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Police Practice and ResearchAn International Journal

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Effective communication during major crises:a systematic literature review to identify bestpractices for police

Kelly A. Hine & Adelaide Bragias

To cite this article: Kelly A. Hine & Adelaide Bragias (2020): Effective communication duringmajor crises: a systematic literature review to identify best practices for police, Police Practice andResearch, DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2020.1821681

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1821681

Published online: 17 Sep 2020.

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ARTICLE

Effective communication during major crises: a systematic literature review to identify best practices for policeKelly A. Hine and Adelaide Bragias

ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

ABSTRACTPolice are the frontline response to major crises (such as natural disasters and terrorism). One key element to the successful outcome of major crises is the effective communication by police to their fellow officers, com-mand, and other emergency personnel to contain and control the situa-tion. Yet, there is no current academic research examining the effective communication of police during major crises. This study conducted a systematic literature review on the effective communication by emer-gency personnel during major crises to identify lessons learned from other disciplines in order to identify best practice strategies for preparing police for major crises. Of the 11,352 initially identified publications, 45 were assessed as relevant for ‘environment’ and ‘communication’ criteria which resulted in a final list of 15 publications. The findings highlight two important factors for effective communication in such situations; decen-tralized communication structures and shared mental models. However, while the importance of these two factors is understood, actually achiev-ing these factors is difficult. These findings have implications for policy and procedures in identifying best practice for preparing officers for the effective communication during major crises.

ARTICLE HISTORY Received 17 June 2020 Accepted 31 August 2020

KEYWORDS Police; law enforcement; crises; crisis; disaster

Police are typically the first on the scene during major crises such as natural disasters and acts of terrorism and have the largest presence relative to other organizations (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012; Brisner & King, 2016; Rojek & Smith, 2007), yet the role of police in responding to major crises is mostly overlooked. Major crises are unique, unpredictable, and typically unprecedented events (Brisner & King, 2016; Rojeck & Smith, 2007) in which officers are required to play multiple roles (for example, identifying and arresting any perpetrators, containing and controlling the situation, protecting lives, and tending to the wounded) (Rojeck & Smith, 2007). These roles require a diverse range of skills, sometimes all at once. Furthermore, the rarity and unique nature of major crises often require officers to conduct these multiple roles in circumstances that they may have never experienced before either during operational procedures or during training. The scale of major crises requires officers to work alongside other emergency personnel. Moreover, in order to do their job, and for the successful outcome of the crisis, police need to be able to communicate crucial factors about the unfolding events and the decisions taken not only with other officers, but also with other emergency responders. However, issues arise for the effective communication by police due to the unprecedented dynamic and rapidly unfolding environment of major crises, the complexity of the decision-making process, and the varying communication styles used.

CONTACT Kelly A. Hine kelly.hine@anu.edu.au ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods (CSRM), Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1821681

© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

This paper aims to identify effective communication strategies for police during major crises. First, the paper describes the types of major crises and the role officers play during these types of events. Next, the environment of major crises is explored in which officers and other emergency personnel need to operate. This then leads to an exploration of how officers make decisions during dynamic and rapidly unfolding environments. Finally, the problems of effective communication during these environments are highlighted. The following section then outlines the current study’s aims and research design before providing the methodology for the systematic literature review. Results are then presented, focusing on the key themes; environments, mental models, and com-munication styles. Finally, these results are discussed in terms of their application to effective communication between officers and other emergency personnel in major or crisis events. The paper then concludes with implications and recommendations to practitioners and future research-ers about best practice to prepare officers for effective communication during major crises.

Types of major crises

When major crises occur, they can have devastating consequences that can cause serious damage and affect a large number of people. By their very definition, major crises requiring emergency responses are events that ‘threatens serious damage to human welfare’ (Cabinet Office, 2012, p. 10) and the ‘safety and well-being of a large number of people’ (Australian Government, 2020, p. 1). Being able to manage the size of such events can cause difficulties for those responding such as police (Brisner & King, 2016). Furthermore, the nature and causes of major crises are diverse and can range from natural disasters to man-made disasters. For example, more traditional types of major crises include natural disasters (such as bushfires/wildfires, cyclones/hurricanes/tornados, floods and tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides), man-made disasters (includ-ing chemical, nuclear, biological, and civil unrest), and large-scale accidents (such as transportation accidents structural failures, or industrial accidents) (Australian Government, 2020). While more recent forms of national emergencies can include intentional acts such as terrorism, active shooters, and other present threats. The varying types of major crises require different skills and approaches of police in controlling and managing the successful outcomes.

