Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 459-474.©2013 Council for Exceptional Children.

Exceptional Children

Effects of Picture PromptsDelivered by a Video iPodon Pedestrian Navigation

KELLY R. KELLEYWestern Carolina University

DAVID W. TEST

NANCY L. COOKEUniversity of North Carolina at Charlotte

ABSTRACT:r: Transportation access is a major contributor to independence, productivity, and societal

inclusion for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This study exam-

ined tbe effects of pedestrian navigation training using picture prompts displayed througb a video .

iPod on travel route completion witb 4 adults witb IDD. Results indicated a functional relation

between picture prompts on tbe video iPod and pedestrian navigation skills to and from various lo-

cations. Maintenance data indicated all participants continued navigating trained routes for up to

232 days using the video iPod. Generalization measures to untrained routes were positive. Social

validity data suggested iPod training was useful and practical for teaching independent pedestrian

navigation skills. Last, limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications for practice

were provided.

Individuals with intellectual and devel-opmental disabilities (IDD) face manychallenges related to community inte-gration, such as obstacles to indepen-dent navigation in the community

(Sohlberg, Fickas, Lemoncello, & Hung, 2009).Many rely on care providers for transportation,thus reducing self-determination levels and thedesire to learn how to access public transporta-tion systems (Sohlberg et al., 2009). Althoughprevious legislative mandates (e.g., AmericansWith Disabilities Act, 1990; President's Commit-tee on Mental Retardation, 1972; RehabilitationAct of 1973) have helped govern public trans-

portation accessibility, independent travel re-mains one of the most important unmet needsfor individuals with disabilities (Goodldn, 1977).In addition, there continues to be a lack of com-prehensive programtning and curriculum avail-able for teaching travel and pedestrian navigationskills (LaGrow, Weiner, & LaDuke, 1990).

Because traveling independently is not usu-ally taught, but learned incidentally, it needs tobe explicitly taught to individuals with IDD (La-Grow et al., 1990). Sohlberg and colleagues(2009) found one study that used a general strat-egy approach (i.e., series of picture prompts) toteach travel to novel destinations (LaDuke &

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LaGrow, 1984). Individuals who learned co travelmore independently were better prepared for theworld of work, able to experience more economicbenefits related to travel, and relied less on othersto get them from place to place (LaGrovv et al.,1990). Society can also benefit when individualswith IDD independently navigate to vocationalsites without reliance on others and can activelycontribute in society {Groce, 1996b). With ex-panded inclusive opportunities for individualswith IDD, travel training is one way to providesequential and explicit ways for accessing trans-portation.

Travel training has been defined by Groce(1996b) as "a short-term, comprehensive, inten-sive instruction designed to teach students withdisabilities how to travel safely and independentlyon public transportation" (p. 2). Travel traininghas commonly included teaching public trans-portation and pedestrian skills such as riding thebus and crossing the street; however, it has nottraditionally included comprehensive instructionfor teaching pedestrian navigation skills such aswalking specific routes (LaGrow ec al., 1990).Teaching pedestrian navigation skills involvesusing a step-by-scep method for navigacing frompoint A (starting location) to a specified destina-tion (point B) and also navigating back to thestarting location (point A). It is important toteach both ways to and from locations. Pedestriannavigation skills are similar to orientation andmobility skills because they involve simultaneousinstruction, are based on a success-based se-quence, and are aimed at meeting individualizedtravel needs (LaGrow et al., 1990).

According to Groce (1996a) and LaGrow etal. (1990), there are many benefits to travel train-ing for individuals with disabilities. First, traveltraining can improve self-esteem as individualsgain independence and assume responsibility foraccessing transportation. Second, if individualscan travel more independently, it can help expandopportunities for employment, education, and in-dependent living. Third, although travel trainingcan be costly at first due to the extensive supportsneeded, in the long term it can be a worthwhileinvestment for individuals to pay for their owntravel and navigate independently. Last, as stu-dents become less dependent on others they areable to lead productive lives and make significant

contributions to society. Knowing how to navi-gate successfully in the community is crucial forincreased quaJity of life, independence, and pro-ductivity. More importantly, developing adoles-cents do not wish to rely on parents or guardiansfor transportation and tend to appreciate greaterindependence as they grow older (Myers, 1996).

Many studies have taught travel training re-lated to bus riding (Coon, Vogelsberg, &Williams, 1981; Kubat, 1973; Marchetti, Gecil.Graves, & Marchetti, 1984; Neef, Iwata, & Page,1978; Sowers, Rusch, & Hudson, 1979; Welch,Nietupski, & Hambre-Nietupski, 1985) andpedestrian skills (Batu, Ergenekon, Erbas, &C Ak-manoglu, 2004; Marchetti, McGartney, Drain,Hooper, & Dix, 1983; Matson, 1980; Page,Iwata, & Neef, 1976) using combinations of sim-ulation, role playing, and prompting systems. Un-fortunately, a large majority of travel trainingstudies were conducted in the 1970s and 1980swhen individuals wich disabilities were being inte-grated into communities from institutional set-tings, and the interventions used were notage-appropriate (e.g., using cardboard simulationsof streets and dolls for young adults; Neef et al.,1978; Page et al., 1976). Based on increasingnumbers of adolescents with IDD attending post-secondary programs and being included withintheir communities, methods for teaching pedes-trian navigation skills need to be researched andaddressed using the latest age-appropriate tech-nologies available to see if they help increase inde-pendence or improve quality of life.

