Table 5.6: Sample of Leopold Matrix

40

Table 5.7: A summary Impact Matrix of a road project

Ph

ase/

Act

ivit

y

Likely Impacts Environmenta

l Impacts

Environmental Measures

Res

po

nsi

bili

ty

N

a

t

u

r

e

M

a

g

n

i

t

u

d

e

E

x

t

e

n

t

D

u

r

a

t

i

o

n

Co

nst

ruct

ion

Ph

ase

Beneficial Impacts Augmentation Measures

Employment

generation in

mandays

Unskilled = 125,000

Semiskilled = 85000

Skilled = 55000

D H L ST Involve local people to the extent possible with

special care on gender equality

Project

Op

erat

ion

Ph

ase

All weather transportation

facility, Enhance income

generating activities etc.

In M L LT Ensure bioengineering treatments in landslide

zones & encourage management of

surrounding forests through community

approach

Project & CFUGs

Sit

e C

lear

ance

Adverse Impacts Mitigation Measures

Change in land use

Loss of 45.34 ha of

low land khet

Loss of 35.87 ha of

upland bari

Loss of 5.67 ha of

forest

Loss of 165 houses

D

D

D

D

H

H

M

H

SS

SS

SS

SS

LT

LT

LT

LT

Provide compensation as per prevailing laws

for all resources lost

Project

Ear

thw

ork

exc

avat

ion

an

d T

un

nel

wo

rks

Increase in slope failure,

erosion and exacerbate

landslides

D H SS ST Provide catch drains and slope protection

works

Minimize earthwork in rainy season

Project

Generation of construction

spoils

D H SS ST Design in balancing depth

Dispose spoils at designated place only

Project

(iv) Networks

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“Networks” are those methodologies which integrate impact causes and consequences through identifying interrelationships between casual actions and the impacted environmental factors, including those representing secondary and tertiary effects. Network method begins with a list of project activities or actions and generates a network of cause-condition-effects (i.e., chain of events). This type of method is basically an attempt to recognize that a series of impacts may be triggered by a single project action. It provides a “roadmap” type of approach to the identification of second- and third-order effects. While drawing a network, first start with a project activity and then identify the types of impacts which would initially occur. The next step is to select each impact, identify the impacts which may be induced as a result of these; then select each of these impacts and identify which may be further induced as a result. This process is repeated until all possible impacts are identified. Sketching this in a network form is commonly referred to as an “impact tree”. Networks are very good in identifying impacts, cumulative interactions and showing these to decision makers.

An example of simple network for showing impacts from a chemical plant

(v) Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS)

Overlay mapping and GIS are methods for identifying the spatial distribution of impacts, and can assist in identifying where cumulative impacts and impact interactions may occur as a result of a project. Both methods involve the preparation of maps or layers of information which are then superimposed on one another. This can be to provide a composite picture of the baseline environment, identifying the sensitive areas or resources; to show the influences of past, present and future activities on a project or receiving environment; and to identify where several impacts can cumulatively affect one particular receptor.Manual overlay mapping uses a series of transparent maps with different information shown on each which are then superimposed. The areas where there are overlaps of information can be determined, these therefore being the areas where there are potential significant cumulative impacts or where impact interactions may take place. GIS is a computer-based system into which data is input and layers of information created representing different resources or impact distributions. These are overlain within the system and again the areas of potential cumulative impacts or interactions identified.The methods can be used to produce maps of the cumulative impact on a specific receptor from one project, or can map the impacts from a number of projects on receptors. They can also be used to show previous impacts, and to predict future impacts.

Overlaying Component Maps

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Sites of Ecological Importance

Water Quality

Landscape Considerations

Development A (eg Industrial Plant)

Development B (eg. road scheme)

Complete Composite Map

Figure 5.1 The Compilation of an Overlay Map from Various Component Maps

Spatial analysis can be applied to a range of projects and environmental conditions. GIS is particularly suited to large scale or complex projects and for projects where analysis or modelling is required. However, GIS can be expensive and it is often not appropriate for small scale projects. For such smaller scale simple projects overlay techniques are more suitable.

(vi) Expert systems

Calyx is a computerized decision support system that is used to determine the potential environmental impacts of projects. The user enters the information that describes the activities to be carried out as part of the project, and the components of the environment present at and around the project site likely to be affected by the project. Calyx contains a set of impact rules that describes the conditions, under which environmental impacts will occur, based on general principles. These rules were initially developed in Canada and have been modified extensively with input from other countries in Asia.The Calyx software combines the information provided to it describing the project and its environmental setting with the internal database of impact rules to determine the relative magnitude of potential environmental impacts. It provides a user-friendly interface that leads users through the process of describing the project and the environment, determining and analysing impacts and producing reports. In addition, Calyx contains databases of mitigation measures and monitoring procedures that are indexed to environmental impacts.

Comparison of Impact Identification MethodsMain advantages and disadvantages of impact identification methodsMethod Advantages Disadvantages Checklists easy to understand and

use good for site selection and

priority setting

simple ranking and weighting

do not distinguish between direct and indirect impacts

do not link action and impact

the process of incorporating values can be controversial

Matrices link action to impact difficult to distinguish direct

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good method for displaying EIA results

and indirect impacts

have potential for double-counting of impacts

Networks link action to impact useful in simplified form for

checking for second order impacts

handles direct and indirect impacts

can become very complex if used beyond simplified version

Overlays easy to understand focus and display spatial

impacts

good siting tool

can be cumbersome

poorly suited to address impact duration or probability

GIS and computer expert systems

excellent for impact identification and spatial analysis

good for ‘experimenting’

heavy reliance on knowledge and data

often complex and expensive

5.1 Methods of impact prediction

Impacts may be of different magnitude, extent and duration, and helps to evaluate the significance of the impact. They are:

Magnitude: It is defined as the severity of each potential impact. It indicates whether the impact is irreversible or reversible and the potential rate of recovery. It is often expressed as high (H), medium (M) and low (L).

Extent: It is the spatial extent or the zone of influence (ZoI) of the impact. An impact can be site-specific or limited to the project area (SS); a locally occurring impact within the watershed of the proposed project (L); a regional impact that may extend beyond the watershed (R); and a national impact affecting resources on a national scale (N).

Duration: Duration of impact represents the temporal dimension of environmental impacts. An impact which generally lasts for only 3 to 9 years after project initiation may be classified as short-term (ST). An impact which continues for 10 to 20 years may be defined as medium-term (MT), and impacts that last beyond 20 years are considered long-term (LT). Impacts produced during the construction phase of a project are generally short-term.

There are many potential methods available for predicting impacts on a variety of resources. No prediction methods are perfect and new or improved methods are constantly being developed.Predictive methods are extrapolative and/or Normative.

Extrapolative Methods are those in which the predictions are made on the basis of past and present data and which include trend and scenario analysis (the common sense forecast of the future), analogies (transferring experience from elsewhere), and intuitive forecasting from group consensus (Delphi Method).

Normative Methods examine how the fulfillment of a desired target is achieved. For example, if in one construction project, a target set is to employ 50% of the local populace. Meeting this target, may require changing the project and associated employment policy.

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In general, the prediction methods are divided into the following six types described below:

1) Mathematical Model

Such models are based on cause-effect relationships usually expressed in the form of mathematical functions. They may be simple input-output models or of complex dynamic types. Such models are primarily used for predicting the impact only partially (e.g.,model for phosphorus retention in a lake, or model to predict the economic multiplier in a particular area). Models which are comprehensive and provide a holistic approach are often rare, except in some cases of land-use planning.

Mathematical models are divided into two types.

deterministic models are usually derived through fixed relationships. They are more commonly used in socioeconomic impact prediction. For example, the economic multiplier in a project where injection of money in the project area takes place and the impact on the economy of the project area is examined, and

the stochastic model is a probabilistic type in which the prediction depends upon the degree of probability of occurrence of a number of events in a given area and time.

A simple model termed a 'mass balance model' is usually applied for indicating the input from one compartment resulting in the output for another. If the inputs are water, food, and chemicals in one compartment, the outputs would be water and wastes flowing out into another compartment. Mass balance models are primarily useful for predicting impacts from industries or manufacturing sections.

2) Statistical Models

Statistical techniques such as regression or component analysis are sometimes used to indicate the relationship between the data and test hypothesis, for example, in predicting flood frequencies.

3) Geographic Models

Satellite images, physical maps and aerial photographs provide information on existing resources. Prediction of impacts of the development project can be made by analysing the effect of project activities on the resources present in the location by using GIS techniques.

4) Field and Laboratory Experimental Methods

Field inventory carried out prior to project implementation provide the baseline information of resources. For example, a fish resource survey in the River of Nepal indicated that a long-distance migratory fish species are existing in the river. It could then be determined that the construction of a dam in the upstream part of the river might create an obstruction for their upstream migration of the fish for breeding. Such an impactwould lead to the decline of the fish population in upstream of the dam unless mitigation is planned to deal with the problem.

Similarly, laboratory tests also provide some insight on the effects of certain activities on the resources. For example, the application of DDT in fields might inhibit the growth of seedling of crops. The laboratory simulation tests would determine what doses of DDT might inhibit the growth and the application of up to what range of doze would be safer.

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5) Physical Models

These models are closely linked to field and laboratory experiments making critical engineering and other decisions on site. Basically, a model of an area likely to be impacted is constructed but on a smaller scale. For example, it could show the physical parameters of a Run-of-river hydropower project. Both natural features such as

topography and socio-cultural features such as villages, schools and bridges are included. In the case of rivers, the effect of impoundment on flow can be calculated. Tunnel and pipeline routes as well as locations of power houses and labor camps can be shown. The deposition of waste can also be demonstrated on the model, to make decisions about how it is to be handled.

6) Expert Judgment

Expert judgment refers to an event occurring due to certain activities in a particular location that may be analogous to other locations of similar conditions with similar activities.

The experience of one place could very well be utilised for similar places elsewhere where the environmental impacts are unknown. For example, many irrigation development projects produce effects of salinization. Decisions on anticipated impact based on past experience are the result of conceptual models often referred to as 'expert judgments'.

The assessor is responsible for selecting impact prediction methods for the particular development project in question, bearing in mind the following that is:

produce acceptable results,

be replicable,

be consistent, and

be adaptable.

5.2 Impact evaluation techniques

Once an impact is predicted, a decision needs to be made on the significance of the impact. For example, a fishery is likely to decline by 25 percent due to implementation of a proposed project. How important is this decline? This question can be answered in a number of ways:

Scoping results may be used as a guide;

Relevant national laws, regulations or policies which may give protection to the species;

Expert judgment (scientists); and

Reconvening the scoping sessions.

Evaluation of impacts should be based on comparing the values against set standards.

5.3.1 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the Air EnvironmentThis section addresses basic concepts of and a methodological approach for conducting a scientifically based analysis of the potential air quality impacts of proposed projects and activities.

(a) Basic Information on Air Quality IssuesIn order to systematically address the air quality impacts of potential projects or activities, it is necessary to be familiar with basic information regarding air pollution.

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(i) Definition of Air PollutionAir pollution can be defined as the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants (or pollutants) in such quantities and of such duration as may be (or may tend to be) injurious to human, plant, or animal life, or to property (materials), or which may unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property.

(ii) Information on types and categories of air pollutantsAir pollution can be caused by the presence of one or more contaminants. Air pollutants can be divided into two categories: gases and particulates. Gases include sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen (NOX), carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons ozone, hydrogen sulphide, smoke and haze. Particulates represents any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 micrometers, µm, in diameter) but smaller than about 500 µm.

(iii) Sources of Air PollutantsAir pollutant sources can be categorized according to the type of source and their spatial distribution. According to source type, they are natural sources and manmade sources. Natural sources include plant pollens, wind blown dusts, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, lightening generated forest fires etc. Man-made or anthropogenic sources include transportation vehicles, industrial processes, power plants and construction activities etc.According to spatial distribution, they are single or point source (stationary) and area sources or multiple sources (stationary or mobile). Single or point source includes pollutant emissions from industrial processes stacks, fuel combustion facility stacks etc. Area sources include vehicular traffic, fugitive-dust emissions from resource-material stockpiles or construction, military training activities etc.

(iv) Effect of air pollutantsThe effects of air pollutants can be classified under the following four headings:

I. Effect on materialsAir pollutants affect certain materials by property devaluation because of odours, deterioration of materials (concrete statuary), discolouration of painted surfaces on cars, buildings and bridge structures etc.

II. Effect on plants and cropsAir pollutants can affect plants and crops by abnormal growth patterns, leaf discolouration, or spotting and death of plants.

III. Effect on human healthHuman health effects include eye irritation, headaches and aggravation of respiratory difficulties etc.

IV. Effect on physical featuresThe physical effects of pollutants on the atmosphere can be classified as follows:Effects on visibility: The visibility is reduced due to the concentration and physical properties of particulate pollutants present in the atmosphere. The stormy wind raises dust particles resulting in decrease in the visibility. In unsaturated humidity conditions, the hygroscopic particles pick up moisture and as they increase in size, the visibility is affected. Fog and photochemical smog reduce the visibility considerably.Effects on urban atmosphere and weather conditions: Urban air pollution is mainly caused due to smoke, dust, fog and other aerosols, and all of these affect the weather conditions. Polluted area becomes cloudier, foggier, resulting in reduction of solar radiation to an extent of about 30%.

