Ehses, H. Representing Macbeth - A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric

8/23/2019 Ehses, H. Representing Macbeth - A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric

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Hanno H. J. Ehses

Representing Macbeth:A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric

1) Quoted in R. Stacey, The CanadianPosterBook Toronto:Methuen,1979),58.

IntroductionThe creativeprocess of finding appropriatedesign solutions to visu-al problems would become more accessibleand more probable, andcould be enriched if designerswere more conscious of the underly-ing system of concept formation. Instead, they seem to use it in-tuitively. In adapting contemporary semiotic and rhetoric theory,the following study of Macbeth posters endeavours to present anoperationalmodel of concept formation that is often identified withthe creative process. Semiotics, the doctrine of signs, explains theprinciples that underlie the structure of signs and their utilizationwithin messages, and rhetoric, the art of persuasion, suggests waysto construct appropriate messages.

Speakingout on concept formation and the problems involved indesigning a poster for a theater play, J. Shadbolt, the designer,remarked: "The psychological problem was what slowed down theprocess. I would read the actual play, consider carefully its overallimpact, and then try to convey with the totality of my design some-thing of thatprecise import. It's easy to make an elegantdecoration,but quite another thing to evoke exact implication."1Shadbolt's remark addresses some fundamental problems in thedesign activity, and directs special attention to the followingquestions: How is meaning createdvisually in design? What is therouting that leads from the text of a play (or any other statement)toa concept and its visualization in a poster (or a book cover ortrademark)? What is the nature of the relationship between thefigurativeimage and the text? These questions are all related to theprocess of signification, that is, the coding dimension that precedesall message transferand communicative interaction.To find answers to these questions and to illuminate the processof arriving at a design solution, this article will examine the rele-vance of rhetoric to design and explore some of its basic principles.The semiotic structure of coding and the rhetorical characteristicthat governs the visual appearanceof a poster will also be discussed.In addition, the operationalpotential of rhetoricalprocedurefor de-sign in conjunction with the outcome of a recent case study isdemonstrated.

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2) Edward P. J. Corbett, Classical Rheto-ric for the Modern Student, 2nd ed.(New York: Oxford University Press,1971), 625-30.

3) Umberto Eco, A Theory of Semiotics(Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress, 1976), 277.

4) E. R. Curtius, EuropeanLiterature andthe Latin Middle Ages (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1953),77-78.5) Renssalaer Wright Lee, Ut PicturaPoesis: The Humanistic Theory of

Painting (New York: W. W. Norton,1967).6) G. Bonsiepe, "Visual/VerbalRhetoric," Ulm 14/15/16 (1965).

Design and rhetoricalprinciplesRhetoric, generally speaking, is concerned with the functionalorganizationof verbaldiscourseor messages.It operateson thebasisof logicalandestheticmodes to affect nteractionn both a ra-tionaland emotionalway. According o Aristotle,rhetoric s con-cerned with "discoveringall the availablemeans of persuasion nany givensituation" ither o instructan audience rational ppeal),to pleaseanaudienceandwin it over(ethicalappeal),or to moveit(emotionalappeal).Theobjectof rhetorics eloquence,which s de-fined as effective peech hatmakes t possible o determine he atti-tudeof peoplein orderto influence heiractions.Thepossibilityofinfluencingand being influencedpresupposesthe possibility ofchoice. Choice is a key termin rhetoricas well as design,as bothpertainto making appropriateselections of means to achieve adesired end. Design, as a communication-oriented iscipline, isgovernedby and mustpay attention o pragmaticmotivationsandfunctional considerations. Inasmuch as the spirit of rhetoric isalsopragmatic,hissituationgivesdesigna rhetorical imension.Despiteall the negativeconnotations,persuasions not necessar-ily an underhandeddevice, but rathera socially acceptable ormof reasoning.Duringthe pastfew decades,I. A. RichardsandC.Perelmanin particularhave been influentialin freeing rhetoricfrom articulated rejudices.2At present, the exponentsof the "new rhetoric"contend thateven the simplestutterances repragmatic,hatis, functionallyde-terminedand, therefore,persuasive.Accordingto this school ofthought, "Almost all human reasoningabout facts, decisions,opinions,beliefs,andvalues s no longerconsidered o be basedontheauthorityof AbsoluteReasonbut insteadntertwinedwithemo-tional elements, historical evaluations, and pragmaticmotivations.In this sense, the new rhetoric considers the persuasive discoursenot as a subtle fraudulentprocedure but a technique of 'reasonable'human interaction controlled by doubt and explicitly subject tomany extralogical conditions."3Because all human communication is, in one way or another, in-filtrated rhetorically, design for visual or verbal communicationcannot be exempt from that fact.