To date, only two studies have paired cravelcraining with the latest, age-appropriate technolo-gies to teach students how to navigate by bus(Mechling & O'Brien, 2010) or walk to destina-tions independendy (Mechling & Seid, 2011).First, Mechling and O'Brien investigated theeffects of computer-based video instruction pairedwich constant time delay on bus transportationskills (i.e., requesting stop signal at specific land-marks). Participants included three students, ages19 to 20, with mild to moderate intellectual dis-abilities (ID). Using a multiple probe designacross participants and one bus route, resulcs indi-cated computer-based video instruction was effec-tive and efficient for teaching two of threestudents to locate landmarks, request stops, andgeneralize these skills with 100% accuracy on all

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in-vivo (natural environments) sessions, as well asmaintaining the request for stop behaviors for atleast 52 days.

Second, Mechling and Seid (2011) examinedthe effects of using a personal digital assistant(PDA) paired with a self-prompting system onpedestrian navigation skills to destinations locatedon a college campus. Destinations included cam-pus cafeteria and food courts, a game and enter-tainment center, and a copy/print center.Participants included three females with moderatedisabilities ages 20 to 21. Using a multiple probedesign across destinations replicated across partic-ipants, results demonstrated a functional relation-ship between the use of the PDA with promptingand percentage of landmarks and destinations lo-cated by the students. In addition, students wereable to successfully navigate to these destinationsafter the PDA was removed. With only two recentstudies, more research is needed to explicitly teachindividuals with IDD pedestrian navigation skillsto and from destinations in order to increasefunctionality and independence. Therefore, thepurpose of this study was to investigate the effectsof using picture prompts displayed through avideo iPod on pedestrian navigation with youngadults with IDD (18-26 yeats old) participatingin an inclusive individualized postsecondary pro-gram at a 4-year university.

METHOD

Prior to data collection, approval was obtainedfrom the Institutional Review Board for researchat the university where the study was conducted.Before beginning the study, the researcher ex-plained and obtained necessary student consentsor parent consents and student assents. Only par-ticipants with signed assents and consents wereincluded in this study.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants included four young adults with IDDbetween the ages of 18 and 26 attending a post-secondary inclusive program designed for individ-uals who had completed a high school certificateof attendance. Each participant had access to fullparticipation in college opportunities and wascompleting requirements for a 2-year certificate.

This program required participants to live oncampus, attend college activities, audit courses,complete internships, and navigate successfially toand from campus locations. Participants met thefollowing inclusion criteria: (a) were between theages of 18 and 26, (b) were an admitted programparticipant, (c) provided student consent if age 18or older and declared their own guardian orparental consent and student assent if they werenot their own guardian, (d) had a documentedIDD based on most current psychological ormedical assessments (e.g., cerebral palsy, Downsyndrome), (e) had visual acuity to see pictures ofcampus landmarks displayed on a video iPodscreen and actual landmarks from a distance, (f)were anibulatory and able to walk steps, and (g)could independently cross streets using designatedcrosswalks with minimal supervision.

Eden. Eden was a 22-year-old, Caucasian fe-male, with mild intellectual disability (IQ= 62).Eden had previously attended a compensatory ed-ucation program at a community college prior tobeing accepted into the postsecondary program.She was not used to navigating to various collegecampus locations because her compensatory edu-cation setting was housed in one building.

Logan. Logan was a 21-year-old, Caucasianmale, with cerebral palsy and moderate intellectualdisability (IQ = 53) and Vineland Adaptive Behav-ior score of 74. Logan had previously attended abasic education program at a community collegeprior to being accepted into the postsecondaryprogram. He was not used to navigating to variouscampus locations because his basic education pro-gram was housed in one building.

Adam. Adam was a 26-year-old, Caucasianmale, with cerebral palsy and mild intellectualdisability (IQ= 67). Adam had not previously at-tended a college-based program, but worked at asheltered workshop prior to being accepted intothe postsecondary ptogram. He was not used tonavigating to various locations because his work-place was housed in one building.

Grace. Grace was a 20-year-old, Caucasian fe-male, with Down syndrome and moderate intel-lectual disability (IQ = 41) and VinelandAdaptive Behavior score of 60. Crace had recentlycompleted high school and had not attended anyadditional college or workplace programs prior tobeing accepted into the postsecondary program.

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She was not used to navigating to various loca-tions because she was in a self-contained class-room at a small rural high school.

SETTING

All training, probe, and intervention sessions wereconducted at various locations on a public, ac-credited university campus located in a rural com-munity in southeastern United States. Thecampus is housed on approximately 600 acres andincluded 13 residence halls, 14 classroom build-ings, seven performing arts buildings, 12 recre-ational buildings and ñelds, three dining and foodcourts, and 10 administrative support buildings.Additional campus locations included studentcenters, community convenience and retail stores,commercial restaurants, banks, and religious orga-nizations. At the time of the study, the collegehad more than 10,000 students. Out of this en-rollment, 256 students (2.4%) had reported andrequested accommodations through the Office ofDisability Services.

MATERIALS

Teaching materials included digital photographsof landmarks for navigating all predeterminedroutes. Photographs from the routes contained in-serted arrows {using AutoShapes in Microsoft Of-fice) placed within the digital picture to showdirectional turns. Pictures were taken using aCanon PowerShot A490 10.0 Mega Pixel digitalcamera ($90 with memory card) and downloadedinto a MacBook Pro laptop using Canon Power-Shot A490 software. Next, pictures of landmarkswere sequenced based on the predetermined routeinto Microsoft PowerPoint slides and blue Au-toShape arrows were added into each picture withrelevant turns. Last, once pictured routes werecompleted, they were exported or synched ontotwo video iPods. One iPod was a fifth generationvideo iPod classic device measuring 4 in. X 2.5in. The screen for image display was 2 in. X 1.5in. The video iPod also contained a circular wheelwith buttons including forward, backward, play,pause, and menu options under the video screen.The iPod was carried in a protective leather case.The second iPod was a newer version called theiPod Touch (fourth generation). This iPod mea-sured 2.5 in. X 4.5 in. with a 3.5 in. diagonal

screen. The screen for image display dimensionswas approximately 2 in. X 3 in. Before each use,the chosen device used by each participant wascharged through an electrical outlet or computercord. For direct observations, materials includedcopies of data sheets, a stopwatch for measuringtotal times, procedural fidelity checklists, inter-rater reliability forms, a clipboard, and a pencil.

