Egypt the Land of Mysteries (Repaired)

7/31/2019 Egypt the Land of Mysteries (Repaired)

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EGYPT-THE LAND OF MYSTERIES

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1.INTRODUCTIONAncient Egypt -- a land of mysteries. No other civilization has so captured the imagination of

scholars and laypeople alike. Mystery surrounds its origins, its religion and its monumentalarchitecture: colossal temples, pyramids and the enormous Sphinx. The Egyptian pyramids

are the most famous of all the ancient monuments, the only remaining wonder of the seven

wonders of the ancient world.

Just as life arose from the waters, the seeds of civilization were first sown along the banks of

the Nile. This mighty river, which flows north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean

Sea, nourished the growth of the pharaonic kingdom. The long, narrow flood plain was a

magnet for life, attracting people, animals and plants to its banks. In pre-dynastic times,

nomadic hunters settled in the valley and began to grow crops to supplement their food

supply. Seen as a gift from the gods, the annual flooding of the river deposited nutrient rich

silt over the land, creating ideal conditions for growing wheat, flax and other crops. The first

communal project of this fledgling society was the building of irrigation canals foragricultural purposes.

The sun was a principal deity whose passage across the sky represented the eternal cycle of

birth, death and rebirth. The pharaohs were seen as gods, divine representatives on earth who,

through rituals, ensured the continuation of life. After death, they became immortal, joining

the gods in the afterworld.

The Egyptians also believed that the body and soul were important to human existence, in life

and in death. Their funerary practices, such as mummification and burial in tombs, were

designed to assist the deceased find their way in the afterworld. The tombs were filled with

food, tools, domestic wares, treasures -- all the necessities of life -- to ensure the soul's return

to the body so that the deceased would live happily ever after.

The most imposing tombs are the famous pyramids, shaped like the sacred mound where the

gods first appeared in the creation story. These were incredibly ambitious projects, the largest

structures ever built. Their construction was overseen by highly skilled architects and

engineers. Paid labourers moved the massive limestone blocks without the use of wheels,

horses or iron tools. The conscripts may have been motivated by a deep faith in the divinity

of their leaders and a belief in immortality. Perhaps they thought that their contributions

would improve their own prospects at the final judgement in the afterworld.

The gigantic pyramids were conspicuous targets for tomb robbers, whose plundering

jeopardized the hope for eternal life. Subsequent generations of kings hid their tombs in theValley of the Kings in an attempt to elude the robbers. In the desert valley near the ancient
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capital of Thebes, now called Luxor, they prepared their royal tombs by cutting into the side

of the mountain. Despite efforts to hide the entrances, thieves managed to find the tombs,

pillaging and emptying them of their treasures.

One tomb was spared, however: Tutankhamuns. Although his resting place was disturbed

twice by robbers, the entrance was resealed and remained hidden for over 3,000 years. Its

discovery by the British archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922 is considered the greatestarchaeological find in history. Carter spent the rest of his life working on the tomb, removing

its treasures to Cairo, and documenting and studying its contents, including the pharaohs

gold coffins and mask. Tutankhamuns mummy remains in his tomb, the o nly pharaoh to be

left in the Valley of the Kings.

Today, Egyptian archaeologists are still making important discoveries, and the scientific

study of royal mummies is shedding new light on the genealogy of the pharaohs. The ongoing

deciphering of hieroglyphic writings and research on the life of the peasants are also

answering many questions related to the evolution of Egyptian culture. The pharaonic

religion gives the impression that the Egyptians were preoccupied with death; however, there

are ample indications that they were a happy lot who knew how to enjoy life.


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2. GEOGRAPHY

Just as life arose from the waters of the primeval sea, so the waters of the Nile gave birth to

the pharaonic kingdom. A gift to the people of Egypt, the longest river in the world flows

north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Its flood plain was an extensiveoasis, a magnet for life -- human, plant and animal. Humans were drawn there because they

could grow crops and settle into permanent villages. The annual flooding of the Nile

deposited nutrient rich silt on the land, creating all the ingredients needed to support life and

the growth of a great civilization.

Bounded on the south, east and west by a impenetrable desert, and on the north by the sea,

ancient Egypt was protected from outside influences, which allowed it to evolve in its own

unique way.