Although rhetoric has developed as a method that deals fun-damentally with speaking and writing, rhetorical principles havebeen transferred nto various other media, aswell. This has been in-dicated by E. R. Curtius4 and R. Lee,5 both of whom refer torhetoric and its relationship to painting, architecture, and music.The potential value of the rhetorical system within a semioticframework was also realized by G. Bonsiepe, who published thearticle "Visual/Verbal Rhetoric" in 1965.6 Essentially concernedwith analyzing advertisements, Bonsiepe demonstrated that visualrhetoric is possible on the basis of verbal rhetoric. In 1968, M.Krampenremarked that "a careful study of classical rhetoric could

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lead to a catalog of rhetoricaldevicesthat are capableof visual7) Martin Krampen, "Signs and Symbols duplication."7 In light of these suggestions, ten figures of speechin GraphicommunicationDesign were electedor thiscase tudy.Thetenthatwerechosen uggestuarterly 2(1968):18. an obvious potentialfor visualduplication.Whatpreciselycon-stitutessuch a rhetoricaligure,andwhatis its positionwithintherhetoricalystem?

The systemof classicalrhetoric ormulatesprecepts or the pro-duction of a messageand traditionallys dividedinto five phases(seeFig. 1).I Inventio: Discoveryof ideas/argumentsConcernedwith findingandselectingmaterial n supportofthe subjectmatterandrelevant o the situation.

II Dispositio:Arrangementof ideas/argumentsConcernedwithorganizinghe selectedmaterialnto aneffec-tive whole (statement f intent).III Elocutio:Form of expressing deas/argumentsStylistic reatment r detailed haping f theorganizedmateri-al in consideration f the followingcriteria:* Aptum:appropriatenesswith reference o subjectmatterand context* Puritas: orrectness f expression* Perspicuitas:omprehensibilityf expression

* Ornatus:deliberate dornment f expressionIV Memoria:Memorizationof speechV Pronunciatio:Deliveryof speechConcernedwithvoice andgestures,butalso withappropriate

Fig. 1) setting.The thirdphase s of particularnterest,as it covers the stylisticfeaturesthat have alreadybeen referred o as figuresof speech.According o Quintilian,rhetorical iguresgenerate ules thatcanbe lookeduponas meansof "lending redibilityo ourarguments"and "exciting he emotions." He also considered he use of thesefiguresas"the artof sayingsomethingn a new form" o giveames-sagegreater italityandimpact.Theessenceof arhetoricaligure san artful departurefrom the ordinary and simple method ofspeaking. It should be added that these figuresdo not refertoready-made xpressions; ather, hey should be viewedas abstractoperationalerms hatcan be filled out.The notionthatstylisticdevicesaresimply he"dressof thought"needsto be erased.According o E. Corbett,"Styledoesprovideavehicle or thought,andstylecan be ornamental; utstyleis some-thingmore thanthat. It is anotherof the availablemeans of per-

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8) Corbett,Classical hetoric, 15

9) J. DeMille, The Elementsof Rhetoric(New York: Harper and Brothers,1878).