Police are often the first responders to major crises (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012; Brisner & King, 2016; Rojek & Smith, 2007). As such, their role requires them to take on many different duties depending on the type of crisis. Major crises are relatively rare events and, as such, officers may have no prior experience of responding to such events (Rojeck & Smith, 2007). These events require officers to go beyond the normal duties that they are accustomed. These duties may include, containing and controlling the cause (which in itself can range from identifying and arresting an offender (such as a terrorist) to putting out a fire (such as in a natural disaster), protecting citizens from harm, tending to the wounded, evacuating people and controlling traffic, protecting buildings and structures, and preventing and responding to ancillary crimes such as looting and vandalism – and may require an officer to do all at once (Brisner & King, 2016; Rojeck & Smith, 2007).

Police also need to work alongside and support other emergency responders. The large scale of major crises also reflects the large scale of emergency services involved in such events and can include fire, ambulance, state emergency services, medical services, search and rescue, specialist crews, defence force, and other government and non-government agencies (Australian Government, 2020). Being able to effectively work alongside and communicate decisions with such a vast array of personnel with differing goals can become difficult, especially given the environment in which they need to work (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012).

The environment

The environments of major crises involve ambiguity and are complex and time sensitive (House et al., 2014). Policing such events can be unpredictable – police cannot be sure of what or who to

2 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

expect upon arrival at a scene or the level of resistance they may encounter; there may be innocent bystanders or multiple offenders involved; they are high-stakes events that may result in serious consequences; and police are typically under time pressure to resolve the situation before it escalates. At the same time, officers need to make crucial decisions about how to respond. Officers need to decide how to prioritize the multiple duties that are required and consider the potential outcomes.

Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM) is a relatively new area of research that examines decision making in dynamic and natural settings (Klein, 2008). NDM attempts to develop a better under-standing of the thought processes in complex real-world settings. NDM originated from criticisms that studying decision making in laboratory settings does not adequately reflect decision making in real-world contexts that are more complex (Klein, 2008). NDM distinguishes that these types of environments differ from traditional settings and, in turn, requires individuals to engage in a different way of thinking and decision-making processes. NDM outlines eight elements that these dynamic and rapidly unfolding events differ from traditional events (G. A. Klein et al., 1993; Zsambok & Klein, 1997). First, problems are complex and ill-structured compared with traditional events that tend to have well-structured problems. Second, they are dynamic and uncertain events compared to the typically static environments of traditional settings. Third, goals are often shifting and competing while goals in traditional settings are typically clear and stable. Fourth, multiple decisions are usually required compared to the one simple decisions typically needed during traditional environments. Fifth, time pressures and high-stakes (sixth) are key elements of these situations compared to traditional environments where decision-makers have ample time to consider options and lower stakes involved. Seventh, these situations are complicated by the high number of people involved compared to the single or small amount of people involved in traditional scenarios. Finally, these situations not only involve multiple people but are also not isolated incidences – that is, organization goals and norms also need consideration. Hence, the environment of major crises differs from that of normal policing duties and requires a different way of thinking and communicating. For police, these environments can be challenging and demanding and often requires officers to make rapid and complex decisions that have potentially dire consequences. In turn, these decisions often need to be communicated in the moment to their partners, command, and other frontline personnel.

The decision-making process

Hindering the effectiveness of articulating those decisions is the complexity involved in making decisions in dynamic and rapidly unfolding events. Making crucial decisions in such an environ-ment needs to be accelerated and, in turn, increases cognitive load leading to officers relying on intuitive decision-making via the use of unconscious mental short cuts (Hine et al., 2018, 2019). In turn, officers often move from the information gathering stage of decision-making to the action stage without mindfully considering the plan formation stage of decision-making. While this style of decision-making can be useful to the individual officer in order to make rapid decisions, consequently, because this decision-making style is unconscious and based on intuition, officers may be unable to understand their decision-making processes and also unable to effectively communicate their decisions with others (Cohen-Hatton & Honey, 2015).

In order to understand how officers can best articulate their decisions, first the decision-making process in these environments needs to be understood. Yet, little is known about how officers make decisions in these circumstances (see Hine et al., 2018, 2019). However, researchers have found that people make decisions differently in complex real-world situations (such as crises) than in simpler situations without time restrictions (Orasanu & Connolly, 1993; Zsambok & Klein, 1997). NDM has explored decision-making in these types of situations for examples how firefighters, physicians, pilots, military commanders, and law enforcement officers make decisions under challenging conditions. Overall, the NDM research has shown that, during high-pressured situations, people

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 3

tend to make intuitive decisions based on previous experience, rather than following a slower analytical process (Klein, 2015). More specifically, Hine et al. (2018) examined the decision-making processes of recruits’ decisions to use force and the impediments to the decision-making process. Using an NDM approach, they found that the recruits were making decisions intuitively rather than relying on an analytical approach often outlined in policies and procedures. Additionally, they suggest that recruits experience cognitive, perceptual, and physiological impairments to the deci-sion-making process. Fundamentally, it has been suggested that because officers rely on the unconscious intuitive decision-making processes (Hine et al., 2018), they may be unable to effectively communicate their decisions with others (Cohen-Hatton & Honey, 2015). While the NDM research has had some focus on police decisions, it does not directly focus on police decision- making processes during major crises nor the articulation of these decisions. Hence, the most effective ways for officers to communicate their decision-making processes remain unknown.

Communication styles

The need for effective communication and articulation of decisions by officers is perhaps most crucial during major crises where officers need to be able to work together with other emergency personnel and agencies, all the while trying to control and contain a situation in which they may have no previous experience. Complications arise not only in the articulation of decisions as outlined above, but also because during major crises, officers need to collaborate with other parties that they may never have interacted with before. This interaction entails officers working with different personalities, cultures, goals, expertise, and jargon which all add to the complexity of the situation (Haferkamp et al., 2011). Hence, the ability for officers to effectively communicate both within their own team and with other agencies is essential to the successful resolution of these situations.

Shared mental models

One of the most prominent models amongst the teamwork literature for being able to effectively communicate is via the use of shared mental models (Jonker et al., 2010). This concept proposes that teams function more efficiently when members have a shared understanding of the task (Jonker et al., 2010, p. 132). A mental model is the internal representation of one’s world (Gentner & Stevens, 1983) – it is how we describe and understand our environment. If members of a team have the same understanding and reasoning of the environment, then they are better able to commu-nicate and predict other team member’s needs and actions. The successful relationship between team performance and the use of shared mental models have repeatedly demonstrated success (Bolstad & Endsley, 1999; Lim & Klein, 2006; Mathieu et al., 2000; Yen et al., 2006). However, it is also noted that creating shared mental models is difficult (G. Klein et al., 2004; Sycara & Sukthankar, 2006).

The current study

Overall, police are typically the first responders to any major crises. Due to the nature and scale of major crises, officers need to be able to effectively communicate to not only their fellow officers and commanders, but to other emergency personnel. Therefore, it is essential to understand and identify best practices in order to best prepare officers for major crises. However, an initial search of the literature found that no academic research has been conducted that specifically examines the effective communication by police during major crises. Therefore, this paper aims to draw from other disciplines – beyond policing research – to identify lessons learned in other areas to establish and apply best practices for police. To do this, it systematically examines and analyzes all relevant published scientific studies on effective communication during dynamic and rapidly unfolding

4 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

events. In particular, situations that have high-stakes are rapidly unfolding, and involve multiple officers or other emergency personnel to identify effective (and ineffective) communications styles and techniques between officers and other emergency personnel. In turn, the findings from this paper will inform policing policies and practices in best preparing officers for policing major crises.

Methodology

Research design

To obtain a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the current body of knowledge, a systematic literature review was conducted. Systematic literature reviews are a complete and exhaustive summary of a field of interest (Pickering & Byrne, 2014). Their scientific structure of analysis provides a robust and valid research strategy that is reproducible and objective (Biondi- Zoccai et al., 2011). To ensure a high degree of relevance and control when conducting such a broad search, the work was conducted by two trained researchers.

Search strategy

An initial search of the literature found that there has been no academic research conducted on effective communication by police officers during major crises. Consequently, a broad search was conducted, beyond the policing literature, which incorporates similar dynamic and rapidly unfold-ing environments. In doing so, the paper aimed to identify successful communication strategies (or learn lessons from unsuccessful communication strategies) used in other occupations in order to apply to the policing environment. The review aimed to capture articles published in English by casting a wide research net that would include communication between and within agencies involved in high-pressure, uncertain environments. Therefore, the search terms for the systematic literature review contained two tiers of searches:

● Major and crisis situations – which represented the environment of the situation and contained the search terms: crisis, crises, emergency, major, disaster.

● Communication – which represented how responders interact and verbalise their thoughts and contained the search terms: communicat*, verbal*, interagency, interoperability.

Databases

The search was conducted initially using scientific databases selected for their extensive collection of multidisciplinary journals including social sciences, law, and psychology and then cross-checked using Google Scholar. Reference lists of the identified publications were also cross-checked for additional studies. The wide use of databases and cross-checking allowed for the discovery of both peer-reviewed publications and grey literature. As initial searches indicated very few studies on the topic, it was decided to include a broad range of literature beyond empirical publications to also include theoretical and explanatory academic papers. This broad range allowed for the most comprehensive understanding of the topic given such few studies. The databases employed for the search were ProQuest, Taylor and Francis Online, Emerald Insight, Wiley, PsycINFO, and SAGE. The initial search resulted in 11,352 publications in the long list.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The long list was then refined using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Careful consideration was taken when constructing the inclusion and exclusion criteria as to not be too limiting. Two main categories were developed for the selection process; communication and environment.

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 5

Communication

The current study focuses on communication as a vehicle for conveying information and coordina-tion among people to make decisions, in particular, communication between officers (inter orga-nisation) and between officers and other emergency personnel (intra organisation). Therefore, for the purposes of this study, communication is defined as the transmission of a message from a sender, to the recipient in an inter or intra organisational environment. In this research, it is limited to messages between police and other service personnel (excluding police communicating information to citizens and the media1) during crisis response events. These messages may be transmitted through the use of technological communication systems, such as radio, and verbally.

Environment

The current study focuses on situations that are similar to the dynamic and rapidly unfolding environment of police use-of-force events. Findings from the Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM) research were drawn upon to construct the environment requirement criteria. NDM is distin-guished from traditional decision-making research by examining cognitive functions in demand-ing, real-world situations. These situations are classified as having limited time, shrouded in uncertainty, involving high stakes, containing vague goals, or have unstable conditions. Therefore, the current study uses this criteria for the selection process of the environment inclu-sion/exclusion criteria.

Selection process

Figure 1 illustrates the selection process in which the original 11,397 identified publications were screened by title and abstract using the inclusion and exclusion selection criteria outlined above. Of these, 11,352 were found to be irrelevant and were removed from the list. The remaining 45

Figure 1. Review flow.

6 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

publications were then read in entirety resulting in a further 30 publications excluded. Of these 30 excluded publications, seven were excluded as they did not meet the environment criteria (for example, the environments studied were not time-sensitive). Another 23 were excluded because they did not meet the communication criteria (for example, most of these publications involved officers communicating and directing information to citizens and not to fellow officers/emergency responders or they examined the effectiveness of various technologies such as mobile phones). This selection process resulted in a final list of 15 publications.

Results

The analysis resulted in the final short list of 15 publications outlined in Table 1. A particular significant trend in the literature was the spread of discipline publication areas. While there was no research from a policing perspective, communication during crisis events appears to be of particular interest to public administration, which entails policy development and public service. However, the topic is also explored in psychology and technology systems journals. The topic was examined from both an inter-agency perspective and an intra agency perspective, with a greater focus on inter-agency communication. There was a distinct difference in goals for these authors, where inter- agency communication articles examined large-scale events such as natural disasters and terrorist events, compared with the intra-agency communication articles which focused on improving field- specific techniques such as language use. It is worth noting, as acknowledged by Dynes and Quarantelli (1976) that intra-agency communication is not free from external inter- organisational context, particularly in the case of crisis situations.

Within the identified literature, the researchers drew from mostly training simulator observa-tions or official records to examine the topic. Four publications relied on the use of official reports and administrative data (Dynes & Quarantelli, 1976; Garnett & Kouzmin, 2007; Kapucu, 2005, 2006), Kapucu (2005, 2006)) complemented these data with interviews and media reports. Three publications utilized questionnaires and interviews with experts (Nowell & Steelman, 2015; Palttala et al., 2012; Seeger, 2006). Observations using training simulations were common in the military response research (Achille et al., 2009; Bharosa et al., 2010; Stout et al., 1999) and in fire and rescue responses (Cohen-Hatton & Honey, 2015; Haferkamp et al., 2011). While these all involved empirical research, three publications were expository in nature. Orasanu (1994) explained effective decision making and communication in aeronautics in a book chapter, while Comfort (2007) along with Garnett and Kouzmin (2007) reviewed communication and crisis management using Hurricane Katrina as a case study. Finally, House et al. (2014) conducted a systematic literature review of all major incidences, however, this review was limited to only one particular mental model.

Environments

The environments that were explored in the literature were spread over a range of categories, including natural disasters, aviation, terrorist acts, and defense training and response. Early research, which was derived from the US, examined communication during natural disasters (Dynes & Quarantelli, 1976) and aviation emergencies (Orasanu, 1994; Stout et al., 1999). As a reflection of major events in the US, post-2001 research shifted to the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Kapucu, 2005, 2006) and natural disasters (i.e. Hurricane Katrina and wildfires) (Comfort, 2007; Garnett & Kouzmin, 2007; Nowell & Steelman, 2015) while Seeger (2006) took a broader examination of a number of US major events including the 2004 Florida Hurricane season and the 2000 Anthrax episode. Though, Achille et al. (2009) continued the military interest in the topic by examining simulated US Navy battles. During this time of technological advances, there was also rises in other simulation studies (Haferkamp et al., 2011). However, the most comprehensive study examined disasters in general and involved experts covering a global geographical background (Palttala et al., 2012). The most recent

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 7

Tabl

e 1.

Ove

rvie

w o

f the

fina

l lis

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tified

pub

licat

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.

Cita

tion

Inte

r/

Intr

a Ag

ency

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cus

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Envi

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Men

tal M

odel

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mm

unic

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ndin

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(197

6)

Inte

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view

of N

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aste

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sear

ch

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re r

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ts

Nat

ural

dis

aste

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mak

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cisi

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diffe

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ly in

un

cert

ain

situ

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mun

icat

ion

diffe

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depe

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:●

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(1

994)

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posi

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boo

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us a

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de

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func

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:(1

)Sh

arin

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form

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actio

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tive

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whe

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mm

unic

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bui

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(199

9)In

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and

shar

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anal

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9/11

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ng

offici

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nd

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whe

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prod

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mer

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r an

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spon

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Kapu

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006)

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(Continued)

8 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

Tabl

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(Con

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(Continued)

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 9

Tabl

e 1.

(Con

tinue

d).

Cita

tion

Inte

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Intr

a Ag

ency

Fo

cus

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ness

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of

trai

ning

affe

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in

sim

ulat

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re a

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cena

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Fire

and

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cue

(hou

se fi

re,

traffi

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kip

fire)

●U

K’s

emer

genc

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es o

pera

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nal m

odel

: SA/

PF

/PE

●Re

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- pr

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dec

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akin

g m

odel

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icit

com

mun

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ning

can

be

used

to

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expl

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mun

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in th

e pl

anni

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tage

the

enab

les

shar

ed a

war

enes

s an

d go

als.

10 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

research has emerged from Europe and explores more localized issues of gas leaks and explosions (Bharosa et al., 2010) as well as fire and rescue responses (Cohen-Hatton & Honey, 2015).

Mental models

While theoretical understandings of decision making were not always explicit amongst the research (indeed seven of the papers did not explicitly explore decision making), there was a common theme amongst the papers; shared mental models. The importance of shared mental models in order to effectively communicate was expressed either explicitly or implicitly implied within the literature. Mental models were described as the cognitive understanding with Orasanu (1994, p. 4) explaining that mental models are used to represent complex systems which are achieved by forming linkages between events. In turn, these linkages are used to predict and envision possible outcomes of an event. The literature highlights the importance of personnel having similar or ‘shared’ mental models in order to have similar understandings of an event to effectively communicate decisions. This is consistent with the mental simulations described by NDM researchers. Indeed, most of the research drew from the NDM research explaining that individuals make decisions differently during rapidly unfolding situations. Furthermore, Comfort (2007) and Cohen-Hatton and Honey (2015) employed the recognition-primed decision-making model derived from NDM research.

Alternatively, three papers examined cognitive understanding as a process. Comfort (2007) used Hurricane Katrina as a case study to argue the need to include cognition in emergency manage-ment. She drew from the three Cs of emergency management (communication, coordination, and control) to propose a fourth C of cognition. She states that ‘without cognition, the other compo-nents of emergency management remain static or disconnected, and often leads to cumulative failure’ (Comfort, 2007, p. 189). On the other hand, House et al. (2014) examined cognition as a process in their systematic literature review. They examined previous empirical research that uses the SAFE-T model as a framework of understanding. The model outlines the process for decision making starting with situational assessment (SA), followed by plan formation (F) and plan execu-tion (E) and ending with team learning (T). Similarly, Cohen-Hatton and Honey (2015) also took a cognitive process perspective and explored the UK’s emergency services operational model. That model suggests that decisions involve three steps; situation assessment, plan formulation, and plan execution.

Communication styles

Two main themes emerged from the analysis of communication styles; the need for a decentralized structure of communication flow and, as previously highlighted, the need for a shared mental model to effectively communicate. Within the literature, it was commonly agreed that a shift was needed away from traditional centralised models of decision-making to a more decentralized model (Dynes & Quarantelli, 1976; Garnett & Kouzmin, 2007; House et al., 2014). During high-pressure situa-tions, time-sensitive crises create conditions of increased decision-making for personnel at the lower levels of organisational structure, and less time for consultation amongst the team. This resulting autonomy amongst lower level members creates a ‘horizontal’ style of functioning in teams, questioning the practicality of normative communication systems that tend to follow a rigid hierarchy. Three papers specifically referred to the restructuring of normative predetermined decision-making centres, with two suggestions for replacement models. The first, ‘boundary spanners’ (Garnett & Kouzmin, 2007; Kapucu, 2006), involves constructing a horizontal connection of networks to act as bridges between groups and their proximate resources, utilizing preexisting relationships to work in partnerships, rather than through a rigid hierarchy. Secondly, Dynes and Quarantelli (1976) propose a more fluid model for restructuring normative decision-making models through their four typologies, suggesting that authority should emerge organically based on which body has the most relevance to the crisis.

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 11

Secondly, the literature consistently highlighted the importance of using shared mental models to effectively communicate decisions (Achille et al., 2009; Comfort, 2007; Nowell & Steelman, 2015; Orasanu, 1994; Stout et al., 1999). Shared (or mutual) mental models involve a team developing a shared goal and incorporates constructing a common understanding within a team of not only what tasks are required, but also the role of others in this system. Additionally, effective commu-nication relies on the vocalization of explicit plans to create shared goals, made easier to compre-hend through a conscious decision-making process. This process aims to prevent the jump from ‘SA’ (Situation Assessment) to ‘PE’ (Plan Execution), as suggested by Cohen-Hatton and Honey (2015), by focusing on developing conscious ‘PF’ (Plan Formulation). All papers contended that the formulation of an explicit plan through this mental model is argued to increase effective commu-nication and planning. One paper specifically examined the vocalization of explicit plans via the use of a short-hand language or organisational jargon. Achille et al. (2009) used observations of navy battle simulation to explore the effective use of navy terminology. Additionally, Nowell & Steelman (2015) highlight the importance of familiarity between responders and agencies by examining embeddedness to find both relational and institutional embeddedness shapes the effectiveness of communication.

However, the more recent research suggests that while users understand this concept, it was not always practiced. For example, Bharosa et al. (2010) found that while participants agree on the importance of information sharing, the actual sharing of information was limited. Mostly, partici-pants were concerned with obtaining information rather than providing information. Similarly, House et al. (2014) found that agencies tended to focus on their own areas of interest or specialty resulting in inefficient inoperability. Finally, in an attempt to strengthen shared mental models, Achille et al. (2009) observed the use of terminology to find that military terms were used accurately only 57% of the time indicating that simple ‘on the job’ practice may not be sufficient in building communication. The authors note that, ‘ . . . like dancing, communication is both an individual skill and a team skill’, and perhaps implementing a shared mental model in addition to rigorous jargon training may both improve intra-agency communication through a shared desire to develop these skills, and aid speed and accuracy (Achille et al., 2009, p. 106). Within the literature, there is a recurring recommendation for developing relationships within and between agencies, building trust between individuals who may have to interact ‘horizontally’ in a crisis situation.

Discussion

This systematic review aimed to identify effective communication strategies and styles of decisions by police in crisis response events. This was achieved through an identification of the current body of knowledge on effective communication of decisions by frontline police, or similar personnel in high-pressure, rapidly unfolding situations. Specifically, this paper examined the environment in which these studies took place, the mental models used to frame the knowledge, and the commu-nication styles. Of the 15 publications identified, 12 involved empirical research (including one systematic literature review) and three expository publications and none were from a policing perspective. Although all papers highlighted the importance of shared mental models for effective communication, the results of the papers indicate that actually creating shared mental models for effective communication may be difficult to achieve.

Due to the lack of any research focus on the topic from a policing perspective, the systematic literature review needed to incorporate a broader research area. It was hoped that lessons learnt from outside research would be able to inform policing practices. While the authors of the 15 papers came from a diverse range of disciplinary backgrounds (which in a way reflects the inter- organisational dilemma of this topic), most papers were published in public administration. This is relatively unsurprising, and public administration has played a clear role in the development of emergency management policy through regulations, statute and ordinances. Similarly, within this literature, there was a diverse range of environments studied ranging from natural disasters to

12 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

terrorist acts and defense training and response. The range of environments tends to reflect major events in time suggesting a sociocultural context that influences the body of knowledge.

Despite the wide range of disciplinary fields and environments, two main themes emerged in terms of effective communication of decisions by personnel in crisis response events. The first is the importance of a decentralized structure for the flow of communication and the second is the importance of shared mental models in being able to effectively communicate decisions. Decision- making within organizations is typically structured as a hierarchal top-down approach with policing and other emergency services being no exception to this centralized style in general. However, in crisis events, it is typically the front-line response personnel, who are closest to the incident, that have the most up-to-date and accurate understanding and mental model of the situation. Therefore, it is important to have a non-hierarchal decentralized structure of commu-nication and decision-making in such events. One proposed method to achieve effective commu-nication across multiple personnel and multiple agencies is via the use of boundary spanners (Kapucu, 2006). For police, this might involve assigning a front-line officer who shares and exchanges information both within the agency and with other agencies. In turn, this officer is well placed to make decisions about the information gathered. The roles and tasks of officers suggest that this frontline officer is more likely to be a low ranking officer (especially in crises that have an immediate and emergent nature). This has implications for preparedness of all officers, not just high ranking officers. As such, training and education for preparation of such events should be targeted at all ranks. As this area is yet to be empirically tested, researchers should explore the effectiveness of boundary spanners and best practices for communication flow. Furthermore, the technology used to transmit messages should be examined for effectiveness and efficiency of communication flow.

Secondly, the literature highlighted the value of shared mental models, promoting the benefits of creating a shared understanding of the situation. Through coordinating actions, individuals can explicitly outline plans, correct mistakes, and provide information in advance. Shared mental models do not appear explicitly, but conceptually comparable ideas are developed (such as building trust within teams and multi-agency training prior to an event). However, shared mental models inexorably require strong development of these relationships prior to high-pressure crisis situa-tions. Shared mental models need to be created so users have experience to draw from in order to make rapid decisions. Users need to be able to assess situations, and to have the meta-cognitive capacity to be able to adapt to changing situations. Finally, users also need to be able to effectively and explicitly communicate these decisions to others. Therefore, education about decision-making process and articulation of ideas is essential to ensure clear communication.

One may argue this suggests that there is a desire with and between teams to develop a shared understanding of roles and goals prior to crisis situations. Multi-agency response teams need to be able to come together in complex relationships that can form and dissolve quickly. One way to achieve this is through multi-agency training of simulated scenarios. For police, this requires training and education not just at an inter-agency level but also with other emergency response agencies. Future research needs to establish who the other agencies (and personnel) are that are typically involved in crises events (such as paramedics, fire, governments, etc.). This will help to establish network connections prior to events. Training involving these other agencies will help to establish common goals, strengths and weaknesses of agencies, and the different roles. In turn, collaboration, trust, and information sharing should be built. Finally, the literature indicates that establishing shared mental models is not easily obtained. Future research needs to explore best practice for developing these shared mental models.

Limitations and future directions

Despite broadening the scope of the review to beyond policing, only 15 publications were identified. This is perhaps a reflection of the lack of research within the field of interest and highlights the importance and need for further research to gain a thorough understanding of the topic. The review

POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 13

was limited to publications in English only; hence, future researchers should examine non-English language publications for further insights into the topic. It should be noted that majority of the publications were derived from the US. However, policing practices and societal cultures differ around the world. For instance, the US has a complex and overlapping set of decentralized jurisdictional boundaries which also complicates communication and cooperation. Comparatively, Commonwealth countries have fewer jurisdictions. For example, Australia has seven policing jurisdiction with minimal significant differences in policing policies and procedures between the states (Enders & Dupont, 2001). Moreover, New Zealand consists of only one policing agency for the entire country. Furthermore, societal cultural differences between countries also impact on the crisis type, the response, and the communication needed. This highlights the need for research derived from countries outside of the US.

The 15 articles focused on a variety of environments ranging from natural disasters to terrorist acts and military responses. While the review focused on effective communication during major crisis events, in turn, limiting the range of included articles within the review, articles excluded from the list should not be ignored and may help to inform policing practices. For instance, a number of publications were excluded from the review because of their failure to meet the ‘communication’ criteria. However, future research should take into consideration these papers which can help to inform decision-making processes and models.

Conclusions

This paper aimed to identify effective communication of decisions by police in crisis response events. Despite being rare events, major crises are still prevalent global events with police typically the first to respond. However, research into the effective communication during crises is a relatively new field with no current research from a policing perspective. Therefore, this paper conducted a broad and all-encompassing systematic literature review beyond the policing literature. Fifteen relevant articles were identified from various disciplines.

Within the final included list, the established literature highlights the importance of shared mental models for effective communication of decisions, however, establishing these shared mental models is a complex and time-consuming task that is not always successful. Despite previous empirical research being able to effectively establish shared mental models, lessons can still be learnt to inform future policing practices. The findings suggest that policing agencies adopt a decentralized structure of communication during crises events. Due to the nature of policing and the roles and tasks of officers, frontline officers are typically lower ranking officers. Therefore, training and education should be targeted at all ranking officers. Furthermore, to establish shared mental models, regular training simulations should be conducted with other emergency agencies to form trust and effective communication flows. Finally, to effectively articulate decisions, officers need to be educated on decision-making process.

The findings from this research are significant for the way police officers are educated and trained, and for the policies and procedures that guide officers in effective decision-making communication. The findings will also contribute to future theoretical and methodological approaches to police, decision-making, and communication research. Furthermore, these findings may be applied to other emergency services (such as fire and ambulance) and response agencies that operate under rapid and dynamic situations (for example, frontline defence personnel, pilots, and emergency response medics). Ultimately, the findings from this research provide insights into how officers can effectively articulate decisions, thereby providing a platform for training, policy and procedures on decision-making and communication that can be used as a model in all police agencies and other emergency services.

14 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS

Note

1. We excluded communication from officers to citizens and the media as this requires a different decision- making process and style of communication that is more censored and more carefully considered and constructed.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Kelly A. Hine is a lecturer of Criminology in the Centre for Social Research and Methods (CSRM) at the Australian National University (ANU). She attained a double degree in Psychological Science, and Criminology and Criminal Justice (with Honours class 1), and holds a PhD in Criminology. She specialises in front-line policing including police-citizen interactions, the use of force by police, suspect resistance, officer injuries, decision-making processes and impediments, policing major crises, and the use of technology by police. Her research has implications for the way researchers examine policing practices, the way officers are educated and trained, and the policies and procedures that guide officers.

Adelaide Bragias is a research officer of criminology in the Centre for Social Research and Methods (SCRM) at the Australian National University. Her research interests are policing major crises and the use of technology by police.

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16 K. A. HINE AND A. BRAGIAS