2.1 Nile River and the Desert

In ancient times, the Egyptians called the desert the "red land", distinguishing it from the

flood plain around the Nile River, called the "black land". These colours reflect the fact thatthe desert sands have a reddish hue and the land around the Nile turned black when the

annual flood waters receded.

The desert and the Nile River emerged millions of years ago when the ancient sea that

covered most of Europe and northern Africa (45 million years ago) shifted, forming the

Mediterranean Sea basin. This happened when the earths plates moved, creating the

Himalayas and the Alps. Over thousands of years, the Nile River evolved into its present

shape, surrounded by the Eastern and Western deserts.

The Upper Nile is divided into three tributaries: the White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara

River. The White Nile flows from Lake Victoria, Lake Edward and Lake George, and the

Blue Nile originates in the Ethiopian mountains. The Atbara River flows from the Ethiopian

highlands and meets the combined White Nile and Blue Nile just north of Khartoum. Before
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the river enters the Mediterranean Sea, it divides into four smaller tributaries in the delta

region.

The northern region of Egypt is bounded by two deserts, the mountainous Eastern, or

Arabian, Desert and the sandy Western, or Libyan, Desert. Nomadic tribes continue to roam

these desert regions as they have done for centuries, stopping at oases to replenish their watersupplies.

Around 5000 B.C., when the climate became more arid, nomadic groups retreated to the Nile

Valley, creating the first urban settlements. These communities were concentrated in the

North and the South. As a result, Egypt became known as the "Double Land" or the "Two

Lands" of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The two lands were united in 3100 B.C. by the legendary King Menes. He established a new

administrative city where the Nile River branches out into the delta. In ancient times it was

called "White Walls" or Mennefer; the Greeks called it Memphis. It remained the capital of

Egypt for over 3,500 years. Although there is no archaeological proof that King Menesexisted, the famous Narmer palette that depicts two images of a king, one wearing the crown

of Upper Egypt and the other the crown of Lower Egypt, is thought to depict King Menes.

King Menes and King Narmer may have been the same person, the first king of Egypt.

Dualities, such as desert and river valley, Upper and Lower Egypt, life and death, were animportant organizing principle of the Egyptians world view.
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3. ARCHITECTURE

The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, tombs, temples and palaces out of stone, the most

durable of all building materials. Although earthquakes, wars and the forces of nature havetaken their toll, the remains of Egypts monumental architectural achievements are visible

across the land, a tribute to the greatness of this civilization. These building projects took a

high degree of architectural and engineering skill, and the organization of a large workforce

consisting of highly trained craftsmen and labourers.

Apart from the pyramids, Egyptian buildings were decorated with paintings, carved stone

images, hieroglyphs and three-dimensional statues. The art tells the story of the pharaohs, the

gods, the common people and the natural world of plants, birds and animals. The beauty and

grandeur of these sites are beyond compare. How the ancient Egyptians were able to

construct these massive structures using primitive tools is still a mystery.

3.1 Tombs

The first royal tombs, called mastabas, were built at Abydos during the first and second

dynasties. They were marked with a stele inscribed with the kings names. The burial

chambers were cut into the rock, lined with sun-baked bricks and faced with wooden boards

that have long since disappeared. Beside the chambers were rooms containing jars, small

objects, and offerings of food and drink. The tombs were surrounded by a large number of

graves of women and dwarves. These people may have been servants of the kings who were

sacrificed to serve them in their afterlife.

Pyramids were built as royal burials until 1640 B.C. The most famous is the Great Pyramid at

Giza. To prevent robbery, the kings, queens and nobles of the New Kingdom built their

tombs in a remote valley west of the Theban capital known as the Valley of the Kings. The

tombs of Egypt are one of the greatest tourist attractions in the world. They are indeed a

world treasure!
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3.2 Mastaba Tombs

Mastaba tombs surround the pyramids of the Old Kingdom. Courtiers and families of the

monarch were buried in these low rectangular brick or stone structures. Like the pyramids,

they were built on the west side of the Nile (symbol of death, where the sun falls into the

underworld).

During the Old Kingdom, Egyptians believed that only the souls of kings went on to enjoy

life with the gods. The souls of the nobles, on the other hand, continued to inhabit the tomband needed to be nourished by daily offerings of food and drink. When people died, their ka

(the life force or soul of the deceased) was released. To encourage the soul to return to the

body, the body was preserved and a statuette in the likeness of the deceased was placed in the

tomb. Statuettes called shabti or shawabti, (slaves for the soul) were also placed in the tombs

to perform work on behalf of the deceased in the afterlife.

The actual burial chamber was at the base of a deep vertical shaft below a flat-roofed stone

structure. A false door was carved on the interior tomb wall near the entrance to the shaft.

Often an image of the deceased was carved in the false door in order to entice the soul to

enter the body. For the comfort and well-being of the deceased, the burial chamber was filled

with material goods and food offerings, and the walls were decorated with scenes of daily

activities. The mastabas were designed to ensure the well-being of the deceased for all

eternity.
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3.3 Pyramids

The spectacular pyramids that have made Egypt so famous are truly one of the world's

greatest architectural wonders. One of the oldest mysteries surrounding ancient Egypt

concerns the building of the pyramids. How did humans move such massive blocks of stone

using only Stone Age tools? The Egyptians left thousands of illustrations depicting daily life

in the Old Kingdom. Curiously enough, none of them show how pyramids were built.

A pyramid is a tomb, a four-sided stone structure that symbolizes the sacred mountain,

humanitys universal striving to reach the heavens. The ancient belief in raising the human

spirit towards the gods is the quintessential purpose behind the construction of pyramids.

Even today, pyramids are metaphors for humanitys search for higher consciousness.

The Pyramid Age began during the Old Kingdom (2650-2134 B.C.), when the first pyramids

were built by King Djoser in the third dynasty. Construction of pyramids continued until

1640 B.C. During the first and second dynasties, Egyptian kings were buried in mastabas.

The deceased were laid to rest in an underground chamber at the bottom of a shaft, and a flat-

topped tomb was placed over them.

King Djoser established a powerful centralized administration based in the city of Memphis,

not far from the present-day city of Cairo. One of his officials was the famous architect and

scholar Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid, a pharaoh's tomb at Saqqara that looks like

a stairway to heaven. This tomb is an elaboration of the original mastabas, with its central

burial chamber.
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In the fourth dynasty, the Pharaoh Snefru built the first geometrically true pyramids at

Dahshur, south of Saqqara. He started by adding a smooth casing over the steps of two

pyramids that were built by his predecessors. He then built two pyramids of his own.

The pyramids built during the fifth dynasty had a core of rubble and mud bricks, and a

limestone facing. When the limestone was removed, the core collapsed.

Why the pharaohs chose a pyramid for their tombs is still a mystery. Perhaps the shape

originated from the creation story, in which the world is

conceived as a flat plane with four corners representing the

north, east, south and west. When the sky rose up, forming an

invisible central axis like a pole or tree in the centre, the

world took on the shape of a pyramid. The pyramid may also

represent the primeval mound that rose out of chaos and

provided a resting place for the sun god, Re. Its peak may

symbolize the point where sacred energy from the sky world

enters the human world. Another theory suggests that when

Re became more important in the Egyptian religion, thepyramid (like the obelisk) represented a ray of the sun.

3.4 Giza Pyramids

The most famous pyramids are found at Giza. They were built by three pharaohs - Cheops (or

Khufu*), Chephren (Khafre*) and Mycerinus (Menkaure*) - during the second half of the

third millennium B.C. This site is one of the seven classic wonders of the ancient world, the

only one that has survived the passage of time. The other six are the Mausoleum at

Halicarnassus (in Bodrum, Turkey), the statue of Zeus at Olympia (Greece), the Colossus of

Rhodes, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (Turkey), the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, andthe Pharos of Alexandria.

The Great Pyramid of Cheops, the largest of the three at Giza, is estimated to comprise as

many as 2.5 million limestone blocks with an average weight estimated at 2.5 tonnes (2.5

tons). The entire structure was encased in a fine white polished limestone brought from the

hills at Tura, on the opposite side of the Nile. This highly prized material was removed in the

16th century and used to decorate mosques in Cairo.
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When completed, the Great Pyramid stood 146.6 metres (481 feet) tall, and its base was

230.3 metres (756 feet) square. The capstones (pyramidions) of all the pyramids were made

of solid polished granite. For conservation reasons, they have been removed to the Egyptian

Museum in Cairo, where they are on display.

At the moment, only the Great Pyramid is open to the public. (For conservation reasons, the

others are closed.) After climbing a number of steps, one enters through a narrow passage on

the north side. This passage leads to a sloping corridor with a low ceiling where one is

obliged to bend over while climbing up a ramp. The ramp leads to a passage with a high

ceiling called the Grand Gallery, from where stairs lead to the king's burial chamber. Good

walking shoes and light clothes are advised for anyone entering the pyramid. The climb is

strenuous and the narrow passages tend to trap the heat.

The king's burial chamber is

located in the middle of the

pyramid, high above ground,

and a series of relievingchambers were built above it

to prevent it from collapsing.

3.5 Giza Sphinx

The Great Sphinx at Giza, near Cairo, is probably the most famous sculpture in the world.

With a lions body and a human head, it representsRa-Horakhty, a form of the powerful sun

god, and is the incarnation of royal power and the protector of the temple doors.

The Sphinx is the oldest and longest stone sculpture from the Old Kingdom. During the

eighteenth dynasty, it was called "Horus of the Horizon" and "Horus of the Necropolis", the

sun god that stands above the horizon. In later times, many sphinx images were carved in

smaller sizes or in cameos with the faces of the reigning monarchs. The face of the Great

Sphinx is believed to be that ofChephren, the fourth-dynasty pharaoh who built the second-
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largest pyramid in the Giza triad. In the image of the Sphinx, the pharaoh was seen as a

powerful god.

Carved out of a natural limestone outcrop, the Sphinx is 19.8 metres (65 feet) high and 73.2

metres (240 feet) long. It is located a short distance from the Great Pyramid.

Between the enormous paws is a stele that records a dreamTuthmosis IV had when he was a prince. He dreamt that he

stopped to rest in the shadow of the Sphinx during a hunting

expedition in the desert. While asleep, the Sphinx spoke to him,

saying that he would become king if he cleared away the sand

that all but buried the Sphinx. When he became king,

Tuthmosis IV cleared the sand and erected a stele that tells the

story of his dream. After the work was completed, a chapel was

built next to the Sphinx to venerate this sun god.

Down through the ages, attempts have been made to protect the Sphinx from the effects of

wind and sand erosion. A restoration project is currently under way to replace the stonecasing that once protected this monument.

Sphinxes are sometimes represented with a female face. For example, a sphinx of Queen

Hatshepsut was sculpted with her face and a pharaoh's beard. Queen Tiy, wife of Amenhotep

III, was the first to have a truly female sphinx sculpted in her likeness. Besides a female face

without a beard, her sphinx had breasts and wings.

The Sphinx differs from other deities in that it has an

animal body and a human head, whereas most other

deities have human bodies and animal heads. One

explanation for this anomaly is that the Sphinx is the

earthly representation of the constellation Leo, which has

a lions body. Images of the sphinx are found in various

sizes and shapes, as the collection at the Egyptian

Museum in Cairo and the temples throughout Egypt attest.

The Giza Pyramids and Sphinx have been the focus of attention for New Age seekers,

following a pronouncement by the American psychic Edgar Cayce. In a trance state, Cayce

spoke of vaults at the base of the Sphinx and a Hall of Records. He suggested that a secret

passage exists under the Sphinx. This is supposed to lead to a tomb where the annals of the

lost continent of Atlantis are hidden for safe keeping.

Despite the intrigue surrounding this psychic reading, modern archaeologists have not yet

found any evidence of a secret passage under the Sphinx. This story, however, continues to

stir the imagination and contribute to the mystique of ancient Egypt.

3.6 Pyramid Construction

Pyramids were constructed by large work gangs over a period of many years. The Pyramid

Age spans over a thousand years, starting in the third dynasty and ending in the Second

Intermediate Period. The Greek historian Herodotus was told that it took 100,000 men 20

years to build the Great Pyramid at Giza. Scholars today, however, think it may have been

built by only 20,000 men over 20 years.
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A pyramid's large square base creates a very stable structure. A number of astronomical

observations were used to precisely align its corners with the four cardinal points.

Approximately 80% of the building materials are found in the lower half. This means that

relatively few stone blocks were hauled to the upper levels. Since pyramids are solid, no

walls or pillars were required to support the structure. Despite its simple design, a pyramid is

an incredible engineering feat. Several theories attempt to explain how pyramids wereconstructed, but for now, the mystery has yet to be solved.