suasion,anotherof themeansof arousingheappropriatemotionalresponse n the audience,and anotherof the meansof establishingthe properethical mage.If the studentadoptsthis functionalno-tion of style... he will beginto regard tyle in the way Stendhalconceivedof it: 'Styleis this: to addto a giventhoughtall the cir-cumstances ittedto produce he whole effectthatthethought s in-tended to produce.' "8Rhetorical iguresareusuallydivided nto two groups,schemesandtropes.Whereas he formerare definedas departuresromtheordinarypositioningof words in a sentence("Uncomplicated reyoungpeople,sometimes,"asopposed o "Youngpeoplearesome-timesuncomplicated"),he latteraredefinedasdeparturesrom theordinary ignification f wordsor idioms("Theground hirsts orrain,"asopposedto "Theground s very dryandneedsrain").To delineatebuildingblocks of conceptformation,this articlemustconcentrate n the tropes.The natureof the tropecan be ex-plainedby thefollowingexample. n "Hewasa lion in battle," heterm lion is the departed ubstitutereferringo the substituted x-pression"undauntedunconquerableighter."The personis not alion in actuality,but only in some transferredense.Althoughthesubstitutewordappears nly rarelyor occasionally, he substitutedwordsrepresenthe ordinaryor habitualmode of expression.Theoccasionaldeparturenvolvesa change n meaningbecauset resultsin effectsthat are different romtheordinarymode of expression.Differentclassifications f figuresof speechhavebeenadoptedbyvarious writers in the past. In adoptinga classificationfor thisstudy, DeMille's Elementsof Rhetoric9and Corbett's ClassicalRhetoricor theModernStudent ervedasguides.Theclassificationis asfollows:

Figuresof contrast* Antithesis: he juxtapositionof contrastingdeas, for example,"Bythetime the wallet s empty, ife will befull."* Irony:anexpressionhatconveysameaning pposite o its literalmeaning, or example,"Robbinga widowof herlifesavingswascertainlya nobleact."Figuresof resemblance* Metaphor: impliedcomparisonbetweentwo thingsof unlikenature, orexample,"Thecolorfuldisplaywas amagnet orany-body in the room."* Personification:a comparison whereby humanqualities areassigned o inanimateobjects,for example,"The thatch-roofedcottages n thevalleyseemed o beasleep."Figuresof contiguity* Metonymy: the substitution of terms suggesting an actualrelationshiphatcanbe of causal, patial,orchronological ature

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(cause instead of effect, instrument for agent, author for work,container for contained, andproduce for producer), for example,"The White House (President of the United States) reduced hertroops in Europe," or "He had always been a greatlover of gold(money)."* Synecdoche:the substitution of a more inclusive term for one thatis less inclusive or vice versa, the nature of which is quantitative,for example, "Canada (Canadian team) won the competition" or"He lived for a week under my roof (house)."* Periphrasis:circumlocution, the indirect reference by means ofwell-known attributesor characteristics,for example, "togo to abetter world" instead of "to die."

* Puns: a play on words, using words that sound alike but havedif-ferent meanings, for example, "Check in here for the restof yourlife (Wandlyn Motel)."Figuresof gradation* Amplification:the expansion of a topic through the assemblageofrelevant particulars, for example, "He used all the means at hisdisposal: radio, TV, brochures,posters, advertisements, and soforth."* Hyperbole: the exaggerationof an object beyond its naturalandproper dimensions, for example, "Jan's friends tracked a ton ofmud through the hallway."

Any departurefrom the ordinary way of expression endows the ex-pression with a strong dynamic tension directed either toward theordinary (making the hallway terribly dirty) or away from it(tracked a ton of mud through the hallway). The less known thetrope, the longer the tension span.It is a necessary condition for all figures of speech that they pre-suppose a basic understanding of grammatical forms and lexicalcontent from which departureis possible. Figurativevariations can-not ignore the grammarof the languageinasmuchas any changefora greatereffect must respect grammatical possibilities. Because thebasic understanding is determined by the grammarand rhetoric isbuild upon its fundamentals, rhetoricalprocedureis also referredtoas constituting a secondary grammar.Furthermore, both grammars participate in successive genera-tions of order. However, in using the aforementioned rhetoricalfigures, a lower literal order is transformed into a higher rhetoricalorder, giving the expression more vitality. The difference is char-acterized by the word money depicting an image of coins and bills(literalorder) as opposed to money being illustratedmetonomicallyby the trademarks of several major Canadian banks (rhetoricalorder). Thus, the effectiveness of a rhetoricalfigure always dependson the audience'sability to perceive the difference between the sub-stitute and the substituted way of expression.