(b) Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution DispersionAir pollutants discharged from anthropogenic sources gets dispersed into the atmosphere into various directions depending upon prevailing winds (direction as well as speed), temperature and pressure conditions. It is essential that these air pollutants emitted from the source must first be transported and diluted in the atmosphere before these undergo various physical and

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photochemical transformations and ultimately reach their receptors. Otherwise, the pollutant concentrations will reach dangerous levels near the source of emission. Following are the meteorological parameters that influence air pollution dispersion:

(i) Wind direction and SpeedThe direction and speed of the surface wind governs the drift and diffusion of air pollutants discharged near the ground level. The higher the wind speed at or near the point of emission, the more rapidly the pollutants would be carried away from the source. The concentration of the pollutants, so dispersed, will go on decreasing with the distance. However, if the wind speed is low, the dispersion will not be effective, and the pollutants tend to concentrate near the area of their emission. If the speed is less than 0.5 m/s, there is no direction and if the speed is greater than 2 m/s, it is called high speed. Wind direction in a particular area is summarized in wind rose diagram.

(ii) TemperatureThe term "adiabatic process" means warming by compression, or cooling by expansion, without a transfer of heat or mass into a system. As air moves up or down within the atmosphere, it is affected by this process. This temperature difference will be 5-1/2 degree decrease per 1,000 feet increase in altitude. This is also termed the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The atmosphere may or may not have a temperature distribution that fits the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Usually it does not. The actual lapse rate may be greater or less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate and may change by levels in the atmosphere. This variation from the dry adiabatic lapse rate is what determines whether the air is stable or unstable. If the air is unstable, the vertical movement of air is encouraged, and this tends to increase fire activity. If the air is stable, vertical movement of air is discouraged, and this usually decreases or holds down fire activity.

(iii) Dry Lapse RatesThe actual temperature lapse rate in a given portion of the atmosphere could range from a plus 15° per 1,000 feet to a minus 15° per 1,000 feet. These would represent the extremes of very stable air to very unstable air. Rather than be concerned with all of these degrees of stability or instability, we usually describe the atmosphere as falling into one of five conditions.

The vertical air temperature distribution in the atmosphere is highly variable. For dry air it ranges as follows: 

1. Very stable : Temperature increases with increase in altitude. This is a "plus"

temperature lapse rate, or an inversion.

2. Stable : Temperature lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic rate, but temperature

decreases with altitude increase.

3. Neutral : Temperature lapse rate is the same as the dry adiabatic rate of 5.5 degrees

Fahrenheit per 1000 feet increase.

4. Unstable : Temperature lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. It may be 6

degrees Fahrenheit or more.

5. Very unstable : Temperature lapse rate is much greater than the dry adiabatic rate,

and is called super-adiabatic.

(iv) Atmospheric Stability and InstabilityThe earth's gaseous mantle, called "the atmosphere," is very fluid, with air constantly moving and mixing, and that air changes in temperature, moisture, pressure, and other properties. Air moves horizontally or vertically in response to the earth's rotation, to large and small scale pressure gradients, to various lifting mechanisms, and to gravity. Vertical movement of air, either upward or downward, is generally influenced by the degree of stability or instability of the atmosphere at any particular time.

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Atmospheric stability: The resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion.Temperatures normally increase as we get closer to the earth's surface. This is due in part to the greater molecular activity of denser, more compressed air at lower altitudes. These conditions change throughout a 24-hour period, as the daytime solar heating and night time heat loss to and through the atmosphere tend to modify the temperature distributions.

(c) Conceptual approach for addressing air environment impacts

To provide a basis for addressing air environment impacts a six-step is suggested for the planning and conduction of impact studies. The six generic steps are:

(1) Identification of air pollutant emissions and impact concerns related to the construction and operation of the development project;

(2) Description of the environmental setting in terms of existing ambient air quality, emission inventory, and meteorological data in the project study area;

(3) Procurement of relevant laws, regulations, or criteria related to ambient air quality and/or pollutant emission standards;

(4) Conduction of impact prediction activities;(5) Assessment of impact significance; and(6) Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures

Step 1: Identification of the types and quantities of air pollutants and their impacts

When analyzing any proposed project-activity, initial step is to consider what types of air pollutants might be emitted during the construction and/or operational phases of the proposed project, and the quantities in which such air pollutants are expected to occur. Use of emission-factor information organized according to project type or activity is a suggested approach. An “emission factor” is the average rate at which a pollutant is released into the atmosphere as a result of some activity, such as combustion or industrial production, divided by the level of that activity (U.S. EPA, 1973). “Emission Factors” relate the types and quantities of pollutants emitted to indicators such as production capacity, quantity of fuel burned, or vehicle-miles travelled by an automobile.

Step 2: Description of existing ambient air quality information of project study area

Existing air quality conditions can be described in terms of ambient air quality data, emission inventories, and meteorological information which relates to atmospheric dispersion.

Step 3: Procurement of relevant air quality standards and regulations

The primary sources of information on air quality standards, criteria, and policies will be the relevant government agencies which have a mandate for overseeing the air resources of the study area. Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of air quality impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.

Step 4: Conduction of impact prediction activities

Air quality impact prediction can be based on one to several approaches, including mass balances, the use of simple to detailed mathematical models, and other considerations.

(a) Mass-Balance Approaches

Air pollutant emissions from the construction and/or operational phase of a project-activity can be considered in relation to the existing emission inventory for the study area. This approach will necessitate the development of an inventory representing a mass balance of the total air

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pollutant emissions from all sources for a proposed project or activity entering the atmosphere during the construction and/or operational phase.Predict the increase in the existing emission inventory for one or more pollutants as a result of the construction and operation activities.

Percentage increases can be calculated for each pertinent pollutant and each project-activity phase. A total percentage increase could be calculated by summing the values of all the pollutants in the inventory.

(b) Mathematical Model

Dispersion Equations

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere are mixed thoroughly with the surrounding air and diluted by atmospheric dispersion. This dispersion is primarily due to turbulent diffusion and bulk air flow. The turbulent diffusion models are based on Fick’s law of molecular diffusion. Several equations/models have been developed to estimate the concentration of pollutants in the plume at any distance x, y and z, in horizontal down-wind direction, horizontal cross-wind direction and vertical direction respectively.

Gaussian Plume Model

The Gaussian plume model is a (relatively) simple mathematical model that is typically applied to point source emitters, such as coal-burning electricity-producing plants. Occasionally, this model will be applied to non-point source emitters, such as exhaust from automobiles in an urban area. One of the key assumptions of this model is that over short periods of time (such as a few hours) steady state conditions exist with regard to air pollutant emissions and meteorological changes. Air pollution is represented by an idealized plume coming from the top of a stack of some height and diameter. One of the primary calculations is the effective stack height. As the gases are heated in the plant (from the burning of coal or other materials), the hot plume will be thrust upward some distance above the top of the stack -- the effective stack height. We need to be able to calculate this vertical displacement, which depends on the stack gas exit velocity and temperature, and the temperature of the surrounding air.

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Once the plume has reached its effective stack height, dispersion will begin in three dimensions. Dispersion in the downwind direction is a function of the mean wind speed blowing across the plume. Dispersion in the cross-wind direction and in the vertical direction will be governed by the Gaussian plume equations of lateral dispersion. Lateral dispersion depends on a value known as the atmospheric condition, which is a measure of the relative stability of the surrounding air. The model assumes that dispersion in these two dimensions will take the form of a normal Gaussian curve, with the maximum concentration in the center of the plume. The "standard" algorithm used in plume studies is the Gaussian plume model, developed in 1932 by O.G. Sutton. The algorithm is as follows:

Where: C(x,y,z) is the concentration of the emission (in micrograms per cubic meter) at any point x meters downwind of the source, y meters laterally from the centerline of the plume, and z meters above ground level. Q is the quantity or mass of the emission (in grams) per unit of time (seconds) u is the wind speed (in meters per second) H is the height of the source above ground level (in meters) σy and σz are the standard deviations of a statistically normal plume in the lateral and vertical dimensions, respectively This algorithm has been shown in a number of studies to be fairly predictive of emission dispersion in a variety of conditions. In this algorithm, we are concerned with dispersion in all three dimensions (x, y, and z):

longitudinally (in the x direction) along a center line of maximum concentration running downwind from the source

laterally (in the y direction) on either side of the center line, as the pollution spreads out sideways

vertically (in the z direction) above and below a horizontal axis drawn through the source.

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Effective Stack Height

The value for the effective stack height, H, is the sum of the physical stack height, h, and the plume rise ∆H.∆H may be computed from Holland’s formula.

WhereVs = stack velocity, m/sd = stack diameter, mu = wind speed, m/sP = pressure, kPa Ts = stack temperature, KTa = air temperature, K

The other major calculations for a simple Gaussian plume model are as follows: The stability categories were developed in the late 1970s, and are based on wind speed, insolation, and extent of cloud cover. As shown above, we can calculate the values the standard deviations from the downwind axis for these six conditions or categories using the algorithms above.

For concentration calculated at ground level(i.e. z = 0),

Ground level centre line concentrationIf the ground level concentration is required only in the down wind horizontal direction (i.e. x-direction), y = 0, above equation reduces to the following form

Again, when the effluent is discharged at ground level, the effective stack height H is zero and above equation is further reduced to the form

In the above equations, are functions of downwind distance x as well as of

atmospheric stability. Figures 5.2 and 5.3 give the values of σy and σz respectively, for various types of atmospheric stabilities.

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Figure 5.2 Values of σy for different atmospheric stabilities

Figure 5.3 Values of σz for different atmospheric stabilities

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Step 5: Assessment of impact significance

Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated changes related to the proposed project. One basis for impact assessment is public input; which could be received through a scoping process or through the conduction of public meetings and/or public participation programs. Professional judgment can also be used in relation to the percentage changes from baseline conditions in terms of air-pollutant emission levels and/or exposed human population. Some numerical standards or criteria can be used as a basis of interpretation.

Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures

Mitigation measures refer to project-activity design or operational features that can be used to minimize the magnitude of the air quality impacts. The key approach is to revise the design as needed in order to reduce the air pollutants expected to be emitted from the project-activity. The revised project or activity can then be reassessed to determine if the mitigation measures have eliminated or sufficiently minimized the deleterious air quality impacts.

5.3.2 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the surface water environmentMany types of projects have impact implications for the surface water environment (rivers, lakes,, estuaries, or oceans). Effects can be represented by quantity and/or quality changes; these changes can, in tur, have aquatic faunal or floral species and aquatic ecosystem implications. Projects which create impact concerns for the surface-water environment include (1) industrial plants or power plants withdrawing surface water for use as cooling water; (2) power plants discharging heated wastewater from their cooling cycles; (3) industries discharging process wastewaters; (4) municipal wastewater treatment plants discharging treated effluents; (5) construction of dams for purposes of water supply, flood control, or hydropower generation; (6) river channelization projects for flow improvements; (7) deforestation and agricultural development resulting in nonpoint-source pollution associated with nutrients and pesticides, and irrigation projects leading to return flow laden with nutrients & pesticides; (8) commercial hazardous-waste disposal sites, and /or sanitary landfills, with resultant runoff water and nonpoint-source pollution; and (9) tourism related projects adjacent to surface water bodies.

(a) Basic information on surface-water quality parameters

Surface water comprises rainfall, runoff, base flow, and so on. Each of these inputs to the surface water system can contribute natural compounds of relevance to water quality. For example, rainfall in highly industrialized regions may consist of acidic precipitation which is introduced to the surface water; runoff may bring with it natural organics, sediments, and so on; and base flow may have elevated levels of hardness from the flow of the water through the sub-surface. Human activities may increase the concentration of existing compounds to enter the surface water. For examples, discharge of wastewater (treated or untreated) greatly adds to the organic loading of the surface water and clearing of land can result in increased erosion and sediment load in the surface water.Surface water pollution can be defined as the excessive concentrations of particular substances for sufficient periods of time to cause identifiable effects. Water quality can be defined in terms of the physical, chemical, and biological characterization of the water. Physical parameters include colour, odour, temperature, solids, turbidity etc. Chemical parameters associated with the organic content of water include BOD, COD, TOC and TOD. Similarly, inorganic chemical parameters include salinity, hardness, pH, acidity, alkalinity, and the presence of substances including iron, manganese, chlorides, sulphates, heavy metals (mercury, lead, chromium, copper and zinc0, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Biological properties include bacteriological parameters such as coliforms, fecal coliforms, specific pathogens, and viruses.In evaluating surface-water pollution impacts associated with the construction and operation of a potential project, two main sources of water pollutants should be considered: nonpoint and point. Nonpoint sources are also referred to as area or diffuse sources. Nonpoint pollutants refer to those substances which can be introduced into receiving waters as a result of urban

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area, industrial area, or rural runoff. Point sources are related to specific discharges from municipalities or industrial complexes.

(b) Effect of pollutants

Soluble organics with high BOD wastes cause depletion of oxygen in water which can result in fish kills, undesirable aquatic life, and undesirable odours. Suspended solids decrease water clarity and hinder photosynthesis processes. Excessive nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to algae overgrowth. Chlorides can impart salty taste to water.

(c) Conceptual Approach for addressing surface-water environment impacts

Step 1: Identification of surface-water quantity or quality impacts

When analyzing any proposed project-activity, initial step is to determine the features of the proposed project, and the potential alternatives which either have been or could be considered. Key information related to the project includes (1) the type of project and how it operates in a technical context, particularly with regard to water usage and wastewater generation, or to the creation changes in water quantity or quality; (2) the proposed location of the project; (3) project construction period; (4) potential environmental outputs from the project during its operational phase, including information related to water usage and water-pollutant emissions, and waste-generation and disposal needs; (5) the identified need for the proposed project in the particular location; and (6) any alternatives which have been considered, with generic alternatives for factors including site location, project size, project design features, and pollution control measures, and project timing relative to construction and operational phases.

It is necessary to develop a list of materials to be utilized during the project implementation and of those materials which will require disposal. Materials that may result in surface-water contamination include fuels & oils, preservatives, bituminous products, insecticides, solid and liquid wastes, and other chemicals etc.

Step 2: Description of existing surface-water resource conditions of project study area

It involves describing existing (background) conditions of the surface-water resources potentially impacted by the project. Relevant activities include assembling information on water quantity and quality, identifying unique pollution problems, highlighting key climatological information, conducting baseline monitoring, and summarizing information on point- and nonpoint pollution sources and on water users and uses.Information should be collected on flow variations (quantity) and quality of surface-water in the river reach of concern. Any unique pollution problem that have occurred in the project study area (e.g., fish kills, excessive algal growth should be noted.Information on pollution sources and water uses may include:

what other sources of surface-water pollution already exist in the study area & also to consider current and potential usage of the surface-water resources for water supply purpose.

Current number of surface-water users and the quantities associated with such uses should be assembled.

Types of information that may be accumulated: General estimates of the number of users (public, private, industrial etc) Types of water use (drinking water, recreation, agriculture/irrigation etc.) Location and rates of existing surface-water withdrawals

Step 3: Procurement of relevant surface-water quantity-quality standards

To determine the severity of the impacts from a project, it is necessary to make use of institutional measures for assessing impact significance. Surface-water quantity and quality standards, regulations, or policies are examples of these measures. The standards include National Guidelines on water quality for different purposes and WHO guidelines.

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Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of surface-water quality impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.

Step 4: Conduction of impact prediction activities

Impact prediction refers to the quantification (or, at least, the qualitative description), where possible, of the anticipated impacts of the proposed project on various surface-water environment factors. Various methods are used in the prediction of impacts such as:

Mathematical models; Laboratory testing; and Analogous information on actual impacts from similar types of projects in other, similar

geographical locations.

Mass-Balance ApproachesOne mathematical-modelling prediction approach uses mass-balance calculations to determine average downstream concentrations resulting from point- or nonpoint-source discharges or to determine percentage changes in stream flow or pollutant loadings. The results can be compared to pertinent effluent limitations, quality-quantity standards, or baseline flow and quality characteristics.

Mathematical models use mathematical equations to represent the functional relationships between variables. In general, sets of equations are combined to simulate the behavior of environmental systems. The number of variables in a model and the nature of the relationships between them are determined by the complexity of the environmental system being modeled. Mathematical modeling aims to limit, as much as possible, the number of variables and thus keep the relationships between variables as simple as possible without compromising the accuracy of representation of the environmental system.

C1 =Qo* C o+Qe* C e Qo + Qe

An example of a mathematical model is a simple water quality mixing model which is based on the simplest of mass balance equations. The water quality model below assumes continuous discharge of a conservative contaminant into a stream.where:

C1 is the downstream concentration;Co is the upstream concentration; Ce is the effluent concentration; Qo is the upstream flow; andQe is the effluent flow.

This model may be used to predict changes in downstream effluent concentrations in response to pollutants loading by changing the values of effluent concentration (Ce) and the effluent flow (Qe).

Mathematical-Modelling Approaches

Modelling approaches for predicting impacts of organic materials in rivers include consideration of the changes in dissolved oxygen (DO) resulting from bacterial demand for oxygen in the decomposition process, and the supply of oxygen from natural reaeration. A classical DO model addressing liquid-phase demand and natural reaeration was developed by Streeter and Phelps in 1925; which is as follows:

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Where Dt = DO deficit at any flow time t or distance x downstream, daysK1 = coefficient of deoxygenation, day-1

K2 = coefficient of reaeration, day-1

La = ultimate BOD in stream following mixing, mg/lDa = DO deficit upstream of or at point of waste discharge, mg/l

This model can be used to calculate the oxygen-sag curve. It should be noted that K1, K2, and La are influenced by temperature. Specific mathematical relationships describing the temperature influence are as follows:K1(T) = K1(20) (1.047)T-20

K2(T) = K2(20) (1.016)T-20

La(T) = La(20) (0.02T + 0.6) Where T = water temperature, 0C, and K1(20), K2(20), and La(20) = values at 200C.Other factors that may be important in predicting the DO impact are related to critical conditions in terms of the location and value of the minimum point on the oxygen-sag curve, and as the maximum permissible BOD loading that can be introduced without exceeding the dissolved oxygen standard. Equations for critical time and deficit are as follows:

Dc =

Where tc = critical time (time of flow) to point of occurrence of minimum DO concentration, days, and Dc = critical (maximum) deficit (mg/l) at time of flow tc.

Simple Phosphorus Balance in a Lake

As phosphorus is one of the most common limiting nutrients for lake eutrophication. A simple mass balance of phosphorus is given below:

Mass rate in – mass rate out – mass of P settling in lake + mass generation = rate of accumulation

QinCpin – QoutCp – VsAsCp + 0 = dM/dt

In this case, assume that there is no generation of phosphorus within the lake. Also assuming steady state conditions, dM/dt = 0. The phosphorus concentration leaving the lake is assumed to be equal to the phosphorus concentration in the lake (well mixed) and the outflow rate is assumed to be equal to the inflow rate; therefore above equation becomes

Q* CPin = Q*CP + VsAsCp

= Cp(Q + VsAs)

Lake P (concentration) CP = Q* CPin

Q + VsAs

Assumption of well-mixed lakes:Cp = Phosphorus concentration in lakeVs = Settling velocityCp = Cpout

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Qin

Qout

Cpin Cp CPout

Vs

Mass balance of lake phosphorus

Step 5: Assessment of impact significance

Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated changes related to the proposed project. It can be based on specific numerical standards or criteria which can be used as a basis for impact interpretation (e.g., water quality standards, wastewater discharge standards etc)Another example is the application of professional judgment in assessing the impact significance.

Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures

The next activity is that of identifying and evaluating potential impact-mitigation measures. Mitigation measures may need to be added to the project proposal to make it acceptable. These mitigation measures might consist of decreasing the magnitude of the surface-water impacts or including features that will compensate for the surface-water impacts. The specific mitigation measures will be dependent upon the particular project type and location.

5.3.3 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the noise environmentNoise impacts can be of concern during the construction and the operation phases of the projects. Construction noise can be a significant source of community noise. Of concern are impacts on people near the construction site performing activities which are totally unrelated to construction activities (e.g., area residents, office workers, schoolchildren, and hospital residents and staff). Factors which are important in determining noise levels that will potentially impact such populations include distance from the noise source; natural or man-made barriers between the source and the impacted population; weather conditions which could potentially absorb, reflect, or focus sound (such as wind speed and direction and temperature inversions); and the scale and intensity of the particular construction phase (e.g., excavation, erection, or finishing).

a. Basic information on Noise

Noise can be defined as unwanted sound or sound in the wrong place at the wrong time. It can also be defined as any sound that is undesirable because it interferes with speech and hearing, is intense enough to damage hearing, or is otherwise annoying (U.S. EPA, 1972). The definitions of “noise” as unwanted sound implies that it has an adverse effect on human beings and their environment, including land, structures, and domestic animals. Noise can also disturb natural wildlife and ecological systems.

b. Noise levelsAs mentioned before, the sound pressures perceived by human range from 20 µPa to 200 Pa. This range is enormous. As the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure, its range of variation is even greater. When a quantity varies over several orders of magnitudes, it is usually more helpful to look at its Logarithm and this is what people working with noise do. A number of these logarithmic levels are used:

Intensity Level:58

LI=Log10(I/I0) (in Bell),

where I0=10-12 W/m2 is a reference level which roughly corresponds to the lower threshold of hearing.These levels are actually non-dimensional numbers but they are commonly assigned a fictitious unit, the ‘Bell’. Since most intensity levels are fairly small numbers in Bells, one usually counts them in decibels (dB) i.e. a tenth of a Bell. In decibel, the intensity level is therefore:

LI=10xLog10(I/I0) (dB)

Although intensity is physically the meaningful quantity (as an indicator of the ‘strength’ of a sound), pressures are much easier to measure experimentally using a simple microphone. Fortunately, it turns out that the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure. So an alternative to LI is the Sound Pressure Level LP :

Lp=10xLog10(p2/p02) = 20 x Log10(p/p0) in dB,

where p0= 20 µPa = 2x10-5 Pa is the reference pressure so that Lp=0 at the standard threshold of hearing. The pressure p used here is the root-mean square pressure which is more representative than the maximum amplitude for complex non-harmonic sounds. Due to the different reference chosen for both levels, the numerical values of Lp and LI are different but this difference is very small (0.5 dB) and usually ignored.Effectively, they both represent the same thing – the strength of the sound at a given instant in time and space. Fig. 5.4 is a diagram showing the level in dB of some common noisy situations.

Both intensity and pressure define what is occurring at a point in space. The more fundamental quantity is the Sound Power Level of the source, Lw defined by:

Lw= 10 Log (W/W0)

where W is the source power in watts and W0=10-12 Watts.

Some key definitions related to noise-impact prediction and assessment are as follows.1. Day-Night Average Sound Level (DNL, Ldn):Day-Night average sound level is the 24 hour average sound level, in decibels, for the period from midnight to midnight, obtained after addition of 10 decibels to sound levels in the night from midnight to 7 a.m. and from 10 p.m. to midnight. It is a measurable quantity and can be measured directly at a specific location.

2. Equivalent sound level (Leq):Leq is the energy equivalent sound level, in decibels, for any time period under consideration. It is the equivalent steady noise level that, in a stated period of time, would contain the same noise energy as the time-varying noise during the same time period.

3. L10:It is defined as the sound level that is exceeded 10 percent of the time for the period under consideration. DNL, under typical conditions approximately equals L10 – 3 decibels.

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Figure 5.4 – Common noise shown on a dB scale

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(a) Conceptual Approach for addressing Noise environment impacts

Step 1: Identification of noise impacts of proposed project

First step is to determine the potential impacts of the proposed project (or activity) on the noise environment. This requires the identification of the noise levels associated with the project.

Step 2: Description of environmental setting in terms of existing noise levels and noise sources, along with land-use information and unique receptors in the project area

It involves describing existing (background) conditions of the surface-water resources potentially impacted by the project. Relevant activities include assembling information on water quantity and quality, identifying unique pollution problems, highlighting key climatological information, conducting baseline monitoring, and summarizing information on point- and nonpoint pollution sources and on water users and uses.

Step 3: Procurement of relevant noise standards and/or guidelines

To determine the severity of the impacts from a project, it is necessary to make use of institutional measures for assessing impact significance. Noise standards, regulations, or policies are examples of these measures. The standards include National Guidelines on noise levels for different receptors and WHO guidelines.

Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of noise impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.

Step 4: Impact prediction

Impact prediction involves predicting the propagation of noise from a source and determining the type of affected land uses.

Simple Noise-Attenuation Models:

Sound travels through air in waves with the characteristics of “frequency” and “wavelength”. If a sound is created at a point, a system of spherical waves propagates from that point outward through the air at a speed of 1100 ft/second, with the first wave making an ever-increasing sphere with time. As the wave spreads, the height of the wave or the intensity of sound at any given point diminishes as the fixed amount of energy is spread over an increasing surface area of the sphere. This phenomenon is known as “geometrical attenuation of sound”.

Point-source propagation can be defined as follows:

Sound level1 – Sound level2 = 20 log (r2/r1)

Thus, the sound level at station 1 minus the sound level at station 2 is equal to 20 times the log of the ratio of the radii r2, r1. This means that for every doubling of distance, the sound level decreases by 6 dBA. This point-source relationship is called the “inverse square law” and is applicable for noise propagation from construction equipment.Line-source propagation occurs when there is a continuous stream of noise sources.Line-source propagation can be defined as follows:

Sound level1 – Sound level2 = 10 log (r2/r1)

The decrease in sound level for each doubling of distance from a line source is 3 dBA. Noise levels from a busy highway are an example of line-source propagation.

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Step 5: Assessment of impact significance

Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated changes related to the proposed project. It can be based on specific numerical standards or criteria which can be used as a basis for impact interpretation (e.g., noise level standards)Another example is the application of professional judgment in assessing the impact significance.

Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures

The next activity is that of identifying potential impact-mitigation measures. Mitigation measures may need to be added to the project proposal to make it acceptable. The key approach to mitigation is to reduce or control the noise expected to be emitted from the project (or activity). It can be implemented in three ways, either by changing (1) the source of noise, (2) the path of noise from the source to the receiver, or (3) the receiver of noise.

5.3 Numerical on impact prediction and evaluation

1. A cement manufacturing plant burns coal at the rate of 8 tonnes per hour and discharges the flue gases through a chimney having effective height of 90 m. The coal has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind velocity at the top of the stack is 7.5 m/s. The atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine the maximum ground level concentration of SO2 and the distance from the stack at which this occurs.

Solution:

1. Rate of emission of SO2

Coal burnt per hour = 8 t = 8000 kg

Therefore, sulphur produced per hour = 8000x = 360 kg

Now, S + O2 = SO2

Since the molecular mass of both S and O2 is 32, they combine on a one to one mass basis to produce SO2.Therefore, SO2 produced per hour = 360 kg S + 360 kg of O2 = 720 kg/hour.

Rate of emission of SO2 =

= 200 gm/sec.

2. Location of point where maximum ground level concentration occurs

Maximum ground level concentration of pollutant occurs at a point where σz is equal to H/ ,

provided σz/ σy is constant with x.

σz = 90/ = 63.64 m.

For slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.

From the graph, we observe that the value of σz =63.64 m is obtained at x = 900 m for class C stability. From the σy and σz graphs, we observe that σz/ σy remains constant upto a distance of 1000 m. Hence, xmax = 900 m, for which σy = 100 m for class C stability.

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3. Maximum ground level concentration

g/m3

= 4.9x10-4 g/m3 = 490 µg/m3

For the data given in above problem, determine the G.L. concentration at a distance of 2000 m downwind at (a) centre line of plume, and (b) at a crosswind distance of 400 m on either side of the centre line.Solution:

(b) For this case, we have x = 2000 m and y = 0. From the graph, we get σ y = 210 and σz = 130 for x =

2000 m.

Using the equation

g/m3

= 2.45x10-4 g/m3 = 245 µg/m3

(c) For this case, x = 2000 m and y = 400 mHence, using the equation,

= 0.4x10-4 g/m3 = 40 µg/m3

2. It is proposed that an industry is to be located near a relatively clean river flowing through an urban city. The characteristics of river and industrial wastewater are as given below.

River characteristics:Flow rate = 7 m3/s; BOD5 at 200C = 2 mg/l; DO = 8 mg/l; Temperature = 220C

Wastewater characteristics:Flow rate = 4 m3/s; BOD5 at 200C = 500 mg/l; DO = 2 mg/l; Temperature = 320C

Minimum DO required in the river is 5 mg/l. Given: K1-20 = 0.10 day-1, K2-20 = 0.30 day-1, ϴ1 = 1.05 and ϴ2 = 1.02. Estimate the maximum BOD5 of the wastewater that should be allowed to be discharged in the river. Saturation DO at 250C & 300C is 8.38 and 7.60 mg/l respectively.

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Solution:

For mixed condition,

Qm = QR + Qw = 7 + 4 = 11 cumec

Tm = QR* T R+QW* T W = 25.64 0CQm

(DO)m = QR*( DO) R+QW*( DO) W = 5.82 mg/lQm

Saturation DO at 25.64 0C = 8.284 mg/l (from interpolation)Therefore, initial DO deficit = 8.284 – 5.82 = 2.464 mg/lMaximum allowable DO deficit (critical), Dallow = Dc = 8.284 – 5 = 3.284 mg/l

K1-25.64 = 0.10*(1.05)25.64-20 = 0.132 day-1

K2-25.64 = 0.30*(1.02)25.64-20 = 0.335 day-1

Now,

Substituting the known values, we get

tc = 4.926 * log[2.538(1– 3.79/La)] ------------------ (1)

Dc =

= 0.394 * La * 10-0.132tc ------------------ (2)

Using trial and error method to find the value of La yielding a critical DO deficit of 3.284 mg/l,

Trial No. La (mg/l) tc (days) Dc (mg/l)

1. 20 1.543 4.93

2. 15 1.369 3.897

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3. 10 0.973 2.931

4. 12 1.180 3.302

5. 11.90 1.172 3.284

So, La = 11.90 mg/l.

BOD5 of mix (required value) = La*(1 - 10-5K1)

= 11.90 * (1 – 10-5*0.132) = 9.30 mg/l

Allowable BOD5 of wastewater,

BOD5,m * Qm = BOD5,R * QR + BOD5,W * QW

BOD5,W = BOD5,m * Qm – Q R* BOD 5,R = 22.075 mg/lQW

BOD5 of wastewater = 500 mg/l > 22.075 mg/lSo, some treatment is required to make it suitable for disposal in the river.

Degree of treatment required is

= 500 – 22.075 * 100 = 95.60%500

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Chapter 6Environmental Protection Measures (EPMs)

VI.1 Introduction

Mitigation is the stage of the EIA process when measures are identified to avoid, minimize or remedy impacts. These measures are implemented as part of the process of impact management, together with any necessary adjustments to respond to unforeseen impacts. Both elements are integral to ensuring that the EIA process leads to practical action to offset the adverse environmental impacts of proposed developments. Mitigation is a critical component of the EIA process.The purpose of mitigation is to identify measures that safeguard the environment and the community affected by the proposal. Mitigation is both a creative and practical phase of the EIA process. It seeks to find the best ways and means of avoiding, minimizing and remedying impacts.Mitigation measures must be translated into action in the correct way and at the right time if they are to be successful. This process is referred to as impact management and takes place during project implementation. A written plan (Environmental Management Plan) should be prepared for this purpose, and includes a schedule of agreed actions.Environmental Protection Measures or Mitigation measures are recommended actions to reduce, avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental consequences of development activities.The objective of mitigation measures is to maximize project benefits and minimize undesirable impacts.It aims to prevent adverse impacts from happening and to keep those that do occur within an acceptable level. Opportunities for impact mitigation will occur throughout the project cycle. The objectives of mitigation are to:

find better alternatives and ways of doing things;

enhance the environmental and social benefits of a proposal;

avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts; and

ensure that residual adverse impacts are kept within acceptable levels. Early links should be established between the EIA and project design teams to identify mitigation opportunities and incorporate them into consideration of alternatives and design options. In practice, mitigation is emphasized in the EIA process once the extent of the potential impact of a proposal is reasonably well understood. This typically takes place following impact

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identification and prediction, and recommended measures for mitigation will be an important part of the EIA report. Usually, these measures will be incorporated into the terms and conditions of project approval and implemented during the impact management stage of the EIA process.

VI.2 Main Elements of Mitigation

In figure 6-1 below, the elements of mitigation are organized into a hierarchy of actions:

first, avoid adverse impacts as far as possible by use of preventative measures; second, minimize or reduce adverse impacts to ˜as low as practicable levels”; and third, remedy or compensate for adverse residual impacts, which are unavoidable and

cannot be reduced further.

Key principles for the application of mitigation consistent with the above framework include the following:

give preference to avoid and prevent measures; consider feasible alternatives to the proposal and identify the best practicable

environmental option; identify customised measures to minimise each of the main impacts predicted; ensure they are appropriate, environmentally sound and cost-effective; and use compensation or remedial measures as a last resort.

Figure 6.1 Mitigation Measures Hierarchy

Mitigation can be carried out by:

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structural measures, such as design or location changes, engineering modifications and landscape or site treatment; and

non-structural measures, such as economic incentives, legal, institutional and policy instruments, provision of community services and training and capacity building.

Structural measures are well established for certain types of projects, such as dams, roads, and oil and gas exploration and development. In some cases, industry codes of good practice will be available. However, these need to be applied with regard to the nature and severity of environmental impacts; for example taking account of nearby protected areas, patterns of wildlife mitigation or constraints imposed by natural hazards. Other projects involving new technology may require non-standardised or even untried measures to mitigate the adverse impacts. These need to be given special attention during impact management.

Non-structural measures are used increasingly. They can be applied to reinforce or supplement structural measures or to address specific impacts. For example, many types of social, community and health impacts are addressed by non-structural measures and their use is becoming broader.

A three-step process of mitigation can be applied to relate the hierarchy of elements in Figure 6.1 to the stages of the EIA process when they are typically applied. Generally, as project design becomes more detailed, the opportunities for impact avoidance narrow and the concern are to minimise and compensate for unavoidable impacts. However, these distinctions are not rigid and opportunities for creative mitigation should be sought at all stages of EIA and project planning.

Step One: Impact avoidance. This step is most effective when applied at an early stage of project planning. It can be achieved by:

not undertaking certain projects or elements that could result in adverse impacts; avoiding areas that are environmentally sensitive; and putting in place preventative measures to stop adverse impacts from occurring, for

example, release of water from a reservoir to maintain a fisheries regime.

Step Two: Impact minimisation. This step is usually taken during impact identification and prediction to limit or reduce the degree, extent, magnitude, or duration of adverse impacts. It can be achieved by:

scaling down or relocating the proposal; redesigning elements of the project; and taking supplementary measures to manage the impacts

Step Three: Impact compensation. This step is usually applied to remedy unavoidable residual adverse impacts. It can be achieved by:

rehabilitation of the affected site or environment, for example, by habitat enhancement and restocking fish;

restoration of the affected site or environment to its previous state or better, as typically required for mine sites, forestry roads and seismic lines; and

replacement of the same resource values at another location, for example, by wetland engineering to provide an equivalent area to that lost to drainage or infill.

VI.3 Types of mitigation measures

A wide range of mitigation measures may be proposed, the most relevant to development projects are as mentioned below.

(a) Consideration of Alternatives

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Selection of alternatives is also a form of mitigation in terms of impact, cost and technology. It involves an examination of alternative ways of achieving the objectives of a proposed project. The aim is to arrive at a developmental option which maximizes the benefits while minimizing unwanted or adverse impacts. Important aspects of developmental proposals, for which alternatives are needed to be considered, include:

Scale of project Technology used Location Fuel to be used Raw materials Design Time schedule Economic factors

(b) Preventive Measures

Some potential adverse impacts may be reduced or eliminated before occurrence by introducing preventive measures. Examples of preventive measures include:

Implementation of a health education programmme; and Initiation of a public awareness programme.

(c) Corrective MeasuresCorrective measures may be adopted to reduce the adverse impacts to the acceptable levels. Such measures are considered during EIA and are built into the project design. The following are the examples of the types of corrective measures that can be used:

Installation of pollution-controlling devices; and Construction of a fish ladder (in dams, weirs)

(d) Compensatory Measures

Compensatory measures are actions that address impacts which are unavoidable. Possible compensatory measures include:

Restoration of damaged resources elsewhere; Creation of similar resources or habitats elsewhere to replace a loss; and Compensation to the affected persons.

VI.4 Implementation of EPMsImplementation of mitigation measures requires funding, which should be estimated and included in the EIA report. All the proposed mitigation measures should be integrated in the project design, so that these measures may automatically form a part of the construction and operational phases of the project.Implementation of Mitigation measures:

should be cost effective and locally applicable and can be proposed during different stages of project implementation.

Pre‐construction (such as compensation for land acquisition), Construction (such as planning and designing activities), Operational stages (such as maintenance activities).

The cost is usually about 10 % of the total cost of the project (although it depends on the nature, size, location etc. of the project).The responsibility of proponents to internalise the full environmental costs of development proposals is now widely accepted. In addition, many proponents have found that good design and impact management can result in significant savings.

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Chapter 7Management of EIA process

7.1 Environmental Management Plan

The EMP is a document to be prepared as a part of the EIA report. An EMP

includes project monitoring, auditing, and project management. Environmental

monitoring includes summarizing any institutional arrangements made between

different agencies, a description of the implementation schedule and reporting

procedures, as well as cost estimates and sources of funds. Other aspects often

associated with environmental monitoring, such as a summary of impacts and

description of mitigation measures, are to be included in separate chapters. The

requirement of a chapter on EMP within the EIA report in Nepal has been clearly

mentioned in EPR.

7.1.1 Aims of EMP

The key objectives of EMP are:

Prepare a Mitigation Implementation Strategy (MIS);

Formulate Environmental Monitoring Plan (EMoP);

Formulate Environmental Auditing Plan to be implemented after project

construction; and

Establish the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved in project

environmental management.

7.1.2 Principles and Procedures of an EMP

As per the aims of EMP, an EMP has three basic components, they are:

a) Mitigation Implementation Strategy;

b) Environmental Monitoring Plan; and

c) Environmental Auditing Plan.

An environmental management plan (EMP), also referred to as an impact management plan, is usually prepared as part of EIA reporting. It translates recommended mitigation and monitoring measures into specific actions that will be carried out by the proponent. Depending upon particular requirements, the plan may be included in, or appended to, the EIA report or may be a separate document. The EMP will need to be adjusted to the terms and conditions specified in any project approval. It will then form the basis for impact management during project construction and operation.The main components of an EMP are described in Box 1, which reflects practice at the World Bank. Although there is no standard format, the EMP should contain the following:

summary of the potential impacts of the proposal;

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description of the recommended mitigation measures; statement of their compliance with relevant standards; allocation of resources and responsibilities for plan implementation; schedule of the actions to be taken; programme for surveillance, monitoring and auditing; and contingency plan when impacts are greater than expected.

The EMP should contain commitments that are binding on the proponent. It can be translated into project documentation and provide the basis for a legal contract that sets out the responsibilities of the proponent. In turn, the proponent can use the EMP to establish environmental performance standards and requirements for those carrying out the works or providing supplies. An EMP can also be used to prepare an environmental management system for the operational phase of the project.

Box 1: Components of an environmental management plan (EMP)

7.1.3 Mitigation Implementation Strategy (MIS)EMP provides a detail strategy of implementation of mitigation measures, which will

ensure effective implementation of mitigation measures during construction and operation

phase of the project. The strategy must consider following aspects for effective

implementation of mitigation measures.

Details of mitigation measures proposed;

Responsible person/institution for implementation;

Cost estimation;

Implementation schedule; and

Required human resource.

7.1.4 Appropriate Time for the Implementation of an EMP

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The following aspects should typically be addressed within an EMP:Summary of impacts: The predicted adverse environmental and social impacts for which mitigation is required should be identified and briefly summarised. Cross referencing to the EA report or other documentation is recommended.Description of mitigation measures: Each mitigation measure should be briefly described with reference to the impact to which it relates and the conditions under which it is required (for example, continuously or in the event of contingencies).These should be accompanied by, or referenced to, project design and operating procedures which elaborate on the technical aspects of implementing the various measures.Description of monitoring programme: The monitoring program should clearly indicate the linkages between impacts identified in the EIA report, measurement indicators, detection limits (where appropriate), and definition of thresholds that will signal the need for corrective actions.Institutional arrangements: Responsibilities for mitigation and monitoring should be clearly defined, including arrangements for co-ordination between the various actors responsible for mitigation.Implementation schedule and reporting procedures: The timing, frequency and duration of mitigation measure should be specified in an implementation schedule, showing links with overall project implementation. Procedures to provide information on the progress and results of mitigation and monitoring measures should also be clearly specified.Cost estimates and sources of funds: These should be specified for both the initial investment and recurring expenses for implementing all measures contained in the EMP, integrated into the total project costs, and factored into loan negotiations.Source: World Bank, 1999

The initial formulation of an EMP should be carried out in the process of EIA preparation during the feasibility stage of the project cycle. The subsequent implementation of an EMP should be carried out during project construction and operation.In the process of EIA preparation, the major areas of significant impacts of a development project are identified. The EIA prescribes mitigation measures in order to minimize adverse impacts and to enhance beneficial impacts. The mitigation measures are implemented before, during and after project construction.

7.1.5 Responsibility for EMP Formulation and ImplementationAs per EPR, 54 the proponent should prepare the EMP implementation provisions as a part of the EIA Report. The approving agency should examine the EMP given in the EIA report with regard to cost effectiveness and practicability upon its application. If found practical and cost effective, the approving agency should recommend the implementation of the EMP parameters to the project proponent.

7.2 Environmental MonitoringEnvironmental monitoring is defined as an activity undertaken to provide specific information on the characteristics and functions of environmental and social variables in space and time.A serious shortcoming of most environmental impact assessment process is the absence of baseline data and impact monitoring during the construction, and operation of large development projects. Without such data, it is impossible to test impact predictions and the success of mitigative measures. Furthermore, the lack of appropriate ecological monitoring, impedes the scientific progress, in impact prediction and assessment, makes it difficult to learn from experiences.Environmental monitoring is therefore one of the most important components of an EIA which is essential for:

ensuring that impacts do not exceed the legal standards, checking the implementation of mitigation measures in the manner described in

the EIA report, and providing early warning of potential environmental damages.

7.2.1 Principles of monitoringCertain principles of EIA monitoring should not be overlooked. If the EIA monitoring process is to generate meaningful information and improve implementation of mitigation measures, it must accomplish the following:

Determine the indicators to be used in monitoring activities, Collection of meaningful and relevant information, Application of measurable criteria in relation to chosen indicators, Reviewing objective judgments on the information collected, Draw tangible conclusions based on the processing of information, Making rational decision based on the conclusion drawn, and Recommendation of improved mitigation measures to be undertaken.

7.2.2 Types of MonitoringVarious types of monitoring activity are currently in practice, and each has some degree of relevance to an EIA study. The main types are briefly described below: In relation to mitigation measures suggested in the EIA report, there are two types of monitoring:a. Enforcement Monitoring: This is the monitoring done to ensure that mitigation

measures are being performed as described in environmental management plan (EMP).

b. Effectiveness Monitoring: It is the monitoring carried out to measure the success of the mitigation measures.

Following are the types of monitoring associated with the life cycle of a project:a. Baseline Monitoring

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In this type of monitoring a survey should be conducted on basic environmental parameters in the area surrounding the proposed project before construction begins (pre-audit study). Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those parameters over time against the baseline.

b. Impact MonitoringIn this type of monitoring the biophysical and socio-economical (including public health) parameters within the project area, must be measured during the project construction and operational phases in order to detect environmental changes, which may have occurred as a result of project implementation.

c. Compliance MonitoringThis form of monitoring employs a periodic sampling method, or continuous recording of specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with recommended environmental protection standards.

Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period of duration. Interruptions in monitoring may result in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusion concerning project impact. The main aim of EIA monitoring is to provide the information required to ensure that project implementation has the least possible negative environmental impacts on the people and ecology.

Nepal: Environmental Monitoring Plan (Example from Hydropower Project from Nepal) The following examples taken from EIA of hydropower project implemented in Nepal would illustrate the formulation of monitoring plan and schedules which can be expanded and elaborated based upon the types and scales of the projects to be considered.

Type Parameters Method Schedule

Baseline Monitoring

Flow rate of River and its tributaries

Gauging station Continuous

Glacier lakes in the basin: lake geometry and volume; possibility of GLOF; and possibility of mitigation measures such as artificial draining

Glaciological hazard mapping in aerial photographs, satellite imagery, ground photographs, and site observation

During the design stage

Stability of slopes Site observation At least three times a year: before, during and after the monsoon season.

Forest management Discussions with user groups, local people and the District Forest Office

At least twice a year

Fish population, spawning and migration

Fish sampling and discussions with local fishermen

Twice a year during the wet and dry seasons

Growth of settlements in the project area

discussions with local people, and checking records of local government

Once a year

Compliance monitoring

Incorporating of EIA recommendations into project

Review of detailed design, project

Following completion of tender documents

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documents specification and tender documents

Incorporation of environmental considerations mentioned in the tender documents in the contractors' proposed work plans

Review of proposed work plans, submitted by contractor

During contract negotiations

Contractors' arrangements regarding labour camps materials storage and construction activities

Site observation Beginning of the construction period

Land/property acquisition procedures

Discussions with the local people and the project management

At the time of land acquisition

Implementation of all environmental conditions mentioned in the tender documents, including arrangements for slope protection; pollution prevention; protection of vegetation, fish and wildlife; use of local labours; safe construction; public health and public relations

Site observation and discussion with project management and local people using a checklist

Continuous during the construction period

Clean-up and reinstatement of the project area

Site observation At the end of the construction period

Impact Monitoring

Disturbance of slopes Site observation Continuously during construction

Levels of air, water and land pollution

Site observation and water and air sampling

Continuous observation and sampling during construction

Fish population, spawning and migration

Fish sampling and discussion with local fishermen

Twice a year during the wet and dry seasons

Conditions of local forests Site observation and discussions with forest user groups and local people

Twice a year during construction

Water supply and sanitation in the project area

Site observation and water testing

Continuously during construction

Crime and socially undesirable activities

Discussions with the local people and the local police

Monthly during construction

Social and economic conditions of the displaced people

Discussions with the displaced people

Regularly for at least three years following land acquisition

7.3 Environmental AuditingThe term “Audit” is usually associated with the professions of finance and accounting. Auditing refers to the examination and assessment of a certain type of performance. In the case of an EIA, an audit assess the actual environmental impact, the accuracy of prediction, the effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation and enhancement measures, and the

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functioning of monitoring mechanisms. The audit should be undertaken upon a project run in operation, for some time, and is usually performed once in the entire project cycle. The following types of audit that are recommended to be implemented in different phases of the EIA process:

7.3.1 Types of AuditThe following types of audit are recommended for different aspects of the EIA process:

a. Decision Point Audit: It examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision making tool.

b. Implementation Audit: It ensures that consent conditions have been met.c. Performance Audit: It examines the effectiveness of project implementation and

management.d. Project Impact Audit: It examines environmental changes arising from Project

Implementation.e. Predictive Technique Audit: It examines the accuracy and utility of predictive

techniques by comprising actual against predicted environmental effects.f. EIA Procedures Audit: It critically examines the methods and approach adopted

during the EIA Study.

Not all the audit types mentioned above are required to be implemented in EIA process. However, at the project approval stage, both project proponent and authorizing agency should considered whether an application of a particular audit technique is likely to result in new information or an improvement in management practices. Particular attention should be given to the project cost-effectiveness of any proposed audit and to technical difficulties likely to be encountered.Since the EIA concept is a relatively recent, the use of environmental audits will play a significant role in evolving a systematic approach of the application of EIA. Environmental auditing should compare monitoring results with information generated during the pre-project period. Comparisons can be made with similar projects or against standard norms. Relating actual impacts with predicted impacts, helps in evaluating the accuracy and adequacy of EIA predictions.

7.3.2 Environmental Auditing Plan

Environmental Audit should be carried out upon the completion of project construction and after 2 years of project operation in order to obtain information on:

the condition of natural/social/economical resources prior to project implementation after the project construction is completed,

whether or not, all the mitigation measures implemented are effective to control adverse impact, or enhance beneficial impacts,

whether or not mitigation measures implemented are effective to control adverse impact, or enhance beneficial impact,

whether or not all degraded landscape due to project implementation have been restored into original condition,

what are the impacts of boom-bust scenario among the workforce involved in project implementation and the local economy, and

the effect on the local economy of project implementation. Information from monitoring output should also be utilized for carrying out environmental audit:

(An example of Environmental Audit applied in Hydropower project in Nepal)

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I. Physical AspectsAir QualityParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsTotal Suspended solid particulate

Weir and powerhouse sites and access road

Low-volume Sampler

Analysis data The amount and types of SSP; pre-project during construction after construction, and their comparison with ambient standards

Dust from construction activities

Access Road. Head works, and Power house sites

Visual Inspection

Information from local people

Dust accumulation in house plants leaves surroundings

Water QualityParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsTemperature, pH, TurbidityTSS, DSS, hardness, chloride Sodium, oil and greaseColiform, DO, BOD, COD.

Headworks and Power house sites

Water samples collected from different source

Analytical data Comparison with ambient water quality; pre-project during construction after construction

Disposal of Spoils and Construction WastesParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsDisposal of construction spoils

Designated sites

Observation/ interview of local people

Local information and observation

initiated erosion affected the aesthetic value affected forest and agriculture

Side casting of excavated soils and wastes

Intake, audits and Powerhouse sites

Observation/ interview

Local information

initiated land erosion local drainage project

II. Biological Aspects

Forest and VegetationParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsNumber of wooden house Constructed in the project site

Roadside Project and at the vicinity of project area

Counting, visual Observation

Local People No of wooden house increased in project area

Number of tea stalls and restaurants

Project site Observation and records

Local People Number of tea stalls and restaurants increased

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established during constructionFuel wood trade location of timber depots and fire wood sale in the project construction

Project site Records Local People available information

Volume of wood sold increased

Number of stumps of cut trees in nearby forest

Forest area nearby

Examination of forest

Local people Number of cut tree stumps increases

Alternative Energy for cooking for labour force

Project sites Records from the contractors

Local people Kerosene was provided

Harvesting and trade of medicinal plants

Project sites and the market

Information from local people and market

Local people Sales of medicinal herbs increased

General condition of forest nearby

Forest near project site

Observation Information and Local people

Forest condition deteriorated

III. Socio-Economic Aspects

Employment OpportunityParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsNumber of local labors employed in the project construction

Project Site Analysis of records interview

Records from Contractors and Local people

Percentage of local labours were higher / lower

Number of Women Workforce

Project Sites Records Local people Percentage of women workers were higher than 30%

CompensationParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsUse of compensation received

Local area / Out of the area

Questionnaire survey and interview

Local people beneficial use unnecessary use migrated

Socio-Culturally Undesirable ActivitiesParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsProstitution Project site and

at the vicinitySample interview

Local people Were there any indication of prostitution?

Liquor production and consumption

Project site Interview Local people Liquor consumption high moderate

Disputes and crimes

Project Sites Records from local police and project Management

Local people Cases of dispute/ crime

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Use of child labour

Project site Records Records from contractor and local people

Records of child labour

Complaints from the Local PeopleParameters Location Methods Sources IndicatorsTypes of damages made on personal properties

Project site and its vicinities

Records Local people Cases of damages or no cases

Compensation for maintenance and rehabilitation of Irrigation Project

Project area Interview Concerned agencies and project management

Comparison for damage

7.4 Stakeholder Consultation and Public Participation

7.4.1 IntroductionPublic participation is a vital component in successful EIA systems and specific EIA

studies. It is a process that encourages, enables and engages the stakeholders and

affected communities. It offers them an opportunity to express their interests and concerns

about the project and environmental aspects. It helps to ensure quality,

comprehensiveness, and effectiveness of EIA report.

Different terms have been used to describe this aspect of EIA, for example, “consultation,

participation, and public hearing as per EPR 1997.”

Individuals, groups or organizations representing various interest groups should be involved in

EIA. Often, EIAs provide opportunities for other experts to become involved, such as research

scientists, who may be knowledgeable on aspects of the concerned locality. In total, they are

often referred to as "stakeholders".

There are three main types of public involvement during preparation of EIA report.First, there is an information dissemination, wherein the proponent provides information in a

proposal to the stakeholders. The flow of information is one-way.

Secondly, there are consultations, with information exchanged between the proponent

and stakeholders in a two-way process. During consultation, there are

opportunities for the stakeholders to express their views on issues related to the proposal.

However, the proponent and/or authorizing agency is not bound to take such views into

account in decision making, though they may do so if they consider it appropriate.

Finally, there is participation. As the term indicates, this requires shared involvement and

responsibilities. Basically, it implies an element of joint analyses and control over decision. In

participatory decision-making, there is no single source of ultimate control or authority. The

participating parties must discuss and reach a decision by means of an agreed-upon process,

for example, by meditation and consensus building.

Upon completion of the draft EIA report, the project proponent should organize a

meeting to discuss it, and invite concerned stakeholders at both district and local levels to

attend. Such a meeting is called a public hearing. In the public hearing, the proponent

discloses all the information contained in the draft EIA report and collects relevant comments

and suggestions from local people and stakeholders, which will be incorporated into the final

EIA.

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The purpose of public involvement is to:

inform the stakeholders about the proposal and its likely effects; canvass their inputs, views and concerns; and take account of the information and views of the public in the EIA and decision making.

The key objectives of public involvement are to:

obtain local and traditional knowledge that may be useful for decision - making;

facilitate consideration of alternatives, mitigation measures and trade- offs;

ensure that important impacts are not overlooked and benefits are maximised;

reduce conflict through the early identification of contentious issues;

provide an opportunity for the public to influence project design in a positive

manner (thereby creating a sense of ownership of the proposal);

improve transparency and accountability of decision -making; and

increase public confidence in the EIA process.

7.4.2 Need for stakeholder involvement

The involvement of the "public", or often referred to as "stakeholders", is a vital component in successful EIA.

Who are the stakeholders?The range of stakeholders involved in an EIA typically includes:

the people – individuals, groups and communities – who are affected by the proposal;

the proponent and other project beneficiaries;

government agencies;

NGOs and interest groups; and

others, such as donors, the private sector, academics etc.

(i) Local people

It includes individuals, communities/villages and traditional authorities e.g. village leaders. Individuals or groups in the affected community will want to know what is proposed; what the likely impacts are; and how their concerns will be understood and taken into account. They will want assurances that their views will be carefully listened to and considered on their merits. They will want proponents to address their concerns. They will also have knowledge of the local environment and community that can be tapped and incorporated into baseline data.

(ii) Proponents

Understandably, proponents will wish to shape the proposal to give it the best chance of success. Often, this involves trying to create public understanding and acceptance of the proposal through the provision of basic information. More creatively, project design can be improved through using public inputs on alternatives and mitigation and understanding local knowledge and values.

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(iii) Government agencies

It includes national/local governments with the responsibilities for management of natural resources along with welfare of people and likely to be affected by the development project. The government agencies involved in the EIA process will want to have their policy and regulatory responsibilities addressed in impact analysis and mitigation consideration. For the competent authority, an effective public involvement programme can mean the proposal may be less likely to become controversial in the later stages of the process. For the responsible EIA agency, the concern will be whether or not the public involvement process conforms to requirements and procedures.

(iv) NGOs/Interest groups

NGOs include those which are active in local area or have interest on natural resources/social welfare and interested parties in the country of any external financing agency. Comments from NGOs can provide a useful policy perspective on a proposal; for example, the relationship of the proposal to sustainability objectives and strategy. Their views may also be helpful when there are difficulties with involving local people. However, this surrogate approach should be considered as exceptional; it cannot substitute for or replace views which should be solicited directly.

(v) Other interested groups

Other interested groups include those who are experts in particular fields and can make a significant contribution to the EIA study. The advice and knowledge of government agencies and the industry sector most directly concerned with the proposal should always be sought. However, in many cases, substantive information about the environmental setting and effects will come from outside sources.

7.4.3 Methods for stakeholder involvement

In participatory decision making, there is no single source of ultimate control or authority. The participating parties must discuss and reach a decision by means of an agreed process. There are numerous methods which can be utilized to involve stakeholders, especially the public, in EIA processThere are numerous techniques used to enable stakeholders to participate in EIA, which include:

• Public Hearings – these are required as per EPR.

• Advisory Panels – a group of individuals chosen to represent stakeholder

groups, which meets periodically to assess work done/results obtained and to

give advice on future works.

• Open House – a manned facility, in a locally accessible location, which contains

an information display on the project and the study. Members of the public can

go to obtain information and make their concerns/views known.

• Interviews – a structured series of open-ended interviews with selected

community representatives to obtain information/concerns/views.

• Questionnaires – a written, structured series of questions issued to a

sample of local people to identify concerns/views/opinions. No interviewing

may be involved.

• Participatory Appraisal Techniques – A systematic approach to appraisal based on group inquiry and analysis and, therefore, multiple and varied inputs. It may be assisted, but not controlled or directed, by external specialists.

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7.4.4 Approaches to Stakeholder Involvement

It is very important that a plan for stakeholder involvement is prepared before EIA work begins. It is essential to have such a plan, because there is a tendency of EIA practitioners to focus their attention on the technical aspects of the EIA work only. It is preferable if the basic features of a stakeholder involvement programme are the integral component of the TOR. In this way, EIA can benefit from involvement at specific times, and those involved can be kept informed of the EIA progress and the ways in which their concerns and views have been considered and dealt with in EIA. A systematic approach to planning a public involvement programme typically involves addressing the following key issues:

• Who should be involved? – identify the interested and affected public (stakeholders), noting any major constraints on their involvement.

• What type and scope of public involvement is appropriate? – ensure this is commensurate with the issues and objectives of EIA.

• How should the public be involved? – identify the techniques which are appropriate for this purpose.

• When and where should opportunities for public involvement be provided – establish a plan and s chedule in relation to the EIA process and the number, type and distribution of stakeholders.

• How will the results of public involvement be used in the EIA and decision- making processes? – describe the mechanisms for analysing and taking account of public inputs and providing feeding back to stakeholders.

• What resources are necessary or available to implement the public involvement programme? – relate the above considerations to budgetary, time and staff requirements.

7.4.5 Stages of Stakeholder Involvement

The stages at which involvement may occur are during:

scoping and in the preparation of TOR for an EIA, project appraisal (while conducting EIA/feasibility studies) either at release of the

preliminary/interim EIA report or the draft or final EIA report, project implementation (application of EIA recommendations), and project evaluation (extent to which a project has achieved its objectives).

7.4.6 Cost Involvement

Stakeholders’ involvement takes more time and money resource allocation. For a project in remote locality and in multi-cultural context, the costs and other difficulties must be tackled and such provisions should be made in EIA planning and budgeting stages. Cost consideration should include the following:

hiring of social scientists with local knowledge and experience to be involved in the process,

preparation of information sheets and report summaries in local languages, media publicity (newspapers, radios), travel costs to enable representatives of stakeholders to attend meetings, and accommodation and travel costs for EIA team to 'service' the involvement process.

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7.5 EIA Report Review and Decision Making

7.5.1 Review and Approval Process

Environmental documents are kept in the public domain. Environmental assessment is carried out for all development initiatives that will likely impact on the environment, except of the proposals related to national security. Such reports should be reviewed at different levels and stakeholders should be involved in review process.

7.5.2 EA Review Process

The main objective of review is to critically examine the EA report and ensure that the following criteria are met:

1. EA report is in concurrence with approved TOR and EPR, 1997;2. The study has identified all significant adverse environmental impacts likely to arise

during project implementation with mitigation measures for each impact;3. Methodology adopted, techniques applied, assumptions made and limitations mentioned

are adequately described;4. Reasonable alternatives have been evaluated on the environmental ground and

suggested to the proposed actions;5. Report results are scientifically and technically sound and coherently organized so as to

ensure that it is understood by decision-makers and general public; and6. Sources of information cited in the report are relevant and accurate.

7.5.3 Review Parameters

Some parameters should be carefully checked while reviewing the EA report to examine whether they have been adequately addressed. The reviewers should evaluate the report thoroughly. They should also consider the following indicative review outline:

(i) Impactsa. Does the project have an impact on any environmentally sensitive area?b. Is there a clear statement of significant beneficial and adverse impacts?c. Have the risks been evaluated?d. Has attention been paid to off-site impacts, including transboundary impacts, and to the possible time lag before effects are manifested?

(ii) Mitigation Measuresa. What mitigation measures are proposed and what alternative sites have been considered?b. What lessons from previous similar projects have been incorporated into the EA report?c. Have concerned people and groups been effectively involved?d. Is adequate consideration given to provision of compensation for loss or damage of land and

property, or for involuntary resettlement?

(iii) Proceduresa. Does the EA procedure comply with national policies, laws, standards and guidelines?b. How have the beneficial and adverse effects of the project been integrated into the

economic analysis of the project?

(v) Implementation

a. Are institutional arrangements adequate to implement environment protection measures?

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b. Does EA report specify responsibility for environmental monitoring and auditing?c. Have budget been included for the implementation of environmental protection

measuresand do they have adequate funds and technical capacity to implement them?

7.5.4 Review Criteria

An EIA report should satisfy three criteria:

1. completeness and conformance with the TOR for the EIA;

2. accuracy and veracity as defined by general acceptable scientific criteria (for example, quality assurance and quality control procedures for analys is of sampling data) and use of acceptable methods for the assessment of environmental impacts; and

3. clear description of environmental impacts, recommended mitigation measures, environmental monitoring plan, and environmental management plan.

The purpose of the review process is to establish if the information in an EIA report is sufficient for decision-making.

Key objectives are to: review the quality of the EIA report take account of public comment determine if the information is sufficient identify any deficiencies to be corrected.

7.5.5 EIA review – aspects for consideration

compliance with terms of reference information is correct and technically sound account taken of public comments complete and satisfactory statement of key findings information is clear and understandable information is sufficient for decision-making

7.4.6 Review Responsibility

In general, EA reports are reviewed officially by the approving agency. However, the followingagencies and organizations are also involved in review of EA report:

Project proponent, in case the report is prepared through consulting services; Concerned department and ministry; (see Chapter on Institutional Roles and

Responsibilities) NGOs, CBOs, affected people and stakeholders; and Subject experts.

The project proponent shall receive comments and suggestions from reviewers and refine the report and submit for necessary approval. The Concerned Body shall review and approve the IEE report and MoSTE is responsible to review and approve the EIA report as per EPA, 1996 and EPR, 1997.Section 6 of EPA, 1996 empowers MoSTE to form a committee comprising also of experts to render opinions and suggestions on EIA report. MoSTE forms such committee on case-by-case basis, i.e., for each proposal. The composition of the EIA Report Suggestion Committee is as follows:

Joint-Secretary and Chief, Environment Division, MoSTE - Chairman Representative (Class II Officer) of the Concerned

Body related to proposal - Member

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Expert of representative of the association related to proposal (not exceeding 3) - Member

Representative of the government or NGO (not exceeding 3) - Member Under-Secretary (Law), MoSTE - Member Under-Secretary, Environment Assessment Section, MoSTE - Member-Secretary

In general, MoSTE organizes the meeting of such committee, as and when necessary, to collect suggestions, and publish the EIA report for 30-days to seek suggestions of the stakeholders before the approval of any EIA report. MoSTE might also collect opinions and suggestions of individuals and other institutions, if necessary.

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Basic Terminology

Some basic terminology has been adopted to aid in the presentation and comparison of methods:

An activity is the basic element of a project or plan that has potential to affect any aspect of the environment. Projects are composed of activities. Activities are often called actions.An environmental component is a basic element of the physical, biological, social, or economic environment. Environmental components receive environmental impacts from activities. Environmental components can be aggregated into super-components or desegregated into sub-components. Most methods define a hierarchy of components (e.g., physical may be split into atmosphere, water, soils, etc. and atmosphere might be split into air quality, meteorology, climate, etc.).An environmental change is the measurable change in physical and biological systems and environmental quality resulting from a development activity.An environmental impact is an estimate or judgement of the significance and value of environmental effects on physical, biological, social or economic environment. Here we present definitions of some of the main terms commonly used in the field of environmental impact assessment. abiotic – Non-living eg. rocks or minerals. alternative – A possible course of action, in pace of another that would meet the same purpose and need of the proposal. baseline studies – Work done to collect and interpret information on the condition/trends of the existing environment. benefit-cost-analysis – A method of comparing alternative actions according to the relative costs incurred (technical, environmental and economic) and the relative benefits gained.  The analysis can incorporate discounting calculations to take into account the time of value and money.biodiversity – See biological diversity. biological diversity – the variety of life forms, the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form.  It is usually considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. biophysical – that part of the environment that does not originate with human activities (e.g. biological, physical and chemical processes). biota – all the organisms, including animals, plants, fungi and micor-organisms in a given area. carrying capacity – the rate of resource consumption and waste discharge that can be sustained indefinitely in a defined impact region without progressively impairing bioproductivity and ecological integrity. coherence in EIA – Aiming to achieve the co-ordination of EIA procedures, guidelines, standards and criteria by those involved in funding or approving proposals. compensation – Trade-offs between different parties affected by proposals to the mutual satisfaction of all concerned. cost-benefit-analysis – See benefit-cost-analysis. cumulative effects assessment - the assessment of the impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of an action when added to other past, present or reasonably foreseeable actions regardless of what agency or person undertakes such actions. cumulative impact can result from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time. decision-maker – the person(s) entrusted with the responsibility for allocating resources or granting approval to a proposal. development proposals – Consist of a wide range of human activities which provide (a) favourable conditions for an increase in the transformation of the neutral biophysical environment to provide the goods and services available to society (e.g. Structural adjustment programs, ‘rolling’ development plans) and (b) actions which directly produce the goods and services. Discretionary process/decision – A process or decision which the decision-maker is able to base on personal preference.

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Ecological processes – Processes which play an essential in maintaining ecosystem integrity.  four fundamental ecological processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of nutrients, the flow of energy and biological diversity (as an expression of evolution). Ecosystem – A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities and associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit. Endemic – Restricted to a specified region or locality. Environment – There is no generally agreed definition of environment in EIA. Increasingly, it means the complex web of inter-relationships between abiotic and biotic components which sustain all life on earth, including the social/health aspects of human group existence. Environmental audit – Process focusing on an existing installation, facility, or activity which involves a systematic, periodic evaluation of environmental management to objectively review the performance of an organisation, management and equipment with the aim of safeguarding the environment. Environmental assessment – See environmental impact assessment. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) – The systematic, reproducible and interdisciplinary identification, prediction and evaluation, mitigation and management of impacts from a proposed development and its reasonable alternatives.  sometimes known as environmental assessment. Environmental impact report/statement – Document in which the results of an EIA are presented to decision-makers and, usually, the public. Environmental management – Managing the productive use of natural resources without reducing their productivity and quality. Environmental management plan – See impact management plan. Environmental management system – A system approach for determining, implementing and reviewing environmental policy through the use of a system which includes organisational structure, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources. Often formally carried out to meet the requirements of the ISO14000 series. Fauna – All of the animals found in a given area. Flora – All of the plants found in a given area. Health impact assessment – Component of EIA which focuses on health impacts of development actions. Most attention is concentrated on morbidity and mortality, but increasingly, the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of health as being a state of ’social, physical and psychological well-being and not just the absence of disease’ is being used to guide this type of assessment work. Impact management plan – A structured management plan that outlines the mitigation, monitoring and management requirements arising from an environmental impact assessment. Impact monitoring – Monitoring of environmental/social/health variables, which are expected to change after a project has been constructed and is operational, to test whether any observed changes are due to the project alone and not to any other external influences. Initial environmental evaluation/examination – A report containing brief, preliminary evaluation of the types of impacts that would result from an action. Often used as a screening process to assess whether or not proposals should undergo full scale EIA. Interdisciplinary team – A group of people, from a range of disciplinary backgrounds, working together to ensure the integrated use of natural and social sciences and the environmental design arts in planning and in decision-making which may have an impact on man’s environment. Mitigation – The purposeful implementation of decisions or activities that are designed to reduce the undesirable impacts of a proposed action on the affected environment. Monitoring – Activity involving repeated observation, according to a pre-determined schedule, of one or more elements of the environment to detect their characteristics (status and trends). ‘Moving’ baseline – Existing state of the environment projected into the future assuming no development proceeds. The projected baseline situation, rather than that existing at the time of EIA work, is theoretically the one to be compared with the state of the environment predicted in the event of a development action proceeding. Natural resources – Features that have ecological, economic, recreational, educational or aesthetic value. NEPA – National environmental Policy Act 1969 of the United States of America.  This Act, which applied to Federal US agencies, was the first policy to require the preparation of a

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statement of the predicted environmental impact of a proposal.  This statement has since become known as the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Precautionary principle – A principle of sustainability that where are threats of serious or irreversible damage, the lack of full scientific certainty should be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation. Proponent – Organisation (private or public sector) or individual intending to implement a development proposal. Proposal – Any project, policy, program, plan or other activity. Public consultation – See public involvement. Public involvement – A range of techniques that can be used to inform, consult or interact with stakeholders affected by a proposal. Resource – Anything that is used directly by people. A renewable resource can renew itself or be renewed at a constant level. A non-renewable resource is one whose consumption necessarily involves its depletion. Secondary impact – Indirect or induced changes in the environment, population, economic growth and land use and other environmental effects resulting from these changes in land use, population and economic growth.  the potential effects of additional changes that are likely to occur later in time or at a different place as a result of the implementation of a particular action. Scoping – an early and open activity to identify the impacts that are most likely to be significant and require investigation during the EIA work.  Can, also, be used to:

identify alternative project designs/sites to be assessed; obtain local knowledge of site and surroundings; and prepare a plan for public involvement.

The results of scoping are frequently used to prepare a Terms of Reference for the EIA. Screening – Preliminary activity undertaken to classify proposals according to the level of assessment that should occur. Social impact assessment – the component of EIA concerned with changes in the structure and functioning of social orderings.  In particular the changes that a development would create in: social relationships; community (population, structure, stability etc); people’s quality and way of life; language; ritual; political/economic processes; attitudes/value.  Can sometimes include health impacts. Stakeholders – those who may be potentially affected by a proposal (e.g. local people, the proponent, government agencies, NGOs, donors and others. State of the Environment reports – Reports that provide an assessment of the conditions of the environment, pressures on the environment and the responses of the environment to those pressures. Strategic environmental assessment - A formal process of systematic analysis of the environmental effects of the development policies, plans, programmes and other proposed strategic actions. This process extends the aims and principles of EIA beyond the project level and when major alternatives are still open. Synergistic – By acting together, separate elements produce a greater effect than would be produced if they acted separately. Terms of Reference (ToR) – Written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultations to be held, data to be produced and form/contents of the EIA report. Often produced as an output from scoping. Transboundary impacts – Any impact, not exclusively of a global nature, within an area under the jurisdiction of a Party caused by a proposed activity the physical origin of which is situated wholly or in part within the area under the jurisdiction of another Party. Value judgement - The use of opinion or belief in analysis or decision-making.

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Annex - 1Government of Nepal has replaced the existing Schedule -1 and 2 of Environment Protection Rule, 1997, with the following Schedule-1 and 2 using right given as per Rule 54.

Schedule-1 (Pertaining to Rule 3)

Proposals (for) requiring (preliminary) Initial Environmental Examination

a. Forest Sector

1. Plantation of indigenous plants of a single species on a single block of 50 to 500 hectares in the Tarai and 25 to 100 hectares in the hills.

2. Plantation of such imported species of plants as are deemed suitable for that purpose following their test in the concerned place, on a single block of 10 to 1000 hectares in the Tarai and 10 to 50 hectares in the hills.

3. Handover of forests with an area ranging between 50 to 200 hectares in the Tarai and 10 to 50 hectares in the hills as leasehold forests.

4. Clear felling of forests with an area ranging between 15 to 30 hectares for the (purpose of) forest research by government.

5. Establishment or expansion of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and conservation areas, or environmental conservation zones.

6. Annual collection of 5 to 50 metric tons of forest products of each species for removal of roots from a single area or more area at a time or (from)time to time from a district in case the quantity is not mentioned in the forest or(and) conservation areas management plans.

7. Formulation of watershed management plans.8. Construction of new botanical gardens or zoos with area more than 10 hectares. 9. Resettlement of imported wild animals of different species.10. Preparation of management plans of (for) national parks, wild life sanctuaries,

conservation areas, and their buffer zones,(including the wetlands) and preparation of all kinds of district level forest management plans managed by the government.

11. Establishment of medicinal herbs centers for the commercial production of medicinal herbs and aromatic plants in common (public) shrub land area.

12. Annual collection of 5-50 metric tons of forest products of each species from a (single) forest area or more than one forest area or in a season or more than one season from a district (as permitted by the established law) for import after the extraction of necessary materials.

13. Construction of forest paths up to 10 kilometer long, and of fire protection lines up to 10 kilometer long.

14. Collection of sand, stone, gravel and soil from the rivers and streams flowing (within or) through the forest area.

15. Mining of coal or other minerals from the forest area.16. Hand over of forest more than 50 hectares managed by user groups below poverty line as

leasehold forest.

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17. Clear felling or removal of vegetation up to 5 hectares within the forest area (for the implementation of proposals) by any authority except the government authority related to forest.

18. Handover of forest areas ranging between 200 to 500 hectares to a single community for management.

19. Annual collection of 10 to 100 metric tons of forest products of each species for bark removal from a single area or more area at a time or (from) time to time from a district in case the quantity is not mentioned in the forest or (and) conservation areas management plans.

20. Collection of 5-100 metric tons of forest products like Sal seed, Rittha (Sapindus mukurossi) and Amala (phyllanthus emblica),Tendupat(Diospyros tomentosa), Bhorlapat, Tejpat including other forest products mentioned above in serial number 6 and 19 except wood from a forest area or more forest areas or in a season or in a more seasons not banned for collection from a district at a time or time to time as per existing rules and regulations.

21. Construction of resorts of capacity 10 to 50 beds, hotel and safari; and small scale educational institution, hospital or any construction activity (in the forest area, national park, conservation area, buffer zone, wetlands and environment conservation areas) and by any authority other than the forest related authority of government of Nepal.

22. Removal of roots and shoots of the felled trees from more than 5 hectares according to the approved operational plan.

23. Establishment, propagation and research activities on species affected by genetically modified organisms and living modified organisms including the introduction of alien and invasive wildlife and plants.

24. Annual collection of more than 5 metric tons of resin from a district.

b. Industrial sector i)

1. Production of alcohol from blending process or establishment of distillery with facility of boiling and fermentation and of capacity not more than 5 lakh litre per day.

2. Establishment of acid, base or primary chemical industry with the daily production capacity of 100 metric tons.

3. Processing of leather up to 10000 square feet daily.4. Establishment of cooking, natural gas refilling, filling, production and distribution

industry5. Establishment of stone crusher(ing) industry.6. Establishment of paint industry except cosmetic industry.7. Establishment of milk processing industry with daily capacity of more than 10000 litre.8. Production of lubricants from blending, reprocessing and reclamation process.9. Establishment of foam industry.10. Establishment of dry or wet cell production industry.11. Establishment of sugar industry with daily production capacity of 3000 metric tons.12. Establishment of thread cloth colouring, printing or washing industry except traditional

household industry.13. Establishment of paper or pulp industry having daily capacity not more than 100 metric

tons except traditional household industry.

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14. Establishment of industry having annual capacity of 2 crore pieces of brick, tile, etc.15. Establishment of cement industry based on limestone and clinker with production

capacity of 50 metric tons per hour.16. Establishment of lime industry with daily production capacity of 500 metric tons.17. Establishment of drugs production industry and formulation of bulk drugs up to 50 metric

tons daily.18. Establishment of plastic industry (based on the waste of crude materials) with daily

production capacity of 5 metric tons.19. Establishment of water processing industry except pipeline, for commercial purpose of

capacity more than 10 litre per second.ii) Establishment of industry with investments more than Rs 10 lakhs in machine, tools

and equipment in the following cases:1. Processing and production of tyre, tubes and rubber2. Foundry3. Bitumen and bitumen emulsion4. Chemical processing of bone, horn and hoof with daily capacity up to 50

metric tons5. Ayurvedic medicines6. Establishment of industry with investment up to 50 crore fixed

(capital)investment (civil works and machinery) based on mine7. Production of metal by primary smelting of ferrous and non-ferrous (except

re-rolling, remolting, fabrication)8. Establishment of sawmill of annual capacity 5000 to 50000 cubic feet timber.

c. Mining Sector

1 Excavation of mines through relocation and resettlement of permanent residence of 25 to 100 people.

2 Daily extraction of metal except radioactive metal, up to 400 metric tons (deep mining) and up to 200 metric tons (surface mining)

3 Daily extraction of non-metallic minerals except asbestos, up to 200 metric tons (deep mining) and 400 metric tons (surface mining).

4 Collection and production of decorative stones such as marble, granite, amphibolite/polished stone.

5 Excavation of construction oriented stone, sand, gravel, industrial soil and ordinary soil up to 300 cubic feet per day.

6 Excavation for the production of coal up to 200 metric tons (deep mining) and 400 metric tons ( surface mining)

7 Daily production of 1 lakh cubic metre of biogenic natural gas.

d. Road Sector

1. For the construction of following roadsa. District roads.b. Urban roads.

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2. Construction of 1 to 5 kilometers long ropeways.3. Construction of 1 to 5 kilometers long cable car.4. Construction of major bridges.5. Construction of tunnel for road purpose.

6. Improvement of the standard, rehabilitation and reconstruction of national highways and feeder roads.

e. Residential, building and urban development sector

1. Construction of residential, commercial and their combination (building) with built up area or floor area 5000 to 10000 square meter.

2. Construction of cinema hall, theatre, community hall, stadium, concert hall, spot complex with the mobility capacity of 1000- to 2000 persons at a time.

3. Development of residence for 50 families or in an area ranging between1 to 4 hectare.4. Launching of land development project in an area ranging between 10 to 100 hectares.5. Construction of hard surface pavement in an area more than 10 hecatres.6. Filling of soil above 20000 cubic metre or development of site after cut operation of soil.7. Construction of buildings of 10 storeys or more than 25 metre or 16 storeys or more than

(within) 50 metres.

f. Water Resources and Energy Sector

1. Construction of electric lines

a. ✂………………

b. ✂………………

c. Construction of transmission lines not more than 3 kilometers of capacity n 132 kV or more.

d. Construction of new outdoor trapping sub-station from the existing 220 kV transmission line or more.

2. Production of electricity

a) Operation of electricity generation project of capacity 1 to 6 MW.

b) Operation of electricity generation project of capacity 1 to 5 MW from mineral oil or gas.

3. Under the new system of irrigation

a) Irrigation of area ranging between 200 to 2000 hectares in Tarai and inner Tarai.

b) Irrigation of area ranging between 25 to 500 hectares in hills valleys and tars.

c) Irrigation of area ranging between 25 to 200 hectares in hills with steep gradient and mountain areas.

4. Under the rehabilitation system of irrigation

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a) Construction of new headworks under the existing system in irrigation projects or any project rehabilitation activity to change the major irrigation canal

b) Any water resources development activity which displaces not more than from 25 persons to 100 persons with permanent residence.

✂ Deleted by the notification published in Nepal Gazette on March 09, 2009

c) Control of river more than 10 km by the construction dam.

g. Tourism Sector

1. Establishment and operation of hotels with 50 to 100 beds.

2. Extension of the areas of the existing airports.

3. Operation of rafting activities equipped with machine or by burning fuel on any river with fish or other aquatic life.

4. Operation of house boat (floating boat) to be established in lake.

h. Drinking water sector

1. Collection of rain-water in an area of not more than 200 hectares, and use of water sources (springs and wet-lands) located within the same area.

2. Surface water sources with not more than 1 cubic ft. safe yield, and supply of not more than 50 percent of the water during the dry season.

3. Processing (treatment) of water at the rate of 10 to 25 liters per second.

4. Recharging up to 50 percent of the total aquifer for the development of underground water sources.

5. Construction of tunnels for operation of drinking water project.

6. Displacement of not more than (upto) 25-100 persons for operating a water supply scheme.

7. Settlement of not more than (upto) 500 persons on the upper reaches of water sources.

8. Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 5,000 and 50,000.

9. Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 10,000 and 100,000, and connection of new sources.

10. River training and diversion activities over an area of more than one kilometer.

11. Operation of drinking water project with drainage system along with treatment.

i. Waste Management Sector

1. For the wastes produced from the houses and residential areas,

2. Filling of land with 1000 to 5000 tons of waste a year.

3. Activities relating to transfer stations and resource recovery areas spread over not more than 5-10 hectares.

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4. Selecting, picking, disposing, and recycling waste through chemical, mechanical or biological techniques in an area of not more than 5-10 hectares.

5. Activities relating to compost plants in an area ranging between 5 and 10 hectares.

6. Operation of drainage development project exceeding the investment more than Rs 50 lakhs.

j. Agricultural sector

1. Clearing of national forests covering not more than 1 hectare in the hills and 5 hectares in the Tarai, and using them for agricultural purposes.

2. Following activities relating to construction :

i) Construction activities for farming more than 30,000 domestic fowls.

ii) Construction activities for farming more than 1000 big cattle.

iii) Construction activities for farming more than 5,000 small cattle (sheep and goats).

iv) Establishment of agricultural wholesale markets in area more than one hectare in the metropolitan and sub-metropolitan area of Tarai region and more than 0.5 hectare in other region.

v) Establishment of license holder slaughter house.

3. Storage and disposal of expired toxic substances (only those which are listed).

4. Production, formulation, repackaging, storage and disposal of chemical fertilizer (inorganic fertilizer) and chemical pesticides (inorganic pesticides).

5. Establishment for industry for the production of chemical fertilizer (blending) and chemical pesticides (blending).

k. Health Sector

1. Operation of hospital, nursing home or medical profession with capacity 25 to 100 beds (including study and teaching).

l. Operation of any planning, project or programme of any development work, physical activities or change in land use except the proposals mentioned in Clause (a) to Clause (k) and those below the standards of such proposals as well as the proposals below the standards of those mentioned in Schedule-2 with a cost of Rs. 50 millions to 250 millions.

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Schedule - 2 (Pertaining to Rule 3)

Proposals Requiring Environmental Impact Assessment

a. Forest Sector

1. Plantation of indigenous plants of a single species on a single block covering an area of more than 500 hectares in the Terai and 100 hectares in the hills.

2. Plantation of such imported species of plants as are deemed suitable for the purpose following their test in the concerned place, in an area of more than 100 hectares in the Terai and 50 hectares in the hills.

3. Handover of forests with an area of more than 200 hectares in the Terai and 50 hectares in the hills as leasehold forests.

4. Clear Felling of National forests for research purpose with an area of more than 30 hectares per year by the government.

5. Rosin and turpentine, rubber, plywood and veneer, brick and tile, Tobacco Kattha and timber-based matches, pulp and paper industries to be established within one kilometer inside the forest area that rely on forests for their raw materials and use processing techniques, and cardamom as well as medium and large tea industries together with Lauth saalla and incense industry establishment that use bulky quantities of firewood.

6. Commercial as well as industrial processing of medicinal herbs and aromatic plants which emit garbage and pollution.

7. Establishment of resorts, hotels with more than 50 beds, safaris, medium and large educational institutions, hospitals and industries or other construction activities inside forest area, national parks, reserves, conservation areas, buffer zone area, wetland area and environment conservation zones.

8. In case Forest and Conservation Area's Management Plan does not mention output of forest products to be collected then per species for root extraction of annually more than 50 metric tons from one district from one forest area or from many forest areas once or more than once needs to be included.

9. In case Forest and Conservation Area's Management Plan does not mention output of forest products to be collected then per species for bark extraction of annually more than 100 metric tons from one district from one forest area or from many forest areas once or more than once needs to be included.

10. According to contemporary law that does not ban collection of roots and bark species, Shorea robusta (sal) seed, Reetha and Emblica offiicinalis (Amala), Tendupaat, Bhoorla paat, Cinamomom tamala (Tej Paat) together with non timber forest product from one forest area or several areas in one or many season at one or several collection amounting annually to more than 100 tons per species from one district.

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11. With respect to contemporary law which does not ban export of species that are processed and sartatwa extracted from one or several forest area or in one or many season annually more than 100 tons per species per district.

12. Implement felling of more than 5 hectares of forest land with the proposal of government faculties other than forest.

13. Handing over of more than 500 hectares of forest land to one (a single) community for management.

b. Industrial Sector

1. Establishment of breweries and wineries equipped with fermentation facilities with a production capacity of more than 500,000 liters per day.

2. Production of primary chemicals such as corrosive acid and alkali etc. (except citric, tartaric, acetic acid etc.) with a production capacity of more than 100 metric tons per day.

3. Processing of hides more than 10,000 sq.ft. per day.

4. Establishment of mineral based industries with a fixed investment (civil & machinery purpose) of more than Rs. 500 millions.

5. Production of petro chemicals and processing (diesel, kerosene, lubricants, plastics, synthetics rubbers etc.).

6. Daily production of more than 50 tons of ferrous and non ferrous metals (except rerolling, remelting and febrication) by the process of primary smelting.

7. Establishment of industry producing more than 3000 metric tons of kahdsari or sugar per day.

8. Establishment of cement industries based on lime stone or clinker with a production capacity of more than 50 metric tons per hour.

9. Establishment of lime industries with a production capacity of more than 500 metric tons per day.

10. Production of asbestos.

11. Establishment of radio active emission (nuclear or atomic processing) industries.

12. Daily formulation of more than 50 metric tons of primary compounds (Bulk drugs) for medicines.

13. Production of extremely hazardous substances such as Isocayanite, mercury compound etc.

14. Production or establishment of ammunitions and explosives including gunpowder other than by Nepali Army and Nepali Police.

15. Establishment of pulp or paper industries of with a production capacity of more than 100 metric tons per day.

16. Establishment of brick and tiles industries with a production capacity of more than 20 million pieces per year.

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17. Chemical processing of bones, horns, and hoof of more than 50 metric tons per day.

18. Establishment of saw mill with an annual consumption of more than 50 thousand cubic feet (of timber).

c. Mining Sector

1. Relocation or resettlement of permanent residence of a population of more than 100 for the purpose of mine excavation.

2. Mine Excavation Process For :

a. Excavating (for production of)all kinds of radioactive metals for production

b. Production of other metals of more than 200 tons by underground excavation and more than 400 tons for(by) surface mining on daily basis.

c. Production of non metallic minerals by underground excavation exceeding 200 tons per day and by surface excavation beyond 400 tons per day.

d. Extraction of common construction stone, decorative stone, sand, gravel and industrial soil at a rate of more than 300 cubic meters per day.

e. Production of coal and matti coal at the rate of more than 200 tons per day by underground excavation and more than 400 tons per day by surface excavation.

f. Production process of more than 100 thousand meter cube per day of natural gas.

g. Process requiring excavation and processing of petroleum products.

h. Daily extraction of more than 250 meter cube of sand, gravel (girkha) soil from the surface of river and rivulets.

d. Road Sector

1. Construction of the following roads: a. National highways. b. Main feeder roads.

2. Construction of more than 50 kilometers long ropeways (ranju marg).

3. Construction of more than 5 kilometers long cable car routes.

e. Residence, Building (Bhavan) and Urban Development Area

1. Residential, Commercial and their combination buildings (Bhavan) with a built-up or floor area of more than 10,000 meter square.

2. Construction of Cinema Hall, Theater, Community Hall, Stadium, Concert Hall, Spot Complex with an entry and exit (capacity) of more than 2,000 at a time.

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3. Development of Residence with a capacity of 50 members or in an area of more than 4 hectares.

4. Operation of more than 100 hectares of land development program

5. Construction of more than 16 floors or 50 meters of buildings.

f. Water Resources and Energy Sector

1. Construction and Supply through the installation of transmission lines with more than 3 km length and 66 kV capacity.

2. Operation of Hydro Electric Production Program with the capacity of more than 10 MW.

3. Under the Electricity Production:

a. Operation of Coal or Nuclear Electric production (project with capacity) of more than 1 MW.

b. Operation of Oil or Gas Electric production (project with capacity) of more than 5 MW.

4. Under the new systems of irrigation:

a. Those irrigating more than 2000 hectares in the Terai or Inner Terai.

b. Those irrigating more than 500 hectares in hills, valleys and tar.

c. Those irrigation more the 200 hectares in the hilly bhiralo, pakha and mountain areas with a steep gradient.

d. Any water resources development activity which displaces (population of ) more than 100 people with permanent residence.

e. Construction of multipurpose reservoirs.

f. Inter-basin water transfer and use.

g. Tourism Sector

1. Construction, establishment and operation of hotels with more than 100 beds.

2. Establishment and development of new airports.

h. Drinking Water

1. Collection of rain-water in an area of more than 200 hectares and use of water sources located within the same area.

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2. (supply of) Surface water sources with more than 1 cusec. safe yield and the use of its entire part during the dry season.

3. Recharging of more than 50 percent of the total aquifer for the development of underground water sources.

4. Displacement of more than 100 persons for the operation of water supply schemes.

5. Settlement of more than 500 persons on the upper reaches of water sources.

6. Supply of drinking water to a population of more than 50,000.

7. Supply of drinking water to a population of more than 100,000, and connection of new sources.

8. Over mining of biologically or chemically polluted point and non-point sources or underground water sources that may be affected by them.

9. Operation of multi-purpose projects relating to sources of drinking water using water sources at the rate of more than 25 liters per second.

i. Waste Management

1. Waste management activities to the undertaken with the objective of providing services to a population of more than 10,000.

2. Following activities relating to waste emitted from houses and residential areas :

a. Filling of land with more than 5000(1000 previously) tons of waste per year.

b. Activities relating to transfer stations and resource recovery areas spread over an area of more than 10(3 previously) hectares.

c. Selecting, picking, disposing and recycling waste through chemical, mechanical or biological techniques in an area spread over more than (2 hecs. previously) 10 hectares.

d. Activities relating to compost plants spread over an area of more than 10 hectares.

e. Burying of waste emitted from an urban area with a population of at least 10,000.

3. Following construction activities relating to hazardous waste of the following nature in any scale :

a. Construction of a waste plant.

b. Construction of a waste recovery plant.

c. Construction of a site for filling, accumulating or burying waste.

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d. Construction of a site for storing waste.

e. Construction of a waste treatment facility.

4. Following activities relating to lethal waste

a. Emission and management of any radio-active substance with a half age exceeding 25 years.

b. Emission and management of any radio active materials with 30 lethal dose.

c. Final disposal management of biological lethal substances emitted from health centers, hospitals or nursing homes with at least 25 beds.

d. Any active relating to one hectare or more of land and energy for the purpose of incinerating or recycling any lethal substance.

j. Agricultural Sector

1. Clearing of Government Forests covering more than 1 hectare in the hills and 5 hectares in the Tarai and using them for agricultural purposes.

2. Urbanization plan in cultivable lands.

3. Following activities relating to toxic substances (only those that are listed).

k. Health

1. Operation of hospitals or nursing homes with more than 100 beds, or medical profession (study and teaching also).

l. If any proposal is to be implemented in the following areas

1. Historical, cultural and archeological sites.

2. National parks, wild life reserve, wetland and conservation areas.

3. Areas with main sources of public water supply.

m. Operation of any planning, project or program relating to any developmental work, physical activities or change in land use except the proposals mentioned in Clause (A) to Clause (K) and those below the standards of such proposals as well as the proposals below the standards of those mentioned in Schedule-1 with a cost of more than 250 millions.

Annex – 2: Public Notice

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References

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1. ADB, 2003. Environmental Assessment Guidelines, ADB, Manila.

2. Bhatt, Ramesh Prasad, Khanal, Sanjay Nath: Environmental Impact Assessment System in Nepal – An overview of policy, legal instruments and process, Kathmandu University Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol. 5, no. ii, September, 2009, pp 160- 170.

3. Canter, L. W., 1996. Environmental Impact Assessment, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.

4. IUCN, 1996, EIA Training Manual for Professionals and Engineers, Asian Regional Environmental Assessment Program, IUCN, Nepal.

5. National Planning Commission, GoN/IUCN, 1993. National Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines, NPC/IUCN, NCS Implementation Project, Kathmandu.

6. Upreti, B. K. (2003): Environmental Impact Assessment: process and practice. Published by Uttara Uprety, Koteshwor, Kathmandu.

7. http://www.unescap.org/

8. http://www.eia.unu.edu

9. http://www.unep.org

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