One theory suggests that causeways were used to haul the stone blocks on wooden sleds up

the side of the pyramids. The ramps were lubricated with water to reduce friction when

hauling the blocks. As few as 10 men were needed to drag a stone block up a ramp. There

may have been several ramps on each side of the pyramid at different levels, and a ramp may

have been coiled around the pyramid as it grew in height. Once a stone block reached its

desired level, wooden rockers may have been used to manoeuvre it into position.

Another theory suggests that a wooden crane with a counterweight on one end may have been

used to lift the blocks from one level to the next. This theory has been disputed, since theEgyptians did not have access to trees that were strong enough for this type of work. The

average weight of the stone blocks used to build the Great Pyramid at Giza has been

estimated at 2.5 tonnes (2.5 tons). Such an enormous weight would undoubtedly break a

wooden crane before the block could be lifted.

Another possibility involves the use of pulleys to hoist the blocks up the ramps and fulcrums

to manipulate the blocks into place. Pulleys were used on ships at the time.
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The pyramids were probably not built by slaves because slave labour was not widely used in

Egypt at the time. Peasant farmers, however, were required to spend a number of weeks

working on construction projects. This provided the paid labour needed to build these

gigantic structures. Since the fields were under water during the summer, wages earned in

building the gigantic pyramids supplemented the family's income.

Pyramids did not stand alone; they were part of a funerary complex. The complex includes a

processional causeway that links a funerary temple to the pyramid, solar barques buried on

the four sides of the pyramid, and mastabas and smaller pyramids where the family of the

king and nobles were buried.

The pyramid built by King Sahure (2491-2477 B.C., Old Kingdom) is the largest of the three

at Abousir and the one that is best preserved. Today, it is a mound of rubble, but the mortuary

temple on the east face is still discernible. Its striking features are the red granite date-palm

columns and the deeply incised hieroglyphs of the king's name and titles on the huge granite

blocks.

3.7 The Last Pyramids

The last pyramids were built around Dahshur and Hawara by the kings of the Middle

Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.). Despite considerable efforts to conceal the entrance to the tombs

and attempts to foil robbers with false passageways, the architects failed to prevent the

plundering of the pyramids. As a result, a thousand years of pyramid building came to an end.

The experiment to secure the kings journey to eternity had proven unsuccessful. For this

reason, the pharaohs of the New Kingdom turned their attention to building tombs in the

Valley of the Kings. In a remote location across the Nile from Luxor and Karnak, they hoped

to escape the ill fate of their predecessors.
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3.8 The Pyramid: Metaphor of the Human Psyche

Jungian psychologists use the pyramid shape to

illustrate stages in the development of the human psyche

from immaturity to maturity. With its four sides and

central apex, the pyramid is a model for archetypes

(universal patterns in human behaviour).

3.9 The Valley of the Kings

The Valley of the Kings is famous for its royal tombs. These beautifully painted tombs have

been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. For over a thousand years, the kings,

queens and nobles of the New Kingdom (1500-1070 B.C.) were buried in this valley, which

is the worlds most magnificent burial ground.

The tombs were cut into the limestone rock in a remote wadi (a dried-up river valley) on the

west side of the Nile, opposite the present day city ofKarnak. Their walls were painted and

sculpted with magnificent murals depicting scenes of daily life and the land of the gods. Thechambers were filled with treasures -- everything from furniture to food, statues, boats and

jewels, which a person needed to sustain life into eternity. The royals and their courtiers

hoped to find refuge from robbers and their enemies, who caused such havoc in the pyramid

tombs of their predecessors.

The Valley of the Kings was located in the ancient necropolis ofThebes, the capital of Egypt

during the New Kingdom. Two branches separate the valley into the Western Valley and the

Valley of the Monkeys. The Theban Peak, shaped like a pyramid, can be seen high above the

burial grounds. This is perhaps one of the reasons the pharaohs

chose this remote location.

The valley contains hundreds of tombs, many of which have yet to

be excavated and others that have not yet been found. The most

famous tomb (KV No. 62) belongs to the boy king Tutankhamun. It

was discovered on November 22, 1922 by the English archaeologist

Howard Carter. Here is a quote from Carters diary describing his

reaction as he first peered into the tombs antechamber.
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I inserted the candle and peered in, Lord Carnarvon, Lady Evelyn and Callender standing

anxiously beside me to hear the verdict. At first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from

the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed

to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues

and gold - everywhere the glint ofgold. . .

When Lord Carnarvon, the English patron who financed Carters

work, could no longer stand the suspense, he asked, "Can you see

anything?" Carter replied, "Yes, wonderful things."