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Whetherthe literal or rhetoricalorderis used dependson thenumberof structuredrelationships hat havematerialized,whichalso impliesreference o pre-existing ulturalknowledge hatpre-dates a design. The connection between both orders is one ofbalancing two oppositional forces, the obvious and the new.Whereas the obvious tends toward satisfying expectations byrespondingo existingstandards,he new moves towardupsettingthosestandards y wayof a novel andatypicalapproachwithlesserrelation o existingexpectations.This situationmaybe described sa state of mutual equilibrium between both preservative andchangeableforces. In responding to existing expectationsandsupplyingsomethingunexpectedat the sametime, a design pro-ducesa challengeapleasantor unpleasanturprise)n addition o arenewedand extendedperspective.

10) Quotedin Eco, Theoryof Semiotics,15.

From concept formation to visual formVisual communication takes place on the basis of more or less con-ventionalized signs belonging to many kinds of codes of disparatelanguages.A theaterposter is seen as a message representinga com-plex of signs built on the basis of codes, conveying certainmeaningsthat are interpretable on the basis of either those same codes ordifferent ones. Concept formation coincides with the process ofcoding insofar as the designer assumes and activates codes by cor-relating selected graphic devices with selected culturally sanc-tioned meanings, thus binding something present with somethingabsent. The process of coupling these two opposed units is calledsignification, an act whose product is a sign. A sign according toC. S. Peirce is "something that stands to somebody for something[else] in some respect or capacity."10Thus, the possession of codesallows readersto draw relationships, for example, between a postertitled "Macbeth" and an actual play by Shakespeare. Codes canstimulate a variety of interpretations by allowing the designer todraw relationships between the play Macbeth itself and conceptssuch as "crowned beast," "sinister king," "curse of evil actions,""scene from an actual theatreproduction," and many more.

Signification operates on the basis of denotative as well as con-notative codes, both of which draw upon different experiences.Anything derived from the visual perception of a literalreadingof atheaterposter is denotative, while anything derivedfrom additionalexperiences and associations or symbolic readings is connotative.Whereas denotation is referential and direct and tends towardmonofunctionality (a theaterposter as a vehicle whose sole functionis to announce the play), connotation is suggestive and indirect andtends toward polyfunctionality (a theater poster suggests a wholehost of shared assumptions and possible functions).Thus, while the posters shown at the end of this article refer tothe play Macbeth and aredenotatively interchangeable n announc-ing the play, they areconnotatively quite different. It follows, then,

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11) See Eco, Theoryof Semiotics, 51-57.

thatany act of signification in addition o conventionalized e-notations must consciouslytake into accountthe breadthandcomplexityof connotations.An inquiryinto conceptformationand rhetorical odingmustproceedbackwardromthe result owardahypotheticalmodel thatexplains heprocess.To thisend,a theaterposter s the resultof theinterplayof two sign systems title of play andgraphic magethatelucidate ndcomplement achother.This spossible ntheaterpostersbecause he signification f the image s assumed o be in-tentional; he signifiedsof the messagecorrespondo certainattri-butes or associations f the playthat aregraphicallyransmittednthe clearestway. Therefore, he graphicmage s seen as a seriesofsignsreplacing statement bouttheplayor abouta specific heat-rical nterpretationf theplay. It represents conceptanalogousoa writtenprecis.Having a more focusedobjectof study, the next step involvesoutlining he elementary onditionsof graphic ignification,whichalso includesa widerapplicationhan thatof the designof theaterposters.A visualsystemsuchas that of theaterposters s theresultof two coordinated ets:the setof possiblegraphicormsand he setof playsto be announced seeFig. 2). According o a schemepro-posed by L. Hjelmslev,11 ll graphic ormscorrespond o level ofexpression;all plays to level of content. On both levels, a form

Graphicncoding ConceptormationKingMacbethContent as humaneast Content PlayMacbeth Rhetorical= result f = result f pattern:Expression?graphicmage) Expression?KingMacbeths Metaphorhuman east)

(play/graphic epresentation r discourse) s distinguishedrom asubstance textcharacteristics/graphiceans).The couplingof thetwo oppositionally tructuredets of formsdetermines he semioticstructure of the visual system. The structure itself becomessemiotic,since eachof thetwo forms nvolvedcontainsnformationover and above hatpertainingo its own set. The additional hargeof informations obtained hrough he correlation f the signifiedplayandsignifyinggraphicmage, husdetermininghedeliberatelyfixedsignification f aposter.The next step of analysismust be to identifythe plot or chosenvisualconceptthatis equivalento the meaningnucleusof a givengraphicmage.Indecoding hemeaningof the Macbeth poster nterms of ideasconveyedor suggested, eelingsexpressedand con-noted, a summarizingtatement ould read"KingMacbeth,a hu-manbeast" see Fig. 3). Thisgraphicallyncodedstatement hould