DATA COLLECTION

Dependent Variables. Data were collected ontwo dependent variables. The first dependentvariable was correct and independent travel of aroute to and from specified locations. A correctresponse was defined as (a) successfully navigatingto and from a specified location, (b) with noprompting delivered by the researcher, (c) usingpictures displayed on the video iPod to arrive andreturn to the destination, and (d) within an ap-propriate time limit. An incorrect response wasrecorded if the participant (a) indicaced a need forassistance from the researcher during any part ofthe route, or (b) navigated off the designated pathfor more than 30 s and had to be redirected bythe researcher. Once an incorrect response oc-curred and was recorded on data sheets, the re-searcher continued to redirect students using theiPod and necessary prompting along the routeuntil the destination was reached. Redirection in-cluded modeling and looking at the picture onthe iPod, talking through the picture and walkingback to a landmark, and finally looking at thenext pictured landmark on the iPod. If the partic-ipant made it to the final destination and back tothe starting location without matching all pic-tured landmarks, this was also considered a cor-rect response because the student was able toachieve the overall outcome of navigating to andfrom a specified location without assistance fromthe iPod or researcher. During baseline and inter-vention, route order for each participant was ran-domly selected to avoid the possibility ofsequence effects.

A second dependent variable was the per-centage of correct pictured landmarks reached foreach route. A correct response was defined as suc-cessfully navigating to and from each landmarkusing the pictures displayed on the iPod with noassistance from the researcher during route com-

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pletion. An incottect tesponse was tecorded ifpatticipants requested assistance from the re-searcher for any landmarks or if they navigated offthe designated path for more than 30 s beforeneeding to be redirected. Once an incottect re-sponse occurred at a specific landmatk and wasrecorded on datasheets, the tesearcher continuedto redirect students using the iPod and necessaryprompting (only when requested) until toutecompletion. The remaining pictured landmarks topoint A were scored as 0 when the fitst landmatkon the route was missed or prompting had to begiven to the participant navigating off toute formore than 30 s. Once point A was teached, pic-tuted landmarks from point B back to point Awere also collected until a landmatk was missed.Petcentage of landmarks measured for the entitétoute used the following scale: 0 = pictured land-mark not teached independently, 1 = only pointA or point B reached independently, and 2 = pic-tured landmarks reached independently.

Prior to beginning the intervention routes,time limits were collected based on having threecollege students (i.e., two females, one male)walking at a comfottable and leisurely pace to allpredetermined routes, including the generaliza-tion route to provide a range of time necessaty fornavigating routes and setting socially valid timelimits for navigating both to and from destina-tions. For route one, acceptable time tanged from17 to 23 min with 44 total landmarks. For routetwo, acceptable time ranged from 18 to 24 minwith 58 total landmarks. For route three, accept-able time tanged from 24 to 25 min with 45 totallandmarks. For the novel route, acceptable timeranged from 17 to 24 min with 44 total land-marks. Variations of time with routes across threecollege students were due to walking speeds,crosswalks, and wait times at ttaffic lights.

In addition, setting/situation generalizationdata (Cooper, Heron, oí Heward, 2007) were col-lected on participants' ability to navigate usingthe iPod to reach novel destinations without theresearcher accompanying the participant. Genet-alization fot each route also occurred when theparticipants used only the iPod device to navigateto and from a novel destination and were able tocomplete routes within acceptable time limits.

Social Validity. Social validity data were col-lected from participants (i.e., direct consumers;

Schwartz & Baet, 1991) at the end of the study toevaluate social acceptance of procedures (Wolf,1978). Participant perceptions were read and col-lected by one of the second observers uriknown tothe participants through a questionnaite to deter-mine level of participant satisfaction with usingiPods with picture prompts to support navigationskills. The questionnaire included á 4-point Lik-ert scale (i.e., 1 = strongly disagree; 2.= disagree; 3= agree; 4 = strongly agree) and was given at theconclusion of the study. This questionnaire re-quired less than 5 min to complete. Also, after theintervention phase ended, the researcher taughtfive undergraduate special education majors andminors (i.e., immediate and extended communitymembers) how to develop travel training routesand navigation of the video iPod. At the end ofthis training session, a 4-point Likert scale ques-tionnaire was disttibuted to evaluate the social ac-ceptance of ptocedures and goals of. using theiPod to teach pedesttian navigation skills.

DESIGN

The expetiinental design was a multiple probeactoss participants design to evaluate the effects ofpicture prompts displayed through a video iPodon pedestrian navigation skills across multipleroutes.

Baseline. Duting baseline, patticipants wetegiven a campus map and asked to walk frompoint A to point B, and back to point A. Thistype of suppott is typical fot college students on àuniversity carripus. The researcher pointed topoint A on the map and said, "This is where youare now." After the student demonstrated eye gazetoward that point on the campus map, the re-searcher pointed to destination B and said, "Thisis where you need to go. Use this inap to help youget there." If the participant indicated they didnot know how to get to the location or wanderedaway from the targeted route for more than 15min, the researcher recorded the toute as incor-rect. A new ttial began the next day and was thenrecorded as correct or incorrect. If the participantbegan walking, the tesearcher recorded the correctand independent travel of a route including land-matks and mid and end points to and ftom speci-fied locations. Each toute was counted as twoseparate routes during data collection (i.e., point

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A to point B; point B to point A). The total timewas recorded and compared to the range of timenoted from social comparison data collected fromthree college students. During baseline, the re-searcher only observed participants and did notprovide any additional supports or prompts be-yond the campus map. The participant with thelowest stable baseline entered training and inter-vention first. Because all participants scored in-correct on all baseline routes, a participant wasselected at randoni.

Video iPod Training. After baseline hadended, participants were provided with an initialtraining on how to use the video iPod, includinghow to use relevant buttons on the device. Partici-pants were taught how to look at the displayedpicture while using navigation buttons on theiPod (i.e., forward, backward buttons) and thepurpose of the forward and backward buttons onthe video iPod for self-correcting when theyneeded to use the buttons to travel to picturedlandmarks. The researcher used a training scriptwith the student while viewing the pictured land-marks and hitting the appropriate video iPod but-tons. The practice route included unfamiliarpictures of two landmarks to the destination andtwo landmarks back to the starting point. Train-ing concluded when participants were able todemonstrate skills in using the device features in-dependently (i.e., forward, backward, blackscreen) as part of the training phase, which didnot require participants to physically travel to des-tinations. All participants were assessed prior tobeginning the training session for skill levels withcrosswalks because this was an initial inclusioncriterion requirement. Training was brief andrequired only one training session lasting fewerthan 10 rhin per participant. When participantswere able to recall and point to device buttons in-dependently they entered the intervention phaseand training ended.

Video iPod Intervention. Routes and land-marks were chosen starting at different locationson campus with minimal overlap to previousroutes navigated. Routes were also selected in re-mote areas on campus to address previously navi-gated routes to other classes or activities attendedby participants. All intervention and novel routeswere navigated in different directions to avoidoverlapping landmarks. All routes had similar sta-

tionary landmarks, but starting locations were dif-ferent. Selected pictures of stationary landmarksnear directional turns or longer routes were in-cluded in each route and measured based on per-centage navigated correct (e.g., trash cans, road orbuilding signs, crosswalks, traffic lights).

During intervention, participants were giventhe video iPod and the researcher said, "Use thepictures on the iPod to help you get to point Band then back to here." All routes began outside arelevant campus building (e.g., dorm, studentcenter, dining hall, academic building). Once thefirst participant demonstrated 100% indepen-dence to and from a destination within the so-cially accepted time period on thé first routetrained, the researcher asked an additional ob-server who had been trained by the researcher tocollect data as the participant navigated the routewithout the researcher present. Next, anotherbaseline probe was administered to the remainingparticipants, and intervention begari with thenext participant with the greatest amount of timeneeded. This pattern continued until all partici-pants had entered and completed interventionwith ail three routes.

During intervention, the researcher followedthe participant and provided prompts to points Aand B only if a participant requested assistance. Ifa participant was stuck, the researcher waited 30 sand then delivered generic questions, such as;"Because you cannot find the landmark thatmatches the picture, what should you do?" Afterprompting with a question if the participant didnot respond with a correct answer (e.g., go backto the previous landmark) the researcher modeledhow to use the backward button on the iPod andlocate the previous landmark where the error oc-curred. If participants could not locate landmarksindependently with picture prompts on the iPod,the researcher verbally prompted participantsafter 30 s of unsuccessful travel while walking andmodeling how to use the iPod to go back towhere the error occurred. Once the participantand researcher were back to the previous land-mark and on track with the pictured sequence,navigation continued until the route was com-pleted. When the participant navigated to the ap-propriate ending landmark a smiley face appearedon the iPod picture to indicate they had reachedche midpoint or final destination successfully.

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Other anticipated errors addressed while en routeincluded missed landmarks, interruptions bysomeone, device malfunction, route/landmarkchanges, and getting lost.

When the participant navigated to

the appropriate ending landmark a smileyface appeared on the iPodpicture to

indicate they had reached the rhidpöint

or final destination successfiilly

Missed Landmarks. The researcher cued theparticipant to hit the backward button and deliv-ered a verbal prompt to the participant aboutmissing the landmark. The researcher pointed outitems within the picture prompt displayed on thevideo iPod that were similar to the existing land-mark nearby. Once the patticipant understoodthe current location, the researcher stepped backand allowed the participant to use thé iPod tocontinue the route.

Interruptions. If there was an interruption,the researcher allowed the participant to talk tosomeone while stopping the stopwatch for up to30 s and then restarted the stopwatch once theparticipant ended the conversation and beganwalking again. The researcher noted interruptionson the data sheet and allowed the participant tocontinue the route to see if he or she could stillmeet the predetermined time limit.

Device Malfunction. If there was a devicemalfunction, the researcher took the device fromthe participant and fixed the device immediately(if possible) and gave it back to the participant. Ifthe device was not easily or quickly repaired, theroute ended for the day and continued when theiPod had been fixed or replaced. Device malfunc-tions were also noted on data collection sheets ifthe route had to end.

Route or Landmark Changes. For route orlandmark changes due to possible constructiondetours or weather related issues, it was plannedthat the route would be stopped until picturescould be revised to reflect necessary changes.

Getting Lost. If a participant was navigatingindependently with a second observer followingatid they got lost during a route, they were in-structed to call the researcher using their cell

phone and describe the landmarks around them.The researcher would then meet them at that lo-cation. Intervention sessions lasted approximately15 to' 30 min, four to five times per week.