This famous quote sums up the excitement of this incredible discovery that took the world by

storm. The awe-inspiring beauty ofTutankhamun's treasures has generated enormous interest

in the history of Egypt. These treasures are the quintessential symbol of this remarkable

civilization.

3.10 Temples

Over a long period of time, the Egyptians built numerous temples along the Nile. Two of the

most famous, at Karnak and Luxor, are featured in the IMAX film Mysteries of Egypt.

These impressive structures, with their huge columned halls and pylon gateways, were built

to honour the dead and venerate local and national gods.

Temples were places where the gods and their divine energy could reside, separated from

everything else in the world. According to the Egyptian creation legend, the first temple came

into existence on a mound of land that rose up from the primeval sea, called Nun. The first

form of life to appear on that mound was a plant on which the falcon, Horus, first perched.

Another version of this story describes the lotus flower as the first plant on which the sunemerged. Following this, human beings were created. This moment was called the First

Occasion. As sentient beings, the Egyptians reciprocated by building temples to revere and

nourish the gods.
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The design of the first temple was laid down by the gods, and each successive temple was a

copy of the first one. The design encouraged the gods to bring divine energy into the earths

plane. Priests worked at the temples, conducting the daily rituals in honour of the deities and

pharaohs to whom the temples were dedicated

3.11 Karnak Temple

Located at the northern end of the town of Luxor, Karnak Temple has three main sacred areas

that honour three gods: Montu, an ancient local warrior god; Amun, the chief god of Thebes;

and the goddess Mut, wife of Amun. Amun, Mut and their son, Khonsu, were members of the

sacred family known as the Theban Triad.

The construction of Karnak Temple began in the Middle Kingdom and was completed during

the New Kingdom, some 1,600 years later. Every successive king of this era added to the

temple, which covers two hectares (five acres) of land. It is a complicated site with four

courtyards, ten pylons, a sacred lake and many buildings.

An avenue ofsphinxes with curly-horned rams heads leads to the entrance to the first pylon.

The sphinxes represent a form of the sun god, Amun-Re. Between their paws is a small figure

of Rameses II, who won the famous Battle of Qadesh against the Hittites in Syria (1274B.C.).
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3.12 Luxor Temple

This temple is located a mile south ofKarnak Temple. Karnak and Luxor temples were once

joined by an avenue lined with two rows of human-headed stone sphinxes, guardians of the

temple gates and the underworld. Today, the remains of this avenue can be seen outside the

entrance to Luxor Temple.

The temple stands on the site of a New Kingdom building commissioned by Amenhotep III

in approximately 1380 B.C. A hundred years later, Rameses II added a great pylon gateway

and an open courtyard. Unlike Karnak Temple, this temple was not enhanced by later

pharaohs.

Since all the temples were built from an original design dictated by the gods, they have a

similar look to them. For this reason, it is easy to confuse one temple with another.

3.13 Palaces

Palaces were the residences of the pharaohs and their entourage. They consisted of a complex

of buildings designed to house the headquarters of power and the temples for worshipping the

gods. There were two main sections, one to accommodate the needs of the pharaoh and the

other to meet the requirements of administration.

Palaces took on a distinctive architectural form around the end of the fourth millennium B.C.,a form that was repeated for most of the third millennium. They were essentially rectangular
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structures consisting of high walls topped with towers. The tops of the towers were often

decorated with a rich cornice or panels.

By the end of the third millennium B.C., the palace had evolved into a palace-temple

complex. And by the second millennium, it became even more elaborate, with the addition of

a hypostyle hall with gigantic columns that led to the throne room. Rooms to accommodate

the needs of the court were located to one side of the hall. Government buildings, lakes and

gardens were also added to these complexes, creating magnificent residences for the kings of

Egypt.

One such palace-temple is found at Medinet Habu, across from the former site ofThebes, on

the other side of the Nile. It was built by Rameses III during the twentieth dynasty, around

1150 B.C. When he came to visit from his main residence in the delta region, he stayed in the

royal palace located next to the temples. The complex consists of a palace, a temple for the

worship of Rameses III and one dedicated to Amun, storehouses, and lodging for the priests.

There are two pylons, one depicting scenes of Rameses IIIs victory over the Libyans and the

other his celebrated victory over the Sea Peoples. This is the best-preserved Theban temple.
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4. Government

Government and religion were inseparable in ancient Egypt.

The pharaoh was the head of state and the divinerepresentative of the gods on earth. Religion and government

brought order to society through the construction of temples,

the creation oflaws, taxation, the organization of labour, trade

with neighbours and the defence of the countrys interests.

The pharaoh was assisted by a hierarchy of advisors, priests,

officials and administrators, who were responsible for the

affairs of the state and the welfare of the people.

Ancient Egypt could not have achieved such stability and grandeur

without the co-operation of all levels of the population. The pharaoh

was at the top of the social hierarchy. Next to him, the mostpowerful officers were the viziers, the executive heads of the

bureaucracy. Under them were the high priests, followed by royal

overseers (administrators) who ensured that the 42 district governors

carried out the pharaoh's orders. At the bottom of the hierarchy were

the scribes, artisans, farmers and labourers.

4.1 Pharaohs

The word "pharaoh" comes from the Bible. It was first used by Joseph and Moses in the

"Second Book of Kings" (ch.17). Although we use this word without distinction, it is an

anachronism when used to refer to the Egyptian kings prior to the eighteenth dynasty.

The pharaohs began ruling Egypt in 3000 B.C., when Upper and Lower Egypt were united.

During the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 B.C.), they considered themselves to be living gods

who ruled with absolute power. They built pyramids as testimony of their greatness but left

no official records of their achievements.

By the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs no longer considered themselves to be living gods, but

rather the representatives of the gods on earth. They left records of their deeds, but these wereno more than a string of titles and laudatory epithets.
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To reinforce their image as powerful divine rulers, the pharaohs represented themselves in

writings and sculptured reliefs on temple walls. They often depicted themselves as warriors

who single-handedly killed scores of enemies and slaughtered a whole pride of lions. Similar

depictions were repeated by one pharaoh after another, which leads one to question the

validity of the scenes. For example, the war pictures of Rameses III at Karnak are exact

copies of those ofRameses II. These deeds of heroism were, in part, designed for propaganda

purposes. They reinforced the position of the king as head of state rather than reflecting

historical reality.

In the fourth century B.C., a high priest and scribe of the sacred shrines of Egypt named

Manetho compiled the first comprehensive list of the pharaohs. He grouped their reigns into

dynastic divisions that to a large degree are still considered accurate today. The dynasties are

grouped into several periods, starting with the Early Period (3000-2575 B.C.) and endingwith the Graeco-Roman Period (332 B.C.- A.D. 395). The first dynasty began with the

legendary King Menes (who is believed to have been King Narmer), and the last one ended in

343 B.C. when Egypt fell to the Persians. Nectanebo II was the last Egyptian-born pharaoh to

rule the country.

Not all the pharaohs were men, nor were they all Egyptian. Before the Graeco-Roman Period,

at least three women ascended the throne, the most important being Queen Hatshepsut. Over

several periods, Egypt was dominated by foreign powers that appointed a king from their

own ranks. Exactly how successive pharaohs were chosen is not entirely clear. Sometimes a

son of the pharaoh, or a powerful vizier (head priest) or feudal lord assumed the leadership,

or an entirely new line of pharaohs arose following the collapse of the former monarchy.
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4.2 Royal Women

Royal mothers, wives and daughters derived their status from their relationship with the king.

Kings had many wives and royal families were large. The most prolific was Rameses II, who

had eight wives and over a hundred children. To keep the royal bloodline pure, kings often

married within their family, a sister or half sister, for example. In a few cases, they married

their daughters, although it is not clear whether or not these marriages were true conjugal

unions.

(left) The nobleman

Hunefer and his wife

with arms raised in

praise of the gods.

(right) Queen Ahmose-

Nefertari, pregnant

with her daughterHatshepsut, is led to

the birthing room by

the gods.

The status ofroyal women is evident in Egyptian art. One of the oldest royal insignia worn by

queens is the vulture headdress. The vulture's wings and body were spread over a tightly

fitted cap, and the head jutted out at the front. The uraeus (cobra) head could be substituted

for the vulture head. Both the vulture and the cobra served to protect the wearer from harm.

They were the most characteristic marks of kingship and may have also been, by association,

a symbol of divine queenship.

Another royal symbol worn by women from the thirteenth dynasty onward was a pair of

fa

Documents

Egypt the Land of Mysteries (Repaired)