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Fig. 2)

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be seen as the designer's chosen visual concept that was skillfullyand clearly encoded. It should be pointed out that the identified vi-sual concept is not only the result of a literal readingof the percept-ible units (crown, face, fangs), but also the result of denotative andconnotative reading which, in turn, is influenced by a familiaritywith this particularplay and by a certainvisual literacy.The remaining question concerns the designer's method of arriv-ing at such a concept. The text of the play itself contains a largestock of suitable material for conceptualization, such as referencesto certain locations and events, key objects and scenes, maincharacters,cause-effect relations, and so forth. However, in the text

Substance:extcharacteristicsndassociations"Designposteror Content Form:layMacbeththeplay k I IMacbeth" Expression Form: raphiciscourseSubstance:Graphiceans ndassociations

Fig. 4)

of the play, there is no direct reference to King Macbeth as a humanbeast. But there are enough indications to constitute an image ofMacbeth as a despot. In the example, the designer went one stepfurther in reachinga solution that clearly mirrors the dialectic ofcomprehensibility and attractiveness to stimulate interest and torepresenta high degree of information, the full extent of which canonly be discerned by the attentive reader. Referring back to theprocess that led to the concept, the initial interpretationof Macbeth

Fig. 3) as a despot has been replaced and dramatized by a visual conceptthat displays King Macbeth as a human beast.__1^H-- ^The elation of the form of expression to the form of content isregulatedby specific figures of speech. To reveal the rhetorical fig-_c '/ ) q _l ure that governs the concept formation, it is necessaryto look at therelationship "title of play = Macbeth" and the concept "KingMacbeth, a human beast." In this particularposter, the relation fol-$cff fj_ lows a metaphoricalstructure. A metaphor is defined as an impliedcomparison between two things of unlike nature, which in this caseis Macbeth being implicitly compared to a beast.Fig. 4 indicates that the signification process in visual design in-volves two major operations: formation of the visual concept, aswell as its graphic encoding. Although in the former, the centralproblem of design involves finding an idea that expressesthe play insome respect or capacity, the concern of the latter is in the visual

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translation of this concept. Both operations are equally important.Although graphic encoding is beyond this study, it is likewise

governed by rhetorical figures. This point can be illustrated bylooking at the visual treatment of the poster previously discussed.To express the concept of the human beast graphically,the designeromitted certain featuresof a human face andreplacedthem with fea-tures of a particular predatory animal. This graphic manipulation,the departurefrom a common face-human or animal- adds con-siderably to the graphic interpretationof beastness. The underlyingrhetorical figure at work here is called oxymoron, defined as theyoking of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory. Transferredto this example, it is the yoking of the facial features of a humanbeing with those of an animal. By combining contradictoryelements, the designer produced a startling effect, especially as thefigure is used in such an obviously fresh and apt way. Finally, inaddition to a clear expression of the concept, the designer's com-mand of different media and techniques of visual treatmentalso al-lows for modification of the degree of human beastness, which issimilar to the use of adjectivesto modify nouns or adverbs to mod-ify verbs in a sentence.

12) KennethBurke, Counter-Statement(Los Altos, CA: Hermes Publi-cations,1953),143.

Visualduplicationof rhetoricalfiguresFrom a designviewpoint,rhetorichasclassifiednumerouspatternsof signification.However, rhetoricdoes not say metonymyexistswhen akingis represented y acrown.Instead, t formulates kindof equationby sayingthatmetonymy s a substitutionor one an-other of terms suggesting an actualrelationshipthat can be ofcausal,spatial,or chronological ature.A commoncriticism hat ariseswhendealingwith rhetoricalig-ures s thatdiscoursemanifests tself asconcrete,particular, nd n-dividual,whereas hese termsareabstract,general,anduniversal.How then can they be useful for the study of design? Theirusefulness,accordingo K. Burke,resides n the fact thattheycanbe re-individuatednto different ubjectmatter, hat s, aparticularfigure can be filled out with a completely differentsubject.AsBurkeexplains t: "A metaphors a concept,an abstraction, ut aspecific metaphor, exemplified by specific images, is an in-dividuation. ts appealas formresides n thefactthat its particularsubjectmatterenables he mindto follow a metaphor-process."12Thus, from a pragmaticviewpoint, rhetorical iguresmanifestthemselvesn vividlyconcreteways, for example,Macbethas a hu-man beast.From a logicalviewpoint,however,they represent nlydifferentabstracterms, orexample,ametaphorhatcanberevital-izedin numerousways. Rhetoricaligures houldbeviewedascon-structionprincipleshatcan assistdesignersn theirsearch or visualconcepts.To conduct the casestudy, second-yeargraphicdesignstudentsat the Nova ScotiaCollegeof Art andDesignwere introduced o