Maintenance and Generalization. Mainte-nance and generalization data were collected todetermine the extent to which participants con-tinued to perform targeted behaviors after the in-tervention had been terminated and to see if thelearning strategies taught (i.e., iPod stipport) gen-eralized to novel untrained routes. First, mainte-nance data were collected using one of the threepreviously trained routes randomly selected acrossparticipants up to 232 days after instruction onthe toute had been completed. Second, two mea-sures of generalization were collected. The firstwere collected after mastery was demonstratedduring the intervention phase across each of thethree trained routes without the help of the re-searcher. The second generalization measures werecollected using a selected unknown route in a re-mote location of the campus. Each participantwas presented with this unfamiliar route in orderto see if they could navigate to a new locationusing only the pictures displayed on the iPod withno training provided by the researcher.

Interrater Reliability. Interrater reliability datawere collected on 30.1% of all dependent vari-ables by a second observer using the same type ofscoring sheet used by the researcher. The secondobserver collected data on independent travelroutes to and from specified locations (i.e., cor-rect or incorrect) and percentage of landmarksbased on points obtained from the performancescale (i.e., 0-2 points). An agreement wasrecorded when both observers identically scoredthe outcome as correct or incorrect (i.e., 0—2). Adisagreement was recorded if outcomes of cumu-lative or intermediate landmarks were not scoredthe same. The percentage of agreement for correctindependent travel routes and percentage of land-marks were calculated by dividing the number ofagreements by the number of agreements plus dis-agreements, and multiplied by 100. Overall inter-rater reliability ranged from 91.3% to 100% witha mean of 98.6%. During intervention, interraterreliability ranged from 91.3% to 100% with amean of 96.7%. During maintenance, interraterreliability ranged from 94.2% to 100% with amean of 98%. During generalization, interrater

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reliability ranged from 96.8% to 100% with amean of 99.2%.

Procedural Fidelity. A procedural fidelitychecklist was used for video iPod training alongwith the training script during intervention mea-sures across all campus destinations and with thesecond and additional observers. Procedural fi-delity data were collected for 55% of the sessionsdistributed across participants by the researcher,second observer, and additional observers (i.e.,training, intervention, generalization). Fidelitywas calculated as the number of steps followedcorrectly divided by the total number of requiredsteps, and multiplied by 100. Procedural fidelitywas 100% across all sessions and phases.

RESU LTS

Figure 1 presents the percentage of correct land-marks to and from destinations across four partic-ipants as well as navigation from point A to pointB and back to point A. All four participants weretrained on, and learned, three routes during inter-vention. Results indicated a functional relationbetween the picture prompts displayed on thevideo iPod and pedestrian navigation skills for allfour participants.

Eden. During baseline, Eden's performancewas 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentageof landmarks during baseline, Eden's scores re-mained stable and ranged from 0% to 7% with amean of 4.3% correct. During intervention, forcorrect routes her scores ranged from 1 to 2 witha mean of 1.7 correct. The percentage of land-marks indicated an immediate change in level andan increasing trend with a range of 47% to 100%correct and a mean of 88.2% correct. By her thirdroute trained, Eden was able to navigate using theiPod without the help of the researcher, but didnot do it within the specified time period due tothe sun shining on the pictures displayed on thevideo iPod. During maintenance, Eden's perfor-mance on the trained routes traveled remainedstable at 2 for 232 days after instruction on theroute ended. The percentage of landmarksreached independently on trained routes was100% correct. During geheralization, Eden wasable to navigate independently for all trainedroutes with 100% correct pictured landmarks. In

addition, Eden was able to use the video iPod tonavigate to and from a novel location with 100%correct landmarks.

• Logan. During baseline, Logan's performancewas 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentageof landmarks during baseline, Logan's scores re-mained stable and ranged from 0% to 6% with amean of AA% correct. During intervention, forcorrect routes his scores ranged from 1 to 2 with amean of 1.8 correct. The percentage of landmarksindicated an immediate change in level and an in-creasing trend with a range of 59% to 100% cor-rect and a mean of 92.1% correct. By his thirdroute Logan was able to navigate using the iPodwithout the help of the researcher on the first at-tempt. During maintenance, Logan's performahceon the trained routes traveled remained stable at 2for 230 days after instruction on the route ended.The percentage of landmarks reached indepen-dently on traiiied routes was 100% correct. Dur-ing generalization, Logan was able to navigateindependently for all trained routes with 100%correct pictured landmarks. In addition, Loganwas able to use the video iPod correcdy to navi-gate to and from a novel location with 100% cor-rect landmarks.

Adam. During baseline, Adam's performancewas 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentageof landmarks during baseline, Adam's scores re-mained stable and ranged from 0% to 9% with amean of 3.1% correct. During intervention, forcorrect routes his scores ranged from 1 to 2 with amean of 1.9 correct. The percentage of landmarksindicated an immediate change in level and an in-creasing trend with a range of 67% to 100% cor-rect and a mean of 88.4% correct. By his secondroute trained Adam was able to navigate using theiPod without the help of the researcher on thefirst attempt. During maintenance, Adam's per-formance on the trained routes traveled remainedstable at 2 for 224 days after instruction on theroute ended. The percentage of landmarksreached independently on trained routes was100% correct. During generalization, Adam wasable to navigate independently for all trainedroutes with 96% to 100% correct piciiured land-marks. In addition, Adam was able to use thevideo iPod correctly to navigate to and from anovel location with 100% correct landmarks.

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F I G U R E 1

Percentage of Correct Landmarks to and From Destinations Across Four Participants

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Sessions

Note. Closed data points = navigated route within appropriate time limits; Open data points = navigated route,but not within appropriate time, limits; Route 1 = Z\ to and from Hunter Library and Moore Building; Route2 = D to and from Natural Sciences Building and Student Catholic Center; Route 3 = O to and from StudentRecreation Center and Graham Building; O = Novel route without trainer; * = routes without researcher present.

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Grace. During baseline, Grace's performancewas 0 for correct routes traveled. For percentageof landmarks during baseline, Grace's scores re-mained stable and ranged from 0% to 9% with amean of 3.8% correct. During intervention, forcorrect routes her scores ranged from 1 to 2 witha mean of 1.6 correct. The percentage of land-marks indicated a small immediate change in leveland an increasing trend with a range of 24% to100% correct and a mean of 85-3% correct. Byher second route trained Grace was able to navi-gate using the iPod without the help of the

• researcher. During maintenance, Grace's perfor-mance on the correct trained routes traveledremained stable at 2 for 223 days afi:er instructionon the route ended. The percentage of landmarksreached independently on trained routes also re-mained stable at 100% correct. During general-ization, Grace was able to navigate for all trainedroutes with 100% correct pictured landmarks.Grace was also able to use the video iPod to navi-gate to a novel location for half of the route inde-pendently; however, she missed one turn withinthe route while navigating to Point A. After shereceived one prompt to revisit the pictured land-mark missed, she was able to navigate back to thestarting location independently with 70% correcttotal landmarks for the entire route.

GENERALIZATION

Overall, results for generalization showed that allfour participants could travel trained routes with-out the researcher present. Also, three of the fourparticipants were able to travel independently tonovel, untrained routes using only the support ofthe video iPod, and one participant only neededone prompt from the researcher to navigate theuntrained route.

SOCIAL VALIDITY

Social validity data were collected from partici-pants at the end of the study. The mean racingsranged between 3.5 and 4.0 (i.e., agree or stronglyagree). The lowest item rated was the pictureprompts being easy to use when help was needed,with mean ratings of 3.5. Participants were alsoasked two open-ended questions related to whatthey enjoyed most and least about using the iPodto travel. Participants indicated they enjoyed hav-

ing pictures to help them know where they wereon campus and to get to where they needed to go.Grace indicated she did not enjoy having helpwith crosswalks and Adam did not enjoy havingto ask for assistance if the iPod had to be cuedback to the pictures.

In addition, social validity data were col-lected from five undergraduate students majoringor minoring in special education on their percep-tion of developing navigation routes using pictureprompts and the video iPod. These five studentswere paid to provide support to the participantsfor 10 to 15 hr per week in order to work on par-ticipant goals developed in person centered plan-ning meetings. All five of them observed theparticipants during route training but did not im-plement training directly. At the end of the train-ing session, a 4-poinc Likert scale questionnairewas distributed and collected to evaluate the ap-propriateness of procedures, practicality, and rele-vance of using the iPod to teach pedestriannavigation skills. The mean ratings ranged be-tween 3.6 and 4.0. All items were rated as agreeor strongly agree. The two items that were ratedlower were developing landmarked routes andconfidence in creating materials for the iPod inde-pendently, with mean ratings of 3.6. Based onopen-ended comments related to the training ses-sion, students stated (a) the iPod training strategywas simple and practical for participants, (b) theyliked that it could be adapted to any variety oftasks, (c) it was age-appropriate, (d) it allowedparticipants to be more independent, and (e)technology could help ease difficulty of tasks. Theundergraduate students also stated what theyliked least about the iPod travel training strategywere: (a) data collection procedures seemed con-fusing at first, but once explained they were man-ageable and made sense; (b) it appeared that thestrategy could be time consuming, especially ifyou have to recreate the routes; (c) the fact that itrelied solely on pictures reduced the opportunityfor participants to practice reading; (d) trainingincluded several strategies, such as posting pic-tures into the PowerPoint, thac were alreadyfamiliar; and (e) training focused on iPod useonly, before talking about alternative ways to usepicture prompts without a video iPod.

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D I S C U S S I O N

The purpose of this study was to investigate theeffects of using picture prompts displayedthrough a video iPod on pedestrian navigationwith young adults with IDD (18-26 years old)participating in an inclusive individualized post-secondary program at a 4-year university. Find-ings indicated a functional relation between thepicture prompts delivered through the video iPodand pedestrian navigation skills for all partici-pants. All four participants also used the videoiPod to master the third training route on the firstattempt without help from the researcher. By thesecond or third walk with each route, all four par-ticipants became more confident and did not relyon the video iPod as much to complete routesonce they were learned. The iPod then served as abackup if they forgot a turn or piccured land-mark. This indicated the iPod was used as aprompting device, but participants could alsonavigate independently after receiving explicit in-struction delivered through the iPod.

Overall, results of this study support previousresearch related to travel training and technology.First, current findings suggested young adultswith IDD can learn to travel with greater inde-pendence when explicitly taught before enteringand/or within natural environments (Batu et al.,2004; Coon et al., 1981; Mechling & O'Brien,2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Sowers et al.,1979).

Second, this study supports previous researchthat used high-tech handheld devices displayingpictures or low tech picture prompts printed outand used in photo albums to teach complex tasks,such as bus riding behaviors (LaDuke &C LaGrow,1984), recognizing bus stops (Mechling &cO'Brien, 2010; Welch et al., 1985), and usinglandmarks to recognize pedestrian routes (Mech-ling & Seid, 2011). More recent studies (e.g.. VanLaarhoven, Johnson, Van Laarhoven-Myers,Grider, & Grider, 2009) have also found similarresults for using video iPods indicating thesedevices can be powerful instructional tools forhelping individuals with disabilities to acquirenew skills. This study extends this research toteaching a new behavior (i.e., pedestrian naviga-tion skills) using iPod technology.

Third, although previous studies teachingnew tasks have found video prompting more ef-fective than picture prompting (Mechling &CGustafson, 2009; Mechling & Stephens, 2009),this study supports findings that still photographswere effective for teaching new behaviors such aspedestrian navigation. Previous research compar-ing video and picture prompting have indicatedboth are effective and efficient for teaching flinc-tional skills such as using an automated teller ma-chine (Cihak, Alberto, Taber-Doughty, & Gama,2006). Despite the contrasting findings and con-tinued need to explore video, picture, and audi-tory prompting (Lancioni, O'Reilly, & Emerson,1996), it is more important to consider thechoices of the participants and the task beingtaught (Taber-Doughty, 2004). It might be dan-gerous to watch a video while trying to navigatecrosswalks or listen to auditory prompts deliveredon an iPod if participants need to be alert to on-coming traffic.

Last, this study extends research by using pic-ture prompts of actual landmarks, providing stim-uli closer to natural environments, and extendingtravel training research beyond cardboard simula-tions and dolls used in earlier studies (Neef et al.,1978; Page et al., 1976). Together, this study andfindings from Marchetti et al. (1983) indicatecommunity training can be effective. Generaliza-tion data from this study extends previous re-search by addressing navigation to and fromtrained and untrained routes. All previous re-search had only taught participants to navigate tolocations on trained and untrained routes withoutteaching navigation back to starting locations.

Maintenance data from this study were posi-tive and similar to maintenance data collected inprevious travel training research (Coon et al.,1981; Kubat, 1973; Mechling &c O'Brien, 2010;Neef et al., 1978; Welch et al., 1985). Two out ofthree travel training and technology studies re-ported positive maintenance data from 1 week to67 days after intervention had ended (Mechling& O'Brien, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011). Thisstudy collected maintenance for a longer time pe-riod of up to 232 days. Problem-solving skills forstreet crossing were addressed throughout thistravel training study similar to street crossing be-haviors (e.g., pushing the crosswalk button andrecognizing the walk signal or flashing to hurry)

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taught in previous research (Horner, Jones, &iWilliams, 1985; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979).However, this study extended previous researchbecause street crossing skills were embeddedwithin actual pedestrian navigation routes. Manyroutes used in this study involved different typesof crosswalks with and without crosswalk buttonsto provide greater generalization opportunities.

Participants indicated they weremore confident in their ability to travelindependently to other destinations oncampus using iPod support. This is one

of the first studies that gatheredparticipants' perceptions fi)r using

the iPod to travel independently

Based on social validity data from partici-pants, it appears participants felt explicit traveltraining allowed them to explore college activitiesto greater degrees than they would have withoutinstruction. Participants indicated they were moreconfident in their ability to travel independendyto other destinations on campus using iPod sup-port. This is one of the first studies that gatheredparticipants' perceptions for using the iPod totravel independently. All participants also indi-cated they enjoyed using the iPod to learn newskills, which was similar to social validity findingsin previous research using iPods to deliverprompts for completing vocacional casks (VanLaarhoven ec al., 2009) and using iPods duringindependenc leisure time (Hammond, Whadey,Ayres,& Gast, 2010).

Social validity data were collected to evaluatefucure teachers* perceptions of acceptability forusing the iPod strategy. Results indicated that un-dergraduate students perceived the iPod trainingand strategy co be an effeccive mechod for reach-ing individuals wich IDD how co navigate inde-pendently. These findings are similar to socialvalidity data collected from teacher perceptions inprevious research (Mechling & Seid, 2011).

The results of this study make several uniqueconcributions to research related to travel trainingand technology. First, it addressed cravel trainingCO include navigacion co a specific location andback to a starting location. Second, no assistance

beyond the iPod was provided during generaliza-tion measures co ensure participants could cravelindependently using che "following procedure"for safecy suggesced by Groce (2000). Third, chisstudy used che iPod, which was a practical scrac-egy and a nonincrusive supporc thac looked verytypical to others in a university setting. It was easyto create and allowed participants to be alert totheir surroundings when traveling. Last, the iPoddevice and digital camera used to create the routeswere more economical than the PDA GyranoCommunicator device used in Mechling and Seid(2011) with comparison coses of S 1,300 for chePDA Gyrano Communicator versus $130 to$299 for the video iPod device used in chis study.

L I M I TAT I O N S A N D

S U G G E S T I O N S FOR

F U T U R E R E S E A R C H

This study had several limitations and implica-tions for future research. There is limited general-icy of findings. Fucure research should continue coinvescigace che use of iPods as well as other cech-nologies (e.g., iPads) to teach pedestrian naviga-tion skills and other functional skills toindividuals with varied disabilities and in a varietyof community settings.

Second, participants in this study seemed tohave more confidence and comfort in travelingindependently because chey had been living onche college campus prior co che implementationof che study. However, it was still important toconsider street crossing attentiveness before allow-ing independent navigacion at busy crosswalks(Groce, 2000; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979). Fu-ture research should examine comfort levels be-fore independenc travel is incroduced co avoidanxiety or fear wich craveling alone.

Third, this study did not address indoortravel training due to the skill sets thac wouldhave been required for teaching number recogni-tion, elevator or stairwell navigation, and havingmore than one destination within a rouce. Fucureresearch should address componencs of combinedindoor and outdoor travel training and add morestops within the route. In this present study, par-ticipants were taught to navigate to the entranceof a building.

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Fourth, using this technology has some dis-advantages. Traveling in the rain and bright sun-light made it difficult to see pictures displayed onthe video iPod. Participants wete taught to findshade if they could not see the pictutes due to thesunlight and were taught to carry an umbrella andthe iPod when it was raining. Future studiesshould considet weather, address protective de-vices in harsh weather, and find ways to displaypictures in bright sunlight.

Last, social validit;»' measures were gatheredfrom undergraduate special education majors andminors who also provided paid support for theprogram working dii:ectly with patticipants on aweekly basis. Therefore, these individuals werenot naive to the sttidy because they wotked withparticipants directly when participants navigatedsome of the campus routes.

I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR PRACTICE

There are several implications fot practice basedon findings from this study. First, when usingtechnology with individuals with IDD it is im-portant to consider physical and fine motor skillsneeded to opetate iPod devices. Practitionersshould try out the device to see if it must beadapted ot modified because one system may notfit all students. When considering which techno-logical devices or strategies to use it is importantto find ways to address the unique needs of indi-viduals with disabilities and accommodate indi-vidualized strategies when possible (Cihak,Kessler, & Alberto, 2007). Second, it is importantfor practitioners to stay abreast of technology re-search and collaborate with assistive technologyexperts who keep devices circulating (rather thansitting on shelves) because technology can facili-tate increased learning or independence for indi-viduals with disabilities (Mechling, 2007). Third,it is important to consider the behaviors to betaught before choosing an intervention. Consider-ing the use of auditory or video prompting andmodeling paired with travel ttaining is impottantdue to limited alertness or safety concerns. Partic-ipants can be more alert with cars without audi-tory prompts. In this study, picture promptingwith directional arrows allowed participants to bealert to the surroundings.

Fourth; teachers must also be prepared whenteaching travel training to use permanent land-marks that will not be moved. Pictures taken forany type of insttuction should closely match tar-geted stimuli. For example, if taking pictures oflandmarks or outdoors, it is important to considerthe weathet and seasons to closely match targetedlandmarks and not take the pictures too fat in ad-vance (e.g., in winter, trees should be bare in thepictures). Considerations must also be made fotpeople or cars in the pictures. If you take pictureprompts to include different objects (e.g., cars,people) it is important during training to discusshow these items might not be in the pictute whenthey actually get to complete the routes in naturalenvironments or try to take pictures that do notinclude these items. This teaches individuals toattend to the important details or landmarks andignore extraneous images or items in the pictureprompts (Mechling, 2008b). In addition, witheach picture taken for travel training, it is impor-tant to consider the visible landmark as well ashow to appropriately add the directional arrows.When making the pictured routes, capture pic-tures where individuals will have to make deci-sions for turning on the toute. When adding thedirectional arrows, it is important fot the individ-uals navigating to learn how to walk to the end ofthe arrow displayed in the pictute and then push"forward" on the iPod to get to the next picturedlandmark. When developing training materials,be sure not to put the end point of the directionalarrow in the middle of a crosswalk or intersection.Most importantly, a support system such as a vol-unteer walker should use the pictures from thevideo iPod at least once a week to check routes forchanges with landmarks and notify the researcherof any changes so the route can be modified.

Last, with minimal preparation time, pictureprompts can also be used to teach rriany func-tional or academic skills beyond pedestrian navi-gation as they have in similar studies related toindependent living or vocational skills (Copeland& Hughes, 2000; Riffel et al., 2005; Wacker &Berg, 1984). If video iPods are not available,photo albums or rings of pictures can also be usedto help with navigation or prompting of otherskill sets (Mechling, 2008a). Although iPods areage-appropriate, there are other ways to deliverpicture prompt instruction while still ptoviding

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explicit instruction and stimuli closer to naturalenvironments. It is important to remember an ad-varitage of using multimedia instruction (e.g.,videos or pictures) is that it can provide repeatedpractice, teach several trials, and provide over-learning in many emergency and nonemergencysituations (Mechling, 2008b). By using technol-ogy and picture prompts, individuals with disabil-ities are not exempt from travel training if theyare unable to read or tell tiitie consistently.

. Teaching pedestriaii navigation skills usingpicture prorhpts displayed on a video iPod appearsto be a promising support for expanding access toemployment, recreational opportunities, and in-creasing independent travel for young adults withIDD. When using video iPods,- it is irhpörtant toconsider how to teach these explicitly in an age-appropriate way while keeping individuals alert totheir surroundings. This study was designed todemonstrate the use of handheld devices to teachpedestrian navigation skills to individuals withIDD. Although results from this study were posi-tive, this is only the third study that has pairedhandheld technology with pedestrian navigationskills (Fi'ckas, Sohlb'erg, & Hung, 2008; Mechling& O'Brien, 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011).Therefore, additional research is needed beforeusing picture prompts displayed on video iPods toteach pedestrian navigation skills cari be consid-ered a research- of evidence-based practice.

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Address correspondence concerning this article toKelly R. Kelley, Western Carolina University, 152Cordelia Camp Building, Cullowbee, NC, 28723(e-mail: kJcelÍey@emaiLwcu.edu).

Manuscript received January 2012; accepted May2012.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

KELLY R. KELLEY (North Carolina CEC),Assistant Professor, Special Education, WesternCarolina University, Cullpwhee, North Carolina.DAVID w. TEST (North Carolina CEC), Profes-sor; and NANCY L. COOKE (North CarolinaCEC), Associate Professor, Department of SpecialEducation and Child Development, University ofNorth Carolina at Charlotte.

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