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rhetoricalmethodology. They were encouraged o adoptand testrhetorical iguresin conjunctionwith the designingof a Macbethposter for the local theatercompany.It was anticipatedhat thisapproachwould help to shed morelighton theprocessof conceptformation, sparkinga greaterdiversity of interpretations,and,therefore,a greater angeof originalposterdesigns.They readtheplay, viewedthe movie Macbethdirectedby RomanPolanski,andformedstudygroupsaround en listedrhetoricaligures.With theconstructionprincipleof a specificrhetorical igureas a guideline,eachgroup ooked forpotential hemes hatfit the termand hadvi-sualpotential.Finally,a themewas selectedandvisuallyexecuted;the resultsthen were compared.The feedback rom the studentswasenthusiastic;everalmentioned hat,for the firsttime, theyfeltas if they had produced something that deservedto be labeled"creative."The postersshow the visualduplicationof one specificrhetoricalfigure together with the concept statement(see Figs.5-14).Rhetoricaliguresdo not by anymeansrepresentpecificrecipes.They are explorationtools that can spur lateralthinking, givingdesignersthe awarenessof possibilitiesto makethe best choice.However, the creativeprocesswill not become mechanized,be-cause each concrete task requiresa different solution. The realproblem continues to be that of bringingtogether the abstractconstructionprincipleswith originalideaswithin the confines ofa specifictask. Concerningdesign curricula, t would be worth-while to considerconsciouslyonceagain hesurprising daptabilityof rhetoric,especially n lightof thenew rhetoricmovementand inthe contextof contemporary ociety,forthissocietyis informedbyvisual discourse through a wide variety of media to a degreeincomparable ith anyother time.

Fig.5) Antithesis:Juxtapositionf Macbeth,heloyal egeneral,withMacbeth,hevitciouslyevilking (oseph McDonald).Fib. 6) Irony:Theamiableouple,HerHighnessLadyMacbeth ndHis HighnessKingMacbethMarilynDyke).

MACBETHq,t,*inauie; ,:E>.. %,.:.%., .-62


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Fig. 7) Metaphor:Comparison between events in the playMacbeth and contemporary events of asimilar natureportrayed as we wouldlearn of them today, for example, in anewspaper (Nat Connacher).Fig. 8) Personification:Human qualities are assigned to ani-mate and inanimateobjects bearinghistorical significance, bleeding armour(Ian Mason).

wi.ED... ENr Tli.....,.; L:l ?r?ll.l ll,~il -: :-MACBETHLIVES.D.. . . . . .. .

Oin f worexplode elon9Ni*rtague-l orth order

nKm55 ._R_a I_~ .Fig. 9) Metonymy:The crown and the blood suggest anactualrelationship with the tragictheme of the play (Julien LeBlanc).Fig. 10) Synecdoche:Substitution of a part for the whole, aportrayalof Macbeth's sinister char-acter through concentration on the eyes(Cynthia Henry).

Fig. 11) Periphrases:Macbeth's fatal strategy to attain powerand crown is indirectly referred to by a"baited trap" (Siuw Ying Soo).Fig. 12) Pun:A play on the three witches, whospur Macbeth's ambition to attain thecrown, and the crown itself (SteveDurning).

Fig. 13) Amplification:Selection of key elements of the play toenhance its nature (Dave Roe).Fig. 14) Hyperbole:Exaggerationof the crown, which turnsout to be an unbearable burden forMacbeth (ohn Murphy).

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Ehses, H. Representing Macbeth - A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric